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The polygonal BSF of Figure 4 a is now placed upon a set of watershed objects, whose centers are
marked with blue color. The remaining reference data comprised the test set. In our work, images at a
single scale were used for training the neural networks. In order to obtain high-quality image objects,
we determine the parameters through the times of experiments by different settings, to achieve the
ideal segmentation as much as possible. Through feature learning, the SFRM differences are
transformed into high-quality features, which would be more convenient for the classification of
different objects because of their higher separability. 4.3. Classification Results and Analysis In this
section, the features learned by FRML and those learned by other methods of comparison are
evaluated. Effectiveness of the attention mechanism (results of different attention mechanisms).
Stratified-statistical-based sampling methods were found to generate the highest classification
accuracy. Supervised Classification of Multisensor Remotely Sensed Images Using a Deep Learning
Framework. The upper spectral branch composed of the dense spectral block and channel attention
block is designed to capture spectral features. Since adjacent pixels belonging to the same category
are included in different windows, they are easily divided into different classes. The fitness value
then increases linearly to 1 when the number of NEs diminishes. In heterogeneous images, some
pixels have very close values in pre-event images, while their corresponding pixel gray values are
more or less different in post-event images, even though they are not affected by the event. The first
part in the experiments on performed on the homogeneous datasets and based on the deepened
capsule network. However, it is noted that some state-of-the-art methods outperform FBC by an
obvious margin. Section 3 describes data sets and experimental designs. As indicated in Figure 2 a, H
denotes hidden block, which is a module containing convolutional layers, activation layers, and BN
layers. The accuracy of the rule-based classifications was evaluated using the samples from the large
regional-scale validation dataset and had an overall accuracy of 98.1%. The strata size for both the
subset and regional-scale datasets were determined by the total area occupied by each class. To
address the aforementioned problem, a novel technique to measure the similarity of a pair of pixels
in HSI is suggested, aiming at applying SLIC algorithm handily in superpixel segmentation of HSI.
But forests have shadows and are a mix of green and black. Finally, we verify the advantages of our
method by testing it on several benchmark HSI datasets and a selected Hyperion dataset. In this
section, the spatial co-occurrence kernel and saliency-map-based coding scheme, as two extensions
to the FBC, are discussed. 4.1. Spatial Co-Occurrence Kernel As described previously, we can
generate a new “coding image”. When we talk about the classification of an image several supervised
and unsupervised techniques come into picture. For example, if you want to classify vegetation and
non-vegetation, you can select those clusters that represent them best. The SAR image was also
acquired with Radarsat-2 sensors from the Yellow River Estuary in June 2008. In this paper, we
present a fast binary coding scheme for the feature representation of HRRS image scenes.
Specifically, Table 9 shows the results for different values of polygon nodes, considering the smaller
Indiana image and the larger Koronia image. For the PU dataset, FRML also exhibits excellent
performance for most individual class classifications compared to comparative methods. Ma, W.;
Xiong, Y.; Wu, Y.; Yang, H.; Zhang, X.; Jiao, L. To address this issue, we propose a new sample
selection scheme for co-training process based on spectral features and spatial features views. Then,
the parameters involved in the network are as marked in Figure 4.
Compared with the traditional machine learning theories, the most significant difference of deep
learning is emphasizing automatic feature learning from a huge data set through the organization of
multi-layer neurons. Examples of the spectral attributes include the object’s means and standard
deviations for each band and the geometric attributes include object asymmetry, compactness, and
roundness. In this paper, we propose a framework of exploiting different spatial level information to
address the complex LULC classification using hyperspectral or multispectral VHR remotely sensed
imagery. Finally, we generate a histogram of features by counting the frequency of each integer.
Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing (JMMP). Hyperspectral RS images capture the
spectrum of every pixel within observed scenes at hundreds of continuous and narrow bands. Detail
comparison between FCN-8s and our approach. ( a ) Original images; ( b ) Classification result from
FCN-8s; ( c ) Classification result from our approach. Journal of Theoretical and Applied Electronic
Commerce Research (JTAER). The FC layer by itself consists of numerous parameters.
Classifications and associated abbreviations based on the sample selection method, training sample
size, region of area collected, and cross-validation method. Four classes: farmland (green), forest
(olive), water (blue), and urban (yellow), ( c ) Result from layer 3 fusion network, ( d ) Result where
GT is available (pixels where GT is not available are masked). Find support for a specific problem in
the support section of our website. Performance analysis of effect of the number of iterations of co-
training. ( a ) Classification accuracies of different iterations. ( b ) Time cost of the network training
progress of different iterations of co-training. ( c ) Time cost of the sample selection progress of
different iterations of co-training. The overall feature extraction stage is free of any hand-crafted
features and can be computed straightforwardly. Also, there were only minor changes in the weights
of the layers. The categorized results for the SV dataset with 0.5% training samples. Farmland on the
banks or boundaries gets misclassified as water. A class map is a 2-D distribution of class labels with
pixel correspondence, which is in a “pixel-label” mode. GPU memory consumption at inference time
and the number of parameters of the three fusion networks. For the reasons given above, we propose
a new approach—called feature relations map learning (FRML)—for improving hyperspectral image
classification. Journal of Experimental and Theoretical Analyses (JETA). We adopt the FCN model
for remote sensing imagery classification. The collection is divided into 38 image patches, with 24
images and corresponding ground truth released for training and the remaining 14 images made
available for testing. The use of this technique will make smooth areas smoother and smoother, but at
the same time, it blurs the boundary of the class. In Figure 5 e, due to the excessive expansion of
certain land covers during the CRF segmentation process, some small land covers are wrongly
classified by the surrounding land covers. The weights obtained after stage 1 and 2 training were
used to generate two corresponding test results. In cross-validation, multiple partitions are generated,
potentially allowing each sample to be used multiple times for multiple purposes, with the overall aim
of improving the statistical reliability of the results. Next Article in Special Issue Joint Spatial-
spectral Resolution Enhancement of Multispectral Images with Spectral Matrix Factorization and
Spatial Sparsity Constraints. Thus, the input data can be clustered based on certain characteristics.
3.3. Image Mapping Method We can transform the images according to the obtained image blocks.
Their ground truth includes seven different urban land use or land cover classes.
They will be used by the Object Extraction Algorithm (OEA), in order to adjust the region growing
capabilities of the GA individuals and adapt the object search to the spatial characteristics of the
currently uncovered area. Editor’s Choice articles are based on recommendations by the scientific
editors of MDPI journals from around the world. Furthermore, the classification accuracy for the
fixed segmentation scale s is the average of the classification results of the training set generated
randomly for ten times. Previous Article in Journal Performance of MODIS C6 Aerosol Product
during Frequent Haze-Fog Events: A Case Study of Beijing. Hyperspectral RS images capture the
spectrum of every pixel within observed scenes at hundreds of continuous and narrow bands. The
overall fitness function is obtained by combining the above three criteria. However, the ability of one
CNN layer is not sufficient to extract enough appropriate features, so another CNN layer is added.
After multi-resolution segmentation, the user identifies sample sites for each land cover class.
Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease (TropicalMed). However, a CNN’s input is a feature map
set, while its output is a category label; therefore, applying this structure directly to pixel-based
remote sensing image classification will lead to boundary and outline distortions of the land covers in
the result image. International Journal of Translational Medicine (IJTM). Different categories that
have similar spatial band values will lead to excessive expansion or shrinking of partial land covers
during the CRF segmentation process. In this paper, to verify the classification performance of
FRML, a five-fold cross-valuation method was designed. In this paper, therefore, the goal is to
develop a semi-supervised deep learning classification framework based on co-training. However,
after two iterations of co-training with new samples added, the classification results have been
greatly improved. These advantages give the CNN-RCRF algorithm a wider application range in
high-resolution remote sensing classification fields. The categorized results for the UP dataset with
0.5% training samples. This is because more non-salient codewords that may be helpful to the
representative power of the histogram are counted when the saliency threshold becomes small,
especially for some scene categories, which consist of textural structures and do not contain any
salient objects or region, such as agricultural and chaparral. But more clusters increase the variability
within groups. HSI classification is to assign each pixel to a meaningful and physical class based on
their spectral features and the land coverage surface. The pixel-level transformation method is used
to retain more details and make full use of the pixel information in the image to obtain a more
reliable change detection result. By applying several detectors, imaging spectrometers take several
measurements in narrow bands like 0.01 micrometers for a spectrum range of typically 0.4 to 2.4
micrometers that is visible to middle infrared wavelengths. However, the extremely limited number
of training samples for such deep learning models is difficult. The proposed method was validated on
three challenging remotely sensed imageries including a hyperspectral image and two multispectral
images with very-high spatial resolution, and achieved excellent classification performances. Ground
truth with four classes obtained from OSM is shown in Figure 8 b. The same phenomena can also be
discovered in the classification maps of zh17, as shown in Figure 10. Supervised classification is an
essential task of HSI, and is the common technology used in the above applications. It
comprehensively measures their differences through image brightness, contrast, and structure and it
has advantages in terms of image difference discrimination. Even though the timestamp of OSM
download was close to the S-1 and S-2 image acquisition dates, the ground truth labels in the OSM
has been created over a period of time. To reduce the oversegmentation resulting from watershed, we
perform an initial filtering using a 3 ? 3 median filter to smooth the surface, while at the same time
preserving the significant edges.