“Study of Neurosecretory Cells in Order: Odonata”

A PROJECT REVIEW REPORT

Submitted to
RTM Nagpur University, Nagpur
In Partial fulfilment for the requirement of
Degree of Master of Science (Zoology)

Submitted by
Miss. Aishwarya Atilkar
Under the Supervision of
Dr. S. C. Masram
Professor
Department of Zoology
Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj
Nagpur University, Nagpur

An Autonomous Post Graduate Teaching Department of Zoology

Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur University, Nagpur – 440033
India
2023-2024
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that, the review of project work (Mini Project) entitled “Study of
Neurosecretory Cells in Order: Odonata ” has been successfully completed by the
Aishwarya Atilkar Students of Semester III under my supervision for the submission to RTM
Nagpur University, Nagpur in partial fulfilment for the requirement of the Degree of Master of
Science in Zoology (Entomology) for the academic year 2023-2024. The work is original and
has not been submitted so far, in part or in full, or any other degree or diploma of any
University. The work is complete and ready for evaluation.

Dr. S. C. Masram

Project Supervisor
Department of Zoology
RTM Nagpur University, Nagpur

Forwarded:
Dr. V. T. Dhurvey
Prof. and head of department of zoology
RTM Nagpur University, Nagpur
 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the present work completed in the form of project review report.
Entitled “Study of Neurosecretory Cells in Order: Odonata” is an original work and has not
been submitted or published before in any form for the fulfilment of degree or diploma of any
university.

Date:- Miss. Aishwarya Atilkar

(M.Sc. Semester- III)
An Autonomous P. G. T. D. of
Zoology RTM Nagpur University,
Place:- Nagpur
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express our special thanks to Prof. (Mrs.) V.T. Dhurvey, Head of Department of
Zoology. RTM Nagpur University for providing all fascilities required for this work.

I also express our sincere gratitude to Prof. Dr. S. C. Masram our supervisor for giving me an
opportunity to do this project and for his valuable guidance throughout the course of project work.

I also express our sincere thanks for their guidance and help at every step, support and for creation
of the healthy environment where interaction between them and me, played a major role to
achieve and every goal. Assistance of non-teaching staff is really unforgettable as they were
always available during need for any experiment.

Date:- Miss. Aishwarya Atilkar

Place:-
 Index

SR. NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

1 INTRODUCTION 1-2

2 NEUROSECRETORY 3-7
CELLS IN ODONATA

3 CONCLUSION 8

4 REFERENCES 9 - 11
Introduction

The nervous and endocrine systems work hand in hand in a process known as
neuroendocrine integration together, they play a crucial role in regulating various physiological
functions, ensuring the overall balance of the body, and responding swiftly to stress this
collaborative effort is essential for maintaining both everyday internal stability and a rapid
reaction to challenging situations (Hartenstein, 2006; Adamski et al. 2019).

A perusal of the ever-growing study of the neuroendocrine system of insects has reveals
that little work has been done on Odonata in comparison to other orders,present investigation
has, therefore, been undertaken to study the structure and physiological activities of the
neuroendocrine system in the dragonfly Orthetrum Chrysis the histomorphology of the cephalic
neuroendocrine system in the ultimate instar larva and the adult (Highnam, 1969; Wigglesworth,
1970).

Since the initial documentation by day in 1940, extensive research has been conducted by
numerous scholars on the neurosecretory cells (NSC) located in the ventral ganglia of various
insects however, the majority of earlier investigations were limited to the NSC found in the
subesophageal ganglion more recently, there has been a shift towards more comprehensive
examinations, providing detailed insights into the cytomorphology, classification, and
distribution of NSC in not only the suboesophageal ganglion but also in the thoracic and
abdominal ganglia (Scharrer, 1941; Arvy, 1952).

Researchers have investigated neurosecretory cells (NSC) in Odonata, particularly

focusing on nymphs of certain dragonflies one notable study focus into the NSC not only in
the subesophageal ganglion but also extends the exploration to encompass the thoracic and
abdominal ganglia of nymphs belonging to the Aeschna grandis species this study
contributes to our understanding of the distribution and characteristics of NSC in different
parts of the nervous system among dragonfly nymphs (Charlet, 1969). Until now, there has
been a noticeable gap in research focusing on adult dragonflies study aims to shed light on
the intricacies of the structure and function of the neurosecretory system located in the ventral
ganglia of adult dragonflies, with a specific focus on the species Orthetrum chrysis the
neurosecretory mechanisms operating in the adult stage of this particular dragonfly species.
Histological studies and classifications of neurosecretory cells in dragonflies reveal there is a
notable absence of information regarding the nature of these cells specifically, there is no
account of whether they exhibit different phases of activity within a single cell or if they vary
from one another in their nervous system modules (NSM) , To address this gap, the current
study was initiated with the aim of determining the nature of neurosecretory cells in
Orthetrum Chrysis ( Schaller, 1968; Charlet, 1972).

The initial examination of the endocrine glands in Odonata, appears to have been
inaccurate in terms of the spatial arrangement of these organs. Baldus was the first to describe
the nervi corporum cardiacarum Interni (NCCI) and their connection with the "stomatogastric
ganglia" (corpora cardiaca) however, he did not recognize their functional significance.
Furthermore, Baldus provided an account of the protocephalic neurosecretory system in
various Odonata but couldn't find any indication of the nervi corporum cardi-Acarum externi
(NCCII). He also struggled to locate the nervi corporum allatarum (NCA) in nymphs it was
reported that a delicate pair of nerves,

1
the NCCII, ran from the brain to the corpora cardiaca. Interestingly, it is found that these nerves
are present only in mature nymphs and adults. Additionally, Cazal asserted the presence of
nervi corporum allatarum (NCA) in mature nymphs this information highlights the evolving
understanding of the neuroendocrine system in Odonata over different studies and time periods.

Brain

In the Odonata species, the neurosecretory cells within the brain showcase a cyclic
pattern of secretory activity during the developmental stage of the last instar larva notably ,
the neurohormones released by the medial neurosecretory cells play a predominant role in
orchestrating the metamorphosis of the larva into a fully developed adult dragonfly this
information underscores the remarkable complexity of the neural structures in dragonflies
and sheds light on the crucial role played by neurosecretory cells and associated
neurohormones in the intricate process of metamorphosis from larva to adult (Schaller, 1959;
1970).
Larvae are treated with PME (Protocerebral medulla), the corpora cardiaca, which is a
part of the insect's brain, doesn't show any detectable neurosecretory material this is because
the corpora cardiaca functions as a neurohaemal organ, meaning it stores the neurosecretory
material produced by specific cells in the brain , In other words, instead of producing the
material itself, the corpora cardiaca acts like a storage facility for these important substances
that play a role in various physiological processes in the insect brain (Tembhare, 1976).
Larvae are treated with PME (Protocerebral medulla), it reduces the secretion activity of
the special cells within the corpora cardiaca in simpler terms , PME treatment decreases the
ability of specific cells in the insect's brain to release important substances stored in the
corpora cardiaca , this could have implications for various physiological functions in the
insect, as these substances play a role in regulating different processes within the body
(Varadaraj et al. 1993). The electrical activity of neurons responsible for detecting prey,
specifically those involved in recognizing downward movement on the opposite side (known
as descending contralateral movement detectors or DCMDs), is being studied in the brain. In
simpler terms, scientists are examining how certain brain cells respond to and process
information about the downward movement of potential prey understanding the
electrophysiological behavior of these neurons can provide insights into the mechanisms
underlying the insect's ability to detect and react to specific types of movement in its
environment (Gonka et al.1999).
Neurons in the dragonfly brain known as target-selective descending neurons (TSDNs).
In simpler terms, scientists are studying specific cells in the dragonfly's brain that play a role
in selecting and responding to particular targets these neurons are involved in the dragonfly's
ability to focus on and pursue specific objects or prey, Studying the behavior of target-selective
descending neurons helps us understand how dragonflies process information and navigate
their surroundings to capture their intended targets (Frye, 1995).

2
 In the dragonfly species Orthetrum Chrysis, there are cells known as type B and C cells
located in the optic lobes of their brains these cells contain a substance that reacts positively to
PF staining it was observed specific cells in the dragonfly's optic lobes and these cells , labeled
as type B and C, show a positive reaction to a staining technique called PF staining this staining
indicates the presence of certain materials in these cells, Investigating these cells and the
substances they contain helps researchers better understand the structure and function of the
dragonfly's visual processing system ( Benedeczky. L et al. 1982 ). In the brain region called
the pars intercerebralis of the dragonfly Orthetrum Chrysis , there are three types of cells known
as A, B, and C cells these cells are distinct from each other and are responsible for producing
different types of neurosecretory material (NSM) to put it simply, in a specific part of the
dragonfly's brain , there are three different types of cells, labeled A, B, and C, and each of these
cells produces a unique chemical substance that plays a role in the insect's nervous system
investigating these distinct cell types helps scientists understand the diversity of functions
within the dragonfly's brain (Tembhare et al. 1975).

In dragonflies and damselflies (odonates), the corpora allata, which are glands involved
in hormonal regulation, have two different states these glands are actively producing hormones,
they are in a syncytial condition, meaning their cells are fused together without clear boundaries
on the other hand , when the corpora allata are not actively producing hormones, they are in a
cellular state with distinct cell walls separating individual cells these glands in these insects
have two forms: one where the cells are fused together during hormone production, and another
where the cells are separate when the gland is not actively engaged in hormone secretion this
distinction in the structure of the corpora allata is essential for understanding the hormonal
regulation processes in dragonflies and damselflies (Schaller et al. 1970; Tembhare et al. 1994).

Neurosecretory cells

In the ventral ganglia of insects, specifically in the lower part of their nervous system,
there are cells known as neurosecretory cells similar to the brain cells, these ventral ganglia
cells come in various types, and scientists classify them based on their preferences for different
stains, as well as their size and location in the ganglia this classification was established by
(Raabe, 1971). The A, B, C1, and C2 cells in the ventral ganglia are specifically examined in
terms of their neurosecretory nature, meaning their ability to release substances that play a role
in the nervous system the fact that these cells produce chemically different nervous system
modules (NSM) provides strong support for categorizing them into distinct types of specific
cells in the lower part of the insect nervous system, and by studying their staining properties,
size, and location, they have found evidence supporting the idea that these cells function
differently in terms of the substances they produce for the nervous system (Thakare et al. 1975)
.

The neurosecretory cells (NSC) found in the ventral ganglia of insects have similarities to
those located in the Pars intercerebralis region of the brain in Orthetrum chrysis, these cells
responsible for releasing substances in the lower part of the insect's nervous system are
comparable to the cells found in a specific area of the brain in Orthetrum chrysis this suggests
that there are common features or functions between these two sets of cells, potentially indicating
shared roles in the regulation of the insect's physiological processes, Studying these similarities
helps scientists understand how different parts of the insect's nervous system work together to
control various functions in its body (Thakare et al. 1977) .

3
Cells labeled as A and B are considered genuine neurosecretory cells, meaning they truly release
substances that play a role in the nervous system on the other hand, cells labeled as C are
categorized as false neurosecretory cells, indicating that they don't actually release these
substances cells A and B, they actively contribute to the release of important substances in the
nervous system however, these cells labeled as C, they may resemble neurosecretory cells but
don't function in the same way; they don't release the substances associated with nervous system
regulation this distinction helps researchers understand the different types of cells and their roles
in the intricate functions of the nervous system (Highnam, 1961).

The B cells are identified as genuine neurosecretory cells because they contain certain
chemical groups, specifically SH (sulfhydryl) and SS (disulfide) groups and confirmed that B
cells are indeed neurosecretory cells by detecting the presence of specific chemical groups
within them these groups, SH and SS, are indicative of the cell's ability to release substances
involved in nervous system functions, this identification is crucial in understanding the role of
B cells in the intricate processes of the nervous system (Chalaye, 1967).

In the anterodorsal region of the medial part of the pars intercerebralis medialis, there are
two sets of neurosecretory cells located on either side of the root of the Medial ocellar nerve
these neurosecretory cells into three categories, labeled as A, B, and C, based on specific criteria
this classification was established by various scientists, including Nayar (1955), Johansson
(1958), Highnam (1961), and others, a particular area of the insect brain, there are cells that
release substances important for the nervous system. Scientists have observed these cells on
either side of a nerve root and have sorted them into three groups (A, B, and C) using certain
criteria set by researchers like Nayar, Johansson, Highnam, and others this classification helps
in understanding the diversity and functions of these neurosecretory cells in the insect brain
(Nayar, 1955; Johansson, 1958; Highnam, 1961; grillot, 1971).

Neuroendocrine system

Considerable information has been gathered regarding the MNC (Methyl Naphthyl Ketone)
groups in various other species of dragonflies, MNC groups in dragonflies beyond the specific
species initially mentioned this accumulated knowledge contributes to a broader understanding
of how MNC groups function across diverse dragonfly species, shedding light on their
ecological roles, behavioral patterns, or any unique features they may exhibit in different
contexts this wealth of information aids researchers in comprehensively studying and
comparing the roles and behaviors of MNC groups across the broader spectrum of dragonfly
species (Hanstrom, 1940).
The natural peptide antigens found in the stained neurons could be a part of either the
pancreatic polypeptide family or the FMR Famide family to delve deeper, when examining
stained neurons, scientists have identified endogenous peptide antigens these particular peptides,
or protein fragments, might be associated with two distinct families: the pancreatic polypeptide
family or the FMR Famide family these families are groups of related peptides with specific
structures and functions, Investigating the presence of these peptide antigens in neurons provides
valuable information about the potential involvement of these peptide families in neural
processes, offering insights into the complex molecular dynamics within the nervous system
(White et al.1986).

4
The regulation of ionic balance through hormones seems primarily associated with the
neurohormones produced by A cells, However in certain insects, the cells of the Pars
intercerebralis in the brain also play a role the intricate system of hormonal regulation that
maintains the balance of ions within an organism appears to have a primary player in the form
of neurohormones from A cells these neurohormones likely orchestrate the physiological
processes involved in ionic balance notably, in specific insects, an additional regulatory
component comes into play – the cells of the Pars intercerebralis located in the brain these cells
likely contribute to the overall control of ionic balance, showcasing the complexity and variation
in hormonal regulatory mechanisms across different insect species of brain (Berridge, 1966;
Vietinghoff, 1966; Wall, 1967; Mills, 1967; Pilcher, 1970).

In B cell Geminata, A-cells exhibit active synthesis and secretion of neurohormones but
in PME treated larvae, the Cells gradually stop their secretory activity technics and radio
immunoassays of extracts from the brain, several gastro-entero-pancreatic hormones and
neuropeptides have previously been detected in the insect nervous system, e.g. :
cholecystokinin/gastrin (Dockray. J. G, 1981; Duve. H, 1982; El-Salhy. M, 1980).

Despite the absence of fully developed olfactory glomeruli, the dragonfly species L.
depressa demonstrates the ability to sense olfactory stimuli, as evidenced by
electrophysiological recordings L. depressa lacks fully mature olfactory glomeruli, which are
specialized structures in the brain associated with the sense of smell, the dragonfly displays
proficiency in detecting olfactory stimuli this capability has been observed and confirmed
through the use of electrophysiological recordings, a method that involves measuring electrical
activity in response to sensory stimuli the findings suggest that L. depressa employs alternative
or less conventional mechanisms to perceive and respond to olfactory cues, highlighting the
adaptability and complexity of sensory processes in this particular dragonfly species (Rebora
et al. 2012).

Distinctive features known as olfactory glomeruli are characteristic elements found in

the primary olfactory centers of both vertebrates and advanced invertebrates the olfactory
glomeruli are specialized structures found in the brains of vertebrates and certain higher
invertebrates, serving as crucial components of their primary olfactory processing centers these
structures play a key role in the initial stages of olfaction, where sensory information related to
smell is received, integrated, and processed the presence of olfactory glomeruli associated with
the sense of smell in both vertebrate and advanced invertebrate species (Hildebrand et al. 1997;
Joseph, 2020).
The internal head anatomy of Epiophlebia in its larval stage is severely incomplete and
lacking in detailed information while examining the internal structures of the head in the larval
phase of Epiophlebia, researchers have encountered significant challenges due to the
fragmentary nature of the available information the limited details hinder a comprehensive
understanding of the larval internal head anatomy of this particular species this gap in knowledge
underscores the need for further research and exploration to fill in the missing pieces and gain a
more thorough insight into the intricacies of Epiophlebia's larval head anatomy (Asahina, 1954;
Tramu. G et al.1983). Lead ions being effective in this connection could only be present In very
low concentrations in the hemolymph fluid, which normally is separated from The brain tissue
by a neural lamellar sheath as an effective barrier against uncontrolled Ion influx (Treheme,
1972).

5
Numerous neuropeptides undergo a process known as amidation at their C-terminus this
biochemical modification serves a crucial purpose – it effectively shields the free carboxyl group
present at the end of the peptide chain the rationale behind this protective measure lies in
preventing swift and indiscriminate degradation by carboxypeptidases when these neuropeptides
are circulating in the bloodstream to elaborate, amidation involves the conversion of the terminal
carboxyl group into an amide, a more stable chemical structure this alteration is akin to placing
a molecular guard on the vulnerable end of the neuropeptide, shielding it from enzymatic attacks
that could otherwise break it down too rapidly In the dynamic environment of the bloodstream,
where various enzymes are at play, this amidation at the C-terminus acts as a strategic defense
mechanism, ensuring the neuropeptides maintain their structural integrity and functionality until
they reach their intended targets or undergo regulated degradation (Goldsworthy et al. 1989).

In the developmental stage of the dragonfly species Tramea virginia, specific cells
known as A-cells play a vital role these A-cells release a hormone called allatotrophic
neurohormone, which serves to activate the corpora-allata, and another hormone called
prothoracicotropic neurohormone, which stimulates the ventral glands this intricate hormonal
signaling system plays a crucial part in regulating various physiological processes during the
larval stage of Tramea virginia (Tembhare et al. 1994).

Neurohormones, which are signaling molecules in the nervous system, play a role in
regulating the Malpighian tubules, specialized structures involved in excretion in insects and
other arthropods when these neurohormones act on the tubules, they prompt a rapid release of
fluid from the hemolymph, the insect's circulatory fluid this heightened fluid movement leads to
an intensified diuretic response, where the insect expels a notably increased volume of urine this
physiological process is essential for maintaining the insect's internal balance of fluids and waste
products (Highnam, 1969; Cazal, 1947; Mordue, 1969).

The intrinsic cells responsible for regulating the sugar levels in the hemolymph of
dragonfly larvae do not produce neurohormones these intrinsic cells, which are integral to
maintaining the appropriate sugar concentration in the hemolymph (the circulatory fluid of the
larva), do not engage in the production of neurohormones these are signaling molecules that
typically play a role in the control and coordination of physiological processes in the absence
of neurohormone production by these intrinsic cells suggests that other mechanisms or factors
may be at play in the regulation of hemolymph sugar levels in dragonfly larvae physiology
remains a subject of interest and investigation in understanding the intricacies of metabolic
control in these developmental stages (Tembhare et al. 1991c).

Neurohormones, which are active substances made of proteins, are created and released
by regular neurons to elaborate, neurons, the fundamental cells of the nervous system, have
the capacity to produce and release neurohormones these neurohormones, being protein-based,
serve as signaling molecules that play important roles in transmitting messages within the
nervous system and often have widespread effects on various physiological processes the
synthesis and release of neurohormones by neurons are essential aspects of the intricate
communication network that enables the nervous system to regulate and coordinate activities
throughout the body (Bern, 1962; Scharrer, 1969; Wigglesworth, 1970).

6
Neurohormones, regardless of their origin, play a crucial role in maintaining the balance of water
and electrolytes in insects neurohormones are key players in the regulation of water and
electrolyte levels within the bodies of insects, Regardless of where these neurohormones come
from, whether it's the nervous system, certain glands, or other sources, their primary function is
to orchestrate processes that ensure a stable internal environment for the insect this includes
controlling the absorption and excretion of water and electrolytes, crucial factors for the insect's
overall physiological well-being the intricate involvement of neurohormones in these processes
underscores their significance in orchestrating the delicate balance of fluid and electrolyte
homeostasis in insect physiology (Novak, 1975).

7
Conclusion

The adult dragonfly, Orthetrum chrysis, exhibits a classification of neurosecretory cells in its
ventral ganglia, denoted as A, B, C1, and C2 cells. These cells are identified based on three
criteria: the presence of stainable granules, the occurrence of neurosecretory material in their
axons and terminals, and cyclic activity that involves changes in the quantity of
neurosecretory material corresponding to physiological activities. A neuroanatomical study
has unveiled the existence of spherical knots in the aglomerular antennal lobe, suggesting a
potential role in the perception of odors. Neurons believed to regulate interception in
dragonflies are accessible through tracts in the third neuropil of the optic lobe. The
subesophageal ganglion (SEG), located ventrally just below the brain and esophagus, exhibits
the presence of immunoreactive deposits within the insect neurohaemal organ. The term
"cephalic endocrine glands" encompasses various structures, including neurosecretory cells
of the pars intercerebralis and their axons, corpora cardiaca, corpora allata, and ventral
glands.

The physiology of neurons accessible through tracts in the third neuropil of the optic lobe,
and the neurosecretory axons, likely corresponds to those immunohistochemically detected.
Interestingly, the removal of the pars intercerebralis region of the brain and ligature at the
neck region do not provide any indication of involvement of hormones from the brain and
other endocrine organs of the cephalic region. Flight muscles, which oscillate under direct
flight control, exhibit one-to-one matches between neuronal stimulus. Notably, in both adult
and nymphal dragonflies, the same brain regions seem capable of processing highly diverging
information from different sensory structures. This intricate network of neurosecretory cells,
anatomical structures, and physiological processes underscores the complexity and
adaptability of the dragonfly's nervous and endocrine systems.

8
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