PHY-107 Module 3: Vector

MODULE 3: VECTORS
(Dr. Rubaiyet I. Haque)

LECTURE 04

OUTLINE:
▪ Motion in Two and Three dimensions
▪ Position, displacement and acceleration vectors
▪ Average and instantaneous quantities
▪ Vector addition and subtraction

PYTHAGOREAN THEOREM:
Theorem: The Pythagorean theorem states that the square of the
length of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of squares of the lengths
of other two sides of the right-angled triangle.

𝑯𝒚𝒑𝒐𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒖𝒔𝒆𝟐 = 𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓𝟐 + 𝑩𝒂𝒔𝒆𝟐

Prove: https://byjus.com/pythagorean-theorem-formula/

Consider a right-angled triangle 𝛥𝐴𝐵𝐶. From the below figure, it

is right-angled at 𝐵.
Let 𝐵𝐷 be perpendicular to the side 𝐴𝐶.
From the above-given figure, consider the 𝛥𝐴𝐵𝐶 and 𝛥𝐴𝐷𝐵,
In 𝛥𝐴𝐵𝐶 and 𝛥𝐴𝐷𝐵,
∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 = ∠𝐴𝐷𝐵 = 90°
∠𝐴 = ∠𝐴 → 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛
Using the 𝐴𝐴 criterion for the similarity of triangles,
𝛥𝐴𝐵𝐶 ~ 𝛥𝐴𝐷𝐵
Therefore, 𝐴𝐷/𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴𝐵/𝐴𝐶
⇒ 𝐴𝐵2 = 𝐴𝐶 × 𝐴𝐷 ……(1)

Considering 𝛥𝐴𝐵𝐶 and 𝛥𝐵𝐷𝐶 from the below figure.

∠𝐶 = ∠𝐶 → common
∠𝐶𝐷𝐵 = ∠𝐴𝐵𝐶 = 90°
Using the Angle Angle (𝐴𝐴) criterion for the similarity of triangles, we conclude that,
𝛥𝐵𝐷𝐶 ~ 𝛥𝐴𝐵𝐶
Therefore, 𝐶𝐷/𝐵𝐶 = 𝐵𝐶/𝐴𝐶
⇒ 𝐵𝐶 2 = 𝐴𝐶 × 𝐶𝐷 …..(2)
From the similarity of triangles, we conclude that,
∠𝐴𝐷𝐵 = ∠𝐶𝐷𝐵 = 90°
Therefore, a perpendicular line from the right-angled vertex of a right triangle to the hypotenuse
forms triangles on both sides, which are similar to each other and to whole triangle.

To Prove: 𝐴𝐶 2 = 𝐴𝐵2 + 𝐵𝐶 2
By adding equation (1) and equation (2), we get:
𝐴𝐵2 + 𝐵𝐶 2 = (𝐴𝐶 × 𝐴𝐷) + (𝐴𝐶 × 𝐶𝐷)
2 2
𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶 = 𝐴𝐶(𝐴𝐷 + 𝐶𝐷) …..(3)
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 PHY-107 Module 3: Vector

Since, 𝐴𝐷 + 𝐶𝐷 = 𝐴𝐶
Therefore, 𝐴𝐵2 + 𝐵𝐶 2 = 𝐴𝐶(𝐴𝐶)
𝐴𝐵2 + 𝐵𝐶 2 = 𝐴𝐶 2
Hence, Pythagoras theorem is proved.

CHECKPOINT: Find the hypotenuse of a triangle whose lengths of two sides are 4 cm and 10
cm.

ANSWER: Given, two sides are a= 4 cm, and b = 10 cm

Using the Pythagoras theorem, 𝐻𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 2 = 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 2 + 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 2 .
Hence, the hypotenuse of the triangle is 10.77 cm.

CHECKPOINT: If the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle is 13 cm and one of the two sides is
5 cm, find the third side.

ANSWER: Given, Hypotenuse a= 13 cm, and one side b = 5 cm

Using the Pythagoras theorem, 𝐻𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 2 = 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 2 + 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 2 .
Hence, the other side of the triangle is 12 cm.

VECTORS AND SCALARS:

SCALAR: Scalar refers to a quantity that is fully
described by its magnitude or size only, without
any direction.
- Scalars have magnitude but no direction.
- They can be represented by a single real
number (positive, negative, or zero).
- For example, mass, temperature, time,
energy, distance, and speed.

VECTOR: A vector is a quantity that has both Fig. (a) All three arrows have the same
magnitude and direction. magnitude and direction and thus represent the
- Vectors have both magnitude and direction. same displacement. (b) All three paths
- Vectors are often denoted with boldface connecting the two points correspond to the
letters (e.g., 𝒗) or with an arrow on top of the same displacement vector.
letter (e.g., 𝑣⃗).
- The magnitude of a vector 𝒗 is usually
denoted as |𝒗|.
- For example, displacement, velocity.

COMPONENT OF VECTORS
A component of a vector is the projection of the vector on an axis.
- It allows us to break down complex vectors into simpler parts, making it easier to analyze and
work with them in various applications.

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In two-dimensional co-ordinate system,

- Any vector 𝑎⃗ can be broken into two components, namely,
𝑎𝑥 and 𝑎𝑦 along x and y axes.
o 𝑎𝑥 is projection of the vector 𝑎⃗ along x-axis.
o 𝑎𝑦 is projection of the vector 𝑎⃗ along y-axis.
- A component of a vector has the same direction (along an
axis) as the vector.
- In Figure, 𝑎𝑥 and 𝑎𝑦 are both positive because extends in the
positive direction of both axes.

NOTE:
▪ To find the projection of a vector along an axis, we draw perpendicular lines from the two ends
of the vector to the axis, as shown.
▪ Figure shows the vector 𝑎⃗ is broken into two components, 𝑎𝑥 and 𝑎𝑦 .
▪ If the angle between the vector and its x -component be θ.
▪ The projection of a vector on an x axis is its x component, and similarly the projection on the y
axis is the y component.
▪ The process of finding the components of a vector is called resolving the vector.

Resolving the vector

Geometry can be used to find the components of the vector
𝑎⃗.
- If angle between the vector 𝑎⃗ and the x-axis is 𝜃.
𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = =
𝐻𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑎
Therefore, 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑎 cos 𝜃

𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑎𝑦
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = =
𝐻𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑎
Therefore, 𝑎𝑦 = 𝑎 sin 𝜃

where θ is the angle between vector and positive direction of x-axis, and a is the magnitude of vector
a⃗⃗.

NOTE:
▪ The vector and its components form a right-angled triangle as shown in Figure.
▪ The trigonometric ratios give the relation between magnitude of the vector and the components
of the vector.
▪ https://youtu.be/3KMNZSu77bk

𝑎𝑥
Vector can be written in ‘raw matrix’ or ‘column matrix’ form, 𝑎⃗ = (𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑦 ) = (
𝑎𝑦 )

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Vector reconstruction from component

If the vector components are known, a vector can be reconstructed.
- By arranging those components head to tail.
- Complete a right triangle with the vector forming
the hypotenuse, from the tail of one component to
the head of the other component.

Magnitude of the vector can be calculated using the

Pythagorean Theorem in the right triangle with lengths
𝑎𝑥 and 𝑎𝑦 ,
𝑎 = |𝑎⃗| = √𝑎𝑥2 + 𝑎𝑦2

𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑎𝑦 𝑎𝑦
Direction of the vector, tan 𝜃 = = ; Thus 𝜃 = tan−1 ( )
𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑥

NOTE: If the 𝑥 and 𝑦 components of vector 𝑏⃗⃗ are known.

Here 𝑏𝑥 = 7 𝑚 and 𝑏𝑦 = −5 𝑚. Then,
The magnitude of vector 𝑏⃗⃗ is,
𝑏 = |𝑏⃗⃗| = √𝑏𝑥2 + 𝑏𝑦2 = √(7)2 + (−5)2 𝑚 = 8.6 𝑚

And the direction of the vector 𝑏⃗⃗ is,

𝑏𝑦 −5
𝜃 = tan−1 ( ) = tan−1 ( ) = −39.5° = 320.5°
𝑏𝑥 7

CHECKPOINT: In the figure, which of the indicated methods for combining the 𝑥 and 𝑦
components of vector 𝑎⃗ are proper to determine that vector?

ANSWER: [C]

CHECKPOINT: The magnitude of a vector ⃗F⃗ is 10 N and the

direction of the vector is 60° with the horizontal. Find the
components of the vector.
1
ANSWER: 𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹 cos 60° = 10 × = 5 𝑁,
2
√3
𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹 sin 60° = 10 × = 5√3 𝑁.
2
Therefore, the vector 𝐹⃗ is ⟨5, 5√3⟩.

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 PHY-107 Module 3: Vector

PROBLEM: In an orienteering class, you have the goal of moving as far (straight-line distance)
from base camp as possible by making three straight-line moves. You may use the following
displacements in any order: (a) 𝑎⃗, 2.0 km due east (directly toward the east); (b) 𝑏⃗⃗, 2.0 km 30°
north of east (at an angle of 30° toward the north from due east); (c) 𝑐⃗, 1.0 km due west.
Alternatively, you may substitute either – 𝑏⃗⃗ for 𝑏⃗⃗ or −𝑐⃗ for 𝑐⃗. What is the greatest distance you
can be from base camp at the end of the third displacement?
ANSWER: Figure shows vectors 𝑎⃗, 𝑏⃗⃗, 𝑐⃗, −𝑏⃗⃗ and −𝑐⃗ .

Here, three vectors were organized connecting at a time in head-to-tail arrangements. Tail of the
first vector represents base camp, and the head of the third vector represents stopping point.
- The vector sum 𝑑⃗ extends from the tail of the first vector to the head of the third vector.
- Its magnitude 𝑑 is your distance from base camp.

Distance 𝑑 is greatest for a head-to-tail

arrangement of vectors 𝑎⃗, 𝑏⃗⃗ and 𝑐⃗.
The order shown in Figure is for the vector
sum, 𝑑⃗ = 𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗ + (−𝑐⃗).
According to the given scale in Figure, the
length 𝑑 of this vector sum is,
𝑑 = 4.8 𝑚

UNIT VECTORS
Unit vectors are vectors that have a magnitude of unity (exactly 1) and
are used to define directions in a coordinate system.

- They provide a way to describe the direction of a vector without

specifying its length.
- In three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate, unit vectors are labeled
as ̂i̇, ̂j̇, and k̂ along the positive directions of x, y, and z axes, where
hat (^) sign is used overhead to denote unit vectors.

Unit vector can be used to express other vectors, e.g.,

𝑎⃗ = 𝑎𝑥 𝑖̇̂ + 𝑎𝑦 𝑗̇̂
𝑏⃗⃗ = 𝑏𝑥 𝑖̇̂ + 𝑏𝑦 𝑗̇̂

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PROBLEM 03-01: What are (a) the x component and (b) the y component of a vector 𝑎⃗ in the xy
plane if its direction is 250° counterclockwise from the positive direction of the x axis and its
magnitude is 7.3 𝑚?

PROBLEM 03-03: The x component of vector 𝐴⃗ is −25.0 𝑚 and the y component is +40.0 𝑚. (a)
What is the magnitude of 𝐴⃗? (b) What is the angle between the direction of 𝐴⃗ and the positive
direction of x?

PROBLEM 03-05: A ship sets out to sail to a point 120 𝑘𝑚 due north. An unexpected storm blows
the ship to a point 100 𝑘𝑚 due east of its starting point. (a) How far and (b) in what direction must
it now sail to reach its original destination?

VECTOR SUM
The vector sum, also known as vector addition, is the
operation of combining two or more vectors to create a new
vector that represents their combined effect.
- In geometric terms, vector addition involves placing the
initial point of the second vector (𝑏⃗⃗) at the terminal point of
the first vector (𝑎⃗), and drawing a new vector from the
initial point of the first vector to the terminal point of the
second vector. Fig. (a) AC is the vector sum of
the vectors AB and BC. (b) The
- Sum of two vectors, 𝑠⃗ = 𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗
same vectors relabeled.
- The vector sum 𝑠⃗ is the vector that extends from the tail of
𝑎⃗ to the head of 𝑏⃗⃗.

NOTE: Suppose that, as in the vector diagram of Figure, a particle

moves from A to B and then later from B to C. We can represent its
overall displacement (no matter what its actual path) with two
successive displacement vectors, AB and BC. The net displacement of
these two displacements is a single displacement from A to C. We call
AC the vector sum (or resultant) of the vectors AB and BC. This sum is
not the usual algebraic sum.
- Note that the order is not important.

Properties of vector sum:

▪ The order of addition does not matter. It

follows commutative law.
𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗ = 𝑏⃗⃗ + 𝑎⃗

Fig. Two vectors can be added in either order.

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▪ For more than two vectors, we can group them in any order as we add them.
(𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗) + 𝑐⃗ = 𝑎⃗ + (𝑏⃗⃗ + 𝑐⃗)

Fig. Three vectors can be grouped in any way as they are added.

VECTOR SUBTRACTION
Vector subtraction is the operation of finding the difference between two vectors.

Negative vector:
A negative vector is a vector that has the same magnitude as the
original vector but points in the opposite direction.
- For example, vector −𝑏⃗⃗ is a vector with the same magnitude
as 𝑏⃗⃗ but the opposite direction.

Vector subtraction:
Vector subtraction involves taking the negative of one of the vectors
and then adding it to the other vector using vector addition.
- The result is a new vector that represents the displacement or
difference between the two original vectors.
- The vector subtraction is nothing but adding the negative of
vector 𝑏⃗⃗ to the vector 𝑎⃗.
𝑎⃗ + (−𝑏⃗⃗) = 𝑎⃗ − 𝑏⃗⃗

The following are the rules for subtracting vectors:

▪ It should be performed only between two vectors. Not
between vector and scalar quantities.
▪ Both vectors in the subtraction should represent the same
physical quantity.

CHECKPOINT: The magnitudes of displacements a⃗⃗ and ⃗⃗ b are 3 m and 4 m, respectively, and c⃗ =
a⃗⃗ + ⃗⃗
b. Considering various orientations of a⃗⃗ and ⃗⃗
b, what are (a) the maximum possible magnitude
for c⃗ and (b) the minimum possible magnitude?

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ANSWER: The maximum magnitude of the combination of the displacement vectors and when
they are directed in the same direction is, |c⃗| = |a⃗⃗ + ⃗⃗
b|=7 m.
The maximum magnitude of the combination of the displacement vectors and when they are
directed in the opposite direction is, |c⃗| = |a⃗⃗ − ⃗⃗
b|=1 m.

ADDING VECTOR BY COMPONENTS

Adding vectors by components involves finding the sum of two or more vectors by adding their
respective horizontal and vertical (or x, y, z) components separately.
- This method is commonly used when working with vectors in Cartesian coordinates.

Vectors can be added by combining their corresponding components axis by axis.

if, 𝑟⃗ = 𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗
where, 𝑎⃗ = 𝑎𝑥 𝑖̇̂ + 𝑎𝑦 𝑗̇̂ + 𝑎𝑧 𝑘̂ and 𝑏⃗⃗ = 𝑏𝑥 𝑖̇̂ + 𝑏𝑦 𝑗̇̂ + 𝑏𝑧 𝑘̂
Then each component of vector 𝑟⃗ must be the same as the corresponding component of (𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗).
𝑟𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥
𝑟𝑦 = 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑏𝑦
𝑟𝑧 = 𝑎𝑧 + 𝑏𝑧

Therefore, 𝑟⃗ = (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 )𝑖̇̂ + (𝑎𝑦 + 𝑏𝑦 )𝑗̇̂ + (𝑎𝑧 + 𝑏𝑧 )𝑘̂ = 𝑟𝑥 𝑖̇̂ + 𝑟𝑦 𝑗̇̂ + 𝑟𝑧 𝑘̂

Since vector addition is commutative, meaning the order in which vectors addition is performed does
not matter. The result will be the same regardless.

QUESTION 03-11: In a game held within a three-dimensional maze, you must move your game
piece from start, at 𝑥𝑦𝑧 coordinates (0, 0, 0), to finish, at coordinates (−2 𝑐𝑚, 4 𝑐𝑚, −4 𝑐𝑚). The
game piece can undergo only the displacements (in centimeters) given below. If, along the way,
the game piece lands at coordinates (−5 𝑐𝑚, −1 𝑐𝑚, −1 𝑐𝑚) or (5 𝑐𝑚, 2 𝑐𝑚, −1 𝑐𝑚), you lose the
game. Which displacements and in what sequence will get your game piece to finish?
𝑝⃗ = −7𝑖̇̂ + 2𝑗̇̂ − 3𝑘̂ 𝑟⃗ = 2𝑖̇̂ − 3𝑗̇̂ + 2𝑘̂
𝑞⃗ = 2𝑖̇̂ − 𝑗̇̂ + 4𝑘̂ 𝑠⃗ = 3𝑖̇̂ + 5𝑗̇̂ − 3𝑘̂

ANSWER: To wind the displacements should follow the sequence of 𝑝⃗, 𝑠⃗, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟⃗.

Solution: 𝑝⃗ = −7𝑖̇̂ + 2𝑗̇̂ − 3𝑘̂ ; 𝑠⃗ = 3𝑖̇̂ + 5𝑗̇̂ − 3𝑘̂ ; 𝑟⃗ = 2𝑖̇̂ − 3𝑗̇̂ + 2𝑘̂
First, 𝑝⃗ = (−7𝑐𝑚, 2𝑐𝑚, −3𝑐𝑚)
Then, 𝑝⃗ + 𝑠⃗ = (−7 + 3, 2 + 5, −3 − 3) = (−4𝑐𝑚, 7𝑐𝑚, −6𝑐𝑚).
Finally, 𝑝⃗ + 𝑠⃗ + 𝑟⃗ = (−4 + 2, 7 − 3, −6 + 2) = (−2𝑐𝑚, 4𝑐𝑚, −4𝑐𝑚).
In this case, we can met the goal of the reaching the point (−2𝑐𝑚, 4𝑐𝑚, −4𝑐𝑚), without ever
landing on the points (−5𝑐𝑚, −1𝑐𝑚, −1𝑐𝑚) or (5𝑐𝑚, 2𝑐𝑚, −1𝑐𝑚).

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PHY-107 Module 3: Vector

PROBLEM 03-11: (a) In unit-vector notation, what is the sum 𝑎⃗ = (4.0 𝑚)𝑖̇̂ + (3.0 𝑚)𝑗̇̂ and 𝑏⃗⃗ =
(−13.0 𝑚)𝑖̇̂ + (7.0 𝑚)𝑗̇̂? What are the (b) magnitude and (c) direction of 𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗?

PROBLEM 03-14: You are to make four straight-line moves over a flat desert floor, starting at the
origin of an xy coordinate system and ending at the xy coordinates (−140 𝑚, 30 𝑚). The x
component and y component of your moves are the following, respectively, in meters: (20 and 60),
then (𝑏𝑥 and −70), then (−20 and 𝑐𝑦 ), then (−60 and −70). What are (a) component 𝑏𝑥 and (b)
component 𝑐𝑦 ? What are (c) the magnitude and (d) the angle (relative to the positive direction of
the x axis) of the overall displacement?

PROBLEM 03- 17: Three vectors 𝑎⃗, 𝑏⃗⃗ and 𝑐⃗ each have a magnitude of 50 𝑚 and lie in an xy plane.
Their directions relative to the positive direction of the x axis are 30°, 195° and 315°, respectively.
What are (a) the magnitude and (b) the angle of the vector 𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗ + 𝑐⃗, and (c) the magnitude and
(d) the angle of 𝑎⃗ − 𝑏⃗⃗ + 𝑐⃗? What are the (e) magnitude and (f) angle of a fourth vector 𝑑⃗ such that
(𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗) − (𝑐⃗ + 𝑑⃗) = 0?

PROBLEM 03-18: In the sum 𝐴⃗ + 𝐵 ⃗⃗ = 𝐶⃗, vector 𝐴⃗ has a magnitude of 12.0 𝑚 and is angled 40.0°
counterclockwise from the +𝑥 direction, and vector 𝐶⃗ has a magnitude of 15.0 𝑚 and is angled
20.0° counterclockwise from the −𝑥 direction. What are (a) the magnitude and (b) the angle
⃗⃗ ?
(relative to +𝑥) of 𝐵

PROBLEM 03-20: An explorer is caught in a whiteout (in which the snowfall is so thick that the
ground cannot be distinguished from the sky) while returning to base camp. He was supposed to
travel due north for 5.6 𝑘𝑚, but when the snow clears, he discovers that he actually traveled 7.8 𝑘𝑚
at 50° north of due east. (a) How far and (b) in what direction must he now travel to reach base
camp?