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E - internal energy of detonation products
2.2.4.1. Shock waves
During the detonation of an explosive charge, the detonation products impact the
surrounding environment, creating a shock wave in it - a disturbance that moves
through the environment at supersonic speed.
This can be modeled by observing the formation of a shock wave in the shock tube
(Figure 2.2.4.1.1). The movement of the piston in the image above causes the
compression of gas particles in the immediate vicinity of the piston and their
movement in the direction of movement of the piston, with a speed equal to the
speed of the piston (uP).
Compressed gas has density u1 (1 > >0), pressure p1 (p1> p0), temperature T1 (T1 >
T0) and internal energy E1 (E1 > E0). At the same time, the transition from the
uncompressed state ("0" state) to
the compressed state (state "1") occurs within a narrow front - the front of the
shock wave, which moves in the direction of the uncompressed gas at the speed uS
[58].
Figure 2.2.4.1.1 Mechanism of shock wave generation in a shock tube [58]

The propagation of a sound wave in air is accompanied by a small longitudinal
movement of molecules - so there is no gas flow, and any physical changes are
reversible. The speed of such a wave, the so-called the local speed of sound is
determined by the collision speed of gas particles - therefore, it is approximately
equal to the mean kinetic speed of molecules and depends, first of all, on the
temperature of the gas.
We have a completely different situation when some disturbance acts on the gas at a
speed greater than the local speed of the gas particles. It is evident that in this
case, waves of a completely different nature and properties are created in the gas.
As gas particles under the influence of a supersonic disturbance (greater than the
local speed of sound) can only move at the speed of sound, the pressure, density
and temperature increase at the front of that disturbance. Such a wave, which is
generated in the gas by means of some supersonic disturbance (eg, by the impact of
a piston moving at supersonic speed, by the impact of detonation products, etc.) is
called a shock wave. Its front is very steep, and is characterized by a sudden
increase in density, pressure and temperature [58].
During the detonation of an explosive charge, the detonation products impact the
surrounding environment, creating a shock wave in it - a disturbance that moves
through the environment at supersonic speed. Detonation products have the role of a
piston that impacts the surrounding air, causing the creation of a shock wave. As
part of the energy of the detonation products is spent on creating a shock wave,
they begin to lag behind the created shock wave already at a distance of 2 - 2.5
radii of the explosive charge, and at a distance of 10 - 15 radii of the charge,
their movement in the direction of the shock wave practically stops, and their
pressure assumes the value of the pressure of the surrounding air. The shock wave
continues to move and the energy of the detonation can be transferred to greater
distances. During propagation, part of the energy of the shock wave is lost,
resulting in a gradual decrease in its velocity and pressure with distance from the
center of the detonation. Finally, at a greater distance, the shock wave turns into
a sound wave [58].
2.2.4.2 Detonation parameters of explosives
The expansion of detonation products is a complex process, dependent on the

pressure, density, temperature and energy of the detonation products. Detonation
can be described or modeled through the detonation product equation of state.
The equation of state set by Jones, Wilkins and Lee (JWL equation of state) is
accepted as the equation that most closely describes the expansion process for
explosives that represent almost ideal explosives, and has the form [2]:
Where are they:
p A ee R11v B ee R2 v C v 11
p - pressure of detonation products during their expansion,

ps - pressure of detonation products during isentropic expansion, A, B, C - linear
coefficients,
R1, R2, ω - non-linear coefficients,
E0 - detonation energy per unit volume,
v V1 /V0 - the ratio of the volume of the detonation product to the initial volume
of the explosive charge.
The above coefficients are determined by comparing the JWL equation of state with
experimental data during the expansion process of the detonation products. These
data were obtained using the Cylex test (expansion of a cylindrical explosive
charge). Table 2.2.4.2.1 shows the parameters of the JWL equation of state [2].
Table 2.2.4.2.1 Parameters of the JWL equation of state [2]
To fully characterize the explosive charge of the warhead, it is necessary to know

the detonation velocity, detonation pressure and detonation energy. Determining
these parameters is very complex and a combination of experimental techniques and
simulation methods are usually used.
The detonation speed is usually determined experimentally by using ionizing needles
arranged along the explosive charge (by measuring the time elapsed between Dpikovap
electrical impulses inside the needles that occur at the moment of the detonation
wave) or by a recording technique with an ultra-fast camera.
The detonation pressure is measured by the Manganin or Lagrange sensor technique
(sensors arranged to measure the pressure directly in the detonation wave) or by
aquarium measurement (measurement of shock wave propagation in water after
recording the shock wave in water).
Detonation energy or heat of detonation of explosives is determined experimentally
for a limited number of military explosives [2].
The three quantities, pressure (p), detonation velocity (D) and detonation energy
(QD) are related by the expressions:
Where are they:

p - detonation pressure,
p - explosive density, D - detonation speed,
QD 2 2 11
(2.2.4.2.3)
QD- detonation energy or heat of detonation,

d - adiabatic exponent (defines the slope of the pressure-volume curve during
adiabatic expansion of detonating gases) [2].
The additive principle, applied by Urizar [2], is used to predict the detonation
speed of explosive mixtures:
Where are they:
Dsm - detonation speed of the mixture
Dsm D
DD 1
φ - volume fraction and - those components of the mixture of explosive components

of the mixture D - detonation speed of the pure explosives that make up the mixture
In TNT/RDX or TNT/HMX mixtures, where RDX and HMX are added in powder form to
liquid TNT, the detonation velocity can be calculated as follows [2]:
Dsm TNT DTNT HE powder DHE powder
TNT HE powder 1
(2.2.4.2.6)
Characteristic velocities of some frequently used components of explosive mixtures

(wax, polyethylene, Teflon, etc.) are given in table 2.2.4.2.2.
This model is based on the principle that even inert components behave like
detonable materials [2].
Table 2.2.4.2.2 Characteristic velocities of the most common components of

explosive mixtures [2]
Materials
Density [g/cm3]
Characteristic speed [m/s]
Bee wax
The detonation speed depends significantly on the density of the explosive, so

certain dependencies have been established (Figure 2.2.4.2.1 and Figure 2.2.4.2.2)
by which it is possible to estimate the detonation speed for a certain density of
the explosive D [2]:
D A1 B1 A1 11 C1
(2.2.4.2.7)
Figure 2.2.4.2.1 Dependence of detonation speed on explosive density for pure

explosives RDX and TNT [2]
Figure 2.2.4.2.2 Dependence of detonation speed on explosive density for

composition A-3 and explosive CH-6 [2]
The values of parameters A1, B1 and C1 are determined experimentally (table

2.2.4.2.3) by measuring the detonation speed of large explosive charges of
different densities.
For certain explosives, the values of parameters A1, B1 and C1 have been
determined, with the fact that for certain explosives there are several values of
these parameters, considering different sources of data on experimental research
[2].
Table 2.2.4.2.3 Values of parameters A, B and C for different types of explosives
[2]
The detonation pressure especially depends on the density of the explosive, so the
following relationship can also be used:
ppp A np
(2.2.4.2.8)
Coefficients Ap and np for different explosives are determined experimentally

(table 2.2.4.2.4) [2].
Table 2.2.4.2.4 Coefficients Ap and np, maximum theoretical density of explosives,
and det. explosive pressure with maximum theoretical density [2]
Explosive
Coefficients
The TMD (Theoretical Maximal Density) parameter represents the maximum possible
(theoretical) density of the explosive. There are usually voids in the explosive
that reduce its density, but if we assume that there are no voids in the explosive,
then its density is equal to the theoretical maximum density of the given material.
The value of the theoretical maximum density of explosives is determined
experimentally - by X-ray crystallographic techniques for standard materials,
or it can be estimated for new materials using additive methods based on atomic
volumes [2]. The PTMD parameter represents the detonation pressure at the maximum
theoretical density of the explosive
On s. 2.2.4.2.3 shows the dependence of detonation pressure on explosive density
for TNT explosive.
Figure 2.2.4.2.3 Dependence of detonation pressure on explosive density (TNT) [2]

The diameter of the explosive charge also affects the detonation speed of the
explosive. The larger the diameter of the explosive charge, the closer the
detonation speed will be to its limiting speed. The dependence of the detonation
speed on the diameter depends on the explosive, and this influence is greatest with
PBX explosives. The dependence of the detonation speed on the diameter of the
explosive charge is determined experimentally. The critical diameter of the
explosive charge also depends on the density of the charge. As the charge density
approaches the theoretical maximum value of the explosive density, the value of the
critical diameter decreases. For explosive TNT, the critical charge diameter ranges
from 13 - 40 mm for ρ = 1.62 g/cm3, for Tetryl it is 0.6 mm for ρ = 1.65 g/cm3, and
for RDX it is 2.0 mm for ρ = 1.20 g/cm3 [2].
2.2.5 Main characteristics of military explosives
Modern explosives used for military use must be tested according to existing
military standards before being used in ammunition. There are a number of basic
requirements that must be met by modern explosives for military use, and they are:
Exuberance. The speed at which an explosive reaches its maximum detonation pressure
during the detonation process is a measure of its explosiveness. The explosiveness
of an explosive shows its ability to work as a whole. This feature is very
important for evaluating the explosion efficiency of HE warheads. It is used to
compare the effectiveness of two or more explosives.
Sensitivity. A quantity that shows the sensitivity of explosives to ignition or
detonation depending on the intensity of shock, friction or required heat. If the
explosive is too sensitive then it is not safe to handle, and if it is insensitive
then the problem arises how to initiate it. Certain test methods are used to
evaluate the sensitivity of explosives, as follows:
• Impact sensitivity is expressed through the expression for the distance from
which a weight of a standard mass, when falling on an explosive sample, causes its
explosion (for safety reasons, we do not want an explosion to occur if the body of
the warhead or projectile is mechanically penetrated).
• Sensitivity to friction is expressed through the evaluation of explosive behavior
when a pendulum of a certain mass creates friction over the surface of the
explosive material (crackling, bursting with the appearance of sparks, ignition
and/or detonation).
• Sensitivity to heat is expressed through the temperature at which a flame appears
or an explosion occurs (the so-called Cook off point).
Static electricity. A measure of the sensitivity of the initiation of explosives
upon the occurrence of static electricity charging.
Stability. Stability is the ability of an explosive to be stored without reducing
its performance. There are several factors that affect the stability of explosives:
• Chemical composition. There are numerous data indicating that many chemical
substances behave unstable and explode when exposed to heat.
• Storage temperature. The rate of decomposition of explosives increases with
increasing temperature. All standard military explosives must be stable at
temperatures from -10°C to +35°C. At temperatures of around 70 °C, many explosives
become very unstable.
• Exposure to UV rays from the sun. If explosives, especially those based on nitro
groups, are directly exposed to the UV rays of the sun, then their accelerated
decomposition occurs and their stability decreases significantly. The way we pack
explosives affects its stability.
• Electric discharges. Many explosives are sensitive to electrostatic charge or
electro-sparking, so static or other electrical discharge can be a sufficient
reason for detonation to occur.
Power. The term power or performance of an explosive reflects its ability to
achieve a certain work in a unit of time and shows how much energy can be realized
at the target (in the form of fragment velocity, shock wave pressure, cumulative
jet velocity, etc.). Explosive power or performance is evaluated through a series
of tests that evaluate the behavior of explosives. The most famous tests are:
cylinder expansion test, cylinder fragmentation test and shock wave expansion test.
Density. There are several methods for determining the density of an explosive
charge, whereby, depending on the method used, the mean density of the charge is
within 80-95% of the maximum density of the explosive charge TMD (eng - Theoretical
Maximal Density). Increasing the density of the explosive charge affects the
decrease in sensitivity. Increasing the charge density ensures a significant
increase in the mass of the explosive within the structure of the warhead, which
directly increases the effectiveness of the warhead.
Volatility. Explosives should not contain substances that evaporate or should
contain them in an insignificant amount, so that the explosive charge can withstand
temperature changes during storage. Volatility can cause unwanted pressure to occur
within the structure of the warhead or projectile. Volatility reduces the stability
of explosives, which significantly increases the danger when handling ammunition.
The maximum allowed evaporation is 2 ml of gas during 48 hours.
Hygroscopicity. Hygroscopicity is a measure of the ability of a mixture of
explosive substances to absorb water and it is undesirable in all military
explosives. Inert materials are added to explosives in order to improve the
production process and safety, but at the same time these additions significantly
affect the reduction of explosive power, detonation speed and sensitivity. Volatile
substances of inert additives during the detonation process cause cooling and a
decrease in the temperature of the reaction products. Stability is also affected by
inert additives that aid the process
decomposition of explosives, which may result in corrosion of metal parts of
ammunition containers.
Toxicity. Depending on the chemical structure of explosives, the degree of their
toxicity is different, so the effect of toxicity on humans, during the process of
casting explosive charges, ranges from headaches to serious damage to internal
organs. The goal is to make the degree of toxicity of military explosives as low as
possible.
Availability and price. Explosives must be produced from cheap raw materials,
available in large quantities. Production must be simple and cheap for a reason.
2.2.6 Classification of explosive substances
Explosives differ in their chemical composition, physico-chemical and explosive

properties, the way they work on the environment, etc. According to the American
concept, explosive substances are divided into two categories (fig. 2.2.6.1):
* High explosives (primary and secondary)
* Weak explosives (fuels, pyrotechnic mixtures and black powders).
Figure 2.2.6.1 Division of explosive substances

This classification is based on the sensitivity of explosive substances and their
ability to respond to external impulses. High explosives (primary and secondary)
are characterized by detonation as the basic form of explosive chemical
transformation. Therefore, their impact on the environment is manifested in the
form of a strong impact of detonation products and the creation of a shock wave.
Figure 2.2.6.2 Possibilities of stable combustion of different types of explosive

substances
Weak explosives (fuels, black powders and pyrotechnic mixtures) have the
possibility of stable combustion even at very high pressure (although if initiated
by a strong shock wave, certain types of gunpowder can detonate). The possibility
of stable combustion of explosive substances is shown in Figure 2.2.6.2.

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E - internal energy of detonation products

2.2.4.1. Shock waves

Figure 2.2.4.1.1 Mechanism of shock wave generation in a shock tube [58]

2.2.4.2 Detonation parameters of explosives

The expansion of detonation products is a complex process, dependent on the

Where are they:

p - pressure of detonation products during their expansion,

To fully characterize the explosive charge of the warhead, it is necessary to know

Where are they:

QD- detonation energy or heat of detonation,

φ - volume fraction and - those components of the mixture of explosive components

Dsm TNT DTNT HE powder DHE powder

Characteristic velocities of some frequently used components of explosive mixtures

Table 2.2.4.2.2 Characteristic velocities of the most common components of

The detonation speed depends significantly on the density of the explosive, so

Figure 2.2.4.2.1 Dependence of detonation speed on explosive density for pure

Figure 2.2.4.2.2 Dependence of detonation speed on explosive density for

The values of parameters A1, B1 and C1 are determined experimentally (table

Coefficients Ap and np for different explosives are determined experimentally

Figure 2.2.4.2.3 Dependence of detonation pressure on explosive density (TNT) [2]

2.2.6 Classification of explosive substances

Explosives differ in their chemical composition, physico-chemical and explosive

Figure 2.2.6.1 Division of explosive substances

Figure 2.2.6.2 Possibilities of stable combustion of different types of explosive

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