AS 102 – PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL SCIENCE

MODULE 2
ANIMAL ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Discussion
MAJOR ANIMAL GROUP
Animals are organisms. An organism is any living thing. As
organisms, animals are in the Kingdom Animalia. Though all animals are
in this Kingdom, they also have unique differences. Some have fur, while
others have scales or feathers. Some fly, while others walk or swim.

Taxonomy is the science of classifying organisms. Most Organisms in the Kingdom Animalia share three traits. They are
classifications of animals are due to physical characteristics. A made up of cells, can move about on their own, and get their food from
classification system is used to distinguish different animals from each other sources. Animals take in food, transform and store it, and release
other. The hierarchy of classification is used to show the relationships it as energy.
and differences among animals. Table 4-1 shows the hierarchy of
classification. Within the Kingdom Animalia, animals are grouped many ways.
This grouping is based on the structures and functions of the body.

The domestic farm animals discussed in this book are all

vertebrates. Vertebrates are animals with backbones. This is as opposed
to invertebrates that are animals without backbones. Examples of
invertebrates include shrimp, crawfish, honeybees, spiders, mites,
earthworms, and snails.
Animal Anatomy and Physiology Page 1 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF ANIMALS
Anatomy and physiology are important in knowing how
organisms live and go about life processes. Anatomy is the study of the
AS 102 – PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL SCIENCE
form, shape, and appearance of animals. Physiology is the study of the
Agricultural animals belong to three main classes: birds (Aves),
functions of the cells, tissues, organs, and systems of an organism.
bony fish (Osteichthyes), and mammals (Mammalia).
Knowing anatomy is essential to understanding physiology.

BIRDS All animals have organ systems that maintain homeostasis.

Homeostasis is the relative constancy of the internal environment. The
Some 9,000 species of birds have been identified. Birds belong to circulatory system (an organ system) carries nutrients from the digestive
the class Aves. Birds can live in the air, on land, or in the water. Most system. It also carries oxygen to the cells from the respiratory system
birds are wild; a few have been domesticated. Chickens, turkeys, and via the blood and rids metabolic waste from the cells to the excretory
ducks are often raised. People are eating more chicken and turkey system. The nervous system coordinates the functions of the other
because they are lower in fat and cholesterol. systems.
Birds are covered with feathers. They are lightweight because of Understanding life processes is important. Knowing the workings
their hollow bones. Their wings help to lift them and make them better of the inner body involves anatomy and physiology of livestock. Internal
flyers. Birds have two legs and internal organ systems similar to most and external features are closely related.
other animals.
MAJOR ANIMAL SYSTEM
MAMMALS
ORGANIZATION
Mammals belong to the class Mammalia. Female mammals have
mammary glands that produce milk for the newborn young. Male and Animals have several levels of organization. All organisms are
female mammals mate to reproduce. The female will carry the made of cells. Cells form tissue. Tissues form organs and organs form
developing embryo in her uterus. organ systems. These systems make up the organism. The structure and
function of an organ system depend on the structure and function of
Mammals have hair, a well-developed brain, a lower jawbone the organs, tissues, and cells within that system.
with teeth, and a heart with four chambers. Unlike fish, mammals
internally regulate their body temperature. Examples of mammals
include cattle, goats, hogs, horses, and sheep.
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There are four types of animal tissue: epithelial, connective, muscular,

and nervous.

Epithelial Tissue
Epithelial tissue covers body surfaces and lines body cavities. Its
purpose as skin is to protect the body. Epithelial tissue contains cilia
that are hairlike extensions. These cilia move materials. For example,
cilia in the lungs move dirt and other impurities out of the body. The
main organ system of the epithelial tissue is skin.

Connective Tissue
Connective tissue holds and supports body parts. It binds body
parts together providing support and protection. It also fills spaces,
stores fat, and forms blood cells. Connective tissue helps to form
muscular and skeletal cells.

Muscular Tissue
Muscular tissue creates movement of body parts. It is also
known as contractile tissue. These tissues not only aid in movement of
the entire animal, but also allow the respiratory and digestive systems Animal Anatomy and Physiology Page 3
to function.

Nervous Tissue AS 102 – PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL SCIENCE

Nervous tissue responds to stimuli and transmits nerve impulses.
Nervous tissue contains neurons that conduct impulses away from the
cell. Environmental stimuli cause reactions to occur.
 Major external parts of a chicken.

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ORGAN SYSTEMS
 Each kind of tissue forms organs and organ systems. An organ supports and protects internal organs, stores minerals, and produces
system is made of several organs that work together to perform an blood cells.
activity. Each system has its own organs and specific purposes.

Digestive System
The digestive system breaks food into smaller parts that are used
by the body. Note the differences between monogastric or nonruminant
and polygastric or ruminant animals.

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Muscular System
The muscular system acquires materials and energy. It creates
bodily movements, maintains posture, supports, and produces heat.

Skeletal System
The skeletal system provides a framework for the body. It also
 The digestive tract of a cow, a ruminant.

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Respiratory System
The respiratory system governs gas exchange. Oxygen is taken in
by the lungs. This system also maintains blood pH by expelling carbon
dioxide.

Circulatory System
Nutrients, oxygen, and metabolic wastes are moved by the circulatory
system. Oxygen and nutrients are transported to the cells, while wastes
are removed. The circulatory system also moves hormones and protects
against injury and microbes.
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Excretory System
The excretory system rids the body of waste. It maintains the chemical composition and
volume of blood and tissue fluid.

Lymphatic System
The lymphatic system circulates a clear fluid known as lymph. One role of lymph is to
protect the body from disease. The lymphatic system transports excess tissue fluid to the
blood, moves fat to the blood, and helps give immunity against diseases.

Nervous System
The nervous system coordinates body activities. In coordination with the endocrine system,
nerve impulses react to stimuli. The system regulates other systems and controls learning
and memory. The endocrine system secretes hormones that regulate the body’s
metabolism, growth, and re productive systems.

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DETAILS:
 SKELETAL SYSTEM
Components of the Skeleton
The skeletal system of class Mammalia (mammals) is composed of bones,
cartilage, teeth, and joints. Figure 5-1 shows the skeletal system of the cow, which is
typical of quadrupeds, mammals that have four legs. The skeletal system of a chicken
(class Aves) is shown in the Figure. Although the skeletal systems of these two classes
are similar, there are important differences between the two.

The Skeletal System of a Cow

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 The Skeletal System of a Chicken

Formation of Bone
Cartilage is a tough connective tissue that is flexible and elastic. It forms the early
skeletal structure of the vertebrate embryo. As the bones develop, they follow the form
of the cartilage skeletal structure and gradually replace much of the cartilage. The adult
vertebrate skeleton retains some cartilage in the joints of bones and in other specialized
structures, such as the trachea, nose, larynx, and external ear. Cartilage is also found
between the bones of the vertebral column in the form of discs that separate and
cushion the bones.

Bones are composed of calcium compounds, a gelatin-like protein called ossein,

and small amounts of other minerals. Most of the bones of the skeleton develop from
the cartilage found in the vertebrate embryo. This transformation of cartilage into bone
is carried out by specialized cells that break down the cartilage and replace it with bone
cells called osteocytes. The flat bones of the skull develop from membranes. By the
time the animal is born, most of the cartilage has been replaced by bone. Bone growth
and secondary bone development occur as the animal matures.

Bones are living structures containing blood and lymph vessels and nerve fibers. Bones
grow and repair themselves if damaged. Nutrients must be supplied if the bones are to
remain healthy. Some bones have a hollow center that is filled with marrow. Bone

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marrow may be red, yellow, white, or gelatinous. The type of marrow found in bones is
to some degree a function of the age of the animal. Red marrow is the type that forms
blood cells and may be the only type found in animals with short life spans. The other
types of marrow tend to form in animals with life spans greater than 10 years.

Functions of the Skeletal System

The main functions of the skeletal system are to provide form, protection,
support, and strength for the body. With the muscles attached, the bones of the
skeleton act as levers permitting the animal to move. The bones also store minerals and
the bone marrow produces blood cells.

Types of Skeletal Systems

Skeletal systems may be rigid or hydraulic. Animals with rigid skeletal systems
are able to move because muscles are attached to the rigid skeleton and apply force
that results in movement. There are two types of rigid systems: endoskeletal and
exoskeletal. The endoskeleton is found on the inside of the body; the exoskeleton is
typically a hard shell on the outside of the body. Vertebrates, such as farm animals,
have endoskeletons. Arthropods, such as insects and crustaceans, generally have
exoskeletons.

Some animals have a hydraulic skeletal system. They achieve movement by the
application of force to a fluid confined in a small space and surrounded by muscle tissue.
Examples of animals with hydraulic skeletal systems include worms, the octopus, and
starfish.

Section of long bone

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Kinds of Bones
The two kinds of bone material, cancellous and compact, are based on structure.
Cancellous bone material is spongy and generally found in the ends of long bones.
Compact bone material is usually found on the outside of bones and surrounding the
bone marrow.

Parts of the Skeletal System

The three components of the skeletal system are the axial skeleton, pectoral
limb, and pelvic limb. The skull, vertebral column, and rib cage are the main parts of the
axial skeleton. The pectoral limbs are the front legs of the animal and the pelvic limbs
are the hind legs.

Joints of the Skeleton

Three types of joints are found in the skeleton of an animal: synarthroses or
fibrous joints, amphiarthroses or cartilaginous joints, and diarthroses or synovial joints.
These classifications are based on the structure of the joint and the movement it is
capable of performing.

Synarthroses or fibrous joints are joined by fibrous tissue, or in some cases,

cartilage tissue. These joints generally do not permit any type of movement. The joints
in the bones of the skull are an example of this type of joint.

The vertebrae are joined by amphiarthroses joints. These joints consist of discs
of a fibrous cartilage that separate and cushion the vertebrae, allowing very limited
movement. If one of these joints becomes damaged, it can cause serious injury or
paralysis of the animal. Limiting the movement of the vertebrae helps to protect the
spinal cord from injury.

Joints that allow free movement and have a fluid-filled cavity are called
diarthroses or synovial joints. A typical joint is surrounded by ligaments that help hold
the joint together. A synovial membrane is usually found inside the ligaments. The joint
is lubricated by the fluid produced by the synovial membrane. A cartilage disc may be
found between the surfaces of the joint. These joints provide a variety of movements
depending upon the functions required. Classifications include ball-and-socket, gliding,
pivot, and hinge.

The joint between the scapula and the humerus is an example of a ball-and-
socket joint. The remaining joints in the pectoral limb are hinge joints. In the pelvic limb,
the femur connects to the pelvis with a ball-and-socket joint. The mandibles are
connected to the skull by both hinge and gliding joints. The first vertebra attaches to the
skull by means of a hinge joint and attaches to the second vertebra with a pivotal joint.
This allows the animal to move its head from side to side as the neck is twisted on this
pivotal joint.

Major Differences Between Mammalian and Avian Skeletal Systems

Avian bones tend to be thinner, harder, and more brittle than mammalian bones.
Generally, more of the bones of the avian skeleton contain air spaces than do the bones
of mammals. Avian bones develop almost exclusively from cartilage over a period of
several months after hatching. The avian rib cage does not move as much as the rib
cage in
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mammals and has little involvement in breathing. The avian skull does not contain any
teeth.

MUSCLE SYSTEM
Types of Muscle
The three kinds of muscle found in the body are skeletal, smooth, and cardiac.
These muscle types are differentiated based on their structure, location, and method of
control. All three muscle types have the ability to contract; generally they do not
stretch.

Skeletal (Striated Voluntary)

Much of the flesh referred to as meat in farm animals is composed of skeletal
muscle (also called striated voluntary muscle). It is called striated because it has dark
bands that cross each muscle fiber. These bands can be seen when the muscle is
examined under a microscope. The cell nucleus is located near the periphery of the cell.
Skeletal muscle may be subdivided into two types based on color. Muscle that is
involved with sustained work is generally red in color, while muscle that is activated on
a more intermittent basis is white or pale in color.

Skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscle (from left to right)

Skeletal muscles exist in bundles enclosed in connective tissue that contains

many muscle fibers of varying lengths that are cylindrical in shape. Muscle fibers are
enclosed in a sheath made up of connective tissue (sarcolemma). The entire muscle is
covered by a sheath of connective tissue. Myofibrils are the component parts of muscle
fiber. Two types of myofilaments (myosin, or thick, and actin, or thin) are found in the
myofibril. The muscle contracts when the thin myofilaments slide past the thick
myofilaments. Both myosin and actin are proteins.

The skeletal muscle is usually attached to the skeleton by tendons. One end of
the muscle is attached to a relatively immovable part of the skeleton, or origin, and the
other end to a more movable part of the skeleton, called the insertion. When the
muscle contracts, it usually moves the bone at the insertion point a greater distance
than the bone at the origin point.
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Skeletal muscles are controlled by the voluntary nervous system. Nerve endings
are located on every muscle fibril. The muscle contracts when stimulated by an impulse
coming through the nerve; it relaxes in the absence of such stimulation. The degree of
contraction is not related to the strength of the stimulating nerve impulse but rather to
the frequency of the stimuli. As the series of stimuli are spaced closer and closer, the
degree of muscle contraction increases. This feature permits muscles to operate over a
range of requirements. If the stimulus continues over too long a period of time, the
muscle will begin to fatigue and the strength of the contraction will begin to diminish.
This is probably due to a buildup of lactic acid in the muscle and a reduction in stored
energy. Other chemical changes may also be involved in muscle fatigue.

Myofibril
The energy required for muscle contraction comes from adenosine triphosphate
(ATP). When a stimulus coming through a nerve reaches the muscle, it releases calcium
ions. A series of steps follows, and myosin binds to actin. ATP binds to myosin, which
then releases actin. The breakdown of ATP releases energy that allows for the myosin
myofilament to slide past the actin myofilament. This myosin actin mechanism, known
as the sliding filament theory, appears to act in a similar manner to cause muscle
contraction in all three types of muscles found in the body.

A muscle at work produces heat. The ATP that acts as the energy source is
produced by the oxidation of nutrients such as glucose and fatty acids. Only a small
amount of ATP is actually stored in the muscle of the animal. This supply quickly used
up by strenuous activity. An additional source of high-energy phosphate called creatine
phosphate is stored in the muscle. When needed, several chemical reactions occur that
allow the creatine phosphate to ultimately serve as an additional source of phosphate
for the production of energy.
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Skeletal muscles usually work in pairs or groups to facilitate movement. The
muscles that begin the movement are called agonists, and the muscles that work in
opposition to the agonists are called antagonists. Even when no work is being done,
skeletal muscles are generally in a state of some tension. The tension is maintained by
the paired muscles balancing the contraction of each with the other. This is referred to
as muscle tone and allows the animal to give a rapid muscular response as needed. A
healthy animal will have good muscle tone. Skeletal muscle may lose its tone and
become flabby because of disease or injury.

Smooth (Unstriated Involuntary)

Muscles that surround the hollow internal organs of the body, such as the blood
vessels, stomach, intestines, and bladder, are called smooth (unstriated) involuntary
muscles. The two types of smooth muscle are visceral and multiunit. Most of the smooth
muscle in the vertebrate body is visceral. Multiunit smooth muscle is found where better
muscular control is needed, as the sphincter muscle.

Smooth muscles are activated by the autonomic nervous system. They are called
involuntary because they are not under the conscious control of the mind. They
generally act more slowly than the skeletal muscles and do not have the myofibrils or
dark striations found in skeletal muscle. The color of smooth muscle is generally white;
it does not have origin or insertion points and is not attached to the skeleton. Smooth
muscle can stretch, which allows the organ it surrounds to expand. In addition to the
myosin-actin mechanism, smooth muscle contraction may be caused by other stimuli,
such as chemicals and hormones. Smooth muscle cells are smaller than skeletal or
cardiac muscle cells and appear spindle-shaped, with the nucleus located in the center
of the cell.

Cardiac (Striated Involuntary)

Cardiac muscle is found only in the muscular wall (myocardiurn) of the heart. It is
striated in the same manner as skeletal muscle. The nucleus of the cell, however, is
centrally located, as in smooth muscle. Cardiac muscle cells are rectangular in shape
and the muscle fibers appear to branch. Contraction of the heart muscle normally
begins in the sinoatrial node that is located in the upper right atrium. Nerve stimulation
is not required for this contraction to occur. An important feature of the contraction
mechanism in cardiac muscle is that when contraction begins in the sinoatrial node it
rapidly spreads to the entire muscle. Another feature is that a contraction is followed by
a relaxation period during which it cannot be stimulated to contract again. These
properties result in the rhythmic beating of the heart that is essential to the circulation
of blood in the body.

Muscle Functions
In conjunction with the skeletal system, the muscle system provides form,
support, and movement for the body. It also generates body heat in the chemical
processes that provide energy for the movement of the muscles. The skeletal muscle
system is the primary one involved in movement. The smooth muscle system is involved
in digestion and other activities of the internal organs of the animal. The cardiac muscle
system maintains a rhythmic heartbeat that keeps the blood circulating throughout the
body.
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