CLIMATE CHANGE AND ASSOCIATED

ISSUES
What is climate change?
Climate change includes both global warming driven by human-induced emissions of
greenhouse gases and the resulting large-scale shifts in weather patterns.
Though there have been previous periods of climatic change, since the mid-20th century humans
have had an unprecedented impact on Earth’s climate system and caused change on a global
scale

• Climate Change is a periodic modification of Earth’s climate brough t

about due to the changes in the atmosphere as well as the interactions
between the atmosphere and various other geological, chemical,
biological and geographical factors within the Earth’s system.
• Climate change can make weather patterns less predictable. These
unforeseen weather patterns can make it difficult to maintain and grow
crops, making agriculture-dependent countries like India vulnerable.
• It is also causing damaging weather events like more frequent and
intense hurricanes, floods, cyclones, flooding etc.
• Due to the rising temperature caused by climate change, the ice in the
polar regions is melting at an accelerated rate, causing sea levels to
rise. This is damaging the coastlines due to the increased flooding and
erosion.
• The cause of the current rapid climate change is due to human activities
and threatening the very survival of humankind.
• The largest driver of warming is the emission of gases that create a
greenhouse effect, of which more than 90% are carbon dioxide (CO2)
and methan
• Fossil fuel burning (coal, oil, and natural gas) for energy consumption is
the main source of these emissions, with additional contributions from
agriculture, deforestation, and manufacturing.
• Temperature rise is accelerated or tempered by climate feedbacks, such
as loss of sunlight-reflecting snow and ice cover, increased water vapour
(a greenhouse gas itself), and changes to land and ocean carbon sinks.
• Temperature rise on land is about twice the global average increase,
leading to desert expansion and more common heat waves and wildfires.
• Temperature rise is also amplified in the Arctic, where it has contributed
to melting permafrost, glacial retreat and sea ice loss.
 • Warmer temperatures are increasing rates of evaporation, causing more
intense storms and weather extremes.
• Impacts on ecosystems include the relocation or extinction of many
species as their environment changes, most immediately in coral reefs,
mountains, and the Arctic.
• Climate change threatens people with food insecurity, water scarcity,
flooding, infectious diseases, extreme heat, economic losses, and
displacement.
• These human impacts have led the World Health Organization to call
climate change the greatest threat to global health in the 21st century.
• Even if efforts to minimise future warming are successful, some effects
will continue for centuries, including rising sea levels, rising ocean
temperatures, and ocean acidification.

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has issued a series of reports that
project significant increases in these impacts as warming continues to 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) and
beyond. Additional warming also increases the risk of triggering critical thresholds called tipping
points.
Under the 2015 Paris Agreement, nations collectively agreed to keep warming “well under 2.0 °C
(3.6 °F)” through mitigation efforts. However, with pledges made under the Agreement, global
warming would still reach about 2.8 °C (5.0 °F) by the end of the century.

• What causes global warming?

A: Global warming occurs when carbon dioxide (CO2) and other air
pollutants collect in the atmosphere and absorb sunlight and solar
radiation that have bounced off the earth’s surface. Normally this
radiation would escape into space, but these pollutants, which can last
for years to centuries in the atmosphere, trap the heat and cause the
planet to get hotter. These heat-trapping pollutants—specifically
carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, water vapor, and synthetic
fluorinated gases—are known as greenhouse gases, and their impact is
called the greenhouse effect.
• Factors that cause climate change

A) Natural Factors:
There are numerous natural factors that cause the Earth’s climate to
change. They affect the climate over a period of thousands to millions of
years.

o Continental Drift: The present-day continents were not the same

prior to 200 million years.They have formed millions of years ago
when the landmass began to drift apart due to plate
 displacement.This movement had an impact on climate change
due to the change on the landmass’s physical features and
position and the change in water bodies’ position like the change
in the follow of ocean currents and winds.The drifting of the
landmass is continued today. The Himalayan range is rising
approximately 1 millimetre every year as the Indian landmass is
moving towards the Asian landmass.
o Variation of the Earth’s orbit:The Earth’s orbit has an impact on
the sunlight’s seasonal distribution that is reaching the Earth’s
surface.A slight change in the Earth’s orbit can lead to variation in
distribution across the world.There are very few changes to the
average sunshine. However, it causes a high impact on the
geographical and seasonal distribution.There are three types of
orbital variations – variations in Earth’s eccentricity, variations in
the tilt angle of the Earth’s axis of rotation and precession of
Earth’s axis.These together can cause Milankovitch cycles, which
have a huge impact on climate and are well-known for their
connection to the glacial and interglacial periods.The
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change finding showed that
the Milankovitch cycles had influenced the behaviour of ice
formation
o Plate tectonics:Due to the change in the temperature in the core
of the Earth, the mantle plumes and convection currents forced
the Earth’s Plates to adjust leading to the rearrangement of the
Earth Plate.This can influence the global and local patterns of
climate and atmosphere.The oceans’ geometry is determined by
the continents’ position. Therefore, the position of the continents
influences the pattern of the ocean.The location of the sea also
plays a crucial role in controlling the transfer of heat and moisture
across the globe and determines the global climate.The recent
example of the tectonic control on ocean circulation is the
formation of the Isthmus of Panama about 5 million years ago,
leading to the prevention of direct mixing of the Atlantic and
Pacific oceans.
o Volcanic Activity:When a volcano erupts, it emits gases and dust
particles, causing a partial block of the Sunrays. This can lead to
the cooling of the weather.Though the volcanic activities last only
for a few days, the gases and ashes released by it can last for a
 long period, leading to it influencing climate patterns.Sulphur
oxide emitted by the volcanic activities can combine with water to
form tiny droplets of sulphuric acid. These droplets are so small
that many of them can stay in the air for several years.
o Ocean Currents:Ocean current is one of the major components of
the climate system.It is driven by horizontal winds causing the
movement of the water against the sea surface.The temperature
differences of the water influence the climate of the region.

B) Anthropogenic Factors:
Scientists, since the beginning of the 20th century, have studied the
impact of climate change caused by human activities. Global warming,
the long-term rise in the average temperature of the Earth’s climate
system, is a major aspect of climate change. It is mainly a human -
caused increase in global surface temperature. The anthropogenic
factors causing climate change are as follows:

o Greenhouse Gases:The greenhouse gases absorb heat radiation

from the sun. Following the initiation of the Industrial Revolution,
the emission of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere has
increased exponentially.This has led to more absorption and
retaining the heat in the atmosphere. This resulted in an increase
in Global Temperature.The greenhouse gases mostly do not
absorb the solar radiation but absorb most of the infrared emitted
by the Earth’s surface.
▪ The main greenhouse gases include
▪ water vapour (the majority of the GHG in the
atmosphere but the impact is less)
▪ Carbon dioxide released due to natural and
anthropogenic factors spends more time in the
atmosphere, leading to an increase in its impact.
There has been a 30% increase in the concentration
of CO2 since the start of the industrial revolution.
Apart from the industrial revolution, deforestation also
contributes to the increase in the CO
▪ Chlorofluorocarbons, used for industrial purposes,
especially in refrigerants and air conditioning, is a
man-made compound regulated under the Montreal
 Protocol due to their adverse effects on the Ozone
layers.
▪ Methane is released due to decomposition of organic
matter. It is stronger than CO2 because of its
capacity to absorb more heat.
▪ Nitrous oxide is produced by the agricultural sector,
especially in the production and use of organic
fertilizers and while burning fossil fuels.
o Change in the land use pattern:Half of the land-use change is
said to have happened during the industrial era.Most of the forests
were replaced by agricultural cropping and grazing of lands.The
increased albedo (reflectivity of an object in space) in the snow -
covered high altitude regions due to deforestation led to the
cooling of the planet’s surface. The lower the albedo, the more of
the Sun’s radiation gets absorbed by the planet and the
temperatures will rise. If the albedo is higher and the Earth is
more reflective, the more of the radiation is returned to space,
leading to the cooling of the planet.The tropical deforestation
changes the evapotranspiration rates (the amount of water vapour
put in the atmosphere through evaporation and transpiration from
trees), causes desertification and affects soil moisture
characteristics.From the satellite imagery, it is seen that the
clearing of forest cover for agriculture and irrigated farming in arid
and semi-arid lands can increase solar energy absorption and the
amount of moisture evaporated into the atmosphere.
o Atmospheric aerosols:Atmospheric aerosol can: Scatter and
absorb the solar and infrared radiation, change microphysical and
chemical properties of the clouds, Solar radiation, when scattered,
cools the planet. On the other hand, when the aerosols absorb
solar radiation, it causes an increase in the temperature of the air
instead of allowing the sunlight to be absorbed by the Earth’s
surface. Aerosols can directly affect climate change by absorbing
or reflecting solar radiation. They can also produce indirect effects
by modifying the cloud’s formation and properties.They can even
be transported thousands of kilometres away from its source
through wind and upper-level circulation in the atmosphere.
▪ There are two types of aerosols – Natural aerosols and
Anthropogenic aerosols.
 ▪ The sources of natural aerosols include volcanic
eruptions (produces sulphate aerosols) and biogenic
sources like planktons (can produce dimethyl
sulphide).
▪ The anthropogenic aerosols include: The ammonia
used for fertilizers or released by the burning of
plants and other organic materials forms a major
source for Nitrate aerosols. Burning of coal and oil
produces sulphur dioxide that forms a major source
of sulphate aerosols. Burning of biomass can release
a combination of organic droplets and soot
particles.Industrial activities cause the release of
wide-ranging aerosols into the atmosphere. Vehicle
emissions can produce numerous pollutants that are
aerosol from the beginning or becomes one due to
chemical reactions in the atmosphere. It is found that
the concentration of aerosols is about three times
higher in the Northern Hemisphere than in the
Southern Hemisphere, leading to the Northern
Hemisphere’s radiation concentration being 50%
higher than that of the Southern Hemisphere.

Impacts of Climate Change

A rise in atmospheric temperature:

• The greenhouse gases released due to human activities are increasing

the temperature of the Earth.
• The last 6 years topped the list of hottest years ever recorded.
• The increase in temperature is the major cause of the current increase
in heat-related deaths and illnesses, rise in sea levels and an increase
in the intensity of natural disasters.
• The 20th century saw an increase in the Earth’s average temperature by
1°F. This is believed to be the fastest rise in a thousand years.
 • Research estimates predict that if the GHGs are not reduced, the
average surface temperature could increase to 3-5°F by the end of this
century.

Change in landscapes:

• Increasing temperature and changing climate and weather patterns

across the globe led to the shift of trees and plants towards Polar
Regions and mountains.
• As the vegetation tries to adapt to climate change by moving towards
colder regions, the animals that are dependent on them will be forced to
follow them for survival. While some survive, many perish in the attempt.
• Other species like polar bears dependent on cold terrains will not have
any habitat due to the melting of ice, causing a risk to their survival.
• Thus, the current hasty change in the landscape causes a considerable
risk to the survival of many species, including the human population.

A risk to the ecosystem:

• An increase in the temperature across the globe is changing the weather

and vegetation patterns, causing the species to migrate to cooler areas
for survival.
• This poses a threat to the survival of numerous species. It is projected
that by 2050, one-fourth of the Earth’s species may become extinct if the
current trend continues.

Rising sea levels:

• An increase in the temperature of the Earth leads to a rise in sea level

due to the thermal expansion (a condition wherein the warm water takes
up more area than cooler water). The melting of glaciers adds to this
problem.
• The population living in under-lying areas, islands and coasts are
threatened by the rising sea levels.
• It erodes shorelines, damages properties and destroys ecosystems like
mangroves and wetlands that protect coasts from storms.
 • In the last 100 years, the sea level has risen to 4-8 inches and will
continue to rise between 4 and 36 inches in the next 100 years.

Ocean Acidification:

• The increase in the CO2 concentration in the atmosphere has increased

the CO2 absorption in the ocean. This makes the ocean acidic.
• The increase in the acidification of the ocean can be harmful to many
marine species like plankton, molluscs, etc. The corals are especially
susceptible to this as they find it difficult to create and maintain the
skeletal structures needed for their survival.

Increase in the risk of natural and manmade disasters:

• The moisture from land and water is rapidly evaporating due to the high
atmospheric temperature.
• This causes drought. Those areas that are affected by drought are
highly susceptible to the negative effects of flooding.
• As this current condition, the droughts may become more frequent and
more severe. This may lead to distressing consequences for agriculture,
water security, and health.
• Countries in Asia and Africa are already facing this phenomenon, with
droughts becoming longer and more intense.
• The increased temperature is not only causing droughts but also
increasing the cases of forest fires across the globe.
• Climate change is also causing increased and intensified hurricanes and
tropical storms, causing a devastating impact on human societies and
the environment.
• The cause of this is the rise in the ocean temperature as warm waters
influence the energies of hurricanes and tropical storms energies.
• The other factors that cause intensified hurricane and tropical storms are
rising sea levels, disappearing wetlands and increased coastal
development.

Health issues:
 • The high temperature across the globe can pose health risks and
deaths.
• The increased heat waves caused by climate change have led to the
deaths of many globally.
• For instance, in 2003, the extreme heat waves led to the death of more
than 20,000 people in Europe and caused more than 1,500 deaths in
India.
• Climate change increases the spreading of contagious diseases as the
long-term warm weather allows disease-carrying insects, animals and
microbes to survive longer.
• Disease and pests that were once confined to the tropics may find it
habitable in the colder regions that were previously inhospitable.
• Currently, there is an increase in death due to extreme heat, natural
disasters and diseases due to climate change.
• The World Health Organisation estimates that between 2030 and 2050,
climate change may cause approximately 250,000 additional deaths per
year due to malnutrition, malaria, diarrhoea and extreme heat.

Economic impacts:

• It is estimated that if action is not taken to address the carbon

emissions, climate change could cost about 5 to 20% of the annual
global GDP.
• In contrast, the cost to lessen the most damaging effects of climate
change is just 1% of the GDP.
• Climate change can alter shoreline habitats. This may lead to the need
for relocation of ports and near-shore infrastructures and habitats,
costing about millions of dollars.
• The increased hurricanes and other related natural disasters can bring
forth extreme economic losses caused by damaged properties and
infrastructures.
• Declining crop yields due to the lengthy droughts and high temperatures
can lead to a risk of starvation of thousands of people.
• Coral reefs generate approximately $375 billion each year in goods and
services. Their very survival is currently under threat.

Agriculture productivity and food security:

• The crop cultivation is dependent on solar radiation, favourable
temperature and precipitation.
• Hence, agriculture has always been dependent on climate patterns.
• The current climate change
• has affected agricultural productivity, food supply and food security.
• These effects are biophysical, ecological and economic.
• They resulted in:
• Climate and agricultural zones are moving towards poles
• There is a change in the agricultural production pattern due to increased
atmospheric temperature
• Agricultural productivity has increased due to the rise in CO2 in the
atmosphere.
• Unpredictable precipitation patterns
• The vulnerability of the landless and the poor has increased.
Climate Change affecting India
India was the fifth most affected country by climate change:

1. It was not shocking when Germanwatch, an environmental non-profit think

tank, reported in 2018, that India was the fifth most affected country by
climate change, globally.
2. In the last two years, the country has been hit by at least one extreme climate
event every month.
3. According to the World Risk Index 2020, India is the fourth-most-at-risk
country in South Asia, after Bangladesh, Afghanistan and Pakistan.
4. There is no doubt that climate change is real and its implications are disastrous.
5. Historically, internal migration in India occurred due to factors like ethnicity,
kinship, work opportunities, or access to better healthcare and education .
6. More recently, climate disasters also contribute to displacement (involuntary
and unplanned) and migration (voluntary and planned) in India.
7. In 2018 alone, nearly 7 million Indians were either displaced or have migrated
due to climate-induced distress.

• One of the major areas that will be extremely vulnerable to climate

change in the future is South Asia.
• India especially will be vulnerable to climate change due to its
diverse terrain, rapid use of natural resources due to the current
 trend of precipitous urbanisation, industrialisation and economic
growth.
• Water and air quality are worsening each day due to environmental
pollution.
• Those that are especially susceptible to climate change are the
country’s coastal ecosystems, biodiversity and agricultural
productivity.
• The natural disasters’ increasing frequency and intensity are
causing negative effects to the already struggling Indian economy.
• The adverse effects of such disasters range from poverty, vulnerability
to diseases, loss of income and livelihoods.
• According to the World Bank, an increase of 2°C in the world’s average
temperature in the next few decades will only make India’s monsoon
more unpredictable.
• The changing rain patterns in India are predicted to leave many areas
flooded and others without water scarcity.
• More than 60% of India’s agriculture is dependent on rain and the
majority of the population are dependent on the agriculture sector for
survival. This makes India more vulnerable to climate change.
• It is estimated that by the 2050s, with a temperature increase of 2 -2.5°C,
water in the river basins of Indus, Ganges and Brahmaputra will be
reduced. This may threaten the food security of about 63 million
people.
• Poor will be more vulnerable to climate change since many of them
are dependent on the rain-dependent agriculture.
• An increase of 2°C by the 2040s is going to affect crop production and
will reduce the crop output by 12%, requiring more imports to meet the
domestic demands.
• The melting glaciers and loss of snow can pose a risk to reliable
water resources in India.
• Main rivers like Ganges, Indus, and Brahmaputra mostly depend on
snow and glacial meltwater. This makes them vulnerable to global
warming.
• Climate change can further increase the risk of flooding of low areas
and threatens agriculture.
• Intensity of cyclone to increase
• Sea surge height may increase to 7.46 metres
• Sea level rise will be higher than global average
• Sunderbans and Darjeeling hill to have more rain
• The Indian Himalayan region:-
o The Himalayas, which represent about 16.2 per cent of the total
area of the country, are not only a key watershed of India but also
play a crucial role in the monsoon system. Climate change
impacts on the mountain range can affect the entire sub-continent
o The mean temperature of the Himalayas has gone up by 0.6°C in
the past 30 years; the frequency of warmer days is also increasing
o The northeastern states of India, particularly parts of Assam and
Manipur, are vulnerable
o Flash flood due to glacial lake outbursts may lead to landslides
and affect large-scale food security
o Himalayan glaciers melting faster than others elsewhere in the
world
o Productivity of apple has decreased by 2-3% over the past few
years. This will go down further
o Projected increase in intensity of rainy days is 2-12% in the
Himalayan region
India’s Efforts to Counter Climate Change

• India is the world’s third largest economy and fifth largest

greenhouse gas (GHG) emitter, accounting for about 5% of global
emissions. India’s emissions increased 65% between 1990 and 2005
and are projected to grow another 70% by 2020.
• By other measures, India’s emissions are low compared to those of
other major economies. India accounts for only 2% of cumulative
energy-related emissions since 1850. On a per capita basis, India’s
emissions are 70% below the world average and 93% below those of the
United States.
• India is also at the frontlines of facing the impacts of climate
change. Shifting rainfall patterns, recurring floods, stronger
cyclones and droughts or soil erosion are exacerbating the challenge
of poverty eradication and necessitate the allocation of scarce national
resources for preventing loss of human life.
• Despite resource constraints, India is undertaking ambitious actions to
undertake adaptation and mitigation actions, including thorough lowering
of the energy intensity of our economic growth, increasing energy
efficiency across sectors and making greater use of renewable.
• India has doubled the Clean Energy Cess on coal, which very few
countries have, and the Clean Energy Fund already has over 3 billion
US dollars to be used for promoting clean technologies India’s National
Solar Mission is being scaled up five-fold from 20,000 megawatts to
100,000 megawatts.
• This will mean an additional investment of 100 billion dollars and savings
of about 165 million tonnes of CO2 emissions per year.
• India is releasing 6 billion US dollars in one go for intensive
afforestation which will result in more carbon sinks.
• India has allocated about 200 million US dollars for the ‘National
Adaptation Fund’, setting-up of Ultra Mega Solar Projects, Ultra-
Modern Super Critical Coal Based Thermal Power Technology, and
the development of Solar Parks on canals.
• Another initiative is “100 Smart Cities’ with integrated policies for
adaptation and mitigation to reduce the vulnerability and exposure of
urban areas to climate change and also to improve their energy
efficiency for which 1.2 billion US dollars have been allocated. India has
put in place stringent norms for the cement industry.
• Our Action Plan for cleaning one of the longest rivers in the world, River
Ganga will bring multiple benefits of pollution reduction and climate
adaptation. We have also taken initiatives for protecting coastal,
Himalayan, and forest areas.
• India has initiated preparations to develop a National Air Quality
Index and have launched a National Air Quality Scheme. Setting-up of
Ultra Mega Solar Projects in Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Andhra
Pradesh and Ladakh to promote renewable energy.
National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC)
• As a part of the NAPCC, the Indian government had launched 8
missions in focused areas. They are:
o National Solar Mission
▪ The NAPCC aims to promote the development and use of
solar energy for power generation and other uses with the
ultimate objective of making solar competitive with fossil -
based energy options.
▪ The plan includes: specific goals for increasing use of solar
thermal technologies in urban areas, industry, and
commercial establishments; a goal of increasing production
of photovoltaic to 1000 MW/year; and a goal of deploying at
least 1000 MW of solar thermal power generation.
▪ Other objectives include the establishment of a solar
research centre, increased international collaboration on
technology development, strengthening of domestic
manufacturing capacity, and increased government funding
and international support.
o National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency: Initiatives
based on increasing the energy use efficiency were expected to
yield savings of 10,000 MW by 2012. Building on the Energy
Conservation Act 2001, the plan recommends:
▪ Mandating specific energy consumption decreases in large
energy-consuming industries, with a system for companies
to trade energy-savings certificates;
▪ Energy incentives, including reduced taxes on energy-
efficient appliances; and
▪ Financing for public-private partnerships to reduce energy
consumption through demand-side management programs
in the municipal, buildings and agricultural sectors.
o National Mission on Sustainable Habitat: To promote energy
efficiency as a core component of urban planning, the plan calls
for:
▪ Extending the existing Energy Conservation Building Code;
▪ A greater emphasis on urban waste management and
recycling, including power production from waste;
▪ Strengthening the enforcement of automotive fuel economy
standards and using pricing measures to encourage the
purchase of efficient vehicles;
 ▪ Incentives for the use of public transportation.
o National Water Mission: With water scarcity projected to worsen
as a result of climate change, the plan sets a goal of a 20%
improvement in water use efficiency through pricing and other
measures.
o National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan
Ecosystem: The plan aims to conserve biodiversity, forest cover,
and other ecological values in the Himalayan region, where
glaciers that are a major source of India’s water supply are
projected to recede as a result of global warming.
o National Mission for a “Green India” Goals: Goals include the
afforestation of 6 million hectares of degraded forest lands and
expanding forest cover from 23% to 33% of India’s territory.
o National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture: The plan aims to
support climate adaptation in agriculture through the development
of climate-resilient crops, expansion of weather insurance
mechanisms, and agricultural practices.
o National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate
Change: To gain a better understanding of climate science,
impacts and challenges, the plan envisions a new Climate Science
Research Fund, improved climate modelling, and increased
international collaboration. It also encourages private sector
initiatives to develop adaptation and mitigation technologies
through venture capital funds.

• International Solar Alliance (ISA)

• State Action Plan on Climate Change (SAPCC): State governments
have drafted climate strategies aligned with the eight National Missions
under the NAPCC. The strategies focus on issues ranging from climate
mitigation, energy efficiency, and resource conservation to climate
adaptation.
• FAME Scheme for E-mobility: Union Government in April 2015
launched Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Hybrid and Electric
vehicles (FAME) – India Scheme with an aim to boost sales of eco-
friendly vehicles in the country. It is a part of the National Mission for
Electric Mobility.
• Atal Mission for Rejuvenation & Urban Transformation (AMRUT) for
Smart Cities.
 • Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana: The scheme provides LPG
connections to five crore below-poverty-line beneficiaries. The
connections are given in the name of women beneficiaries to reduce
their dependence on fossil fuels and conventional fuel like cow dung for
cooking food, thus reducing air pollution.
• UJALA scheme: The scheme was launched by the Prime Minister
Narendra Modi in January 2015 with a target of replacing 77 crore
incandescent lamps with LED bulbs. The usage of LED bulbs will not
only result in reducing electricity bills but also help in environment
protection.

India in the international forums on climate change:

• India is currently setting up voluntary targets in the international

forums to commit itself to the mission to combat climate change . It
is also playing a major role in climate change mitigation.
• India’s proactive role in mitigating climate change is due to the domestic
compulsion of tackling issues like the need for poverty eradication, food
and nutritional security, universalization of health and education, water
security, sustainable energy, employment.
• India is of the opinion that the developing countries’ need for inclusive
growth, sustainable development, poverty eradication and universal
access to energy must be made the fundamental differentiation between
them and the developed nations. Currently, the Conventions recognise
the historical emissions of the developed nations as the basis for
differentiation between the developed and developing nations.

Efforts taken at the international level to combat climate change

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)

• The World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) and the UN Environment

Programme (UNEP) founded the IPCC to provide for a mechanism to
study the effects of global warming at a governmental level.
• IPCC is a UN body that assesses the science related to climate change.
• It provides the policymakers with regular scientific assessments on
climate change, its implications and potential future risks while also
providing adaptation and mitigation options.
• It complements UNFCCC and vice versa.
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC):

• It came to force on 21st March 1994.

• The 195 countries that have ratified it are called the Parties to the
Convention.
• The UNFCC is a Rio Convention, one of the three adopted at the Rio
Earth Summit in 1992. The others include the UN Convention on
Biological Diversity and the UN Convention to Combat Desertification.
• The Joint Liaison Group was established to ensure cooperation among
the three Conventions.
• Currently, it also consists of the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands.
• The ultimate aim of the Convention is to stabilize the greenhouse gas
concentration “at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic
interference with the climate system”.
• It also aims to achieve the said level within a specific period so that the
ecosystem is allowed to adapt naturally to climate change while also
ensuring food security and sustainable economic development.
• Following its establishment, the COP1 (first Conference of Parties) was
held in Berlin, COP2 was held in Geneva and the COP3 was held in
Kyoto to adopt the “Kyoto Protocol” that ensures the implementation of
the UNFCCC’s objective.

Kyoto Protocol:

• Kyoto Protocols was adopted in Kyoto, Japan on 11th December 1997

and came to force on 16th February 2005
• Its signatories are committed towards the achievement of emission
reduction targets.
• COP 7 held in Morocco in 2001 saw the adoption of the detailed rules for
the implementation of the protocol. These are referred to as “Marrakesh
Accords”.
• This protocol holds the developed countries accountable for the current
high levels of GHG emissions into the atmosphere due to their role in
the industrial revolution.
• Kyoto Mechanism, also known as Flexible Mechanism, is defined under
the Kyoto Protocol to lower the overall cost of achieving the emission
targets. It includes Emission Trading, the Clean Development
Mechanism and Joint Implementation.
 • In December 2012, the Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol was
adopted. The changes made include:
• New commitments were made by Annex I Parties (developed nations
and Economies in Transition) to be implemented between the period of
1st January 2013 and 31st December 2020.
• A revised list of GHG that is to be reported by the Parties during the
second commitment period
• Amendments were made to update several articles of the Kyoto Protocol
to be on par with the second commitment period.
• The Kyoto Protocol is a significant step towards the reduction of global
emission regime that will allow the stabilisation of GHG emissions.

Paris Agreement:

• Signed in 2016, it is considered to be the world’s first comprehensive

climate agreement.
• It aims to:
• Keep the global temperature well below 2°C above pre industrial times
and endeavour to limit them even more to 1.5°C.
• Strengthen the nations’ ability to combat the adverse impacts of climate
change.
• The Paris Accord calls for a reduction of the GHGs emitted due to
human activities equal to that of the trees, soil and oceans so that they
can be absorbed naturally.
• As per the Agreement, each country’s contribution towards cutting
emission must be reviewed every 5 years.
• It also states that rich countries must help the poorer nations by
providing them with “Climate finances” to make them shift towards
renewable energy usage.
• The agreement is binding in some elements like reporting requirements.
Other elements of the agreement are non-binding like the emission
targets of the individual nations.
• The Paris Agreement necessitates all Parties to put forth their best
efforts through Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) and to
strengthen these efforts in the future.
• This also includes the need for regular reporting emissions and
implementation by the parties.
 • India’s Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (INDC) includes the
reduction in the intensity of its GDP by 33 to 35% by 2030 from 2005
level. Additionally, it has pledged to increase the share of non -fossil fuel-
based electricity by 40% by 2030. It has also agreed to enhance its
forest cover, which will absorb 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of CO2 by 2030.

REDD+

• Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation

(REDD+) is a mechanism developed by Parties of the UNFCCC.
• It creates financial value for the carbon stored in forests to offer
incentives for the developing nations to reduce emissions from forested
lands and invest in low-carbon paths.
• The developing nations will receive results-based payments for results-
based actions.
• The REDD+ goes beyond simply deforestation and forest degradation by
including the role of conservation, sustainable management of forests
and enhancement of forest carbon stocks.
• It is estimated that the financial flows for the GHG emission reduction
from REDD+ could reach up to $30 billion per year.
• This improved North-South flow of funds can ensure a significant
reduction of carbon emissions and the promotion of inclusive
development. It could also improve biodiversity conservation and secure
vital ecosystem services.
• Forests are a vital carbon sink and thus, it is vital to increase its
resilience to climate change.

Responses: mitigation and adaptation

• Climate change impacts can be mitigated by reducing greenhouse gas

emissions and by enhancing sinks that absorb greenhouse gases from
the atmosphere.
• In order to limit global warming to less than 1.5 °C with a high likelihood
of success, global greenhouse gas emissions needs to be net-zero by
2050, or by 2070 with a 2 °C target .
• This requires far-reaching, systemic changes on an unprecedented scale
in energy, land, cities, transport, buildings, and industry.
 • Scenarios that limit global warming to 1.5 °C often describe reaching net
negative emissions at some point.
• To make progress towards a goal of limiting warming to 2 °C, the United
Nations Environment Programme estimates that, within the next decade,
countries need to triple the amount of reductions they have committed to
in their current Paris Agreements; an even greater level of reduction is
required to meet the 1.5 °C goal.
• Although there is no single pathway to limit global warming to 1.5 or 2.0
°C (2.7 or 3.6 °F), most scenarios and strategies see a major increase in
the use of renewable energy in combination with increased energy
efficiency measures to generate the needed greenhouse gas reductions .
• To reduce pressures on ecosystems and enhance their carbon
sequestration capabilities, changes would also be necessary in
agriculture and forestry, such as restoring natural ecosystems by
reforestation.
• Other approaches to mitigating climate change entail a higher level of
risk. Scenarios that limit global warming to 1.5 °C typically project the
large-scale use of carbon dioxide removal methods over the 21st
century.

The Way Forward

• Wealthy nations like the U.S., and those of the EU argued that
emissions from developing countries are consistently rising and they
need to commit to more serious emission cuts. A consensus needs to be
developed at the earliest.
• The immediate up-scaling of ambition in the second Commitment period
of Kyoto Protocol and its early ratification by all Kyoto Protocol parties
would be a step in the right direction.
• Concerning mitigation, distinction enshrined in the Convention between
Annex I (Developed) and nonAnnex I (developing) Parties must be
maintained in accordance with the principles of Equity, CBDR and other
provisions of the UN Conventions.
• The ‘developing versus developed country’ schism needs to be diluted at
the earliest and Developed Countries should avoid watering down the
CBDR principle envisaged in earlier agreements.
RENEWABLE ENERGY
What Is Renewable Energy?

• Renewable energy, often referred to as clean energy, comes from

natural sources or processes that are constantly replenished. For
example, sunlight or wind keep shining and blowing, even if their
availability depends on time and weather.

INDIA’S ENERGY MIX

Types of Renewable Energy Sources

The most common renewable power technologies include:
Wind
This takes advantage of wind motion to generate electricity. Wind motion is brought about by the
heat from the sun, and rotation of the earth, mainly via the Coriolis Effect.
Solar
It taps heat from the sun to produce energy for the generation of electricity, heating, lighting
homes and commercial buildings.
Hydropower
Utilizes moving water to produce electricity. Moving water creates high energy that can be
harnessed and turned into power.
Biomass
Organic matter that constitutes plants is referred to as biomass, which can be utilized to generate
electricity, chemicals or fuels to power vehicles.
Ocean
Takes advantage of rising and falling of tides to generate electricity
Geothermal
Leverages heat from underneath the earth to generate electricity.

Key Points

• Dedicated Project Development Cells have been established to

facilitate investors ensuring ‘Ease of Doing Business’.
• India’s renewable power capacity is the fourth largest in the world and
is growing at the fastest speed among all major countries.
o India is a big market and a lot of countries are attracted towards it
in terms of One Sun, One World, One Grid and International
Solar Alliance.
• The renewable energy capacity in India is currently 136 Giga
Watts, which is about 36% of its total capacity.

o Target for capacity increase is 450GW by 2030, increasing 25GW

every year as we move forward.
• Per capita consumption of energy in India is quite low as compared
globally.
• Power sector, being primarily dependent on fossil fuels, is one of prime
sources of air pollution.

Why Renewable Energy

• Sustainable: Energy generated from renewable sources will be cleaner

and greener and more sustainable.
 • Employment opportunities: Inclusion of a newer technology simply
means more employment opportunities for the working population of the
country.
• Market assurance: From the economy point of view, renewable sources
provide the market and revenue assurance which no other resources
can provide.
• Power supply: Providing 24*7 power supply to 100% of the households,
sustainable form of transports are some of the goals that can only be
achieved through sustainable power that comes from renewables.

Government Initiatives

• As part of its commitment to create awareness about energy efficiency

as a resource and also to develop an action plan for energy
conservation initiatives, Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) and Alliance
for an Energy Efficient Economy (AEEE), had released the ‘State
Energy Efficiency Preparedness Index’, which assesses state policies
and programmes aimed at improving energy efficiency across various
sectors.
• The National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency (NMEEE) is
one of the eight national missions under the National Action Pla n on
Climate Change (NAPCC).

• NMEEE has the following schemes:

o Perform Achieve and Trade Scheme (PAT)
o Market Transformation for Energy Efficiency (MTEE)
o Energy Efficiency Financing Platform (EEFP)
o Framework for Energy Efficient Economic Development (FEED)
• Other government initiatives include:
o DeenDayal Upadhyaya Gram Jyoti Yojana (DDUGKY)
o Integrated Power Development Scheme (IPDS)
o UDAY
o Soubhagya
o Power for All 24*7
o Ujala
• Other technological innovations and initiatives
o Electric vehicles –No Licence required for charging stations
o Smart Metering- Procurement of 50 lakh smart meters done
 o Energy efficiency- Energy Star labeling program
o Energy Conservation Building Code for energy efficient buildings
launched in June 2017
• Vidyut Pravah – The Mobile/Web App provides real-time information of
current demand met, shortages if any, surplus power available and the
prices in Power Exchange.
• UJALA (Unnat Jyoti by Affordable LEDs for All) – App provides real-
time updates on the LED distribution happening across the country.
• UrjaMitra – monitoring of power availability and sending power cut
information through SMS.
• MERIT–information pertaining to marginal variable cost and source wise
purchase of electricity.
• URJA (Urban Jyoti Abhiyaan) – It is an informative App for Urban
Distribution Sector. It captures Consumer-centric parameters from the IT
systems created under IPDS.
• TARANG (Transmission App for real-time monitoring & Growth) – It
is an IT Web/mobile-based platform to provide the status of both inter
and intrastate Transmission Projects in the country. This platform also
shows the prospective interstate as well as intrastate Transmission
Projects.
• DEEP e-bidding (Discovery of Efficient Electricity Price) – The portal
will provide a common e-bidding platform with e-reverse auction facility
to facilitate nation-wide power procurement through a wider network so
as to bring uniformity and transparency in the process of power
procurement.
• Ash Track- linking fly ash users and power plants for better ash
utilization.

CHALLENGES IN THE RENEWABLE ENERGY SECTOR FOR SUSTAINABLE

DEVELOPMENT
Despite the progress India has made in developing the renewable energy sector, the
country still faces barriers. Offtaker risk, lack of infrastructure, lack of financial intermediaries,
and limited understanding from investors are the four main challenges to overcome.
Offtaker risk. This refers to the risk that the buyer may not fulfill the contractual obligations or
will delay or make incomplete payments. Offtakers are primarily state-owned public-sector
distribution companies. Given the poor financial health of India’s distribution companies, there is
a risk of lagged or incomplete payments. In 2015 the total outstanding debt of distribution
companies was approximately $64 billion.
Offtaker risk increases the overall risk of the renewable energy projects. To address this issue,
the government has implemented Ujwal DISCOM Assurance Yojana, which aims at reducing
operational inefficiencies and improving the financial performance of distribution companies. The
program mandates to take over 75% of distribution company debt and turn it into state-
guaranteed bonds.
Lack of infrastructure. Inefficiencies from the lack of infrastructure to generate and distribute
electricity are a key barrier to foreign investment. Moreover, the time taken to obtain permits for
building and operating the transmission evacuation infrastructure is very long. These delays
increase project construction time, which postpones the commissioning of new projects and
ultimately revenues and profits.
Lack of financial intermediaries. Another barrier for Indian institutional investors is a shortage
of financial intermediaries in the renewable energy sector. These actors are needed to provide
proper information about investment opportunities.
Limited understanding. Renewables lie outside traditional investments, and potential investors
are often wary because of their limited understanding of the sector. Domestic institutional
investors typically invest in less risky securities and prefer more liquid assets with good credit
ratings, which are not available in renewable energy projects.
PATHWAYS FORWARD
According to a report by the Climate Policy Initiative, total investment needed for India to meet its
renewable energy targets by 2022 is $189.15 billion, 27% of which is required to be invested in
wind, 37% for utility-scale solar projects, 32% for solar rooftop projects, and 4% for biomass and
small hydropower projects. Several pathways are available for India to overcome the four
challenges outlined above and meet these investment needs. These include foreign direct
investment (FDI), domestic investment, and financial incentives.
FDI. According to data from the Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade,
cumulative FDI inflows in the power sector from 2000 to 2020 were around $15 billion, which is
around 3% of total FDI inflows.
The government allowed 100% of FDI under the automatic route to the power sector in 2012,
easing the approval process.
This included investment in the generation and transmission of electricity through hydroelectric
dams, fossil fuel–based thermal power plants, renewable energy generation and distribution,
distribution of electricity to households, industrial commercial users, and power trading. There
has been an increase in penetration of nonconventional sources of energy in the Indian market,
which have seen rising FDI participation.
Domestic investment. As a result of economic reforms and liberalization policies across sectors
implemented since the early 1990s, both the private and public sectors have shown a sharp
growth in investments, especially in the power sector.
The potential investments that are available for renewable projects amount to $411 billion,
double the required investment target.
Despite large government investments, India’s energy sector relies on the private sector more
than ever as public-sector resources are more directed toward public health and sustaining
livelihoods.
Therefore, to attract private investment, the government has encouraged the participation of
nonfinancial banking companies, launched a new investment fund, initiated the rationalization of
tariffs, released subsidies, and improved the bankability of power purchase agreements.
Financial incentives. Alternative debt vehicles such as “green” asset-backed securities could be
potential financial instruments for encouraging investment in sustainable energy infrastructure.
By pooling renewable energy assets from different companies and geographies at various points
in their operational lifecycles, banks and other financial institutions can hedge the risks
associated with individual renewable energy projects.
Green investment banks are government-funded entities that “crowd in” private investment in
low-carbon assets, provide debt for projects with existing capital reserves, and raise funds
through the issuance of bonds and creation of asset-backed securities.
Governments can issue green bonds through private or public banks, the World Bank, or regional
development banks to attract both domestic and international investors, which expands the
investor base and incentivizes private players interested in cleaner energy.
Indian green bonds are very much in demand overseas. With many countries aiming for a green
recovery from the recession caused by the Covid-19 pandemic, central banks may induce
liquidity in the markets, including through issuing green bonds.

What are Renewable Energy Certificates (RECs)

Renewable Energy Certificates (RECs), also known as green energy certificates or tradable
renewable certificates are proof that energy has been generated from renewable sources
such as solar or wind power. Each REC represents the environmental benefits of 1MWh of
renewable energy generation. When you purchase RECs, renewable energy is generated on
your behalf.
Significance:

• It is a market based mechanism which will help the states meet their
regulatory requirements (such as Renewable Purchase Obligations
(RPOs)) by overcoming the geographical constraints on existing
renewable potential in different states.
• RECs unbundle the electricity component (commodity) from the
green/environmental attributes of the power generated from renewable
sources. Both the components can then be traded separately.
• Thus, RECs help in incentivizing the production of renewable energy
over and above the RPO state limit as tradable certificates are not
constrained by the geographical limitations of commodity electricity.

Need for removal of GST:

RECs are being charged GST, while bundled power (RECs plus electricity, irrespective of
source) or even just electricity are devoid of the same.

• Cost of electricity generation from renewable energy sources is

classified as cost of electricity generation (equivalent to conventional
energy sources) and the cost of environmental attributes. REC is the
environmental attribute of the electricity derived from RE.
• As per regulations, RPO compliance through REC is at par with sourcing
electricity directly from RE. Therefore, GST applicable on the sale of
RECs negatively affects its parity with similar electricity sale
alternatives, be it conventional or renewable.
• Moreover discoms, the major buyer of RECs (around 50-60 per cent), do
not get GST credit; and the increase in their cost of RPO compliance will
translate to increased tariff for the end consumer.

What is green hydrogen?

Hydrogen when produced by electrolysis using renewable energy is known as Green Hydrogen
which has no carbon footprint.

• The hydrogen that is in use today is produced using fossil fuels, which is
the primary source.
• Organic materials such as fossil fuels and biomass are used for
releasing hydrogen through chemical processes.
Significance of Green Hydrogen:

1. Green hydrogen energy is vital for India to meet its Nationally Determined
Contribution (INDC) Targets and ensure regional and national energy security,
access and availability.
2. Green Hydrogen can act as an energy storage option, which would be essential to
meet intermittencies (of renewable energy) in the future.
3. In terms of mobility, for long distance mobilisations for either urban freight
movement within cities and states or for passengers, Green Hydrogen can be
used in railways, large ships, buses or trucks, etc.

Applications of green hydrogen:

1. Green Chemicals like ammonia and methanol can directly be utilized in existing
applications like fertilizers, mobility, power, chemicals, shipping etc.
2. Green Hydrogen blending up to 10% may be adopted in CGD networks to gain
widespread acceptance.

Benefits:

• It is a clean-burning molecule, which can decarbonize a range of sectors

including iron and steel, chemicals, and transportation.
• Renewable energy that cannot be stored or used by the grid can be
channelled to produce hydrogen.

What are the steps the Indian government has taken in the production of green hydrogen?

1. During the budget speech in February 2021, Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman
announced the launch of the Hydrogen Energy Mission to produce hydrogen
from renewable sources.
2. In the same month, state-owned Indian Oil Corporation signed an agreement with
Greenstat Norway for setting up a Centre of Excellence on Hydrogen (CoE-
H). It will promote R&D projects for the production of green and blue hydrogen
between Norwegian and Indian R&D institutions/universities.
3. Recently, India and the US have set up a task force under the aegis of the
Strategic Clean Energy Partnership (SCEP) to mobilise finance and speed up
green energy development.
India’s Key Focus for Next Five Years

• The Twin Challenge: India has a twin challenge of providing more

energy as well as cleaner energy to the masses in India.
o It should focus on getting into the manufacturing of the solar
panels under the Atma Nirbhar Bharat initiative as the demand is
to create jobs as well as supply decentralised energy to all the
households in India.
o Look and develop the entire supply chain of all the components
beside the manufacturing sector.
• Methanol and Biomass: Looking for other alternatives such as
methanol based economy and biomass.
o Bio-CNG vehicles with 20% blending in petrol is also a target the
government has been chasing.
o Conversion of energy from Biomass is a considerable option as it
will clean the cities as well as reduce our energy dependence.
▪ Fuels produced from biomass have a high calorific value
and are cleaner than traditional biomass.
o Hydrogen based FCV: Hydrogen in technology is likely to change
the landscape of renewables, shifting towards Hydrogen Based
Fuel Cells Vehicles (FCV) is another area of focus.
 o Grid Integration: It is the practice of developing efficient ways to
deliver variable renewable energy (RE) to the grid.
▪ Identifying the demands which are in tune with the
characteristics of the renewables, focussing on
characteristics of renewables mainly solar and wind and
considering their variability as strength rather than
weakness.

Challenges with Renewable Energy

• Integration with the Main Grid: Integrating the renewables with the
main grid is the area India needs to work upon.
o To accelerate the uptake of renewables, storage and battery
solutions is needed in large quantities.
• Cost factor: Renewable resources are slightly more expensive than
conventional sources.
• 24*7 Power Supply: Sustainable, round-the-clock power supply along
with the storage system is a big challenge ahead.
• Agricultural Sector: Much power is consumed in the agricultural sector.
The challenge is to provide sufficient power and energy to every
household and to the agricultural sector as well.

Way Forward

• Identification of areas: Renewable resources specially wind cannot be

set up everywhere, they require specific location.
o Identification of these specific locations, integrating them with the
main grid and distribution of powers; A combination of these three
is what will take India forward.
• Exploration: More storage solutions need to be explored.
• Agriculture subsidy: Agricultural subsidy should be rectified in order to
ensure that only the required amount of energy is consumed.
• Hydrogen fuel cell based vehicles and Electric vehicles: These are
the most suitable options when it comes to shifting towards renewable
sources of energy, that’s where we need to work upon.