1

General Chemistry 2
Third Quarter
Module No. 1B of 3
SOLUTIONS and STOICHIOMETRY
Writer: Roland R. Agra

HONOR CODE
AS A MEMBER OF THE NAMUAC ACADEMY EAGLES FAMILY, I WILL CONDUCT
MYSELF WITH INTEGRITY & SINCERITY AT ALL TIMES, DEMONSTRATE COMPASSION &
JUSTICE IN ALL MY ACTIONS, UPHOLD THE VALUE OF EXCELLENCE, AND ABIDE BY THE
EXPECTATIONS SET FORTH IN THE STUDENT HANDBOOK.
I MAKE THIS PLEDGE IN THE SPIRIT OF HONOR & TRUST.

PERFORMANCE TASK IN GENERAL CHEMISTRY

PERFORMANCE STANDARDS

Design a simple investigation to determine the effect on boiling point or freezing point when a
solid is dissolved in water

TRANSFER GOAL

GOAL To design a community plan

ROLE Scientist, environmentalist, planner
AUDIENCE Community members
SITUATION You were tasked to discuss ways to conserve materials and resources to
the community. You will present a comprehensive community plan that
will include atomic structure, gas behavior, mass relationships, and
reactions.
PRODUCT Video presentation, slideshow, narrative report
STANDARDS Content, accuracy, organization of ideas

21ST CENTURY SKILLS CORE VALUE TASK

CRITICAL THINKING Excellence
CREATIVITY Excellence
COLLABORATION Justice
CROSS CULTURAL
UNDERSTANDING
COMPUTER/ICT
CAREER/SELF RELIANCE
COMMUNICATION Integrity

SCORING RUBRIC FOR THE PERFORMANCE TASK

CRITERIA 4 3 2 1
Content
Accuracy
Organization of Ideas

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EXPECTATION
S
After going through this module, you are expected to:
1. Use the kinetic molecular model to explain properties of liquids and solids (STEM_GC11IMF-IIIa-
c-99)
2. Describe and differentiate the types of intermolecular forces (STEM_GC11IMFIIIa-c100)
3. Describe the following properties of liquids, and explain the effect of intermolecular forces on
these properties: surface tension, viscosity, vapor pressure, boiling point, and molar heat of
vaporization (STEM_GC11IMF-IIIac102)
4. Explain the properties of water with its molecular structure and intermolecular forces
(STEM_GC11IMF-IIIa-c103)
5. Describe the difference in structure of crystalline and amorphous solids (STEM_GC11IMF-IIIa-
c104)
6. Interpret the phase diagram of water and carbon dioxide (STEM_GC11IMF-IIIac107)
7. Determine and explain the heating and cooling curve of a substance (STEM_GC11IMF-IIIa-c109)
8. Use different ways of expressing concentration of solutions: percent by mass, mole fraction,
molarity, molality, percent by volume, percent by mass, ppm (STEM_GC11PP-IIId-f-111)
9. Perform stoichiometric calculations for reactions in solution (STEM_GC11PP-IIId-f112)

PRE-TEST

MULTIPLE CHOICE. Read and understand each item and choose the letter of the correct answer.
Write your answers on a separate sheet of paper.

1. Juan observed the ice as it melts on the table. He wondered what happened to the movement
of the particles present on the ice. Which of the following concepts can help Juan?
a. The movement of the particles become slower as phase change happens.
b. The movement of the particles become slower because there are spaces between
particles.
c. The movement of the particles become faster because the temperature of the ice
changes sufficiently as phase change happens.
d. The movement of the particles become faster because the particles in ice is faster than
the particles in water.

2. Which is NOT true about London Dispersion Force?

a. It is present in all molecules whether polar or nonpolar.
b. Forces are higher with higher boiling point.
c. The higher the surface area, the higher the forces.
d. Exhibit stronger dispersion forces with smaller and lighter atoms/molecules.

3. Which property of matter shows a liquid’s resistance to flow?

a. Ductility c. Boiling point b. Viscosity d. Being brittle

4. The bond involved in water that gave its unique properties and structure.
a. Ion-Dipole Forces c. Hydrogen Bond
b. Ionic Bond d. London Dispersion Forces

5. Which of the following properties is generally exhibited by amorphous solids?

a. Anisotropy c. Equal strength of all bonds
b. Glass-transition d. Crystal Intersect
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6. For water, how are pressure and boiling point related?

a. The greater the pressure, the lower the boiling point.
b. The lower the pressure, the higher the boiling point.
c. The greater the pressure, the higher the boiling point.
d. All answers are incorrect.

7. At the melting point of a point of a substance, temperature _________ as heat is being added
and the substance is changing from a solid to a liquid.
a. Increases c. Remains constant
b. Decreases d. Cease to exist

8. A solution is prepared by mixing 20g of sodium chloride in 80g of water. What are the
concentrations of the solute and the solvent in % by mass?
a. Solute: 80%, Solvent:20% c. Solute: 90%, Solvent:10%
b. Solute: 20%, Solvent:80% d. Solute: 40%, Solvent:60%

9. When working with solutions, there are several ways of expressing concentration of the
amount of solute in the solvent. Which of the following common unit of concentration defined
as the number of moles of a solute in one liter of solution?
a. Molality (m) c. Mole fraction
b. Molarity (M) d. Limiting reagent

10. What is a coefficient in a balanced chemical equation?

a. The number written before a substance to determine the number of mass that are present
in the solution.
b. The number used to determine the relative number of molecules, formula units, or moles
of compounds in the reaction.
c. This is an entity that denote the proportion before and after of a certain reaction.
d. This is a number that varies on the conditions that affect reaction rate such as
temperature, pressure, surface area and others.

OVERVIEW

In the previous lessons in General Chemistry 1, you have learned about the kinetic molecular
model of gases. This activity sheet will mainly focus on the kinetic molecular model of solids and
liquids.

Matter can exist in three main different states: namely, solid, liquid, and gas. The most
common example of which is water. You only have to think about water to appreciate how different the
three states of matter are. Steam bathing, drinking, and ice skating are all done in contact with water
in its various forms. But how do these states of matter differ with each other? Understanding the
kinetic molecular model of the three states will answer this question.

In lesson 2, you’ll learn that water makes up a large proportion of the entire biosphere and of
these, 95% is saltwater and the remaining 5% is freshwater.

Water is locked up in ice and glaciers, deep and shallow underground lakes, soil, atmosphere,
and in rivers. The human body consists of 50-75% water. Water serves important purposes for life on
earth. Water’s unique properties result from the strong intermolecular force of attraction characterized
by the hydrogen bond. Some substances, like common table salt, NaCl, dissolve in water very easily.
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When placed in water, sodium chloride molecules fall apart. The positively charged sodium ion (Na+)
binds to oxygen, while the negatively charged chloride ion (Cl-) attaches to hydrogen. This property of
water allows for the transport of nutrients vital to life in animals and plants. A drop of rainwater falling
through the air dissolves atmospheric gases. When rain reaches the earth, it affects the quality of the
land, lakes and rivers.

The concentration of a solution is defined as the relative amount of solute present in a

solution. It basically talks about how to find the amount of solute present in solvent which together
forms solution. You’ll learn in lesson 3 are various methods used to express concentration of
solutions.

Chemists deal with molecules every day. Chemical reactions are described as to how many
molecules of compound A reacts with how many molecules of compound B forming how many
molecules of compound C. To be able to determine the amount of reactant needed, number of
molecules in a given volume of reactant must be determined. Concentrations expressed in percent
only gives the amount in grams and not molecules. A 100 mL solution of 2% NaCl will have a very
different number of molecules than a 2% solution of CsCl. Thus, another way of expressing
concentration is needed. This will be covered in lesson 4.

LESSON PROPER

LESSON 1: PHASE DIAGRAM OF WATER AND CARBON DIOXIDE

A typical phase diagram consists of discrete regions that represent the different phases
exhibited by a substance (Figure 12.4.1). Each region corresponds to the range of combinations of
temperature and pressure over which that phase is stable. The combination of high pressure and low
temperature (upper left of Figure 12.4.1) corresponds to the solid phase, whereas the gas phase is
favored at high temperature and low pressure (lower right). The combination of high temperature and
high pressure (upper right) corresponds to a supercritical fluid.

Figure 12.4.1: A Typical Phase Diagram for a Substance That Exhibits Three Phases—Solid, Liquid, and Gas
—and a Supercritical Region

The solid phase is favored at low temperature and high pressure; the gas phase is favored
at high temperature and low pressure.

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The lines in a phase diagram correspond to the combinations of temperature and pressure
at which two phases can coexist in equilibrium. In Figure 12.4.1, the line that connects points A and
D separates the solid and liquid phases and shows how the melting point of a solid varies with
pressure. The solid and liquid phases are in equilibrium all along this line; crossing the line
horizontally corresponds to melting or freezing. The line that connects points A and B is the vapor
pressure curve of the liquid, which we discussed in Section 11.5. It ends at the critical point, beyond
which the substance exists as a supercritical fluid. The line that connects points A and C is the
vapor pressure curve of the solid phase. Along this line, the solid is in equilibrium with the vapor
phase through sublimation and deposition. Finally, point A, where the solid/liquid, liquid/gas, and
solid/gas lines intersect, is the triple point; it is the only combination of temperature and pressure at
which all three phases (solid, liquid, and gas) are in equilibrium and can therefore exist
simultaneously. Because no more than three phases can ever coexist, a phase diagram can never
have more than three lines intersecting at a single point.

Remember that a phase diagram, such as the one in Figure 12.4.1, is for a single pure
substance in a closed system, not for a liquid in an open beaker in contact with air at 1 atm
pressure. In practice, however, the conclusions reached about the behavior of a substance in a
closed system can usually be extrapolated to an open system without a great deal of error.

The Phase Diagram of Water

Figure 12.4.2 shows the phase diagram of water and illustrates that the triple point of water
occurs at 0.01°C and 0.00604 atm (4.59 mmHg). Far more reproducible than the melting point of
ice, which depends on the amount of dissolved air and the atmospheric pressure, the triple point
(273.16 K) is used to define the absolute (Kelvin) temperature scale. The triple point also represents
the lowest pressure at which a liquid phase can exist in equilibrium with the solid or vapor. At
pressures less than 0.00604 atm, therefore, ice does not melt to a liquid as the temperature
increases; the solid sublimes directly to water vapor. Sublimation of water at low temperature and
pressure can be used to “freeze-dry” foods and beverages. The food or beverage is first cooled to
subzero temperatures and placed in a container in which the pressure is maintained below 0.00604
atm. Then, as the temperature is increased, the water sublimes, leaving the dehydrated food (such
as that used by backpackers or astronauts) or the powdered beverage (as with freeze-dried coffee).

Figure 12.4.2: Two Versions of the Phase Diagram of Water. (a) In this graph with linear temperature and
pressure axes, the boundary between ice and liquid water is almost vertical. (b) This graph with an expanded scale
illustrates the decrease in melting point with increasing pressure. (The letters refer to points discussed in Example
12.4.1).
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The phase diagram for water illustrated in Figure 12.4.2b shows the boundary between ice
and water on an expanded scale. The melting curve of ice slopes up and slightly to the left rather
than up and to the right as in Figure 12.4.1; that is, the melting point of ice decreases with
increasing pressure; at 100 MPa (987 atm), ice melts at −9°C. Water behaves this way because it
is one of the few known substances for which the crystalline solid is less dense than the liquid
(others include antimony and bismuth). Increasing the pressure of ice that is in equilibrium with
water at 0°C and 1 atm tends to push some of the molecules closer together, thus decreasing the
volume of the sample. The decrease in volume (and corresponding increase in density) is smaller
for a solid or a liquid than for a gas, but it is sufficient to melt some of the ice.

In Figure 12.4.2b point A is located at P = 1 atm and T = −1.0°C, within the solid (ice)
region of the phase diagram. As the pressure increases to 150 atm while the temperature remains
the same, the line from point A crosses the ice/water boundary to point B, which lies in the liquid
water region. Consequently, applying a pressure of 150 atm will melt ice at −1.0°C. We have
already indicated that the pressure dependence of the melting point of water is of vital importance.
If the solid/liquid boundary in the phase diagram of water were to slant up and to the right rather
than to the left, ice would be denser than water, ice cubes would sink, water pipes would not burst
when they freeze, and antifreeze would be unnecessary in automobile engines.

Referring to the phase diagram of water in Figure 12.4.2:

a. Predict the physical form of a sample of water at 400°C and 150 atm.
b. Describe a change that occur as the sample in part (a) is slowly allowed to cool to -
50°C at a constant pressure of 150 atm

Given: phase diagram, temperature, and pressure

Asked for: physical form and physical changes

Strategy:
• Identify the region of the phase diagram corresponding to the initial conditions and identify
the phase exist in this region.
• Draw a line corresponding to the given pressure. Move along that line in the appropriate
direction (in this case cooling) and describe the phase changes.

Solution:
a. Locate the starting point on the phase diagram in part (a) in
Figure 12.4.212.4.2. The initial conditions correspond to point A, which lies in the region of
the phase diagram representing water vapor. Thus, water at T = 400°C and P = 150 atm is
a gas.

b. Cooling the sample at constant pressure corresponds to moving left along the horizontal line
in part (a) in Figure 12.4.212.4.2. At about 340°C (point B), we cross the vapor pressure
curve, at which point water vapor will begin to condense and the sample will consist of a
mixture of vapor and liquid. When all of the vapor has condensed, the temperature drops
further, and we enter the region corresponding to liquid water (indicated by point C). Further
cooling brings us to the melting curve, the line that separates the liquid and solid phases at a
little below 0°C (point D), at which point the sample will consist of a mixture of liquid and solid
water (ice). When all of the water has frozen, cooling the sample to −50°C takes us along the
horizontal line to point E, which lies within the region corresponding to solid water. At P = 150
atm and T = −50°C, therefore, the sample is solid ice.
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The Phase Diagram of Carbon dioxide

In contrast to the phase diagram of water, the phase diagram of CO 2 (Figure 12.4.312.4.3)
has a more typical melting curve, sloping up and to the right. The triple point is −56.6°C and 5.11
atm, which means that liquid CO2 cannot exist at pressures lower than 5.11 atm. At 1 atm,
therefore, solid CO2 sublimes directly to the vapor while maintaining a temperature of −78.5°C, the
normal sublimation temperature. Solid CO2 is generally known as dry ice because it is a cold solid
with no liquid phase observed when it is warmed.

Also notice the critical point at 30.98°C and 72.79 atm. Supercritical carbon dioxide is
emerging as a natural refrigerant, making it a low carbon (and thus a more environmentally friendly)
solution for domestic heat pumps.

Figure 12.4.3: The Phase Diagram of Carbon Dioxide. Note the critical point, the triple point, and the normal sublimation
temperature in this diagram.

The Critical Point

As the phase diagrams above demonstrate, a combination of high pressure and low
temperature allows gases to be liquefied. As we increase the temperature of a gas, liquefaction
becomes more and more difficult because higher and higher pressures are required to overcome
the increased kinetic energy of the molecules. In fact, for every substance, there is some
temperature above which the gas can no longer be liquefied, regardless of pressure. This
temperature is the critical temperature (Tc), the highest temperature at which a substance can exist
as a liquid. Above the critical temperature, the molecules have too much kinetic energy for the
intermolecular attractive forces to hold them together in a separate liquid phase. Instead, the
substance forms a single phase that completely occupies the volume of the container. Substances
with strong intermolecular forces tend to form a liquid phase over a very large temperature range
and therefore have high critical temperatures. Conversely, substances with weak intermolecular
interactions have relatively low critical temperatures. Each substance also has a critical pressure
(Pc), the minimum pressure needed to liquefy it at the critical temperature. The combination of
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critical temperature and critical pressure is called the critical point. The critical temperatures and
pressures of several common substances are listed in Figure 12.4.1

Figure 12.4.1: Critical Temperatures and Pressures of Some Simple Substances

Substance Tc (°C) Pc (atm)
NH3 132.4 113.5
CO2 31.0 73.8
CH3CH2OH (ethanol) 240.9 61.4
He −267.96 2.27
Hg 1477 1587
CH4 −82.6 46.0
N2 −146.9 33.9
H2O 374.0 217.7
*High-boiling-point, nonvolatile liquids have high critical temperatures and vice versa.

LESSON 2: HEATING AND COOLING CURVES

Heating Curve

Imagine that you have a block of ice that is at a temperature of -30°C, well below its melting
point. The ice is in a closed container. As heat is steadily added to the ice block, the water molecules
will begin to vibrate faster and faster as they absorb kinetic energy. Eventually, when the ice has
warmed to 0°C, the added energy will start to break apart the hydrogen bonding that keeps the water
molecules in place when it is in the solid form. As the ice melts, its temperature does not rise. All of
the energy that is being put into the ice goes into the melting process and not into any increase in
temperature. During the melting process, the two states – solid and liquid – are in equilibrium with one
another. If the system was isolated at that point and no energy was allowed to enter or leave, the ice-
water mixture at 0°C would remain. Temperature is always constant during a change of state.

Continued heating of the water after the ice has completely melted will now increase the
kinetic energy of the liquid molecules and the temperature will rise. Assuming that the atmospheric
pressure is standard, the temperature will rise steadily until it reaches 100°C. At this point, the added
energy from the heat will cause the liquid to begin to vaporize. As with the previous state change, the
temperature will remain at 100°C while the water molecules are going from the liquid to the gas or
vapor state. Once all the liquid has completely boiled away, continued heating of the steam
(remember the container is closed) will increase its temperature above 100°C.

The experiment described above can be summarized in a graph called a heating curve:

F
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 Between A & B, the material is a solid. The heat supplied to the material is used to increase
the kinetic energy of the molecules and the temperature rises.
 Between B & C, the solid is melting. Heat is still being supplied to the material but the
temperature does not change. Heat energy is not being changed into kinetic energy. Instead,
the heat is used to change the arrangement of the molecules.
 At point C, all of the material has been changed to liquid.
 Between C & D, the heat supplied is again used to increase kinetic energy of the molecules
and the temperature of the liquid starts to rise.
 Between C & D, the liquid is heated until it starts to boil.
 Between D & E, the liquid is still being heated but the extra heat energy does not change the
temperature (kinetic energy) of the molecules. The heat energy is used to change the
arrangement of the molecules to form a gas.
 At point E, all of the liquid has been changed into gas.
 Between E & F, the gas is heated and the heat energy increases the kinetic energy of
molecules once more, so the temperature of the gas increases.

When a system contains only one phase (solid, liquid, or gas), the temperature will increase
when it receives energy. The rate of temperature increase will be dependent on the heat capacity of
the phase in the system. When the heat capacity is large, the temperature increases slowly, because
much energy is required to increase its temperature by one degree. Thus, the slopes of temperature
increase for the solid, liquid, and gases are different.

In the heating curve of water, the temperature is shown as heat is continually added. Changes
of state occur during plateaus because the temperature is constant.

The change of state behavior of all substances can be represented with a heating curve of
this type. The melting and boiling points of the substance can be determined by the horizontal lines or
plateaus on the curve. Other substances would of course have melting and boiling points that are
different from those of water. One exception to this exact form for a heating would be for a substance
such as carbon dioxide which sublimes rather than melts at standard pressure. The heating curve for
carbon dioxide would have only one plateau, at the sublimation temperature of CO2.

Cooling Curves

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Heating curves show how the temperature changes as a substance is heated up. Cooling
curves are the opposite. They show how the temperature changes as a substance is cooled down.
Just like heating curves, cooling curves have horizontal flat parts where the state changes from gas to
liquid, or from liquid to solid. These are mirror images of the heating curve.

You will use lauric acid in a school lab to make your own cooling curve. Lauric acid has a
melting point of about 45°C and is easily melted in a test tube placed in a beaker of hot water. The
temperature can be followed using a thermometer or temperature probe connected to a data logger.
The liquid may be cooled by putting the boiling tube in a beaker of cold water or just leaving it in the
air.

Note: The melting and freezing occur at the same temperature. During freezing, energy is removed
and during melting, energy is absorbed.

Energy Changes

Since temperature is a measure of " average kinetic energy", any change in temperature is a
change in Kinetic Energy. All of the diagonal line segments on a heating or cooling curve show a
temperature change and therefore a change in kinetic energy.

During these regions, a single state of matter exists and the sample is either getting hotter or
cooler. During the horizontal line segments, there is no change in temperature, so kinetic energy
remains constant. However, all the energy that is absorbed or released is related to changes in
potential energy.

Remember the 3 Ps: Plateau, Phase change and Potential Energy Change.

LESSON 3: WAYS OF EXPRESSING CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTIONS

The term solution is used in Chemistry to describe a homogeneous mixture in which at least
one substance (the solute) is dissolved in another substance (the solvent). The solvent is the
substance in greater quantity and the name of the of the solution is taken from the name of the solute.
For example, when sodium chloride is dissolved in water, sodium chloride is the solute, and water is
the solvent, and the solution is called a sodium chloride solution.

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The concentration of a solution is defined as the relative amount of solute present in a

solution. It basically talks about how to find the amount of solute present in solvent which together
forms solution.

There are various methods used to express concentration of solutions namely; Molarity,
Molality, Percent by Mass, Percent by Volume, Mole fraction and Parts Per Million. These methods
are used to express relative amounts of solute and solvent in a solution. In other words, the
concentration of a solution is the amount of solute present in a given amount of solvent, or a given
amount of solution.

a. Percent by Mass (%m). It is the ratio of the mass of solute and the mass of the
solution multiplied by 100.

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
Percent by mass = x 100
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
(Note: Mass of Solution = Mass of Solute + Mass of Solvent)

Example 1. What is the mass percentage of a solution made by dissolving 5.0 g NaCl in
110 g of water?

5.0 𝑔
%m = x 100 = 4.3%
110 𝑔+5.0 𝑔

Example 2. How many grams of sugar is dissolved in 365 g of solution of 48.0% purity?
Mass of solute = %m x Mass of solution
= 0.480 (365g)
= 175 g

b. Percent by Volume (%v). It is volume of solute divided by the total volume of

solution multiplied by 100.

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
Percent by volume = x 100
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
(Note: Volume of Solution = Volume of Solute + Volume of Solvent)

Example 1. If we mix 85 mL of alcohol with enough water to make 550 mL of solution,

find the %v of the solution.

85 𝑚𝐿
%v = x 100
550𝑚𝐿
= 15%

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Example 2. Find the %v of a sol’n that is made by mixing 170 mL of sodium silicate and
580 mL of water.

170 𝑚𝐿
%v = x 100
580 𝑚𝐿 + 170 𝑚𝐿
= 23%

c. Percent by mass per volume (%m/v). It is mass of solute (g) divided by the
total volume of solution (mL) multiplied by 100.

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 (𝑔)

Percent by volume = x 100
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑚𝐿)

Example 1. What is the concentration of solution if 55.0 g of NaCl are dissolved in 300.0
mL solution?
55.0 𝑔
% m/v = x 100 = 18.3%
300.0 𝑚𝐿

Example 2. How many grams of MgCl2 is dissolved in enough water to prepare 1550 mL
of solution concentration 62.5% m/v MgCl2?

Mass of solute = %v x Volume of

solution m = 0.625 (1550 mL)
= 969 g

d. Parts Per Million (ppm) and Parts Per Billion (ppb) ppm is defined as the parts of a
component per million parts (106) of the solution and ppb as the parts of a component
per billion parts (109) of the solution. They are widely used when a solute is present in
trace quantities.

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 (𝑔)

ppm = x 106
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑔)

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 (𝑔)

ppb = x 109
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑔)

Example 1. Blood contains 0.010 g of calcium ions in 100 g of blood serum. What is this
concentration in ppm and ppb?

0. 𝑔 0. 𝑔
ppm = 6
x 10 = 100 ppb = x 109 = 100,000
𝑔 𝑔
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Example 2. If there is 0.551 mg of As in 348 g of solution, what is the As concentration

in ppm?

0.551 𝑚𝑔
ppm = x 106
348000 𝑚𝑔
= 1.58 ppm

e. Mole Fraction (X). It is the ratio of the number of moles of solute and the total
number of moles of solute and solvent.

𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
Xsolute =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡
Xsolvent =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜f 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Where:
Xsolute + Xsolvent = 1

Example 1. What are the mole fractions of the components of the solution formed when
92.0 g glycerol is mixed with 90.0 g water? (molecular mass of water = 18;
molecular mass of glycerol = 92)

Mol of water = 90 g x 1 mol / 18 g = 5 mol water

Mol of glycerol = 92 g x 1 mol / 92 g = 1 mol glycerol
Total mol = 5 + 1 = 6 mol
X water = 5 mol / 6 mol = 0.833
X glycerol = 1 mol / 6 mol = 0.167

Example 2. A mixture of gases contains 48.5 g of N2 and 67.5 g of O2 gas. What is the
mole fraction of N2 gas? O2 gas?

48.5 𝑔
28.0 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
XN2 = 48.5 𝑔 67.5 𝑔
+
28.0 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙 32.0 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
= 0.451

XO2 = 1 – 0.451 = 0.549

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f. Molality (m). Molality of any solution is represented as the number of moles of solute present per
kg of solvent

𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
Molality =
𝐾𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡

Example 1. 0.40 mole of sugar is dissolved in 1200 g of water. What is the molal concentration of
this solution?

0.40 𝑚𝑜𝑙
m= = 0.33 mol/kg
1.2 𝑘𝑔

Example 2. How much in g of C6H12O6 is needed to prepare 0.50 m sol’n using 750 g of water?

Mass of solute = molality x molecular mass of solute x kilograms of solvent

=(0.50 mol/Kg)(180 g/mol)( 0.75 Kg)
= 68 g

g. The molarity (M) of a solution is the number of moles of solute dissolved in one liter of solution.
To calculate the molarity of a solution, you divide the moles of solute by the volume of the
solution expressed in liters.

𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
Molarity =
𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Example 1. What is the molarity of a solution containing 0.32 moles of NaCl in 3.4 liters?

0.32 𝑚𝑜𝑙
M= = 0.94 M NaCl
3.4 𝐿

Example 2. How many grams of KCl is required to prepare 1.75 L of 0.700 M KCl
solution?

Mass of solute = molarity x liters of solution x molecular mass

= (0.700 M) (1.75 L) (74 g/mol)
= 90.7 g

LESSON 3: STOICHIOMETRIC CALCULATIONS FOR REACTIONS IN SOLUTION

Stoichiometry is the calculation of reactants and products in a certain chemical reactions. It

applies the law of conservation of mass wherein the total mass of the reactants is always equal the
total mass of the products, leading to the insight that the relations among the value or amount of

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reactants and products typically produce a ratio of positive numbers. This implies that if the amounts of
the separate reactants are known, then the amount of the product can be calculated and vice versa.

This image here, shows that the chemical reaction is balanced.

It shows that one molecule of methane, CH4 reacts with two molecules of oxygen gas, O2 to
produce one molecule of carbon dioxide, CO2 and two molecules of water, H2O. This chemical
reaction is an example of complete combustion. Stoichiometry measures these numerical
relationships and is used to calculate the amount of products and reactants that are produced or
needed in a given reaction. Describing the mathematical relationships of the substances that
contributed in chemical reactions is what we call reaction stoichiometry. It measures the relationship
between the amount of methane and oxygen that react to form carbon dioxide and water.

Elements in the periodic table have a different atomic mass, and as collections of single atoms
or molecules have a fixed molar mass, measured with the unit mole (6.02 × 1023 individual
molecules, Avogadro's constant). Carbon-12 has a molar mass of 12 g/mol. Thus, to compute the
stoichiometry by mass, the number of molecules needed for each reactant is expressed in moles
multiplied by the molar mass of each to give the mass of each reactant per mole of reaction. The
mass ratios can be computed by dividing each by the total number in the whole reaction.

Stoichiometry is often used to balance chemical equations. For example, the two diatomic
gases, hydrogen and oxygen, when it combine H2 and O2, it produce a liquid, water, in an
exothermic reaction, as described by the following equation:

2 H2 + O2 →2 H2O
It shows the 2:1:2 ratio of hydrogen, oxygen, and water molecules in the above equation.

The molar ratio permits for conversion between moles of one substance and moles of another.
For example,
2 CH3OH +3 O2 →2 CO2 +4 H2O
the amount of water that formed by the combustion of 0.27 moles of CH 3OH is obtained using the
molar ratio between CH3OH and H2O of 2 to 4.

Stoichiometry is also used for determining the molar proportions of elements in stoichiometric
compounds. For example, the stoichiometry of hydrogen, H 2 and oxygen, O2 in H2O is 2:1. In
stoichiometric compounds, the molar proportions should be whole numbers.

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Determining the Amount of Product

The term stoichiometry can be used to find the quantity of a product produced by a reaction. If
a piece of solid copper (Cu) were added to an aqueous solution of silver nitrate (AgNO3), the silver
(Ag) would be substituted in a single displacement reaction forming aqueous copper(II) nitrate
(Cu(NO3)2) and solid silver. How many silver, Ag is formed if 16.00 grams Cu is added to the solution
of excess silver nitrate, AgNO3?

The following steps would be used:

1. Write and balance the chemical equation
2. Mass to moles conversion: Convert grams of Cu to moles of Cu
3. Mole ratio determination: Convert moles of Cu to moles of Ag produced
4. Mole to mass conversion: Convert moles of Ag to grams of Ag produced the complete
balanced equation would be:
Cu +2 AgNO3 → Cu (NO3)2 + 2 Ag

For the mass to mole conversion, the mass of copper (16.00 g) would be converted to moles
of copper by dividing the mass of copper to its molecular mass: 63.55 g/mol.

Now that the amount of Cu in moles (0.2518) is form, we can set up the mole ratio. This is
done by looking at the coefficients in the balanced equation: Cu and Ag are in a 1:2 ratio.

Now that the moles of Ag produced is known to be 0.5036 mol, this amount can be
converted into grams of Ag produced to determine the final answer:

This set of calculations can be further shortened into a single step:

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Stoichiometric Calculations

The coefficients in the balanced equation give the ratio of moles of reactants and
products.

From the mass of Substance A, you can use the ratio of the coefficients of A and B to
determine or calculate the mass of Substance B formed (if it’s a product) or used (if it’s a reactant).

Example: 10 grams of glucose (C6H12O6) react in a combustion reaction. How many grams of each
product are produced?
C6H12O6(s) + 6 O2(g) 6 CO2(g) + 6 H2O(l)
10.g ? + ?

Starting with 10. g of C6H12O6, we calculate the moles of C6H12O6. Use the coefficients to find
the moles of H2O & CO2 and then turn the moles to grams C6H12O6(s) + 6 O2(g)
6 CO2(g) + 6 H2O(l)
10.g ? + ?

MW: 180g/mol 44 g/mol 18g/mol

#mol: 10.g(1mol/180g)
0.055 mol 6 (.055) 6 (.055mol)
6 (.055mol)44g/mol 6
(.055mol)18g/mol
#grams: 15g 5.9 g

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Reaction Stoichiometry in Solutions

We can perform stoichiometric calculations for aqueous phase reactions just as we can for
reactions in solid, liquid, or gas phases. Much of chemistry takes place in solution. Stoichiometry
allows us to work in solution by giving us the concept of solution concentration, or molarity. Molarity
is a unit that is often abbreviated as capital M. It is defined as the moles of a substance contained in
one liter of solution. Almost always, we will use the concentrations of the solutions as conversion
factors in our calculations. For instance, if a solution has a concentration of 1.20 M NaCl, this
means that there are 1.20 moles of NaCl per liter of solution.

Example 1: What mass of Aluminum (Al) is needed to react completely with 35.0 mL of 2.0 M
Hydrochloric acid?

Solution:
6 HCl + 2 Al 2 AlCl3 + 3 H2

35.0 mL HCl x 1L HCl x 2 mol HCl x 2 mol Al x 26.98 g Al

1000 mL 1L HCl 6 mol HCl 1 mol Al

Al = 0.63 g
Example 2. What volume (mL) of 0.75 M calcium nitrate would react completely with
148g of carbonate?
Solution:
Ca (NO3)2 + Na2CO3 CaCO3 + 2 NaNO3

148 g Na2CO3 x 1mol Na2CO3 x 1 mol Ca (NO3)2 x 1L Ca (NO3)2 x 1000 mL

105.99 g Na2CO3 1mol Na2CO3 0.75mol Ca (NO3)2 1L

CaCO3 = 1.900 mL

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POST-ASSESSMENT

A. Enrichment Activities

Activity 1: WATER AND CARBON DIOXIDE

Objective: determine the state of water at each given temperature and pressure.

Materials: Paper and pen

Figure A. Figure B

1. Directions: Using the phase diagram (fig. a) for water, determine the state of H2O at the
following temperatures and pressures. Write your answer on the space provided.
a. -10 °C and 50 kPa
b. 25°C and 90 kPa
c. 50°C and 40 kPa
d. 80°C and 5 kPa
e. -10°C and 0.3 kPa

2. Directions: Using the phase diagram for carbon dioxide, determine the state of CO2 at the
following temperatures and pressures. Write your answer on the space provided.
f. −30 °C and 2000 kPa
g. −60 °C and 1000 kPa
h. −60 °C and 100 kPa
i. 20 °C and 1500 kPa
j. 0 °C and 100 kPa

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Activity 2: THE COOLING CURVE OF WATER. Directions: Using the curve below describe what is
happening between each of the points:

1. A-B
2. B-C
3. C-D
4. D-E
5. E-F

Activity 3: THE HEATING CURVE OF WATER. Directions: Use the cooling curve below to answer the
following questions.

1. In which region(s) does temperature remain constant?

2. In which region(s) does temperature increase?
3. In which region(s) of the graph does a phase change occur?
4. In which region(s) of the graph would the substance only be in one phase?
5. In which region(s) of the graph would the substance be a solid only?
6. In which region(s) of the graph would the substance be a solid and a liquid?
7. In which region(s) of the graph would the substance be a liquid and a gas?
8. In which region(s) of the graph would the substance be a gas only?
9. In which region(s) of the graph does boiling take place?
10. In which region(s) of the graph does melting take place?

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Activity 4: Percent by Mass, Volume, Mass/Volume. Directions: Analyze and solve the given
problems. Show solution and express the final answers to the correct number of significant digits.

1. What is the percent-by-mass, %(m/m) concentration of sucrose in a solution made by

dissolving 7.60 g of sucrose in 83.4 g of water?
2. Calculate the mass of solute in a 10.0 % salt solution if the mass of a solution is 350 grams.
3. Calculate the volume percent, %(v/v), of solute in the following solution: 20.0 mL of methyl
alcohol in enough water to give 475 mL of solution.
4. Alcohol is commonly used as an antiseptic for small cuts. It is sold as 70% (v/v) solution of
isopropyl alcohol in water. What volume of isopropyl alcohol is used to make 500mL of
rubbing alcohol?
5. Normal saline solution that is used to dissolve drugs for intravenous use is 0.92%(m/v) NaCl
in water. How many grams of NaCl are required to prepare 35 mL of normal saline solution?
6. What volume of solution would be needed to deliver 3.0 mg of a drug if the concentration of
the drug in the solution was 3.5% (m/v)?

Activity 5: ppm, ppb and mole fraction. Directions: Analyze and solve the given problems. Show
solution and express the final answers to the correct number of significant digits.

1. 35.0 grams of ethanol is dissolved in 115 grams of water. What is the concentration of
ethanol in parts per million (ppm) and parts per billion (ppb)?
2. Suppose 17 grams of sucrose is dissolved in 183 grams of water. What is the concentration
of sucrose in ppm? ppb?
3. 6.80 g of sodium chloride are added to 2750 mL of water. Find the mole fraction of the sodium
chloride and of the water in the solution.
4. Calculate the mole fraction of 19.4 g of H2SO4 in 0.251 L of H2O.

Activity 6: Molality. Directions: Analyze and solve the given problems. Show solution and express the
final answers to the correct number of significant digits.

1. A sulfuric acid solution containing 571.4 g of H2SO4 per liter of solution has a density of 1.329
g/cm3. Calculate the molality of H2SO4 in this solution.
2. What mass of water is required to dissolve 100 g NaCl to prepare a 1.50 m solution?
3. What is the mass of a sample of a 0.449 molal KBr that contains 2.92 kg of water?

Activity 7: Molarity. Directions: Analyze and solve the following problems. Show solution and express
your final answers to the correct number of significant digits.
1. What is the molarity of 650 mL of solution containing 63.0 grams of NaCl?
2. How many grams of Ca (OH)2 are needed to produce 500 ml of 1.66 M Ca (OH)2 solution?
3. What volume of a 0.88 M solution can be made using 130 grams of FeCl2?
4. What volume (in mL) of 18.0 M H2SO4 is needed to contain 2.45 g H2SO4?
5. What is the molarity of 5.30 g of Na2CO3 dissolved in 400.0 mL solution?

Activity 8: Stoichiometry in Solution Reactions. Directions: Analyze and solve the given problems.
Show solution and express the final answers to the correct number of significant digits.
1. What volume of 0.0995 M Al (NO 3)3 will react with 3.66 g of Ag according to the following
chemical equation?
3 Ag(s) + Al (NO3)3(aq)→3 AgNO3(aq) + Al(s)

2. What volume of 0.512 M NaOH will react with 17.9 g of H 2C2O4(s) according to the following
chemical equation?
H2C2O4(s) + 2 NaOH(aq)→Na2C2O4(aq) + 2 H2O(l)
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3. A student titrates 25.00 mL of H3PO4 with 0.0987 M KOH. She uses 54.06 mL to complete
the chemical reaction. What is the concentration of H3PO4?
H3PO4(aq) + 3 KOH (aq)→K3PO4(aq) + 3 H2O(l)

Post-Test. Multiple Choice. Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the chosen letter on a
separate sheet of paper.

1. When you cross the line on a phase diagram and go from a liquid to a gas, what has
occurred?
a. Melting c. Condensation b. Vaporization d. Sublimation

2. What is the curve on the phase diagram which represents the transition between the liquid
and solid state?
a. Melting (or freezing) curve c. Sublimation (or deposition) curve
b. Vaporization (or condensation) curve d. Critical point

3. When a line is drawn across pressure at 1atm in a general phase diagram, what can be
located?
a. Supercritical fluid c. Normal melting and boiling points
b. Critical temperature and critical pressure d. Triple and critical point

4. In what phase does the substance exist at 36°C and 1 atm pressure? Refer to the phase
diagram below.
a. Solid
b. Liquid
c. Gas
d. None of the above.

5. Below is a phase diagram of carbon dioxide. What

processes are observed at 253.2K and 11 atm?
a. Melting or freezing
b. Vaporization or condensation
c. Sublimation or deposition

1
1

253.
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6. A heating curve is a plot of which two chemistry concepts?

a. temperature and pressure c. temperature and time
b. temperature and phase d. time and pressure

7. Which is true when a solid is melting?

a. Heat is used to increase the kinetic energy of the molecules.
b. Heat is used to change the arrangement of the molecules.
c. Temperature rises.
d. Liquid has been changed into gas.

For items number 8-10, refer to the diagram below.

R
P
Q
N
O
M

8. What phase(s) of matter are present at N-O?

a. solid b. solid-liquid c. liquid d. liquid-gas

9. What is happening to the kinetic energy during Q-R?

a. increasing b. decreasing c. constant d. will be 0

10. Describe the substance between O-P.

a. It is a solid b. It is melting c. It is a liquid d. It is boiling

11. . A solution with 3 g of potassium chloride (KCl) in 100 g of water is prepared. Calculate the
percent by mass of the solution.
a. 3 % c. 2.91 % b. 30% d. 29.1 %

12. A solution has been prepared with 30 g of sugar dissolved in water till we get 200 ml of
solution. Which is its mass concentration of sugar in g/L?
a. 15 % c. 1.5 % b. 0.15 % d. 150 %

13. Calculate the % by mass of the solution where there is 31.0 g of KCl in 152.0 g water.
a. 20.3 % c. 16.9 % b. 2.03 % d. 1.69%

14. Calculate the molarity of a solution prepared by dissolving 11.5 g of solid NaOH in enough
water to make 1.50 L of solution.
a. 0.28 M b. 0.37 M c. . 0.192 M d. 0.921 M

15. The appropriate method used for reporting low concentration of solution is _________.
a. molarity b. molality c. mole Fraction d. parts per million

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16. Which of the following is a possible mole ratio for the production of ammonia?
2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝐻3
a. 2 mol NH3/1 mol CO2
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁2
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝐻3
b. 1 mol NH2(CO)NH2/2 mol NH3
2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁2
2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁2
c. 1 mol H2O/2 mol NH3
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝐻3
3 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2
d. all of the above
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁2

17. When supposed you have the number of moles of a reactant or product in a reaction and you
want to calculate for the mass of another product or reactant, what will you going to follow?
a. Mass to mole c. Mass to mass
b. Mole to mole d. Mole to mass

18. What do you call that amount of solute that is being dissolved in certain amount of solution?
a. concentration of solution c. addition of solution
b. combination of solute and solvent d. aqueous solution

19. Explain what changes and what stays the same when 1.00 L of a solution of NaCl is diluted
to 1.80 L.
a. The number of moles always stays the same in a dilution.
b. The number of moles varies when diluted in a solution.
c. The number of moles changes abruptly.
d. The number of moles constitutes the whole solution.

20. There is about 1.0 g of calcium, as Ca2+, in 1.0 L of milk. What is the molarity of Ca 2+ in
milk?
a. 0.025 M b. 0.020 M c. 0.25 M d. 0.002 M

STEM General Chemistry 2 Q3 Module 1