Course Instructor:

Atique Ahmad
‫قیتع ادمح‬
~ ~
σ =C~ε Contact:
[email protected]

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Pakistan Institute of Engineering

and Applied Sciences

ME – 521
Continuum Mechanics
 Chapter 6

Linear Elasticity

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Basic Assumptions

●
The stress is a unique function of the strain. ~ σ=f ( ~ε)
●
The material completely recovers to original shape upon removal of
applied forces, i.e., material deforms reversibly.
●
Stress-strain relationship is independent of rate and history of loading.
●
Stress-strain relationship is a linear function.
●
Infinitesimal strain theory is applicable.

Linear elastic Non-linear elastic Inelastic

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Linear Elasticity Tensor

●
The constitutive equation may be written as: σ ij =C ijkm εkm
●
This is just the simplest functional relationship.
●
Using the transformation laws for tensors, it can be proven that C
must be a fourth order tensor, thus has 81 components.
●
But the simple fact that stress and strain tensors are symmetric,
dictates that C is automatically symmetric in (i, j) and (k, m).
●
This reduces the number of independent components of C to 36.
●
In this course, we ignore dependence on temperature or strain rates.
●
At most, C is considered to be dependent on position only.

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The Short Form of Elastic Constitutive Equation

●
Since both stress and strain tensors are symmetric, for convenience a
short matrix form is used:
σ α =C α β εβ or [σ ]=[C ][ε]
C 11 C 12 C 13 C 14 C 15 C 16 ε

[ ][ ][ ]
σ 11 11
C 21 C 22 C 23 C 24 C 25 C 26 ε 22
σ 22
σ 33 C 31 C 32 C 33 C 34 C 35 C 36 ε 33
= ⋅ 2ε
σ 23 C 41 C 42 C 43 C 44 C 45 C 46 23
σ 31
σ 12 C 51 C 52 C 53 C 54 C 55 C 56 2ε 31
C 61 C 62 C 63 C 64 C 65 C 66 2ε12
●
None of these matrices represent a tensor!
●
Note the positions of tensor elements in these matrices.
●
Also note the infamous 'factor of 2' in the strain matrix.
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Strain Energy

●
The energy balance equation is written as:
ρ u̇−σ ij D ij −ρ r +q i ,i=0
●
Neglecting thermal effects, temperature dependence, etc., this reduces
to rate of internal energy:
1
u̇= ρ σij D ij
1
●
For small strains: u̇= ρ σ ij ε̇ij
0
●
For purely mechanical effects, this energy u is called strain energy.
Under our assumptions, strain energy is a function of strain only.
u=u(εij )
∂u 1 ∂u
⇒ u̇= ε̇ij ⇒ ρ σij =
∂ εij 0 ∂ εij

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Strain Energy Function

1 ∂u
u̇= ρ σij ε̇ij u̇= ε̇
0 ∂εij ij

● Define strain energy density, W (strain energy per unit volume) = ρ0u
●
Thus: ∂ u ∂W
σ ij =ρ =
∂εij ∂ εij
●
Elastic behavior is sometimes defined on the basis of existence of a
strain energy function from which stresses may be determined by
differentiation of that function with respect to the strains.
●
Such material behavior is called hyperelastic.

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Strain Energy Function & Symmetry of tensor C

●
Expanding W about origin:
2
∂ W (0) 1 ∂ W (0)
W (εij )=W (0)+ εij + εij εkm + ...
∂ εij 2 ∂εij ∂εkm
●
Similarly for stress:
2
∂W ∂ W (0) ∂ W (0)
σ ij = ∂ε = ∂ε + ∂ ε ∂ ε ε km +.. .
ij ij ij km
Assuming no residual stress under zero strain, σ ij =0 when εij =0
●
Keeping only the linear term:
2
∂ W (0)
●
σ ij = ( ε =C ijkm εkm
∂ εij ∂ εkm km )
Although looks like before, there is a very important difference. The
term in parentheses is symmetric in (ij, km), thus Cijkm = Ckmij .
●
Therefore number of distinct components of C reduce from 36→21.

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Strain Energy Function & Symmetry of matrix C

●
From simple substitution of equations from previous slides:
1 1
W (εij )= C ijkm εij εkm = σ ij εij
2 2
●
Which in matrix notation shown earlier becomes:
1 1
W (εα )= C α β εα εβ = σ α εα
2 2
●
Thus the matrix [C] is also symmetric having 21 distinct components.

●
Such is the reduction of elasticity tensor from 81 to 21 components.
●
All this was mainly done through mathematics only, using certain
assumptions.
●
Further reductions will be done later on, depending on various
simplified material behaviors.

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 Continuous Media
having
Isotropic Properties in
Elasticity

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Isotropic Media

●
If elastic properties of a material as specified by tensor C are same in
every set of reference axes, the material is said to be isotropic.
●
For such materials, number of elastic constants reduces to 2.
●
How?

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Isotropic Media

●
If elastic properties of a material as specified by tensor C are same in
every set of reference axes, the material is said to be isotropic.
●
For such materials, number of elastic constants reduces to 2.
●
From tensor math:
●
All zeroth order tensors are isotropic, scalars.
●
All first order tensors are anisotropic, vectors.
● α[I]=αδij is the only second order isotropic tensor.
●
An arbitrary isotropic fourth order tensor C may be written as:
Cijkm =λ δij δ km +μ (δik δ jm+ δim δ jk )+β(δik δ jm−δ im δ jk )
where β, μ, λ are scalars.
Using (i, j) symmetry of elasticity tensor C: interchanging i and j in
above expression implies that β = 0.

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Isotropic Media

Cijkm =λ δij δ km +μ (δik δ jm+ δim δ jk )+β(δik δ jm−δ im δ jk )

Cijkm =λ δij δ km +μ δ ik δ jm +μ δim δ jk
⇒ σij =( λ δij δkm +μ δik δ jm+μ δim δ jk )εkm
=λ δij δkm εkm +μ δik δ jm εkm +μ δim δ jk εkm
⇒ σij =λ δ ij εkk + 2μ εij
●
Finally just two constants: λ and μ, known as Lamé constants.
● Find σii and use it to invert the above relation to get:
1
σ ij − λ
εij =
2μ ( 3 λ +2μ
δij σkk
)
●
For isotropic materials, principal directions of stress and strain tensors
coincide, while their principal values are related by: (example 6.2-1)
σ( p) =λ[ε(1) +ε(2 )+ ε(3) ]+2μ ε( p )
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Elastic Constants for Isotropic Materials

1 λ
εij =
2μ
σij −
(
3 λ+ 2μ
δij σ kk
)
●
Through a not-so-obvious rearrangement of terms it is re-written as:
λ +μ λ λ
εij =
μ ( 3 λ +2μ )
1+
[(
2(λ +μ)
σ ij −
2( λ+μ ) )
δij σ kk
]
●
Which may be written simply as:
1
εij = [(1+ ν )σ ij −ν δij σ kk ]
E
μ (3 λ+ 2μ)
●
Where: E= and ν= λ
λ +μ 2(λ +μ)
Modulus of elasticity, or
Young's modulus Poisson's ratio

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Elastic Constants

●
By suitable combinations of these, we define μ (3 λ +2μ )
additional material constants important in E=
λ+μ
engineering calculations.
ν= λ
E 2(λ+μ)
Shear modulus: G= =μ
2( 1+ ν )
E
Bulk modulus: K=
3( 1−2 ν)
●
For isotropic materials, any two elastic constants
completely define the material's response. Other
constants may be calculated using the known two.

●
See the table 6.2-1 in your textbook.

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Elastic Constants, physical interpretation

1
εij = [ (1+ ν) σ ij −ν δij σ kk ]
E
●
Uniaxial state of stress (tension / compression)
σ 11 σ 0
ε11= =
E E
−ν σ0
ε22=−ν ε11 =
E
−ν σ0
ε33=−ν ε11 =
E
●
E is proportionality constant between normal stress and strain; it is also the
slope of stress-strain line.
●
It is a measure of stiffness of the material. E > 0, usually a large value. (GPa)
●
ν is ratio of lateral contraction and longitudinal elongation in case of tension
and vice versa for compression.
●
It is a measure of compressibility of the material. –1 < ν < 0.5 (incompressible)

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Elastic Constants, physical interpretation

1
εij = [ (1+ ν) σ ij −ν δij σ kk ]
E
● Simple Shear: σ12 = τ0 , all other zero
(1+ ν) τ0
ε12 = σ12=
E 2G
σ 12 τ 0
or γ12= =
G G
⇒ τ=G γ

●
Shear modulus G is proportionality constant between
simple shear and engineering shear strain.
●
Its value is usually smaller than E.

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Elastic Constants, physical interpretation

1
εij = [ (1+ ν) σ ij −ν δij σ kk ]
E
●
Hydrostatic compression or uniform
triaxial tension σij =±p δij

1−2 ν ±3(1−2 ν ) ±p
εii = σii = p=
E E K
●
Bulk modulus K is proportionality constant
between pressure and cubical dilatation
(volume change).
●
Its value is usually larger than E.

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Elastic Constants, physical interpretation

1
εij = [ (1+ ν)σ ij −ν δij σ kk ]
E
●
By expressing E and ν in terms of G and K, this equation may
beshown to be equivalent to the pair of equations:
S ij =2 G ηij
σ ii =3 K εii
●
Note the separation of deviator and spherical states.

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 Compliance

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Elastic Compliance matrix for isotropic material

1
εij = [ (1+ ν)σ ij −ν δij σ kk ] =S ijkm σ km
E
●
In matrix form this becomes:

ε11 1 −ν −ν 0 0 0

[][ ][ ]
σ 11
ε22 −ν 1 −ν 0 0 0 σ 22
ε 33 1 −ν −ν 1 0 0 0 σ33
2ε23 = E 0 0 0 2 (1+ ν) 0 0 σ23
2ε31 0 0 0 0 2(1+ ν) 0 σ 31
σ 12
2ε12 0 0 0 0 0 2(1+ ν )

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Elastic Modulus matrix for isotropic material

σij =λ δij ε kk +2μ εij

Eν E
σ ij = δij ε kk + εij
(1+ ν) (1−2 ν) 1+ ν
●
In matrix form this becomes:
1−ν ν ν 0 0 0

[ [] ]
ν 1−ν ν 0 0 0
σ 11 ν ν 1−ν 0 0 0 ε11
ε22

[] 1−2 ν
σ 22 ε33
σ33 = E 0 0 0 0 0
2 2 ε23
σ23 (1+ ν)(1−2 ν )
1−2 ν
σ 31 0 0 0 0 0 2 ε31
σ 12 2 2 ε12
1−2 ν
0 0 0 0 0
2
●
You should also write both of these matrices in terms of E, n and G.
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General Anisotropic Linear Elastic Material

●
If thermal strains are also present, then:
σ ij =C ijkm (ε km−αkm Δ T )
εij =Sijkm σkm +α ij Δ T
●
Note that thermal expansion coefficients are now shown as a second-
order tensor, which is symmetric as well.

●
Before going into details of these tensors, first we understand the most
general meaning of the term compliance.

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Coordinate transformation for anisotropic
elasticity constants
● The material constants cij or sij for any material are never specified for
arbitrary reference axes at random.
●
Most materials have symmetry planes.
●
Elastic constants are specified using such symmetry planes and then the
tensor C (or S) is transformed to match any other coordinate system as
required to solve any problem.
●
If Ω denotes the tensor of transformation (matrix of direction cosines
between initial base vectors n to final base vectors m), the
transformations are simply:
( m)
^ ( n)
^
σij =Ωik σkl Ω jl
ε(ijm)
^
=Ωik ε(kln)^ Ω jl
( m)
^ ( n^ )
Cijkl =Ωip Ω jq C pqrs Ω kr Ωls
●
Last computation is highly involved, mainly for computer
imnplementation only.
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 § 6.3
Elastic Symmetry
And
Anisotropy

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General Anisotropic Linear Elastic Material

●
Ignoring thermal strains, the most general stress -strain relationships
for linear elastic materials are below.
●
Distinct elements are at most 21, since C & S are symmetric matrices
C 11 C 12 C 13 C 14 C 15 C 16 ε

[ ][ ][ ]
11
σ 11 C 21 C 22 C 23 C 24 C 25 C 26 ε 22
σ 22
σ 33 C C 32 C 33 C 34 C 35 C 36 ε 33
= 31 ⋅ 2ε σ ij =C ijkm εkm
σ 23 C 41 C 42 C 43 C 44 C 45 C 46 23

C 56 2ε 31
σ 31
σ 12 C 51 C 52 C 53 C 54 C 55
C 61 C 62 C 63 C 64 C 65 C 66 2ε12

s 11 s 12 s13 s14 s 15 s 16

[ ][ ][ ]
ε11
ε22 s21 s 22 s23 s24 s 25 s 26 σ11
ε 33 σ22
s31 s 32 s33 s34 s 35 s 36 σ 33
εij =Sijkm σkm 2ε23 = ⋅
s 41 s 42 s 43 s 44 s 45 s 46 σ 23
2ε31 s51 s 52 s53 s54 s 55
σ
s 56 σ31
2ε12 s61 s 62 s63 s64 s 65 s 66
12

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Physical Interpretation of Elastic Compliance

●
Compliance is easier to interpret than stiffness! In simplest words,
compliance is inverse of stiffness.

● A uniaxial stress, σ11, applied to an anisotropic specimen induces both

extensional and shear deformation in the solid. The strains induced by the
uniaxial stress would be:
ε11=s 11 σ11 , ε22=s12 σ11 , ε33=s13 σ 11
ε23=s14 σ 11 , ε13 =s 15 σ11 , ε12=s16 σ 11
● Compliance constant s11 is similar to uniaxial compliance (i.e., 1/E)

● Ratios s12/s11 , s13/s11 are like generalized versions of Poisson's ratio, i.e.,
these quantify lateral contraction of a uniaxial tensile specimen.

● Shear terms (s14, s15, s16) are new: no such term for isotropic materials.
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Symmetry Planes

●
General anisotropic material has 21 independent elastic constants.
●
Tensile stress may induce shear strain and shear stress may induce
extension, etc.

●
If there are symmetry planes:
●
Stress normal (or parallel) to such plane induces only extension normal
(or parallel) to such plane.
●
To study Elastic Symmetry, first define equivalent elastic directions:
● If a transformation from Ox1x2x3 to Ox’1x’2x’3 does not change the value
of elastic constant Cαβ then these are equivalent directions.
– The transformation can be either reflection in a plane or rotation about an axis.

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Axial Symmetry

●
If values of elastic constants are unchanged through rotation about an
axis, then the material is said to have axial symmetry about that
particular axis.
● In the figure below, if a rotation of θ about x3 axis does not change the
values of elastic constants, the material is said to have elastic
symmetry about x3 axis.

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Symmetry Plane

● In the figure, material is said to be symmetric about x1x2 plane.

●
We now consider the details of this transformation.
●
The transformation matrix is:
1 0 0
[
[ A ]= 0 1 0
0 0 −1 ]
●
Stress tensor in transformed axes is: [ σ ' ]=[ A ][ σ ][ A ]T
σ '1 σ ' 6 σ ' 5 1 0 0 σ σ σ 1 0 0

[ –
] [ ][ 1 6 5 σ1
σ ' 6 σ ' 2 σ ' 4 = 0 1 0 σ6 σ2 σ 4 0 1 0 = σ6
σ 6 −σ 5
σ2 −σ4
σ ' 5 σ ' 4 σ ' 3 0 0 −1 σ 5 σ 4 σ 3 0 0 −1 −σ 5 −σ 4 σ 3
Similar expression can be written for strain tensor.
][ ][ ]
● This means that: σ’4 = –σ4 , σ’5 = –σ5
● And similarly: ε’4 = –ε’4 , ε’5 = –ε’5

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Symmetry Plane

●
Using σ α =C α β εβ we can write:
σ 1 =C 11 ε1 +C 12 ε2 +C 13 ε3 +C 14 ε4 +C 15 ε5 +C 16 ε16
●
Also σ ' 1=C 11 ε ' 1 +C 12 ε ' 2 +C 13 ε ' 3 +C 14 ε ' 4 +C 15 ε ' 5 +C 16 ε ' 16
=C 11 ε ' 1 +C 12 ε ' 2 +C 13 ε ' 3 −C 14 ε 4 −C 15 ε5 +C 16 ε ' 16
● For these expressions to be equal, C14 = C15 = 0
●
Following similar reasoning (equating other components of stress
matrices) it can be shown that for reflection symmetry about x1x2 plane:
C24 = C25 = C34 = C35 = C41 = C42 = C43 = C51 = C52 = C53 = C56 = C64 = C65 = 0
●
Thus the elasticity matrix reduces to: C11 C 12 C 13 0 0 C16

[ ]
● It has 13 distinct constants, since Cαβ = Cβα C21 C 22 C 23 0 0 C 26
C31 C 32 C 33 0 0 C 36
●
This was with only one symmetry plane. 0 0 0 C 44 C 45 0
0 0 0 C 54 C55 0
C61 C 62 C 63 0 0 C 66

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Symmetry Planes

● If another plane, say x2x3, is also a symmetry plane, then a repeat of

previous procedure shows that in addition to earlier ones:
● C16 = C26 = C36 = C45 = C54 = C61 = C62 = C63 = 0
●
This means our elastic constants matrix further reduces to:
C 11 C 12 C 13 0 0 0

●
[ C 21 C 22 C 23 0
C 31 C 32 C 33 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 0
0
0
0 C 44 0
0
0
0
0 C 55 0
0 C 66

This matrix has only 9 distinct components.

]
● Interestingly, if the third plane (x3x1) is also a plane of reflective
symmetry, this matrix is not further reduced.
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Linear Orthotropic Material

●
Materials having three mutually perpendicular symmetry planes.
●
Such materials have nine elastic constants.
●
For base vectors perpendicular to the symmetry planes, the
compliance matrix is given here. 1 ν ν
− 21 − 31 0 0 0

[ ]
●
Generalized Poisson's ratios are not E1 E2 E3
symmetric: νij ν ji −
ν 12 1
−
ν 32
0 0 0
νij ≠ν ji , but = E1 E2 E3
Ei Ej
ν13 ν 23 1
so the matrix is symmetric. − − 0 0 0
[Sortho ]= E1 E2 E3
●
For these materials, thermal 1
expansion coefficients tensor αij is: 0 0 0 μ 23 0 0
1
α1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

●
[
[ αij ]= 0 α2 0
0 0 α3 ] 0

Thermal expansion does not induce shear in these base vectors.

0 0 0
μ 13
0
1
μ 12

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Linear Orthotropic Material

●
Stiffness matrix values in terms of engineering constants are:

●
Although these expressions are not difficult to derive, there is no need
to memorize these! Just understand the overall relation between
various elastic constants.

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Linear Orthotropic Material

●
Engineering constants in terms of stiffness matrix values are:

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Transverse Isotropy / Axisymmetry

●
A special case of orthotropy, where the solid may be rotated with
respect to loading direction about one axis without measurable effect
on solid's response, as in HCP crystals.
● By convention, e3 is selected as the axis of symmetry, such that x1-x2 is
the symmetry plane. 1 ν ν
− p − tp 0 0 0

[ ]
● c22 = c11, c23 = c13, and Ep Ep Et
c44 = c55, c66 = (c11 – c12)/2 ν 1 ν
− p − tp 0 0 0
Ep Ep Et
Ep ν pt ν pt 1
⇒μ p= − − 0 0 0
2(1+ ν p ) [S]= E p Ep Et
This matrix is also symmetric. 1
●
0 0 0 μt 0 0
●
As for thermal expansion: 0 0 0 0
1
0
μt
α1 0 0

[
[αij ]= 0 α1 0
0 0 α3 ] 0 0 0 0 0
1
μp

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Cubic Symmetry

●
Another special case of orthotropy, as in FCC, BCC crystals.
●
Select base vectors perpendicular to symmetry planes.
●
Very similar to that of isotropy, but
E
G ,μ≠
2(1+ ν )
●
Let 2 c 44
2μ (1+ ν) 1
−ν −ν 0 0 0
A=

[ ]
= E E E
E c 11−c 12
1
−ν −ν 0 0 0
E E E
This is a measure of isotropy, i.e., 1
−ν −ν 0 0 0
if A=1, material is fully isotropic. [S]= E E E
1
0 0 0 μ 0 0
●
Thermal expansion matrix is isotropic. 0 0 0 0
1
0
μ
1
0 0 0 0 0 μ
●
For materials' data: see Bower's book.
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Summary

Number of
Type of material
distinct elastic Engineering elastic constants
behavior
constants
General linear elastic 21 [C]
Orthotropic 9 E1, E2, E3, ν12, ν13, ν32, μ31, μ12, μ23
Axisymmetric (HCP) 6 Et, Ep, νp, νtp, νpt, μt
Cubic (FCC, BCC) 3 E, ν, μ
Isotropic 2 E, ν

ME-521
ME-521 Atique
AtiqueAhmad,
Ahmad,Department
DepartmentofofMechanical
MechanicalEngineering,
Engineering,PIEAS
PIEAS
 Our Treatment of

Major topics on

Linear Elasticity

Completed!

ME-521
ME-521 Atique
AtiqueAhmad,
Ahmad,Department
DepartmentofofMechanical
MechanicalEngineering,
Engineering,PIEAS
PIEAS