Asca Module 5

MODULE 5 - RESOURCE MANUAL & PARTICIPANTS NOTES
ASCA Level 1 S&C Coach Accreditation Module 5 – Resource Manual & Participants Notes
Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning































Additional Reading
Volume 5 (3) 1997
Designing, implementing and coaching strength training for beginner and intermediate
athletes – Part 1 – Designing the Program.
Strength
And Strength and Conditioning Coach. 5(3):11-20. 1997 © ASCA
Conditioning
Coach DESIGNING, IMPLEMENTING AND COACHING STRENGTH TRAINING FOR BEGINNER
AND INTERMEDIATE ATHLETES – PART 1 – DESIGNING THE PROGRAM
Daniel Baker
The Official Magazine of the Strength and Conditioning Association MHSc (Sports Science) Head Strength Coach, Brisbane Broncos Rugby League, Australian
ISSN 1324-8006
U/23 Powerlifting Team.
INTRODUCTION
Levels of strength can discriminate between athletes of different abilities in sports such as rugby union, rugby league,
American football, kayaking, volleyball and rowing. Consequently strength training is an integral part of the physical
training for a number of sports. The purpose of this series of articles is outline the theory and practice of designing an
appropriate strength program, implementing the strength program and the coaching of a strength program for beginner
and intermediate level athletes. For the purpose of this manuscript a beginner will be defined as an athlete who has not
undergone any regimented systematic strength training program. An intermediate level athlete will be defined as an
athlete who has undergone at least one cycle of a beginners strength program.
DESIGNING THE PROGRAM
Defining the Objectives

Strength training should be a planned, methodical and objective process. Unfortunately due to the ubiquitous influence
of bodybuilding methodologies, for example the "muscle confusion principle", the strength training processes can
become confusing for coaches. One of the most distinguishable attributes of competent coaches is their ability to set
goals, plan strategies to attain those goals and then put into exact measures that will allow for the attainment of the
defined goals. Thus strength training, as a microcosm of the entire coaching process, should reflect these processes.
Therefore the first aspect of designing the strength training program is to define the objectives of the strength training
process. These objectives may themselves need to be based upon scientific (needs analysis or game analysis) or
perhaps more empirical data. Nonetheless the entire strength training process should be objective driven. In fact
strength training provides an excellent opportunity for defining concrete objectives (such as weight lifted, power
produced, body weight increased) and planning measures for attaining these objectives.
The difficult aspect is defining the appropriate objectives and choosing the methods to attain these objectives. For the
beginner and intermediate level athlete the defining of objectives is less complicated than with advanced athletes, as
almost universally at this training age (Training to train) training is concerned with increasing basic strength, increasing
body mass and basic preparation for the training to follow in the years to come. Table 1 outlines some of the most
common general objectives for beginner and intermediate level athletes.
Table 1 - The common general objectives of the strength raining process for beginner and intermediate level athletes.
Beginners
1. Introduction to strength training methods
2. Increase muscular endurance
3. Increase muscular (intr & intra) coordination leading to an
increase torso stability
4. Increased torso stability
5. Increase hypertrophy and muscle balance
I
ntermediates
1. General strength
2. Hypertrophy and muscle balance
3. Introduction to power training methods
4. Increased torso stability and muscle balance

A certain level of strength (in kg lifted in a bench press or front squat) or an increase in body-mass can provide objective
data that can be deemed specific objectives. Some objectives can also seem somewhat subjective in nature or
assessment. The objective of a young athlete developing good torso stability under loading is a prime example, as it
often relies on the subjective decision of the strength coach / physiotherapist as to when it has been attained. However
the further future integration of computer technology with the basic barbell will tend to make formerly subjective methods
of assessment more objective.
For motivation, goal setting and reinforcement it is important to provide athletes with specific individualised objectives
where possible (for example "X" amount of weight lifted for a 3RM in the front squat) (Wilks, 1994a).
Once the objectives have been chosen it is necessary to design the strength program. There are a number of strength
training variables that must be considered. It is the acute manipulation of the training variables that allows for the
attainment of the chosen objectives.
Eight variables of strength training program design

In designing a strength training program there are at least eight variables which must be considered, if the program is
to exert control over the strength training process. These variables are the exercise, the repetitions, the sets, the load
upon the bar-bell, the order of exercises, the speed of lifting, the rest period between sets and/or exercise, and the
periodisation structure.
For beginner and intermediate athletes. Whose objectives are generally an increase in general strength, an increase in
body mass, improved torso stability, balanced musculoskeletal development and basic preparation for the future training
years, the eight variables maybe manipulated in the following manner.
1. Exercise
The exercises selected in a strength training program must help to achieve the chosen objective and be appropriate to
the athlete, the stage of training, the facilities available and so forth. Exercises differ from each other in the muscles
used, the range of movement, the speed of movement, the biomechanics and so on. Exercises may be deemed core
or assistant exercises, general, specific, single joint or multi-joint, beginner or advanced and so forth.
The vast array of definitions and classifications can also be seemingly confusing to a coach. A simplified method of
classifications and choosing exercises is to use the method that has been previously outlined (Baker, 1995). Exercises
are classified as either being chosen for the prime objective of developing strength or power. These two broad groups
(strength exercises and power exercises) can be further divided into corer and assistant power exercises. As an
example of core and assistant strength and power exercises appropriate to this training age are present in the example
programs. Exercises from these two broad groups may also achieve, depending upon the manipulation of other training
variables, other objectives, such as developing hypertrophy or agility.
For the beginner and intermediate level athlete the core and assistant strength exercises are of the most important in
achieving the objectives outlined in Table 1. The assistant power exercises play an increasing role with increased
strength development. (I.e. with intermediate level athletes) whilst the core power exercises may not be used till the
second or third year of training (or third strength training cycle).
Thus the simple core strength movements of front squat, squat, bench press and chin up (lat pulldown) may constitute
the bulk of the training prescription, with assistant strength exercises such as various shoulder presses, rows, curls, etc.
added to aid in hypertrophy and balanced muscle development. Very basis assistant power exercises such as slow
power shrugs and clean pulls can also be chosen as not only do they provide an introduction to power training concepts
and methodologies, but are almost unparalleled in their ability to develop torso stability.
Consequently the basic premise for the beginner is to choose the simplest exercise that allows for the attainment of the
objectives. The intermediate level athlete will be able to perform slightly more difficult exercises such as the assistant
power exercises.
2. Repetitions
The repetitions performed is an important variable influencing both volume (the amount of work) and the intensity (the
degree of difficulty of the training). As a general rule the repetitions for a beginner should be high (8-15) and moderately
high for intermediate athletes (5-10 or 12). The number of repetitions are also influenced by the exercise to be performed
(strength vs power, core vs assistance).
High repetitions with low to medium weights, allow for the concrete formation of the motor skill of the exercise, muscle
endurance, hypertrophy and torso stability. Each repetition should be seen as a trial for motor skill development and
accordingly using high repetitions with beginners will allow for the quickest and safest development of the skill which
may last for the athlete’s competitive career (8-12 years). High repetitions also allow a high volume to be attained,

ensuring a highly anaerobic state within the muscle tissue. This is a situation favourable to the development of both
muscle endurance and hypertrophy.
More moderate repetitions will allow for the use of heavier loads, which will tend to develop strength through increased
recruitment, rate coding and synchronization of motor units. The power exercises will use less repetitions than the
strength exercises, so that a high speed of execution can be maintained. The fatigue associated with high repetitions
will impair speed and technique in power movements, which is a highly undesirable situation. In general, the core
exercises will tend to use lower repetitions than the assistance exercises in the later stages of a strength training cycle
(for example, the core strength exercises are developing strength and the assistance strength and the assistance
strength exercises are developing hypertrophy.
Whilst these are general principles for selecting the selecting the repetition structure, it should be noted that the
repetitions structure changes every few weeks, such that the intensity is cycled up and the volume cycled down (see
table 2). The repetitions are higher at the beginning of a cycle and lower at the end of a cycle. Thus the athlete’s
strength capabilities are “peaked” at the end of a cycle and should coincide with testing to determine if the specific
objectives have been attained.
3. Sets
The number of sets performed influences the volume of training and the magnitude of the overload. For beginner athletes
this influences skill formation (that is the skill of the strength exercise), muscle endurance and hypertrophy. For
intermediates the number of sets is more important as a method of ensuring overload.
For beginners normally two sets per exercise will suffice in the first two weeks as the repetitions will be high, and hence
fatiguing. Furthermore beginners do generally not have intensive store4s of ATP-PC or glycogen to allow a much higher
work load than two sets per exercise. By the third week of training however the number of sets can be increased to
three and can be maintained at that level till the completion of the cycle. Intermediate level athletes who have become
accustomed to the strength training process (completing cycle #2 or #3) can increase the number of sets to four on the
core strength and assistance power exercise during th4e early stages of their cycle then they are doing 8-10 repetitions
(only three sets should be done if commencing the cycle with 12 repetitions). This procedure will ensure a greater
overload in volume with work load and hopefully a greater hypertrophic response. The assistance strength exercises
are maintained at three sets. In the later stages of the intermediate level cycle, the number of sets in the core strength
and assisted power exercises are reduced to three to compensate for an increase in weight upon the bar and to reduce
training volume such that a peak in strength occurs. This pronounced drop in volume and rise in intensity, outlined in
Table 2, in the final two weeks of a cycle is important for peaking strength (Wilks, 1994a). It should be noted it is more
pronounced for the intermediate (for example, volume of 32 repetitions dropping to 18 repetitions compared to 30
dropping to 24) than for the beginner. If a 3RM test is conducted in the last week, then there is an even more pronounced
drop in volume and rise in intensity. Consequently strength levels will be highest at this point.
4. Load upon the barbell

The load or weight upon the barbell is one of the most vital, though largely ignored, strength training variables. Whilst
the number of repetitions to be performed largely dictates the load upon the barbell, there is still room for more finite
planning of the exact weight used to achieve a precisely planned overload for a training session. Though contrary to
popular scientific opinion, it is not necessary or wise to use a load that signifies a RM effort for each set or workout.
Practical experience has illustrated that the continual use of RM loads, even if the load is periodised from high repetitions
to low repetitions, may induce neural fatigue or a form of overtraining. This results in a marked and rapid loss of strength,
more pronounced in intermediates and advanced strength training athletes, than beginners.
Training to close to failure with repetitions load will also cause premature fatigue results in a marked decrease in
workload for ensuring sets or exercise (Sforzo and Touey 1996). Table 3 provides an example of the decrease in
workload caused by using too high a load upon the barbell and the resultant drop in workload. This occurrence appears
more pronounced in whole body core exercises such as squats, front squats, bench press and power clean (and whole
body assistance power exercises such as push press, clean pull, power shrugs) than in isolated assistance strength
exercises (curies, leg curies etc.). Hence it appears to be related to the magnitude of the system load (body mass plus
mass of barbell) rather than merely relative intensity.

Table 2 - The sets and repetitions for core strength training exercises over an eight week cycle for beginner and
intermediate level athletes. Volume is the total number of repetitions. Strength testing takes place after the last week
of training.
Weeks 1-2 3-4 5-6 7-8

(S x R) 2 x 15 3 x 12 3 x 10 3x8
Beginner cycle
(volume) 30 36 30 24
(S x R) 3 x 12 4 x 10 4x8 3x6
Intermediates cycle
(volume) 36 40 32 18
(S x R) 4 x 10 4x8 4x6 3x5
Intermediates #2
(volume) 40 32 24 15
or
Weeks 1-2 3-5 6-8 9-10
(S x R) 4 x 10 4x8 4x6 3x5
Intermediates #2
(volume) 40 32 24 15
Weeks 1-2 3-4 5-6 7-8 9-10

(S x R) 3 x 12 4 x 10 4x8 4x6 3x5
Intermediates #2
(volume) 36 40 32 24 15
S(S x R) = Sets x repetitions

(Volume) = The product of the sets x repetitions e.g. 3 x 10 = a volume of 30 repetitions
Consequently the load upon the barbell at the beginning of a cycle is initially low in terms of absolute weight lifted and
in relative terms for whole body exercises (circa 70%-80% of the designated RM load). This light load allows the beginner
and intermediate level athletes to concentrate on developing sound technique without having to worry about whether
the set will be successfully completed.
Throughout the training cycle the load upon the barbell becomes closer to the RM effort for the number of repetitions to
be performed. Only in the last few weeks will the weight upon the barbell be equivalent to the RM effort for the designated
repetitions. Within one to two weeks of the load upon the barbell being close to or equivalent of the RM effort there will
be a peak in strength, followed inevitably by a decrease in strength (irrespective of what the strength coach implements).
This peak should coincide with the strength testing.
Figure 1 provides a graphic example of this notion for an intermediate athlete who has previously performed three
training cycles. In this example of an eight week training cycle, the repetitions are reduced every two weeks (from sets
of ten repetitions to sets of eight, sets of six and finally sets of five). However the athlete starts squatting with 80kg for
ten repetitions, even though their 10RM is 100kg. Every week the load upon the barbell is increased such that the
disparity between what the athletes actually uses for a given repetition schedule and what their RM capabilities for that
schedule are, become less and less. Thus in week 1 there is a 20 kg disparity between the training weight and the RM
weight that could be used. In week 3 there is only a 12.5 kg disparity, which is gradually reduced to only 10kg by week
4. Consequently by week 6 the athlete is training with 125 kg for 6 repetitions, whilst the 6 RM equals 130kg. By week
8 the athlete is training with the heaviest load possible of 140kg for 5 repetitions, which is also equivalent to the 5 RM
for that day. The load upon the barbell and the level of effort needed to lift that load have gradually increased across
the eight weeks.
Intermediate level athletes also require the use of the "heavy-light"- system of loading on whole body exercises (Wilks,
1994a; Wilks, 1994b). Under this system if an exercise is performed twice per week, then one workout is heavier and
one workout of medium intensity (minus 5-20 kg compared to the heavy day load of the week). This procedure of
contrasting loads results in improved recovery from the heavy workout, increased technical mastery of the exercise,
increased power output during the exercise performance and an improved super compensatory adaptation. A simple
method of invoking this principle for squat training would be to use squat on the heavy leg training day and front squats
on the "light" training day. As front squats can usually only be performed with 80-88% of the load of the squat for the
same number of repetitions (Hakkinen et al.,1987) this results in a reduction of loading upon the legs. The same
procedure can be utilised for bench press and narrow grip bench press, clean pulls and power shrugs and so on.

Experience has also dictated that most strength training athletes tend to lift up heavy a load upon the barbell too early
in their strength training cycle, which will therefore reduce the overload during the latter stages of the cycle, when the
strength and power should be peaking. It is vital that the strength coach ensures tight and rigid control over what load
is upon the barbell to ensure against premature peaking (followed by plateauing and then a decline) in strength.
Thus the role of the strength coach is select the exact load upon the barbell to ensure the appropriate overload for an
athlete for a given stage of the training cycle. This should entail relatively lighter loads earlier in the training cycle,
building to a crescendo of intensity in the latter stages of the training cycle. Ideally the load upon the barbell should
increase every week for the core strength and for both the core and assistant power exercises. Due to the smaller
magnitude of loads lifted in the assistant strength exercises and the fact that an increase of 2.5kg may represent a high
relative % of maximum, an increase every two weeks is often more prudent for exercises from this classification. There
should be greater variation in both absolute and relative loading for the whole body exercises than for isolation exercises.
Table 3 - The decrease in the workload caused by selecting an inappropriately heavy load for the number of repetitions
to be performed. The use of a submaximal RM load, such as training at 90% of the 12 RM rather than the full 12 RM
load of 77.5kg causes an increase in the workload by 16% (2520 vs 2170) in comparison to training to failure which
usually results in less repetitions to be performed in succeeding sets.
A 12 RM lifting to failure vs Training at 90% of the 12 RM

Set 1 = 12 x 77.5 kg = 930kg Set 1 = 12 x 70kg = 840kg
Set 2 = *9 x 77.5 kg = 697.50kg Set 2 = 12 x 70 kg = 840kg

Set 3 = *7 x 77.5kg = 542.5kg Set 3 = 12 x 70kg = 840kg
Total Workout = 2120kg vs Total Workout = 2520kg
• Training to failure on the first (or any) set generally results in less repetitions being performed in the
following sets
5. Order of Exercise
The order of exercise performance greatly influences the physiological effects of strength training (Sforzo and Touey,
1996). The issues to be considered are the straight sets vs circuit systems of training, whole body (multi-joint) exercises
vs isolated exercises, upper vs lower body exercises, strength vs power exercises, agonist/antagonist super sets and
the use of contrasting loading.
If strength and power are the ultimate objectives of training then the straight sets system of training, rather than the
circuit system, would provide a more appropriate method. Circuit training results in reduced intensity, in terms of load
upon the barbell and speed of lifting to fully develop strength or power, respectively, and consequently serve as a
method of strength-endurance training. Research and experience clearly shows that whole body or multi-joint exercises
should be performed as isolated exercises using the same muscle groups, or a dramatic reduction in workload occurs
(Sforzo and Touey, 1996).
The efficiency of performing lower body exercises first in a workout has not been clearly established. Generally whatever
body area requires a priority in training should be trained first. A more important consideration may be whether to perform
power or strength exercises first. It may remain an individual preference or a matter for successful time-equipment
management (see part 2) as to whether lower body or upper body is trained first.
As a general rule it is believed power exercises should be performed first in the workout to ensure that the residual
fatigue stemming from the performance of strength exercises does not reduce speed of performance and less then
optimal motor unit recruitment (Zatiorsky, 1995). However as the training regimen of beginners should not contain any
core power exercises this point is less relevant to that group. Whilst beginners may perform exercises deemed as
assistance power exercises (slow clean pull to waist, slow power shrug), the slow speed of lifting that should be
prescribed in these early stages to assist technical development, hypertrophy and torso stability results in these
exercises not having a true power training effect1'. As a result, beginners may perform the assistant power exercises
after the core strength exercises.
For intermediate level athletes in their third strength training cycle, the use of contrasting exercises and loads may prove
a useful power training (Bulgarian and Russian speed-strength methods) characterised by, for example, the alternating
of heavy squats to stimulate strength and reduce neural inhibition and light jump squats to facilitate power production
(Baker, 1994). Other examples appropriate for the intermediate level athlete may be power shrugs verses power cleans
from the hang and the bench press verses bench press throw in the smith machine.

The alternating of sets of agonist and antagonist exercises, whilst still respecting an appropriate rest interval, is also a
method that warrants consideration. Essentially this cannot be done effectively for lower body exercises of the lower
body use both the quadriceps (to the ex-tend the knee) and the hamstrings (to extend the hip) within the same repetition.
However alternating sets of agonist/antagonist exercises for the upper body is a useful method for developing
hypertrophy, muscle balance and most importantly allowing efficient time and equipment usage (see part 2).
6. Speed of lifting
The speed of lifting is a variable that influences the strength, power or hypertrophic effects of strength training exercises.
An increased time under tension/slow speed of lifting is a variable which largely influences hypertrophy, whilst an
increased speed of lifting influences power, irrespective of the training age.
For beginners a very slow speed of lifting ensures the successful formation of the motor skill of the strength exercises,
increases the anaerobic capacities of the muscles and aids in the development of torso stability.
The speed of lifting is largely controlled by the eccentric speed of movement and to a lesser degree whether there is
an isometric pause within the movement. The concentric lifting speed, apart from the initial weeks of a training cycle,
should be as explosive as possible for most athletes.
On lower body multi joint exercises such as the squat, and slow power shrug a four second eccentric portion and a one
second isometric pause at the bottom of the movement in the first two weeks of training may be warranted. Gradually
the speed of lifting is increased (three seconds eccentric to two seconds and no isometric pause) as the weight upon
the barbell and technical control increases. For the upper body exercises such as the bench press, where there is a
decreased range of movement and external stability afforded by the bench, a three second eccentric portion within 2-3
weeks.
As a general, the speed of lifting is slow at first, gradually increasing with increased technical control and heavier loads
upon the barbell. This applies to the core and assistance strength exercises and the assistance power exercises. It may
be unnecessary to revert to very slow training for more than 2-4 weeks each year, at the commencement of the strength
training cycle or when rehabilitating injuries.
As the objective of training moves towards both developing both strength and power (intermediate cycles#2 & 3) the
speed of lifting of the assistant power exercises increases markedly and the core power exercises may be introduced
in the third cycle, if they are deemed necessary. Thus the speed of lifting is periodised or cycled according to the exercise
being performed and the underlying objectives of the workout, week or cycle. If athletes cannot exert great control at
slow speeds and with low weight, then there is little chance they could manage to perform strength or power exercises
safely with high loads or fast speeds. The premise of learning to "Learn to crawl, before you walk, before you run" may
be an apt analogy for the concept of exerting control of the speed of lifting variable in strength training program design.
7. Rest Periods
The rest periods between sets or exercises influences strength, hypertrophy, power and muscular endurance through
the differing effects that rest periods may exert upon energy substrate utilisation, motor unit recruitment / patterns of
firing and hormonal response. There are distinct workload and hormonal effects due to short (one to two minutes or
less) or long rest (three minutes or more) periods.
For the beginner the first weeks of training are characterised by shorter rest periods (1-2 minutes) as the objectives of
these early stage of training are muscle endurance / conditioning and motor skill acquisition, performed against a
background of low loads. The high repetitions and short rest periods indicative of these early weeks of a training cycle
also appear to favourably influence hypertrophic adaptations, possibly through an interplay of anaerobic and hormonal
responses.
However as strength must also be addressed by the utilisation of heavy loads to ensure high motor unit recruitment and
rate coding, then rest periods have to be lengthened towards the latter stages of the strength training cycle to allow for
the lifting of heavier loads. For beginner and intermediate level athletes the rest periods between sets with heavy 5-6
repetition loads (approaching the RM capabilities) in the core strength exercises may be in order of 3-5 minutes
(Zatiorsky, 1995). The rest period for assistance strength exercises can be maintained at two minutes or even at one
minute when performing agonist / antagonist super sets.
Power exercises require full rest periods for optimal speed overload. However as the time for the execution of power
exercises is shorter, due to their increased speed of performance, recovery is quicker. The rest period may range from
one minute for a low intensity plyometric to two minutes for jump squats to three minutes to power clean from the hang.
The increasing use of computer technology to aid the measuring and training of power will enable the coach to more
accurately determine the rest period for power training exercises for each individual. Any pronounced drop in power
from one set to the next will indicate that the rest period may not have been adequate.

As a general rule of strength training for beginner and intermediate level athletes, do not commence the following set
until the heart rate drops below 108 bpm. Of course sometimes this procedure may be unclear as the future performance
of a very intense load (close to the full 5-6RM in the latter weeks of a cycle) may cause the heart rate to stay elevated
due to anxiety rather than fatigue. The subjective eye of the coach and the feeling of the athlete may prove more potent
indicators of readiness to lift intense or powerful loads rather than the objective passage of time.
8. Periodisation structure
Periodisation refers to the division of the training year or period into smaller more manageable periods with differing
objectives and content (differing manipulation of training variables). Periodisation as a concept should be viewed as
broad method of effectively implementing training (Zatiorsky, 1995). In the strength training context it influences the
length of the entire cycle (the macrocycle), the smaller sub-cycles of 2-4 weeks duration (mesocycles), the weekly cycle
(microcycle), the number of days trained per week and how long the manipulation of training variables fits into the overall
plan. Strict adherence to a dogmatic paradigm of periodisation, such as only using three week mesocycles for maximum
strength training (Bompa, 1993), may be unwarranted.
Essentially the periodisation structure should merely be the attempt to bring together the seven other strength training
variables in a methodical and coherent system of training. By observing the periodisation of the other seven variables
(i.e. the acute manipulation of these variables across a number of weeks), a virtual road map detailing how the training
objectives will be attained, should be developed. Tables 4 and 5 provide an example of an actual training program used
by one athlete at his beginner and intermediate level stage of development. The acute manipulation of variables across
the cycles is easily observed. Consequently the periodisation structure can be seen as the method by which the
manipulation of training variables is structured.
By studying the program examples, it should become obvious that the athlete and coach should be in no doubt as in
what to do for each and every workout. Furthermore, how the successful completion of each workout is a small step in
achieving the programs goals should be apparent.
In developing the periodisation structure, it is simple to start with the small units such as how many days per week and
the length of time per day. A three day per week, one hour per day system is very effective, although good results can
be obtained with two days per week in beginners. Four days per week (upper body / lower body split routine) can be
used for intermediate #2 athletes, if preferred. It is not necessary or prudent for beginner athletes to perform strength
training for more than three days per week and intermediate level athletes four days per week. Five and six days per
week of strength training is definitely ineffective and counterproductive for strength development in drug free athletes
performing heavy strength training exercises A six week macrocycle would ,appear the minimum length of time
necessary for a beginners strength training cycle. For beginners and intermediate level #1 athletes an eight week
macrocycle, preceded and followed by strength testing and exercise familiarisation, appears to be a more effective
variant. This cycle would compromise of four 2 week mesocycles. Inter-mediate level #2 athletes may require a ten
week macrocycle with variations being five 2 week mesocycles or using a 2 week mesocycle at the beginning and at
the end of the cycle with two 3 week mesocycles in between. As athletes become stronger, the length of the macrocycle
necessary to produce improvements also increases (eight weeks for beginners, ten for intermediate, twelve for
advanced) and the mesocycle increase in length up to 3-4 weeks, as opposed to two weeks (Wilks,(1994).
Over the long term, each macrocycle of training prepares the athlete for the next cycle of training. Thus a calendar year
of strength training may be viewed as, for example, the accumulation of two back to back development macrocycles of
eight weeks each (i.e. a general and specific preparation macrocycle), followed by three seven week in-season
maintenance macrocycles. The consequence of such training is that the strength training stimulus is presented in a
wave like manner across many months (i.e. higher volume and lower intensity at the beginning of each macrocycle and
vice versa at the end of the cycle). Thus the cumulative effects of strength training should be taken into account as
should the time needed to transform weight room improvements into sporting field improvements (process of delayed
transmutation, Zatiorsky, 1995).
Whilst the above may be general rules of thumb regarding the effective planning of macro and mesocycles, the reality
of planning in many Australian sports should take into consideration socio-cultural events. For example, the winter sports
such as the football codes usually commence training during the first week of the football financial year (first week in
November), but must cease the week before Christmas-New Year. Thus only a seven week cycle is usually possible
before the cessation of training. After the New Year then only a six to eight week cycle may be possible before reverting
to a maintenance cycle (Baker 1995). Experience dictates that the length of these macrocycles and the interruption of
the holiday period is less than optimal in physiological terms, but in reality an unavoidable and perhaps psychologically
favourable phenomenon. Therefore training must be planned accordingly.
For beginner and #1 level intermediate athletes, the above scenario does not pose a severe problem as two full peaking
cycles can be achieved within these time periods at this stage of development. For more advanced intermediates faced
by the above scenario, only one true peak can be achieved at the end of the second cycle, with the first cycle serving
as a “sub peak” to gauge training progress

Consequently periodisation should be concerned less with the dogmatic adherence to periodisation theories in mind
and more with the practical implementation of training.
Whilst a ten week cycle may appear the most optimal for an intermediate level athlete, a seven week cycle may have
to suffice in reality due to unavoidable :breaks" in training such as holidays etc. Thus a strength coach cannot control
the socio-cultural events of a country but they can control the strength training plan to reap the most rewarding result in
any given situation.
CONCULSIONA philosophy of the theoretical and practical aspects of designing strength training programs for beginner
and intermediate level athletes has been presented.
Strength training should be an objective driven process. The basis of strength training program design is the control and
manipulation of the eight variables of strength training which the coach can influence. Each of these eight variables and
the effect of their different manipulations upon strength is discussed. The acute manipulation of these variables occurs
to achieve the changes in objectives that result from different periodisation phases or training age stages. Examples of
the design of beginner and inter-mediate level athletes strength training programs have been presented
150
140
130
120
110 Training Load RM Load
100
90
80
70
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Weeks
Figure 1 - The relationship between the maximum strength capabilities for any given repetition assignment, the actual
training load used for that repetition assignment and the stage of the macrocycle. The athlete uses 80kg for 10 reps in
the squat in week 1, even though as this stage his 10RM was cica 100kg. In the last training week the load upon the
barbell is 140kg for 5 reps, equivalent to 5RM. Only in the last weeks of a macrocycle do the RM capabilities and actual
training load closely equate. This process causes the peaking of strength in the following week (2) (week 9 coinciding
with strength testing as per the below example)

Table 3 – Part “A”

Day 1 Beginners Basic Program Test # 1 Results BWt = 79. Bench = 72.5. Front Squat = 70. Chin = 94 (+15kg)
Order Exercise Week 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 Squats WEIGHT 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
SETS X REPS 2 X 15 2 X 15 3 X 12 3 x 12 3 x 10 3 x 10 3x8 3x8
SPEED 411 411 31x 31x 20x 20x 20x 20x
REST PERIOD 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3
2a Power shrugs onto WEIGHT 27.5 32.5 37.5 42.5 47.5 52.5 57.5 62.5
toes SETS X REPS 2 x 10 2 x 10 3x8 3x8 3x6 3x6 3x5 3x5
SPEED 512 512 41x 41x 31x 31x 21x 21x
REST PERIOD 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3
3 Bench Press WEIGHT 50 52.5 55 57.5 62.5 67.5 70 72.5

SETS X REPS 2 x 12 2 x 12 3 x 10 3 x 10 3x8 3x8 3x6 Goal=80kg
SPEED 311 311 21x 21x 20x 20x 10x 3 x 6 Test 3
REST PERIOD 2 2 2.5 2.5 3 3 3 RM
10x
3
4a Press behind neck WEIGHT 22.5 22.5 25 25 27.5 30 32.5 35

(seated) SETS X REPS 2 x 15 2 x 15 3 x 12 3 x 12 3 x 10 3 x 10 3x8 3x8
SPEED 211 211 21x 21x 20x 20x 10x 10x
REST PERIOD 1 1 1.5 1.5 2 2 2 2
4b Chins (close grip) WEIGHT Bwt Bwt +5 +5 +7.5 +10 +12.5 +15
do pulldowns if SETS X REPS 2 x 10 2 x 10 3x8 3x8 3x6 3x6 3x5 Goal=+22.5
chins can’t be SPEED 20s 20s 20s 20s 20x 20x 20x 3 x 5 Test
performed for the # REST PERIOD 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3RM
of reps 20x
3
5 Curls WEIGHT 15 15 17.5 17.5 20 20 22.5 25

SETS X REPS 2 x 15 2 x 15 3 x 12 3 x 12 3 x 10 3 x 10 3x8 3x8
SPEED 201 201 201 201 201 201 201 2-1
REST PERIOD 1 1 1.5 1.5 2 2 2 2
Abdominals 2 x 8-15

Table 3 – Part “B”

Day 2
8 (Goal =
Order Exercise Week 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 90kg Test 3
RM)
1 Front squats WEIGHT 37.5 42.5 47.5 52.5 57.5 62.5 67.5 72.5
SETS X REPS 2 x 12 2 x 12 3 x 10 3 x 10 3 x 10 3x8 3x6 3x6
SPEED 311 311 21x 21x 20x 20x 20x 20x
REST PERIOD 2 2 2.5 2.5 3 3 3 3
2 Clean pull from WEIGHT 27.5 32.5 37.5 42.5 47.5 52.5 57.5 62.5
mid-shin pause at SETS X REPS 2 x 10 2 x 10 3x8 3x8 3x6 3x6 3x5 3x5
knee SPEED 2x 2x 2x 2x 1x 1x 1x 1x
REST PERIOD 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3
3 Narrow grip bench WEIGHT 45 47.5 50 52.5 55 57.5 60 60

press SETS X REPS 2 x 12 2 x 12 3 c10 3 x 10 3x8 3x8 3x6 3x6
SPEED 311 311 21x 21x 20x 20x 10x 10x
REST PERIOD 2 2 2.5 2.5 3 3 3 3
4a Seated front WEIGHT 22.5 22.5 25 27.5 30 32.5 35 37,5

shoulder press SETS X REPS 2 x 15 2 x 15 3 x 12 3 x 12 3 x 10 3 x 10 3x8 3x8
SPEED 211 211 21x 21x 20x 20x 20x 20x
REST PERIOD 1 1 1.5 1.5 2 2 2 2
4b Wide grip WEIGHT 30 32.5 35 37.5 40 42.5 45 47.5

pulldowns behind SETS X REPS 2 x 15 2 x 15 3 x 12 3 x 12 3 x 10 3 x 10 3x8 3x8
SPEED 311 311 21x 21x 20x 20x 20x 20x
REST PERIOD 1 1 1.5 1.5 2 2 2 2
5a Dips WEIGHT Bwt Bwt +5 +5 +7.5 +7.5 +10 +10

SPEED 211 211 21x 21x 20x 20x 10x 10x
REST PERIOD 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
5b Upright row WEIGHT 17.5 17.5 20 20 22.5 22.5 25 27.5

SPEED 211 211 21x 21x 20x 20x 10x 10x
REST PERIOD 1 1 1.5 1.5 2 2 2 2
Abdominals 2 x 8-15

Table 4 – Part “A”

Day 1 Intermediate Program Test # 2 Test #2 Results BWt = 82. Bench 3RM = 82.5 Front Squat = 95. Chin = 107 (+25kg)
Order Exercise Week 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 Squats WEIGHT 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
SETS X REPS 3 x 12 3 x 12 3 x 10 3 x 10 3x8 3x8 3x6 3x6
SPEED 211 211 20x 20s 20x 20x 20x 20x
REST PERIOD 3 3 3 3 3 1 3 3
2a Power shrugs onto WEIGHT 52.5 57.5 62.5 67.5 72.5 77.5 82.5 85
toes SETS X REPS 3x8 3x8 3x6 3x6 3x6 3x5 3x4 3x4
SPEED 31x 31x 31x 31x 21x 21x 21x 21x
REST PERIOD 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
3 Bench Press WEIGHT 52.5 55 57.5 60 62.5 65 67.5 70

narrow grip SETS X REPS 3 x 10 3 x 10 3x8 3x8 3x6 3x6 3x5 3x5
SPEED 20x 20x 20x 20x 20x 20x 20x 20x
REST PERIOD 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
4a Press b back WEIGHT 32.5 32.5 35 35 37.5 37.5 40 42.5

SPEED 211 211 20x 20x 20x 20x 20x 20x
REST PERIOD 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
4b Wide grip WEIGHT 37.5 40 42.5 45 47.5 50 52.5 55

pulldowns behind SETS X REPS 3 x 12 3 x 12 3 x 10 3 x 10 3x8 3x8 3x6 3x6
neck SPEED 211 211 20x 20x 20x 20x 20x 20x
REST PERIOD 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
5 Curls WEIGHT 20 20 22.5 22.5 25 25 27.5 3 27.5

SETS X REPS 3 x 12 3 x 12 3 x 10 3 x 10 3x8 3x8 x 6 3x6
SPEED 201 201 201 201 201 201 201 201
REST PERIOD 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2
Abdominals 2 x 8-15

Table 4 – Part “B”

Day 2
8 (Goal = 90kg
Order Exercise Week 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Test 3 RM)
1 Bench Press WEIGHT 60 62.5 67.5 70 75 77.5 80 82.5
SETS X REPS 3 x 10 3 x 10 3x8 3x8 3x6 3x6 3x5 3x5
SPEED 20x 20x 20x 20x 20x 20x 20x 20x
REST PERIOD 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
2a Very close grip WEIGHT 40 42.5 45 47.5 50 52.5 55 57.5

bench press SETS X REPS 3 x 12 3 x 12 3 x 10 3 x 10 3x8 3x8 3x6 3x6
SPEED 211 211 211 20x 20x 20x 20x 20x
REST PERIOD 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2b Chins (close grip) WEIGHT Bwt Bwt +5 +10 +15 +17.5 +20 +22.5 Goal =
SETS X REPS 3x8 3x8 3x6 3x6 3x5 3x5 3x4 3 x 4 +30kg
SPEED 20x 20s 20x 20x 20x 20x 20x 20x Test 3RM
REST PERIOD 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
3 Front Squats WEIGHT 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 Goal =

SETS X REPS 3 x 10 3 x 10 3x8 3x8 3x6 3x6 3x5 3x5 105 kg
SPEED 20x 20x 20x 20x 20x 20x 20x 20x Test 3RM
REST PERIOD 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
4 Clean pulls to WEIGHT 60 57.5 62.5 67.5 72.5 77.5 82.5 85

waist no pause SETS X REPS 3 x 10 3x8 3x6 3x6 3x5 3x5 3x4 3x4
SPEED x x x x x x x x
REST PERIOD 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
5 Front Shoulder WEIGHT 35 35 37.5 37.5 40 40 42.5 42.5

SPEED 211 211 20x 20x 20x 20x 20x 20x
REST PERIOD 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Abdominals 2 x 8-15
REFERENCES
1. Baker, D. (1994) Improving vertical jump performance: The 5. Sforzo, G & Touey, P. (1996) Manipulating exercise order affects
application of general, special and specific strength training. muscular performance during a resistance training session J
Proceedings of the 1994 National Coaching Conference. ACC, Strength & Conditioning Res. 10(1): 20-24.
Canberra 6. Wilks, R. (1994a) Level 1 Powerlifting coaching manual Power-
2. Baker, D. (1995) Strength training for rugby league. Proceedings of lifting Australia, Sth Yarra, Vic.
the 1995 Australian Strength & Conditioning Conference. ASCA, 7. Wilks, R. (1994b) Periodisation or training for powerlifting - an applied
Toowong, Aust. model of maximal strength training. Strength & Conditioning
3. Bompa, T. Periodisation of Strength. Veritas Publishing, Toronto, Coach. 2(4): 9-18.
Ontario, 1993. 8. Zatiorsky, V. Science and practice of strength training. Human
4. Hakkinen, H., Kauhanen, H & Komi, P. (1987) Aerobic, anaerobic, Kinetics, Champaign, IL. 1995.
assistant exercise and weightlighting performance capacities in elite
weightlifters. J. Sport Med., 27,241-246.

Volume 5 (4) 1997

Designing, implementing and coaching strength training for beginner and intermediate
athletes – Part 2 – Implementing the Program.
Strength
And
Strength and Conditioning Coach. 5(4):3-8. 1997 © ASCA
Conditioning
Coach DESIGNING, IMPLEMENTING AND COACHING STRENGTH TRAINING FOR BEGINNER
AND INTERMEDIATE ATHLETES – PART 1 – IMPLEMENTING THE PROGRAM
Daniel Baker
The Official Magazine of the Strength and Conditioning Association MHSc (Sports Science) Head Strength Coach, Brisbane Broncos Rugby League, Australian
ISSN 1324-8006
U/23 Powerlifting Team
INTRODUCTION
A paucity of information exists concerning on how actually to implement a strength training program. This may be
partially ascribed to unique difficulties that may not apply across situations, rendering a cross-over of data less
applicable. However the author’s experience in the Australian sporting environment has indicated that there are often
problems encountered by strength coaches when attempting to implement a program.
Specifically these problems are what tests to implement, how to implement testing for large groups of
beginner/intermediates, how to efficiently utilize equipment, time and personnel, how to individualise weight selection
for different exercises and what degree of progress to expect at different training ages and stages. This paper will
attempt to address these common problems associated with implementing a strength training program with practical
solutions that have been used by the author.
CHOICE OF TESTS
Testing of strength is necessary to measure specific objectives of training and the progress to those goals, as well as
allowing the strength coach to individually select the weight upon the bar for each exercise for each training session.
However it is not necessary to implement a holistic battery of strength tests as a few simple tests should suffice with
beginner and intermediate level athletes.
Whilst the nature of the sport often dictates which tests are most appropriate, for most field sports (football codes,
hockey etc) the following tests have proven very useful for testing general strength capabilities. For upper body pushing
and pulling strength, the bench press and chin up (reverse grip for beginners and female athletes) respectively have
been proven easy to implement and perform by low level subjects. These strength tests have provided data which
indicates that performance on these simple tests can discriminate between different level athletes, even at the earliest
stages of training (Baker, 1996; Malone, 1996).
For the lower body measurement of strength the front squat is the easiest exercise to impellent for beginner and low
intermediate level subjects. The front squat, from the authors experience with hundreds of beginners and intermediate
level subjects, is easier to perform and learn compared to the back squat. Furthermore there appears to be less
psychological inhibitions amongst beginners to holding a bar on the front of the shoulders as compared to the back of
the shoulders. This may also be due to beginners generally being able to bench press more than they can front squat,
thus providing confidence about being able to handle the weight. This would not occur with the back squat, which is
more difficult to master and would use a larger load than the bench press. The simple vertical jump and reach test may
be implemented if the coach desires a basic leg power test.
The use of the back squat, as a test of strength, and the power clean as a test of lower body explosiveness, are best
left to the later intermediate level stage, although it is not necessary to change to these tests if experience had dictated
that the front squat and vertical jump have been adequate. For example, extremely tall athletes find the front square
more comfortable to perform due to less forward lean. However experience had dictated that the back squat is more
suitable at all raining ages/stages for female athletes, who find it uncomfortable to perform the front squat due to the
difficulty of maintaining the barbell upon the clavicles.
The use of 3RM test is recommended for beginner and intermediate level athletes as they do not often possess the
neural control to safely make the quantum leap from 3 RM to 1 RM loads. If desired a 1RM can be extrapolated from a
3RM by multiplying the load by a factor of 1.08 (Baker, 1995a).

The use of a total strength score (e.g. Total strength = 3RM bench press, chin up and front squat) has proven the most
successful single strength measure of discriminating athletic ability, even up to the elite level (Baker, 1996, Malone,
1996).
Comparisons based on solely strength per kg greatly favour lighter athletes and are accordingly less useful for accurate
analysis.
IMPLEMENTING THE TESTS
When testing larger groups of beginners and intermediates it is necessary to have a number of testers available to
insure safety and efficiency. A ratio of one tester per ten athletes is recommended. Testing of large groups can be
divided into two groups, with one starting with the bench press and the other, the vertical jump. Following the bench
press, this group will rotate to the chin-up test and then to the vertical jump, whilst the vertical jump group will proceed
to the bench press and then the chin-up. The front squat is tested last to ensure that the athletes are fully warmed up
and to utilise the larger numbers of athletes as spotters. Utilising this strength coaches, tested over 30 athletes in one
hour.
Testing of strength with be-ginner athletes is based upon the trial and error method. With beginners start lifting with an
empty barbell (six to ten repetitions) to ensure that technique is adequate. Increase the load to a load that you presume
may be about 50% of the 3RM to gauge the difficulty of this load. Then increase the weight by 5 to 10 kg an attempt till
the maximum is achieved. When determining a "maximum" if athletes fail to lift the third repetition in an attempt on the
bench press, but manage to get the barbell halfway up or further, than subtract 2.5kg from that attempt to ascertain the
3RM (ie. two and a half repetitions with 7.5kg = a 3rm of 72.5kg). The same procedure with the front squat is also used
but 5kg is reduced from failed attempts to determine the 3RM. However if athletes can only perform two repetitions,
then the last successfully completed load is used as the 3RM or 5kg is subtracted from the attempted goal. The chin-up
test score equals the body mass plus additional weights that were attached to the body to derive the 3RM (eg. 74kg +
7.5kg = 3RM of 81.5kg). If an athlete performs only one or two repetitions with their body weight, then subtract 5kg each
rep less than 3reps to derive the chin score. If no repetitions can be performed at all, then substitute a lat pulldown to
below the chin to derive a 3RM.
With intermediate level subjects who have previously completed a test, a more precise use of loads to ascertain the
3RM can be utilised. This method is the pinpoint or goal method, whereby a certain goal weight is predetermined, based
on previous test results and recent training efforts. As a general rule, athletes who perform a 3RM with 50-75kg, usually
test a 5 kg more than the weight used in the last workout of 3 x 5. Athletes who lift a 3RM of 75-100kg usually test at
7.5kg more than the weight they used in their last 3 x 5 workout. Athletes who lift 100-125kg usually test at 10kg more
than the weight used in their last 3x5 workout. Thus by knowing this the testing procedure can be extremely pin-pointed
(see table 1).
EFFICIENT TIME, EQUIPMENT AND PERSONNEL USAGE
One of the major problems faced by coaches working with amateur or low level teams is efficient usage of time,
equipment and personnel. A situation where the number of athletes is much higher than the equipment available is a
common problem in the Australian sporting environment. Crowded or disorganised training leads to unproductive or
dangerous training as well as alienating most of the beginners from the strength training experience. From the authors
experience the following procedures and methods can be useful in ensuring a productive training environment.
The four best methods for coaching large groups of low level athletes is to 1).ensure a ratio 3:1 athletes to major exercise
situations 2) stagger the starting exercise and ensuring order of exercise performance 3) stagger the starting time of the
workout for different groups and 4) variation in programming (more so for intermediate level athletes).
If timetables dictate that all the athletes must start training at the same time, then a staggered starting exercise and
adequate equipment are required. Attempt to have one major training station per three athletes. A major training station
is defined as for core strength or assistant power exercises. A bench press, squat / power rack and platform area
(plywood sheet) defines a station. Thus if 18 athletes are to train at the same time, two bench presses, two squat racks
and two platform areas (and six barbells) ensure an adequate training facility by relegating the numbers of athletes to
major equipment stations as 3:1. Under this procedure all 18 athletes can start training at the same time, in groups of
three, starting at either bench press type exercise, a squat exercise or a assistant power exercise upon the platform.
Table 2 outlines the specific order that can be followed for two different types of program to efficiently use time, space
and personnel, whilst not corrupting training by having to perform isolation exercises before core or multi- joint exercises.
The other solution is to have staggered starting times, whereby groups start training at different 15 minute intervals.
This especially suit situations where there is limited equipment. Other coaches have also used staggered training days
(group "A" does lower body whilst group "B" does upper body exercises), but this is more of a method for intermediate
level athletes who may be performing four days per week.

Intermediate level athletes programs become more individualised or positional specific, as compared to the general
program of the beginner, resulting in less congestion in the weight room at any given point. Some coaches of
intermediates also use a method whereby a body part is prescribed to be trained and the athlete chooses the exercise
of their choice to perform for the prescribed number of sets and repetitions (e.g. Back: choose any chin, pulldown or
rowing exercise). The author does not personally choose this method as it reduced the control of the coach over the
training process.
For the coach to be efficient in spreading their time amongst a number of athletes, the author recommends that the
coach plan the training and clearly define upon the program exactly what must be done in the workout (all eight variables
are accounted for).
The goal should be to make the program “idiot proof”. This will reduce the number, but never eliminate, the frivolous
questions that reduce the spread of the coaches “eye”.
As a goal I recommend that the coach attempts to view at least one of each athlete performing the core or assistant
power exercises during each workout. This will allow the coach to gauge the progress of every athlete they train. Make
a mental note or written note (after the session) of their progress in technique development.
Efficient personnel usage can also be managed by educating the athletes to the coaching process and by making them
spotters and loaders for their partners. Educating to the strength coaching process means writing or describing the key
coaching cues for each exercise. Thus the training partner provides feedback concerning performance to their partner
and uses a cue to reinforce aspects of performance. This concept is explained in more detail in Part 3 of the series.
INDIVIDULISING WEIGHT SELECTION
The appropriate load upon the barbell is an important variable for ensuring the most appropriate overload of athletes at
any given stage of training. Selecting the most appropriate load for any exercise for an individual is a difficult process
until more training and testing information has been gathered. From experience, when confronted by a large number of
athletes who have little or no strength training experience, the starting weights for the most common exercises can be
selected by using the percentage listed in Table 3. Consequently a starting weight for every exercise can be selected
for any individual who tests. These starting weight are then increased by 5kg per week for the multi-joint low body
exercises and 2.5kg for most of the upper body exercises. For upper body exercises which utilize smaller loads (e.g.
Curls), then the weight may be increased only every two weeks. Female athletes may experience smaller increases of
the order of 2.5kg per week for lower body exercises and 2.5kg every two weeks on the bench press.
For example, if a beginner athlete had a bench press 3RM of 60kg and is programmed to perform 2x15 in the first
workout, then the starting weight would be 40klg (60kg x 66% = 40kg). An intermediate who bench pressed 92.5kg for
a 3RM would be using 70kg for the first workout if performing sets of ten reps (92.5kg x 75% = 70kg).
It is essential that the coach ensure that these loads are manageable for the athlete so that the athlete does not train to
failure, especially in the first half of a training cycle. If the loads become too easy then it is far wiser to increase them
more towards the end of a cycle rather than at the beginning. This will ensure that there is a sharp rise in intensity near
the end of a cycle (a peaking of strength), as is discussed in Part 1. Thus during the last week of the training cycle the
athlete should be using loads that are virtually RM, so that their strength will peak in the following week. For beginners
and intermediates these loads are usually what the previous 3RM was. For example, a beginner may perform 3 x 6 at
65kg during week 8, with 65kg being the 3RM of the test performed eight weeks earlier.
Thus an effective method of selecting the load upon the barbell for the front squat, bench press and chin-up is to
ascertain the starting load, based upon the lead to the finishing load (e.g. 3 x 5), which should be the previous test
maximum. The loads for other exercises are proportionally increased.
STRENGTH LEVELS OF BEGINNER AND INTERMEDIATE ATHLETES
The strength levels of male and female beginner and intermediate level athletes are outlined in Table 4. Clearly strength
increases with chronological and training age.
By reviewing the normative data for different ages and training stages, a generalized picture of the strength
improvements can be gained. From experience beginners make between a 1.5-2% increase per week in upper body
strength for 6-12 weeks. Intermediates increase by about 1% per week for 8-12 weeks, a finding which is also reported
in numerous studies (Berger, 1962; Hakkinen and Komi, 1981; Stowers et al, 1983; Hakkinen, 1985; Gater et al, 1992;
Willoughby, 1993; Baker et al, 1994; Baker 1995b).

The lower body strength changes are much larger, circa 4% per week for beginners and about 1.5-2% per week for
intermediates over 6-10 weeks (see also the references listed above).
Outlined in Table 5 is an example of the progress of a group of athletes across two training cycles from beginner to
intermediate level. In the first eight weeks of training the increase of bench press strength is higher (14%), as must be
expected, then the following eight weeks (9%). The change in lower body strength is much higher, as compared to upper
body strength, in the initial cycle is associated with a more modest increase in lower body strength, similar to that of the
bench press. Thus across 16 weeks (two by 8 week training cycles) beginners can expect to improve bench press
strength by about 25% and front squat strength by about 45%. The rate of improvement diminishes with increased
training experience.
The data for the female athletes listed illustrates similar rates of progress of 19% in upper body strength and 43.9% in
lower body strength following two 8 week strength training cycles. One reason why upper body strength increases seem
to slowdown in for female athletes, may be that the smallest standard weight increment is 2.5 kg, a relative increase of
5% for the average female athlete bench press. This amount may be relatively to great for weekly or even fortnightly
load increments. It may be prudent to attempt to attain smaller weight plates (.25kg and .5kg) with female athletes so
that weekly increases in upper body training weights may be implemented. Very small weight increases are
physiologically and psychologically better than no increase at all.
By knowing the average rate of improvement gives the strength coach an advantage in planning what weights should
be upon the bar for an individual. Knowledge of these results can also stop "poundage phobia” that young athletes often
experience, whereby they believe they must be lifting huge poundages from the beginning of training.
CONCLUSION
The main problems facing Australian strength coaches when attempting to implement a strength training program
appear to concerned with time, equipment and personnel usage. Other problems appear to be with knowledge of testing
procedures and the realistic levels of strength of beginner and intermediate level athletes. This paper has put forward
methods for efficiently testing and training large groups of low level athletes. The level of strength at different ages and
stages of training has also been presented.
Table 1 - Procedures for testing strength in beginner and intermediate level athletes.
Beginner and intermediate level test battery 3RM bench press +

3RM chin-up +
3RM front squat
= Total strength (kg)
Female athlete test battery 3RM bench press +
3RM close grip pulldown/chin+
3RM back squat
Intermediate Level 3 and advanced test battery 1RM bench press+
1RM power clean+
1RM back squat
A) Beginner’s testing procedure for the first test (the trial & error approach)
20kg 40kg 50kg 60kg 65kg 67.5kg
6 reps 3 3 3 3 3
Successful 3RM = 67.5kg
B) Intermediate’s testing procedure (pinpoint or goal weight approach)
(previous 3RM = 92.5kg & finished the current training cycle with 3 x 5 @ 92.5kg. Therefore 3 RM goal for this test
= 100 kg
40kg 60 80 90 100
5 3 2 1 3
Successful 3RM = 100kg. If only 2.5 reps are performed with 100kg, then the 3RM = 97.5kg. If only 2 reps are
performed with 100kg then 3RM = 95kg

Table 2 - A method for ensuring efficient, time equipment and personnel usage by staggering the starting exercise and
the subsequent order of performance of exercises by different positional sub-groups in a junior rugby union team.
Exercise order by playing group

Day “A”
Order Tight Five Backrow + ½’s Outside back
Exercise # 1 2 3
2 3 1
3 1 2
4 5 7
5 7 4
6 4 5
7 6 6
Exercises are ordered in the program 1) Squat 2) Power shrug 3) Bench press 4) Military press 5) Chin/pull-downs
6) curl 7) abdominals
The athletes perform the order of exercises as described for their positional grouping. The isolation exercises of
either curls or abdominals are performed last. The sets, reps, lifting speed, load on the barbell and rest period are
prescribed on their individual programs
Table 3 - Selecting starting loads for individual athletes for different repetitions based upon percentages of the 3RM test
loads.
Exercise 15 reps 12 reps 10 reps 8 reps

(% of 3RM bench press test)
Bench Press 66% 70% 75% 80%
Narrow grip bench press 60% 66% 70% 75%
DB bench press 33% of the bench press starting weight
Close grip front pulldown 60% 66% 70% 75%
Wide grip pulldown behind 40% 45% 50% 55%
DB rows (1 arm) Same as DB bench press
Press behind neck 33% 40% 45% 50%
Military press in front 33% 40% 45% 50%
Upright rows 25% 30% 35% 40%
Curls 20% 22.5% 25% 27.5%
DB curls 50% of the weights used for barbell curls
Lying tricep ext. 20% 22.5% 25% 27.5%
(% of 3RM squat test)
Front squat 55% 60% 65% 70%
Squat 66% 70% 75% 80%
Power shrugs 40% 45% 50% 55%
Clean pull to waist 40% 45% 50% 55%
Step ups 25% 27.5% 30% 32.5%

Table 4 - Comparison of strength levels of beginner and intermediate level athletes* of different ages
3RM Bench Press 3RM Front Squat

Beginner Under 17 yrs
73.1 68.5
(n=88)
Intermediate Under 17 yrs

88.1 96.6
(n=31)
Intermediate Under 19 yrs 91.2 102.9
Intermediate Under 21 yrs 104.9 111.8
3RM Bench Press 3RM Full back squat

Female Rugby Union
(beginner strength trainers) 42.9 57.2
(n=21)
Female Rugby Union

(Intermediate strength trainers) 50.3 83.1
(n=17)
*Intermediate – Rugby union and rugby league players selected for representative squads or junior elite teams who
have completed at least two cycles of strength training
Table 5 - Progression in strength levels for beginner to intermediate level athletes training 3 days per week.
School boy 1st XV Rugby Union Players

(n=15)
Beginner training cycle Intermediate training cycle

( 8 weeks) (8 weeks)
Bench Press 3RM 72.6 82.6 90.5

14.0% 9.3%
24.7%
Front squat 3RM 68.3 88.9 98.6
30.2% 11.0%
44.4%

Volume 2 (2) 1994

The Principles of strength Training– Part 2 – Variation & Recovery.
Strength and Conditioning Coach. 2(2):3-5. 1994 © ASCA
Strength
And
Conditioning THE PRINCIPLES OF STRENGTH TRAINING PART 2: VARIATION & RECOVERY
Coach
Greg. J. Wilson PhD
Centre for Exercise Science & Sport Management

Southern Cross University, Lismore
The Official Magazine of the Strength and Conditioning Association
ISSN 1324-8006
In the implementation of training to develop human physical capacities there are a number of fundamental training
principles which determine the response of the human system. These principles included:
• PROGRESSIVE
• OVERLOAD
• SPECIFICITY
• VARIATION
• RECOVERY
A thorough understanding of these principles is essential if effective sport specific resistance training routines are to be
developed. This two part article outlines the basis to the above principles and discusses their practical implications to
the development of resistance training routines. In the last issue I discussed the training principles of overload and
specificity. In this article the principles of variation and recovery are addressed.
VARIATION
The training principles of overload and specificity are well known and have been extensively researched over many
years. The principle of variation is a more recent concept and has been subjected to substantially less scientific scrutiny.
The principle relates to the fact that if the training stimulus is consistently presented to the body in exactly the same
way, its efficiency will diminish, the athletes will become stale and their training gains will be reduced (Poliquin 1988).
Variation in training regimes can be achieved by manipulating the following training variables.
• The number of repetitions performed per set

• The number of sets performed per body part or per workout
• The loads used
• The speed of performance of the exercise
• The rest interval between sets
• Exercises performed
• The order in which the exercises are performed
One of the most common training errors is the failure to regularly change the training stimulus. Too often individuals
will get into a routine and simply fail to modify it.
Periodization
The variation of the training stimulus performed in a systematic manner throughout a training cycle is referred to as
periodization and there are currently several popular methods in use.
Undulating Periodized Model

The undulating periodized model was advocated by Poliquin (1988) and in this system the athlete alternates between
the use of lighter loads performed for high numbers of repetitions, termed volume training, with periods of heavy training
where heavy loads are performed with few repetitions, termed intensity training. An athlete alternates every two or three
weeks between these phases in an effort to vary the training process. The volume phases are believed to increase
muscular hypertrophy, while the intensity phases are through to promote the neural adaptations to resistance training.
By alternating between these phases, optimal strength increases are believed to result. An example of an undulating
periodized training routine, used to maximize gain over a 12 week training period is outlined in Table 1.
The Linear Periodized Model

Another popular periodized form of resistance training was outlined by Stone et al. (1981) and is termed the linear
periodization model. This method involves a gradual progression from light loads and high volume, to heavy loads with

lower volume and greater intensity. This progression is thought to enhance muscular hypertrophy initially and towards
the end of the training cycle facilitates the neural mechanisms responsible for strength development. An example of
linear periodized training routine, used to maximize strength gain over a 12 week training period, is outlined in Table 2.
At the end of the twelve week training cycle the priodized programs can be repeated, hopefully commencing with greater
loads. These general periodized training routines may be further varied by altering the intensity of the training sessions
within the week as outlined in Table 3. Thus the linear model will involve a gradual progression towards higher loads
and lower repetitions on the heavy training day, however the light training day may involve relatively light loads
throughout the training cycle (Table 3).
Table 1 - Undulating periodised training routine Table 2 - Linear periodised training routine
Training week Sets x Repetitions* Training week Sets x Repetitions*

1-2 5 x 10 1-2 5 x 12
3-4 5x6 3-4 5 x 10
5-6 5x8 5-6 5x8
7-8 5x4 7-8 5x6
9-10 5x6 9-10 5x5
11-12 5x3 11-12 5x4
*The load used is the maximum possible so that *The load used is the maximum possible so that
only the nominated number of repetitions can be only the nominated number of repetitions can be
performed performed
Table 3 - Heavy-light linear periodised training routine
Training week Sets x Repetitions*

1-2 5 x 10 (Heavy) 5 x 12 (Light)
3-4 5 x 8 (Heavy) 5 x 10 (Light)
5-6 5 x 6 (Heavy) 5 x 10 (Light)
7-8 5 x 5 (Heavy) 5 x 8 (Light)
9-10 5 x 4 (Heavy) 5 x 8 (Light)
11-12 5 x 3 (Heavy) 5 x 6 (Light)
*The load used is the maximum possible so that only the
nominated number of repetitions can be performed
Comparison Between Periodized Models

In the recent study by Baker et al. (1994) the use of undulating and linear periodized models results in similar
improvements in strength over a 12 week training period, when experienced weight-trained individuals were used as
subjects. Such a result is not surprising and perhaps reflects the principle of variation. Given that a training routine
involves sufficient intensity and volume to overload the muscles, and includes variation to continually stimulate the
neuro-muscular system, the routine should be successful, regardless of the actual periodized model adopted.
RECOVERY
Muscle growth and adaptation occur between training sessions. Therefore, in order to allow training adaptations of
muscle to occur, adequate recovery is essential. As a general rule a recovery period of approximately 48 to 72 hours
should occur between intensive resistance training sessions of the same muscle, depending on the intensity of the
session, age of the individual and the type of contraction. Research has demonstrated that recovery from eccentric
muscular contractions is longer than from concentric contractions. Too little recovery time will result in reduced
performance and may also lead to injury.
One of the most common training errors is the failure to provide appropriate recovery between work-outs. For example,
many people will perform chest exercises such as the bench press, inclined bench press and dips on one day and
deltoid and triceps exercises on the following day. However, these chest exercises are multi-joint multi-muscle exercises
involving most of the upper body muscle groups. Therefore such a training program required the deltoids and triceps
brachii muscle groups to be trained on consecutive days. Consequently these muscle groups become overtrained and
maximal training gains will not be achieved. For many individuals who perform all their resistance training on the one
day and have a least one day’s rest between repeat sessions, the above represents no problem. However, when more

advanced training routines are adopted, which involve resistance training on consecutive days, then the organisation of
the training week becomes more complicated.
Split Routines
In essence, split routines are adopted when the resistance training session is of such a long duration that a high training
intensity cannot be maintained throughout the duration of the session. In such instances the work-out is partitioned into
smaller training sessions. Thus rather than performing a few large training sessions a week, the athlete performs many
smaller work-outs, at a higher training intensity.
To prevent overtraining when using split routines it is important to train all muscles which act together in the one training
session and have adequate recovery between these sessions. For this reason it is popular to perform split routines
where the upper body (pectorals, deltoids, latissimus dorsi, forearm musculature, biceps and triceps brachii) are trained
on one day and the low body musculature (quadriceps, hamstrings, calf group, erector spinae and the abdominals) are
trained on the next training occasion. Similarly push/pull type split routines are also popular, where all the muscles that
are involved in pushing movements (e.g. pectorals, deltoids, etc.) are trained in one session and those which pull (e.g.
latissimus dorsi, bicep brachii, etc.) in the next. Examples of split routines are outlined in Tables 4 and 5.
One problem that is often encountered when training muscle groups which act together in the same workout is that the
muscles trained towards the end of the session are subject to fatigue. For example, the fatigue accumulated from
exercising the pectorals may impede the training of the deltoid and triceps brachii muscles. In fact, this is often why
such similar acting muscle groups are trained on separate days, resulting in over-training. To prevent this problem the
muscle group just trained should be rested prior to the training of subsequent muscle groups which have similar actions.
For example, consider the athlete who has just trained the pectoral muscle group and wishes to train the deltoids in the
same session. If the deltoids are trained directly following the pectoral exercises then they will be fatigues and unable
to be trained at maximal intensity. To reduce this problem, prior to training the deltoids, one of the following strategies
may be used:
• An unrelated muscle group such as the calf group or the abdominal muscles may be trained
• The individual may perform some aerobic training such as riding a bike
• The individual may simply rest for 20 minutes
After this “rest period” the deltoids will have had time to at least partially recover and can be trained with greater intensity.
Table 4 - Example of a two way (upper body/lower Table 5 - Example of a three way split routine
body split routine
Monday & Tuesday & Friday Wednesday &

Monday to Thursday Wednesday to Saturday
Thursday Sunday
Pectorals Quadriceps Pectorals Latissimus Dorsi Quadriceps
Deltoids Hamstrings Deltoids Erector Spinae Hamstrings
Latissimus Dorsi Erector Spinae Triceps Brachii Biceps Brachii Calf Group
Forearm
Biceps Brachii Abdominals Abdominals
Musculature
Triceps Brachii Calf group
Forearm Musculature
CONCLUSION
This two part article has outlined the basis to the training principles of overload, specificity, variation and recovery and
discussed their practical implications to the development of resistance training routines. Whether developing a new
resistance training program or modifying an existing one, it is of fundamental importance to consider the above training
principles. These are the foundations upon which successful training programs are built. Consequently all training
programs should satisfy the below requirements:
• Overload the musculature to a level of intensity that induces positive adaptations to the neuromuscular system;
• Dominantly consist of exercises that are very specific to the competitive performance they are attempting to
enhance;
• Periodically vary the training stimulus; and
• Allow for adequate recovery of the musculature between exercise sessions

REFERENCES
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effect of manipulating volume and intensity upon strength. In press model of performance in the parallel squat by champion powerlifters.
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(1990) The influence of strength training on overhead throwing Association of Canada 8(8).
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2406-2412.

Improving vertical jump performance: The application of general, special and specific strength training.
Proceedings of the 1994 National Coaching Council. 13-18.
IMPROVING VERTICAL JUMP PERFORMANCE:

THE APPLICATION OF GENERAL, SPECIAL AND SPECIFIC STRENGTH TRAINING
Daniel Baker
Daniel Baker, Southern Cross University, Lismore, NSW & Australian Institute of Sport (Diving), Brisbane.
ABSTRACT
Good vertical jump ability is a necessary requirement for successful performance in a number of sports. Vertical jump
scores can consequently distinguish between athletes of different levels as the normative data provided in this paper
will illustrate. The purpose of this paper is to firstly provide a theoretical rationale for a strength training program by
identifying the neuro-mechanical factors that affect jumping performance. Secondly a definition and examples of
general, special and specific strength training exercises that are used to improve jumping performance will be provided.
The role and application of these different exercises for athletes of different levels and sports will be discussed. Thirdly
the theoretical rationale and practical implementation of the different types of exercises into a longer term training plan
will be discussed. Current and future trends in programming to improve jump ability will also be examined. Examples of,
and results from, the training programs of Australian Institute of Sport diving, QLD Academy of Sport rugby union and
national league soccer and netball teams will be provided and discussed.
INTRODUCTION
Good vertical jump ability is a necessary requirement for successful performance in a number of sports. Vertical jump
scores can consequently be used to distinguish between athletes of different levels of achievement in sports such as
diving (Baker & Foley, 1994) (see Table 1) and volleyball where jumping ability appears critical to overall sport success,
through to American football. Thus the objective of implementing strength training to improve vertical jumping ability to
enhance overall sport performance would appear well founded.
The purpose of this paper is to firstly provide a theoretical rationale for a strength training program by identifying the
neuro-mechanical factors that affect jumping performance. Secondly a definition of, and rationale for, the use of general,
special and specific strength training exercises that are used to improve jumping performance will be provided. A review
of the relevant literature will attempt to determine the merits of the three classification of strength training exercises for
improving vertical jump. The role and application of these different exercises for athletes of different levels and sports
will be discussed. Thirdly the theoretical rationale and practical implementation of the different types of exercises into a
longer term training plan will be discussed.
Neuro-mechanical factors affecting jump performance

Vertical jump performance appears dependent upon the contractile properties of the muscle as well as the augmentation
to concentric work that occurs due to the stretch-shorten cycle (SSC) (Komi & Bosco, 1978). The performance of a
vertical jump preceded by a rapid stretch shorten cycle (SSC) is commonly called a countermovement jump (CMJ) as
opposed to a jump that is not immediately preceded by pre-stretch (a squat jump, SJ). These two measures of jump
ability have been used to distinguish between the contractile (SJ) and SSC (CMJ) contribution to jumping (Komi &
Bosco, 1978). A CMJ usually provides additional height to a VJ, over that of a SJ, presumably through the enhanced
use of elastic strain energy and the neural augmentation to the muscles. Therefore it can be rationalised that VJ
performance can be enhanced through a training of principally the contractile elements of the muscle or the efficiency
of the SSC. Table 2 provides some normative data taken from various studies indicating performance levels in a number
of athletes from different sports in SJ and CMJ jumping tests.
Whilst inter-individual variations affect the exact contributions of the relevant muscles, Hubley and Wells (1983) have
estimated that the knee, hip and ankle extensors contribute 49%, 28% and 23%, respectively to the work done during
a CMJ vertical jump. The contribution of arm-swing appears less stable, with figures ranging from 5-15%. It has been
argued that the exact contribution of arm-swing depends heavily on the skill of the jumper.
The total time for the CMJ may be in the order of 530-550 ms, with the concentric portion of the movement occupying
330-370 ms. In sport specific jumps such as diving take-offs, where a high skill component exists, this total jump time
may be higher principally due to a lengthened eccentric phase up to 350-450 ms. The vertical ground reaction forces
developed during a CMJ without arm-swing is of the order of 1700 N, which is reached within 370-400 ms. Consequently
vertical jumping is characterised by high force production within a limited time frame, a situation which distinguishes

jumping from "true" or maximal strength activities. This fundamental fact, that the high forces in jumping must be
produced by the lower body extensor muscle groups within a limited time frame of around 350 ms (concentric force
production period), provides the underlying rationale for the implementation of general, special and specific strength
training.
Theory of general, special and specific strength training
Exercises can be classified as general, special or specific (ASCA Level 1 Strength & Conditioning Coaching Course)
depending upon their intended effect upon the neuromuscular system.
General strength training exercises commonly used to improve VJ ability can be defined as those that increase the
general or maximal force producing capabilities of the relevant muscles. The exercises depicted in Table 3 illustrates
that all the exercises listed are typified by two main factors: foot contact with the ground and hip and knee extension (at
least) during the concentric portion of the exercise.
Special strength exercises can be defined as those exercises that are biomechanically more closely related to jumping
than the general exercises. It could be conceived that the special exercises have the role of converting strength to
power, the true requirement of jumping. Those special exercises in this instance are typified by more powerful execution
than the typical general strength exercises (Garhammer & McLaughlin, 1983; Wilson et al., 1993; Garhammer, 1994),
rapid hip, knee and ankle extension, similar time periods for force production and possibly loss of foot contact with the
floor.
Specific strength exercises used to improve VJ ability are various jumping exercises that are similar in specific patterns
of motor unit recruitment, temporal sequencing and firing frequency to allow for a "transfer" to sport specific jumping
(Bosco, 1985).
Review of strength training and jumping literature
The effect of various resistance training programs upon vertical jump performance has been extensively researched
(Stone et al., 1981; Stowers et al., 1983; Baker et al., 1994a). Whilst earlier research tended to focus upon whether
resistance training did or did not affect VJ ability, more recent research has attempted to identify the type of resistance
training or program that was most effective in improving VJ (Berger, 1963; Hakkinen & Komi, 1985a; Hakkinen & Komi,
1985b; Adams et al., 1992; Wilson et al.1993). The focus of this more recent research would appear to be attempting
to determine the mechanism(s) via which VJ is improved and how these mechanisms are effected by strength training
variables. It may be theorised that general strength training aims to improve the VJ ability predominantly via improving
the contractile capabilities of the muscle, specific strength training via more efficient utilisation of the stretch reflex and
the use of elastic energy and special strength training via a combination of both the contractile and stretch-shorten cycle
mechanisms.
Both periodised and non-periodised general strength training appear equally effective in improving VJ when squats and
clean pulls are performed (Stone et al., 1981; Stowers et al., 1983; Baker et al., 1994b). However research comparing
general strength training utilising squats compared with the effects of other general strength training exercises such as
Hydra-gym squats (Bauer et al., 1990), or leg presses (Sylvester et al.1982 ) has illustrated that squat training is more
effective in improving VJ than other general leg strength exercises. If strength training is of a general isometric nature,
then the transfer to jumping also appears limited compared to general dynamic training (Berger, 1963; O'Shea & O'Shea,
1989). Certainly isometric strength or rate of force development measures do not correlate well with VJ ability (Young
& Bilby, 1993; Baker et al.1994a). Baker et al. (1994a) have postulated that these differences between isometric strength
and VJ would be due to the significantly different structural, neural and mechanical attributes of the two activities.
This may indicate that even in general strength training certain exercises appear more "specific" to improving VJ than
other exercises. The biomechanics of the squat and the Olympic pulling type exercises may lend themselves more
readily to a "transfer" to jumping (Andrews et al., 1983; Burkhardt & Garhammer, 1988; Garhammer & Gregor, 1992).
Training intensity and volume variations within general squat training do not appear to affect VJ (Stone et al., 1981;
Stowers et al., 1983; Baker et al., 1994b) and the degree of general strength gained through squat training does not
appear to affect the degree of change in VJ. In fact Baker et al. (1994b) reported that the relationship between the 1 RM
squat and VJ were non-significant (r = 0.051) and that the changes in performance in both measures consequent to
training was also non-significant ( r =.11). Furthermore Alen et al. (1984) reported no change in jumping ability following
24 weeks of heavy squat training in elite strength athletes, despite a large improvement in 1RM squat strength. In the
other studies listed above the subjects were low or intermediate level strength athletes, compared to the subjects of
Alen et al. (1984). Consequently whilst general strength training has been associated with improved VJ, the
improvement in VJ may due to the strength training process per se, not the degree of change in maximal strength and
in elite strength athlete’s general strength training may not lead to positive changes in VJ. Thus there may appear to

be a ceiling of effectiveness for the use of general strength training in improving VJ in elite strength athletes. Other
mechanisms besides general or maximal leg strength must contribute to VJ ability.
The search for more effective means of improving VJ has led researchers to compare other methods of resistance
training which may be defined as special (barbell squat jumps, cleans, snatches etc) and specific (plyometric jump
training) strength training. Early research (Berger, 1963) reported that special strength training, utilising squat jumps,
was more effective than either general or specific strength training in improving VJ. As part of a wider investigation,
Hakkinen & Komi (1985a) reported that general strength training, using heavy squats, resulted in a 10.6% and 7.3%
improvement in CMJ and SJ, respectively. However, a combination of special (jump squats with up to 100 kg) and
specific (plyometric jump) strength training resulted in improvements of 17.5% and 21.2% in CMJ and SJ respectively
(Hakkinen & Komi, 1985b). In a classical study attempting to discriminate between the effectiveness of the three different
strength training methods, Wilson et al. (1993) compared general (squats), special (jump squats with an optimal power
load) and specific (plyometric depth jumps) strength training. The special strength training resulted in a 17.6% and
15.2% improvement in CMJ and SJ which was superior to the 5.1% and 6.8% for the general strength training group
and the 7.2% for the SJ for the specific training group. The specific training group reported a similar improvement in
CMJ as compared to the special training group. In an unpublished report Baker (1994b) illustrated that the degree of
improvement in a special strength optimal power jump squat accounted for 78% of the change in a specific vertical jump
test. However the subjects in this case study performed general and specific strength exercises as well as the special
strength jump squats.
The above research and observations would tend to favour the use of special strength training in the improvement of
VJ, however theoretically the use of combined general strength and specific strength may bring similar results by
predominantly training the contractile and stretch-shorten cycle elements relatively independantly. A number of studies
have compared the use of general, specific and combined methods (eg. general-specific strength training) in improving
VJ. Adams et al. (1992) reported equal improvements in VJ comparing general (squat) and specific (plyometric jump)
training as did Clutch et al. (1983). However the combined training group in Adams et al. (1992) experienced an
improvement of twice the magnitude of either single method training groups lending support to the theory of improving
VJ through enhancing both the contractile and stretch reflex properties of the muscle as opposed to unidirectional
training. In a unique approach Venable et al. (1991) compared general strength training (squats) to a combined method
of squats and electrical stimulation. Both methods resulted in an equal improvement in VJ. Bauer et al. (1990) reported
similar improvements between general (squat), combined (squat & plyometrics) and combined (Hydragym &
plyometrics) training which were all more effective than either specific training (plyometrics) or Hydragym general
training alone. These studies probably best illustrate the need for either combined training, or at least, squat training for
low level strength athletes who need to improve VJ.
In opposition to the above results, Verhoshanski & Tatyan (1983) reported that a more intense form of specific strength
training (depth jumps) was more effective in improving VJ than the combined use of general strength and specific
(vertical jumps) in experienced speed-strength athletes. Because of the nature of the depth jump, the foot contact time
is less than for a normal VJ, resulting in an increased emphasis upon the speed of the contraction and the utilisation of
elastic energy, which decays exponentially as a function of the length of the pasue between the eccentric and concentric
phases (Wilson et al., 1991b). It may be theorised that the experienced speed-strength athletes involved in this study
possessed an adequate general strength base and that the faster depth jump execution lead to a greater improvement
in jumping performance via the enhanced use of elastic energy and the neural augmentation to the concentric phase of
the movement (Wilson et al., 1991a).
The studies cited above, whilst apparently revealing certain anomalies, indicate that various forms of resistance training
act to improve VJ ability perhaps through different mechanisms. For low level athletes general strength training is
associated with reasonably large improvements in VJ. It may be theorised that the role of general strength training is to
initially condition the neuro-muscular system to the high level of forces (e.g. 3-5 times body weight) that occur with
jumping. However the degree of change in maximal strength is unrelated to the degree of change in VJ and in elite
strength athletes general strength training such as in heavy squats may not lead to any further positive adaptation in
jumping ability.
Where adequate levels of general strength exist, a more efficient usage of the stretch reflex and elastic energy, brought
about through special and specific strength training, may offer a more appropriate training stimulus. In this regards
special strength training, such as in jump squats, have appeared to be the most effective form of training. In the study
of Wilson et al. (1993) the special strength jump squats appeared to be offer the best single method of training.
Nonetheless a combination of methods (general, special and specific) would theoretically lend themselves to a greater
transfer of effects through theoretically enhancing the contractile and stretch reflex/elastic properties of the muscle.
Special attention must also be paid to the specific patterns of motor unit recruitment, temporal sequencing and firing
frequency when performing specific plyometric jump training to allow for a "transfer" to sport specific jumping (Bosco,
1985). In support of this theory recent work by Bobbert & Van Soest (1994) suggests that an increase in strength alone

may actually retard VJ ability if the ability to "control" the new levels of force has not been improved. These researchers
constructed a VJ "model", based upon elite volleyball players, and examined the effects of equal improvements in
strength in the various lower body muscles, with and without enhanced neural control (temporal sequencing and specific
patterns of motor unit recruitment). Their results suggested that a 20% increase in VJ would translate to an improvement
of 7.8 cm in VJ if optimization of jumping skill also took place. The same increase in strength would lead to a decrement
of 2 cm if the neural control of the new levels of force production were not optimised to the jumping skill. The conclusions
of these authors were that "muscle training exercises should be accompanied by exercises in which the athletes may
practice with their changed muscle properties." In effect this lends support to the use of general strength training to
increase the strength of the muscles and special and specific training to "fine tune" the control of the jumping muscles.
The nature of the sport, the training age of the athlete, the periodisation of the training year and the needs of the
individual may all dictate what combination of strength training exercises is most appropriate at any given moment (King,
1993). The difficult task for the strength & conditioning coach may be to decide the exact manipulation of training
variables for an athlete, given the complexities of the training process and the number of training variables open to
variation (King, 1993; Baker, 1994a).
GENERAL
The role of the general exercises is to provide a general strength/power base to low level athletes or to athletes returning
to resistance training after some cessation in training or sport peak. In low level athletes general strength training
exercises in themselves bring about some adaptations that cause an increase in vertical jumping ability. However after
some period of training adaptation the effectiveness of these exercises to improve jumping ability by themselves appears
diminished. Accordingly whilst squat training is often associated with jumping improvements in low level athletes,
continuing incessantly with squat training may not bring about further jump improvements.
Consequently incessantly increasing general strength may not lead to an adaptation of improved jumping. This may be
due to the existence of much greater time frames for force production (concentric) in the execution of the squat as
compared to the VJ (2-4 s vs 350 ms), as well as other neuromechanical factors. Therefore after the initial general
strength training adaptations that increase the ability to produce force, the VJ may require training on exercises that
produce force in similar time frames (special and specific exercises) to precipitate further jumping improvements.
Below is a list of general strength exercises that are used to improve jumping ability. Importantly even this general
strength training exercise list contains exercises thought to be more "specific" to improving jumping than other exercises
(squat vs leg press or leg extension).
Squat: The squat is considered a good general strength exercise for the lower body and by itself will bring about gains
in vertical jumping ability in novice and intermediate level athletes. It may do this by facilitating certain neural adaptations,
such as increased neural activation of the jumping muscles and reduced inhibition to high force production as well as
through morphological adaptations to the muscle fibre.
Front squat: The front squat acts similarly to the squat, but due to reduced forward torso lean, there is less action
performed by the hip extensors (hamstring and gluteals).
Split squat: The split squat enables force production with the legs apart, a situation athletes often find themselves in
during competitive situations or when they are jumping after an initial run-in.
Power shrugs with a very slow eccentric dip to the knee: A modified power shrug, characterised by a very slow eccentric
lowering of the barbell to the knee before a more explosive concentric contraction, is a useful general strengthener of
the hip extensors. Furthermore it also allows for the use of a rapid combined hip & knee extension within the concentric
movement, a situation biomechanically similar to jumping.
SPECIAL EXERCISES
The role of the special exercises is to further facilitate adaptions that may enhance vertical jumping. They may do this
by a number of methods such as being similar in the mechanics of force production, similar in the times for force
production and similar in the use of the relevant muscles. Furthermore the special exercises may be manipulated to
facilitate certain special adaptations that can be used to make the more "specific" training more effective.
Essentially the role of the special exercises may be seen as converting the general strength more into "power", the true
requirement of jumping. Thus the special exercises are characterized by a more rapid or explosive execution than as
compared to the general strength exercises. Because traditional or general strength exercises have extended periods
of deceleration, even with light weights lifted rapidly, the general or traditional exercises are considered less effective

for improving jumping. Below is a list of the more power oriented exercises that are used to improve VJ ability. Some
are modified jumping exercises and others are from Olympic style weightlifting.
Jump squats: Jump squats with a barbell held firmly upon the shoulders is an excellent way to transfer general strength
to general jumping power. Experience has shown it is probably safer and generally better to perform the jumps in a
Smith machine so that only vertical displacement is allowed. A normal barbell may cause extraneous lateral or forward
movement in less strong or experienced jumpers. There are two basic variations for this exercise in so far as the loads
used.
a) Optimal power jumping: The optimal power load that can be jumped with can be determined by recent advances in
plyometric training technology such as the Plyopower training system or the Record Time software linked to a timing
mat. Loads upon the bar are gradually increased till the measured power output plateaus and/or declines. The load
upon the bar that brought about the highest jumping power is designated as the "optimal power" load (W ilson et al.,
1993). Training can then be performed with this load, with regular modifications to ensure the load has remained
"optimal".
b) Variable load jumping: Because the loads for optimal power training can be as high as 50-60 kg, it is often initially
more prudent to introduce jump squats with less "optimal" loads. Also for some athletes jumping may be
characterized by larger or lesser external resistances to be overcome and therefore training periods with more
variable loads may be warranted. The foot contact times may also be used to determine the load upon the bar during
jump squats, as the optimal load may cause a major increase in the foot contact time, essentially decreasing the
"special" nature of the exercise.
Power shrug jumps: The performance for this exercise is similar to that of the power shrug above, however the eccentric
lowering is faster (the same as during jumping) and the athlete extends up into a jump. Power cleans/snatchs/pulls:
Force plate analysis has shown the biomechanics of the power clean and VJ are similar, especially the thrust portion of
the clean from the top of the knee to top pull position. The concentric force production time in this period of the two
exercises is also of a similar length. Consequently the power clean is seen to be an exercise that has a good cross-over
to the VJ.
Push press: The push press has a special effect for jumping because it combines rapid knee extension with shoulder
flexion, a situation similar to jumping. Importantly the knees dip to a similar range as during jumping and are
consequently rapidly extended. Very explosive athletes may actually leave the floor slightly when performing this
exercise with light weights.
SPECIFIC STRENGTH TRAINING
Whilst the role of special strength training is often seen to be that of "converting" strength into power, the role of specific
strength exercises is thought to be to further convert power into the actual specific jumping requirements of the sport.
For example, an increase in maximal squat jumping power will not transfer 100% across a sport specific VJ. However
combined with some specific jump training, the increase in jumping power may transfer across to a sport specific VJ by
as much as 78% (Baker, 1994, unpublished report to QAS Rugby on the effectiveness of strength/power training for
line-out jumpers.)
Consequently the specific strength training exercises should be seen as the last step in the training cycle that allows
the athlete to fine tune the strength/power gains into the specific jumping motor pattern necessary for that sport. Below
is a list of specific strength training exercises. Whilst all are modified jumping exercises, it is important to note the
methods of overloading involved. Overloading to create a training effect may be induced by the volume of jumps, the
height from which the jumps occur (depth jumps) or the addition of extra loads strapped to the waist of the jumper (scuba
diving weight belt or a weight vest).
Loaded jumps mimicking the actual sport performance: The most specific form of jump training is to apply additional
load to the athlete (via a weighted vest or scuba diving weight belt) and have them perform the exact technique of the
jump as it occurs in the athletes sport. For example, a rugby player can perform a line-out jump wearing a scuba divers
weight belt with 8kg of lead weights attached. A diver can perform a simulated take-off for a standing back take-off from
the board in the gym wearing the diving belt to provide additional overload. Care must be taken not to apply to great an
overload for these specific strength exercises as excessive loading alters the biomechanics of the exercise considerably,
altering the specific nature of the exercise. From experience 1-10 kg is the range of loading that appears to work best.
The use of the Record Time computerised jump height measuring system is also very valuable in providing feedback
and training data during this type of specific strength training.
Plyometric jump training using the volume of jumps as overload: The performance of jumping exercises similar to the
sport performance jump is a popular method of jumping overload. In most instances the overload is provided by the

volume of the activity such that 10 basketball rebound type jumps provides a training effect but 1 jump may not provide
sufficient training stimulus.
Depth jumps: A depth jump off a box that consequently entails jumping upwards for a ball is a very specific jumping
exercise for a number of ball or court sports. The overload is provided by the additional load that occurs when landing
from heights.
Practical application of general, special and specific strength training exercises into the overall training plan.
Whilst all the exercises above may contribute to improved jumping, an increase in maximal strength itself may
not directly correlate to an increase in jumping height. In fact Baker et al. (1994) observed an insignificant correlation
of r= .11 between increased maximal squat strength and increased vertical jump height after 12 weeks of squat training.
However in this study the vertical jump performance was significantly improved by the strength training process, but not
by the absolute increase in squat strength itself.
Therefore a strength coach must not believe that an increase in squat or leg strength will necessarily transfer to improved
jumping. The transfer of the effects of general strength training may be spurious at best. An increase in jumping height
may occur through the strength training process, which brings about neural disinhibition and other neural adaptations,
but a very large increase in maximal strength does not necessarily equate to a very large increase in jumping height.
Consequently it would appear necessary to proceed beyond the usual fare of general strength exercises into the special
and specific strength exercises. This may be especially the case with more advanced athletes or those already quite
experienced in strength training.
Conceptually, there would appear to be a continuum of exercises for the use in strength training for jumping, proceeding
from general to special to specific. Below is a simple continuum that explains the practical progression in the application
of general, special and specific strength training.
GENERAL SPECIAL SPECIFIC

Squats------------------------------------------------------Jump squats----------------------------------Specific loaded jumps 10 reps
3-4 reps light optimal power heavier lighter
(light) (heavy) (e.g. 20kg) (40-60 kg) (5-10 kg) (1-5 kg)
Whilst the above training continuum displays an example of training progression, it does not indicate the intricacies of
programming to achieve the desired result of improved jumping. A few general hints on the practical implementation of
the exercise classifications would be:
1. Light, high repetition, slow speed squats before heavier, low repetition faster speed squats.
2. Lighter jumping squat loads before optimal power loads. This is because most athletes show great reluctance to
jump with anything but the lightest loads initially and probably with good reasoning. Force plate analysis has shown
that even light jumping loads produce the same force output from the muscles as do 1RM squats. Therefore this type
of exercise is very intense, irrespective of the magnitude of the load, and great prudence is necessary in its
introduction to training as the athlete must be very strong to be able to handle the high forces that are produced so
rapidly.
3. Use light loads (1-5 kg for most athletes) for the specific loaded jump exercises. Larger loads tend to alter the
biomechanics of the jump, reducing the "specificity" of the specific strength exercise.
4. The use of contrasting exercises and loads has been shown to influence VJ height (Baker, 1994). These methods
are characterised by the alternating of exercises or loads that are in stark contrast to each other. For example Baker
(1994) reported using an alternating of heavy squats and lighter squat jumps to improve the VJ ability of elite divers.
He observed that on some occasions the best squat jump from the second set of jumps could be as much as 17%
higher than that of the first set if a heavy squat set was performed in between. The reason provided for such
occurrences is that the heavy load, be it in the form of heavy jumps or heavy squats, may provide an additional
neural stimulus such that the lighter jumps "feel much lighter" after the completion of a heavy load set. Whilst the
exact mechanism by which VJ may be improved after a heavy contrasting load is not be fully understood, the
effectiveness of this form of training would appear to warrant further research.
Table 3 illustrates the exact manipulation of general, special and specific strength exercises from the training of an elite
male diver, experienced in strength/power training and plyometric jump training, from the AIS. Prior to training the height
of the diver's standing back take-off jump was 51.7 cm. After the completion of this training cycle the standing back take-
off jump height was 61.1 cm. The table details the weekly progress in general strength (back squats, later changing to
front squats), special strength (the jumping load and power output, in watts, of the jump squats) and specific strength

(loaded jumps and the best height attained during a set of loaded jumps). The subtle progress in general, special and
specific strength can clearly be seen across the two 3-week mesocycles.
Diagnosis of jumping and its relevance to strength programming.

The contribution of the contractile elements and stretch-shorten elements to jumping (see Table 2) may be used as a
diagnostic tool for prescribing individual training when programming to improve VJ. If the difference between the SJ and
the CMJ are small (<10%) than this may indicate inefficient use of the ssc. If the differences are large (>20%) than this
may indicate that jumping may be improved by a greater training emphasis upon the contractile elements of the muscles.
In the above scenarios, greater emphasis would be placed upon the special and specific strength exercises for the case
of the former and upon the general exercises in the case of the latter. Well trained jumpers tend to display differences
of 15-20% between SJ and CMJ measures (see the volleyball players and divers in Table 2). Such a diagnosis may
provide more objective data about the effects of strength training on jumping for both the athlete and the coach.
CONCLUSION
A rationale for the prescription of general, special and specific strength training to improve vertical jumping ability has
been provided. This rationale is based upon the neuromechanical factors influencing jump performance and how these
factors may be affected by different exercises and training variable manipulations. A program used by an elite jump
athlete was also provided to illustrate the exact manipulation of such training over a short term training cycle.
Table 1 - Jump and reach scores for different athletes (cm). *
Weight trained athletes 49.7

Strength trained athletes 53.3
Elite male divers 63.8

Sub-elite male divers 59.3
Elite female divers 51.0

Sub-elite female divers 44.5
*Data collected by author
Table 2 - Normative jumping data for different athletes.
Group CMJ SJ
Phys. Ed males* 40.3 35.5
Phys. Ed females* 23.3 19.2
Volley ball (M)* 43.4 37.2
Untrained males** 29.1 27.4
National league netball*** 32.5 30.2
Elite male divers*** 42.1 33.6
*From Komi & Bosco (1978) **From Harman et al. (1990) ***Data collected by author
Table 3 - General strength training exercises used to improve VJ.
Squats
Front squats
Split squats
Power shrug with very slow eccentric dip to the knee

Table 4 - Special training exercises used to improve VJ.
Jump squats
a) Optimal power jumping
b) Variable load jumping
Power shrug jumps
Power cleans/snatchs/pulls
Push press
Table 5 - Specific strength training exercises used to improve VJ.
Loaded jumps mimicking the actual sports performance

Plyometric jump training using the volume of jumps as overload
Depth jumps
Table 6 - Strength training program of an AIS diver over a 6 week macrocycle.
Wks 1 2 3
General: B. Sq. 3 x 8 / 60 kg 3 x 8 / 70 kg 3 x 6 / 80kg
3 x 8 / 35 kg 3 x 8 / 40 kg 3 x 6 / 38kg
Special: Jump sq.
* (1428 w) (1748w)
3 x 8 / 2.5 kg 3 x 6 / 3.75kg
Specific: Jumps 3 x 8 / 0 kg
(47.5 cm) (47.7 cm)
Wks 4 5 6
General: B. Sq. 3 x 8 / 7kg **F. sq. 3 x 6 /60 kg **F. sq. 3 x 6 /65kg
3 x 8 / 35kg 3 x 6 / 45kg 3 x 6 / 42.5 kg

Special: Jump sq.
(1661 w) (1691 w) (1700 w)
3 x 8 / 5 kg 3 x 6 / 5 kg 3 x 6 / 5 kg
Specific: Jumps
(47.8cm) (50.4cm) (51.6cm)
*Jumping power data was not collected during this week
**Squats changed to front squats from this week
Definition of and rationale for types of strength training exercises relevant to improving VJ.
General strength
Exercises that increase the general or maximal force producing capabilities of the relevant muscles.
Special strength
Exercises that have the special effect of training to convert “general strength” to the special qualities of power as relevant
to jumping.

Specific strength
Exercises that specific as possible in terms of biomechanics, motor unit recruitment, temporal patterning and firing
frequency, to the actual competitive jumping performance.
Strength training continuum
GENERAL SPECIAL SPECIFIC

Squats Jump squats Specific loaded jumps
10 reps 3 – 5 reps Light optimal power Heavier lighter
(light) (heavy) (e.g. 20kg) (40-60kg) (5-10kg) (1-5kg)
General recommendations in using the strength training continuum
1. Light, high repetition, slow speed squats before heavier, low repetition or faster speed squats.
2. Light jumping squat loads before optimal power loads.
3. Use light loads (1-5 kg for most athletes) for the specific loaded jump exercises.
4. The use of contrasting exercises and loads has been shown to influence VJ height
Additional Resources
- ASCA LEVEL 1 COURSE BASIC STRENGTH AND POWER EXERCISES AND VARIATIONS PHOTOS AND
TABLES
- ASCA LEVEL 1 COURSE LIFTS AND VARIATIONS TECHNIQUE AND INFORMATION VIDEO RESOURCE
Suggested additional ASCA DVD for purchase
TRAIN FOR SPORT: AN ASSESSMENT METHOD FOR STRENGTH AND POWER OF

THE LOWER BODY.
T.Doyle and J. Sheppard.
Further information can be found from the following link:

Train for Sport DVD
HOW TO USE BANDS AND CHAINS.
D. Baker.
Further information can be found from the following link:

How to Use Bands and Chains DVD

For additional articles and resources for strength training programs for specific sports please search the ASCA
Publications and DVD Library.

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MODULE 5 - RESOURCE MANUAL & PARTICIPANTS NOTES

Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

DESIGNING THE PROGRAM

Defining the Objectives

Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

Eight variables of strength training program design

Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

4. Load upon the barbell

Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

Weeks 1-2 3-4 5-6 7-8

Weeks 1-2 3-4 5-6 7-8 9-10

S(S x R) = Sets x repetitions

Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

A 12 RM lifting to failure vs Training at 90% of the 12 RM

Set 2 = *9 x 77.5 kg = 697.50kg Set 2 = 12 x 70 kg = 840kg

Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

Table 3 – Part “A”

3 Bench Press WEIGHT 50 52.5 55 57.5 62.5 67.5 70 72.5

4a Press behind neck WEIGHT 22.5 22.5 25 25 27.5 30 32.5 35

5 Curls WEIGHT 15 15 17.5 17.5 20 20 22.5 25

Ensuring excellence in strength and conditioning

Table 3 – Part “B”

3 Narrow grip bench WEIGHT 45 47.5 50 52.5 55 57.5 60 60

4a Seated front WEIGHT 22.5 22.5 25 27.5 30 32.5 35 37,5

4b Wide grip WEIGHT 30 32.5 35 37.5 40 42.5 45 47.5