CEE 102/L

Physics 1 for Engineers

ULO 1a
UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
Metalanguage
SI Units Prefixes
Unit Conversion
SI and English units systems
 Unit Conversion
SI and English units systems
Example 1 Example 2
A rectangular building lot has a At Mc Arthur Highway, a car is
width of 75.0 ft and a length of 125 ft. traveling at a speed of 38 m/s. Is
Determine the area of this lot in the driver over-speeding the limit
square meters. of 75.0 mi/h?
 Unit Analysis
Unit conversion is a process involving multiplication or division by a numerical
factor to obtain the desired unit. Unit analysis is applicable for units derived from
formulas and will be useful in solving complex equations.

Example 1 Example 2
Determine the speed of the body Prove that potential energy is equal
which travelled 50 meters in 4 seconds. to kinetic energy.
Scalar and Vector Quantities
A scalar is a quantity that describes a physical phenomenon by magnitude only.
Examples are mass, length, time, temperature, distance, speed, and so on.

A vector is a quantity having both the magnitude and direction. Examples are
displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, and so on.
Vector Quantities
❑ Equal Vectors ❑ Negative of a Vector
Two vectors A and B, which have the same If A is a nonzero vector, we define the negative
length and same direction, are said to be of A, denoted –A, to be the vector whose
equal vectors even though they have different magnitude (or length) is the same as the
initial points and different terminal points. If A magnitude (or length) of the vector A, but
and B are equal vectors, we write A = B. whose direction is opposite to that of A.
 Example:

Vector Quantities Find the unit vector of vector A = (1, -3, 4) as a

combination of basic vectors i, j and k.

❑ Unit Vector Solution:

A vector whose magnitude unity i.e., 1 and

direction along the given vector.
Operations of Vectors
❑ Sum of Two Vectors A+B
B
The sum of two vectors A and B, written A + B is
the vector determined as follows.
A
o Place the vector B so that its initial point
coincides with the terminal point of the
vector A.
o The vector A + B is the vector whose initial
point is the initial point of A and whose
B A+B
terminal point is the terminal point of B.

Here is another figure representing the

geometric interpretation of the addition of two
vectors, which is sometimes called the
Parallelogram Law or Triangle Law. A
Operations of Vectors
❑ Sum of Two Vectors
The sum of two vectors A and B, written A + B is
the vector determined as follows.
o Place the vector B so that its initial point
coincides with the terminal point of the
vector A.
o The vector A + B is the vector whose initial
point is the initial point of A and whose
terminal point is the terminal point of B.

Here is another figure representing the

geometric interpretation of the addition of two
vectors, which is sometimes called the
Parallelogram Law or Triangle Law.
Operations of Vectors A+B
B
❑ Difference of Two Vectors
If A and B are any two vectors, we define the A
difference of A and B, denoted A – B, to be the
vector A + (–B). To construct the vector A – B we
A + (-B) -B
can either

o construct the sum of the vector A and the

vector –B; or

o position A and B so that their initial points

coincide; then the vector from the terminal
point of B to the terminal point of A is the A-B
vector A – B B

A
Operations of Vectors
❑ Difference of Two Vectors
If A and B are any two vectors, we define the
difference of A and B, denoted A – B, to be the
vector A + (–B). To construct the vector A – B we
can either

o construct the sum of the vector A and the

vector –B; or

o position A and B so that their initial points

coincide; then the vector from the terminal
point of B to the terminal point of A is the
vector A – B
 Quiz
1. A certain car has a fuel efficiency of 25.0 miles per gallon
(mi/gal). Express this efficiency in kilometers per liter (km/L).

2. A house is 50.0 ft long and 26 ft wide and has 8.0-fthigh

ceilings. What is the volume of the interior of the house in
cubic meters and in cubic centimeters?
 CEE 102/L
Physics 1 for Engineers

ULO 1b
Kinematics
Metalanguage
Position
The position is the location of the particle from a chosen reference point that we can
consider to be the origin of a coordinate system.

Distance
Distance is the length of a path followed by a particle. It is the total amount of space
that the particle covered during its motion.

Displacement (Δ𝑥)
Displacement of a particle is defined as its change in position in some time interval. It is
a vector quantity and can be either positive or negative and describes how far out of
place the particle is.
Position, Distance and Displacement
The reference point is x=0 and the
car’s initial position is at 30 m to the
right of the origin. Let us define to
the right of the origin as the
positive distance and negative
distance to the left. For every ten
seconds, the car moves from one
point to another. The car moves
back and forth along a straight line
from point A to F.
 Speed and Velocity

Speed
Speed, denoted as 𝑣, of an object over a
given time interval is the length of the path it
travels divided by the total elapsed time
 Speed and Velocity

Velocity
Velocity denoted as 𝑣̅, during a time interval
Δ𝑡 is the displacement Δ𝑥 divided by Δ𝑡
 Acceleration

Acceleration
Acceleration is defined as the change in
velocity over a given time.
Rectilinear Motions
Horizontal motions Example
The speed of the train is reduced from
15 m/s to 7 m/s and while travelling a
distance of 90 m. How much farther will
the train travel before coming to rest,
provided the acceleration remains
constant?
Rectilinear Motions
Vertical motions / Free-falling Bodies Example
Water drips from the nozzle of a shower
onto the floor 2.45 meter below. How
long will it take for a drop to reach the
floor?
Example 3 Example 4
A stone is dropped into a well 30 m deep. An car moving at a constant velocity of 15
How long will take for the sound of the m/s passes a gasoline station. Two seconds
splash be heard? Assume the speed of later, another car leaves the gasoline
sound v = 343 m/s. station and accelerates at a constant rate
of 2 m/s2. How soon will the second car
overtake the first?
Example 5
A ball is thrown from the top of a building with an
initial velocity of 20.0 m/s straight upward, at an
initial height of 50.0 m above the ground. The ball
just misses the edge of the roof on its way down.
Determine the following:

a. the time needed for the ball to reach its

maximum height.
b. the maximum height.
c. the time needed for the ball to return to the
height from which it was thrown and the velocity of
the ball at that instant
d. the time needed for the ball to reach the ground
e. the velocity and position of the ball at t = 5.00 s.
Seatwork 1
A rocket moves straight upward, starting from rest
with an acceleration of +29.4 m/s2. It runs out of fuel
at the end of 4.00 s and continues to coast upward,
reaching a maximum height before falling back to
Earth. Determine the time for the rocket to reach
the ground and its velocity just before it hits the
ground.
Curvilinear Motions
Projectile motions
Curvilinear Motions
Projectile motions
Example 1 Example 2
An Alaskan rescue plane drops a package A long jumper leaves the ground at an
of emergency rations to stranded hikers. angle of 20.0° to the horizontal and at a
The plane is traveling horizontally at 40.0 speed of 11.0 m/s. How long does it take
m/s at a height of 100. m above the for him to reach maximum height? Find the
ground. Where does the package strike the maximum height it reaches.
ground relative to the point at which it was
released?
Example 3 Seatwork 2
A projectile is thrown from the top of a A body is projected upward from the level
building with an initial velocity of 20 m/s in ground at an angle of 50° with the
the horizontal direction. If the top of the horizontal has an initial speed of 40 m/s.
building is 30 m above the ground, how How long will it take to hit the ground?
fast will the projectile be moving just before
it hits the ground?
 CEE 102/L
Physics 1 for Engineers

ULO 1c
Kinetics – Laws of Motions
Metalanguage
Force
– refers to an interaction with an object that causes it to move.
• Contact Forces - causes the object’s velocity to change.
• Field Forces - doesn’t involve any direct physical contact such as gravitational force between to masses,
electric force between two charges, and magnetic force.
Mass
– is a measure of the object’s resistance to changes in its motion due to a force.
Inertia
– is the tendency of an object to continue its motion in the absence of a force.
Friction
– is the force that resists motion when the surface of one object comes in contact with the surface of another.
Equilibrium
– a state of balance between opposing forces or actions that is static (as in a body acted on by forces whose
resultant is zero).
Laws of Motion
Newton’s First Law
Law of Inertia

States that an object moves with a velocity

that is constant in magnitude and direction
unless a non-zero net force acts on it. This law
explains what happens to an object that has
no net force acting on it. The net force on an
object is defined as the vector sum of all
external forces exerted on the object.
“An object at rest remains at rest and an
object in motion continues in motion with a
constant velocity.”
 Laws of Motion
Newton’s Second Law
Law of Acceleration
States that the acceleration of an object is
directly proportional to the net force acting
on it and inversely proportional to its mass.

𝐹
𝑎=
𝑚
“Acceleration (gaining speed) happens when
a force acts on a mass (object).”
Laws of Motion
Newton’s Third Law
Law of Reaction
If two objects interact, the force exerted by
object 1 on object 2 is equal in magnitude
and opposite in direction to the force
exerted by object 2 on object 1

𝐹Ԧ12 = 𝐹Ԧ21
“States that for every action (force) in nature
there is an equal and opposite reaction.”
Example 1: Example 2:
An airboat with mass 3.50 x102 kg, including A hockey puck having a mass of 0.30 kg
the passenger, has an engine that produces slides on the frictionless, horizontal surface of
a net horizontal force of 7.70 x102 N, after an ice rink. Two hockey sticks strike the puck
accounting for forces of resistance. simultaneously, exerting the forces on the
puck. The force F1 has a magnitude of 5.0 N,
a. Find the acceleration of the airboat. and is directed at 𝜃= 20° below the x-axis. The
b. Starting from rest, how long does it take force F2 has a magnitude of 8.0 N and its
the airboat to reach a speed of 12.0 m/s? direction is 𝜃 = 60° above the x-axis.
Determine both the magnitude and the
direction of the puck’s acceleration.
Example 3: Example 4:
A traffic light weighing 100 N hangs from a A sled is tied to a tree on a frictionless, snow-
vertical cable tied to two other cables that covered hill. If the sled weighs 77.0 N, find the
are fastened to a support. The upper cables magnitude of the tension force exerted by
make angles of 37.0° and 53.0° with the the rope on the sled and that of the normal
horizontal. Find the tension in each of the force N exerted by the hill on the sled.
three cables.
Example 4:
A sled is tied to a tree on a frictionless, snow-
covered hill. If the sled weighs 77.0 N, find the
magnitude of the tension force exerted by
the rope on the sled and that of the normal
force N exerted by the hill on the sled.
Forces of Friction
A moving object on a surface or through a
viscous medium experiences an opposite
resistance force called friction.
Kinetic Friction (𝑓𝑘) – when object is moving
Static Friction (𝑓s) – when object is static

A frictional force of an object exerted by its

surface is proportional to its normal force N.

𝐹𝑓 = 𝜇𝑁
where:
µ = coefficient of friction (µs or µk)
Example 1: Example 2:
Suppose a block with a mass of 2.50 kg is The hockey puck of 30 grams struck by a
resting on a ramp. If the coefficient of static hockey stick is given an initial speed of 20.0
friction between the block and ramp is 0.350, m/s on a frozen pond. The puck remains on
what maximum angle can the ramp make the ice and slides 1.20 x102 m, slowing down
with the horizontal before the block starts to steadily until it comes to rest. Determine the
slip down? coefficient of kinetic friction between the
puck and the ice.
Example 3:
Starting from rest, a rectangular toy block with mass 300 g slides in 1.30 s all the
way across a table 1.20 m in length that Zak has tilted at an angle of 42.0° to
the horizontal.
a. What is the magnitude of the acceleration of the toy block?
b. What is the coefficient of kinetic friction between the block and the table?
 CEE 102/L
Physics 1 for Engineers

ULO 1d
Dynamics of Rotation
Metalanguage
Centrifugal Force
– is the apparent outward force on a mass when it is rotated.
Centripetal Acceleration (Normal Acceleration)
– the acceleration directed toward the center of the circular
path by a net force.

Tangential Acceleration
– is a measure of the rate of change in the magnitude of the
velocity vector.

Friction
– is the force that resists motion when the surface of one
object comes in contact with the surface of another.
 Centrifugal Force
When a body moves in a uniform velocity
along a curve path of radius r, it has a radial
inward acceleration defined by centripetal
acceleration. Thus, to bring the body back to
dynamic equilibrium state, an inertial force
must be applied in radial outward direction
and this force is called centrifugal force.

Centripetal acceleration: Centrifugal force:

𝑣2 𝑣2
𝑎𝑐 = 𝐹𝑐 = 𝑚
𝑟 𝑟
where:
v = linear velocity of the body (m/s)
r = radius of curve (m)
m = mass of the body (kg)
Example 1: Example 2:
A puck of mass 0.500 kg is attached to the A 1 500-kg car moving on a flat, horizontal
end of a cord 1.50 m long. The puck moves in road negotiates a curve. If the radius of the
a horizontal circle. If the cord can withstand curve is 35.0 m and the coefficient of static
a maximum tension of 50.0 N, what is the friction between the tires and dry pavement
maximum speed at which the puck can is 0.523, find the maximum speed the car can
move before the cord breaks? Assume the have and still make the turn successfully.
string remains horizontal during the motion.
Banking
A banked curve is a curve that has its
surface at angle with respect to the ground
on which the curve is positioned. The reason
for banking curves is to decrease the moving
object's reliance on the force of friction.

𝑣2
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 + 𝜑 =
𝑔𝑟
where: Angle of friction:
Ɵ = angle of banking in the road
𝜑 = angle of friction 𝜑 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝜇)
v = velocity of the body (m/s)
g = acceleration due to gravity
r = radius of curve
Example 1: Example 2:
A civil engineer wishes to redesign the curved At what angle should a road be slanted to
roadway in such a way that a car will not prevent an automobile travelling at 25 m/s
have to rely on friction to round the curve from tending to slip? The radius of curvature is
without skidding. Suppose the designated 200 m.
speed for the road is to be 13.4 m/s (30.0
mi/h) and the radius of the curve is 35.0 m. At
what angle should the curve be banked?
 CEE 102/L
Physics 1 for Engineers

ULO 1e
Work-Energy Theorem
Conservation of Energy
Metalanguage
1. The work done by a constant force to displace an object is zero if
the direction of force is perpendicular to the motion.
2. The work done by a constant force to displace an object is
maximum if the direction of force applied approaches 0° with
respect to the direction of motion.
3. Work and energy are scalar quantities.
4. When work is done on a system and the only change in the system
is in its speed, the net work done on the system equals the change
in kinetic energy of the system.
5. Potential energy does not refer to something that has the potential
to become energy. Potential energy is energy.
6. Joule (J) is the SI standard unit for work and energy. 1 J = 1 N∙m
 However, force is a vector and the
Work direction to where it is applied
matters.
Work is done by applying a constant force to
displace a certain object. The elementary
definition of work is equal to force times the
distance.

By definition, work 𝑊 done on a system by

an agent exerting a constant force on the
system is the vector product of the force
F, the magnitude Δ𝑥 of the displacement
of the point of application of the force,
𝑊 =𝐹∙𝑑
where: 𝑊 = 𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ∙ 𝑑
W = work done (J, N∙m)
F = force applied (N) where:
d = displacement (m) Ɵ = angle of application of force (degrees)
Example 1: Example 2:
A box is dragged across a floor by a rope A constant horizontal force of 10 N is required
which makes an angle of 60° with the to drag an object across a rough surface at a
horizontal. The tension in the rope is 100 N constant speed of 5 m/s. How much work
while the box is dragged 15 m. How much would be done in 30 min?
work is done?
Work Done by a Spring
When a spring is either compressed or
stressed from its equilibrium position, it exerts
a force that is equal to,

𝐹𝑠 = −𝑘𝑥
where:
FS = spring force (N)
𝑘 = spring constant (N/m)
= spring’s stiffness
x = spring deformation (m)

Therefore, the work 𝑊 done by the spring

can be defined by
𝑥𝑓 1
𝑊 = න 𝐹𝑠 ∙ 𝑑𝑥 = න −𝑘𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑊 = 𝑘(𝑥𝑖 2 − 𝑥𝑓 2 )
𝑥𝑖
2
Example 1: Example 2:
If a spring is stretched 2 cm by a suspended A spring with a natural height of 57 mm is
object having a mass of 0.55 kg, what is the compressed by a 300 g mass to a new height
force constant of the spring? How much work of 51 mm.
is done by the spring on the on the object as a. Find the spring constant in SI units.
it stretched through this distance? b. Find the height of the spring if the 300 g
mass were replaced by a 400 g mass.
Kinetic Energy Kinetic energy is the work done by the
net force on a particle of mass 𝑚 is
Energy is defined as the capacity to do work. equal to the difference between the
When work is done in the system that causes initial and final values of a quantity
it to change its speed, then the type of
energy that the system can possess is called
kinetic energy.
𝑊 = ∆𝐾𝐸
1 1
1 𝑊= 𝑚 𝑣𝑓 2 − 𝑚 𝑣𝑖 2
𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 2 2 2
2 1 2
where: 𝑊= 𝑚 (𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣𝑖 2 )
KE = kinetic energy (Joules, kg∙m2 /s2)
2
𝑚 = mass of the body (kg) where:
v = velocity of the body (m/s) vf = final velocity of the body (m/s)
vi = initial velocity of the body (m/s)
Example 1: Example 2:
A 6.0-kg block initially at rest is pulled to the The driver of a 100 kg car traveling on the
right along a frictionless, horizontal surface by interstate at 35.0 m/s (nearly 80.0 mph) slams on
a constant horizontal force of magnitude 12 his brakes to avoid hitting a second vehicle in
N. Find the block’s speed after it has moved front of him, which had come to rest because of
through a horizontal distance of 3.0 m. congestion ahead. After the brakes are applied,
a constant kinetic friction force of magnitude 800
N acts on the car. Ignore air resistance. At what
minimum distance should the brakes be applied
to avoid a collision with the other vehicle?
 Example 2:
Potential Energy A 60.0-kg skier is at the top of a slope, as
shown. At the initial point A, she is 10.0 m
While the object was at the highest point, vertically above point B.
the system had the potential to possess
kinetic energy, but it did not do so until the
object was allowed to fall. Therefore, we call
the energy storage mechanism before the
object is released potential energy.
The force associated to potential energy is the
object’s weight, and that the change in velocity is
actually present as the acceleration due to gravity.
Therefore

𝑃𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
where:
PE = potential energy (Joules, kg∙m2 /s2)
𝑚 = mass of the body (kg)
g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
ℎ = height (m)
Conservation of Energy
The First Law of Thermodynamics states that energy cannot be created nor destroyed,
but it can be transformed from one form to another. In physics, this is also known as the
Law of Conservation of Energy.

Force is said to be conservative if the work done by

a conservative force on a particle moving through
any closed path is zero. Therefore

𝑊 = ∆𝐾𝐸 + ∆𝑃𝐸
0 = ∆𝐾𝐸 + ∆𝑃𝐸
0 = 𝐾𝐸𝑓 − 𝐾𝐸𝑖 + 𝑃𝐸𝑓 − 𝑃𝐸𝑖

𝐾𝐸𝑖 + 𝑃𝐸𝑖 = 𝐾𝐸𝑓 + 𝑃𝐸𝑓

Example 1: Example 2:
A ball is rolled of the edge of a table 3 ft high At her highest point, a girl on a swing is 7 ft
with horizontal velocity of 4 ft/s. With what above the ground and her lowest point, she
velocity does it strike the floor? is 3 ft above the ground. What is her
maximum velocity?
Example 3:
A car coast down a hill and then up a smaller
one onto a level surface where it has speed
of 32 ft/s. If the car started 200 ft above the
lowest point on the track, how far above its
lowest point is the level surface?
Relationship between Work and Energy
Energy should be transferred to an object Example 1:
in order to move it. Transferring energy
can be in the form of force. This amount A 5-gram bullet moving at 100 m/s strikes a
of energy transferred by the force to log. If the bullet undergoes uniform
move an object is called work or work deceleration and stops in 6 cm, find the
average resistance force on the log.
done.

෍𝑊 = ෍𝐸

𝑊𝐹 + 𝑊𝑆 + 𝑊𝐹𝑓 = ∆𝐾𝐸 + ∆𝑃𝐸

where:
𝑊𝐹 = work done by a force
𝑊𝑆 = work done on a spring
𝑊𝐹𝑓 = work done by the frictional force
∆𝐾𝐸 = change in kinetic energy
∆𝑃𝐸 = change in potential energy
Example 2: Example 3:
Determine the frictional force acting on a 5 A 2-kg block is dropped from a height of 40
kg box that has an initial speed of 10 m/s and cm onto a spring whose force constant is
slides to a stop after sliding 15 m along a level 1960 N/m. Find the maximum distance the
floor. spring will be compressed.
Example 4:
A box slides down a plane 8 m long that is
inclined at an angle of 30° with the horizontal.
If the box starts from rest and µ = 0.25, find its
velocity at the bottom of the plane.
Power
Power is defined as the rate at which energy
is transferred.
If an external force does work W on an
object in the time interval Δ𝑡, then the
average power delivered to the object is the
work done divided by the time interval.

𝐸 𝑊
𝑃= =
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
where:
𝑃 = power (Joules/sec, Watts)
𝐸 = energy (Joules, kg∙m2/s2)
Δ𝑡 = change in time (seconds)
𝑊 = work done on the system (Joules, kg∙m2/s2)
Example 1: Example 2:
A 1000-kg elevator car carries a maximum load What maximum distance that a 60-W motor
of 800 kg. A constant frictional force of 4000 N may vertically lift a 90-N weight in 7.5 sec.
retards its motion upward. What minimum
power, in kilowatts and in horsepower, must the
motor deliver to lift the fully loaded elevator car
at a constant speed of 3 m/s?
Example 3:
What minimum horsepower is needed to move
a 3000-lb car up an 8° incline with a constant
speed of 50 mph against a frictional force of 80
lbs?
 CEE 102/L
Physics 1 for Engineers

ULO 2a
Impulse and Momentum
Impulse and Momentum
Momentum
Refers to the quantity of motion that an
object has. If an object is in motion (on the
move) then it has momentum.

The linear momentum 𝑴 of an object of mass

𝑚 moving with velocity 𝒗 is the product of its
mass and velocity.

𝑀 = 𝑚 𝑣Ԧ
where:
𝑀 = linear momentum (kg∙m/s)
𝑚 = mass of object (kg) NOTE! Momentum is a vector quantity as the velocity
is. Two-dimensional motions include the analysis of its
𝑣Ԧ = velocity (m/s) x- and y- components.
Impulse and Momentum
Impulse: Relationship to Momentum If a constant force 𝑭 acts on an object,
the impulse 𝑰Ԧ delivered to the object over
Recall Newton’s second law of motion that a time interval Δ𝑡 is given by
defines the force in relation to the object’s
mass and acceleration. There is also a
relationship between momentum and force. 𝐼Ԧ = 𝐹∆𝑡
Ԧ
In fact, changing the momentum of an where:
object requires the application of a force.
𝐼Ԧ = impulse (kg∙m/s)
𝐹Ԧ = force applied on the object (N)
∆𝑣 ∆𝑀 ∆𝑡 = time (s)
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚 =
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 therefore:

If net force on the object is zero, then there is no 𝐼Ԧ = ∆𝑀

change in momentum, we call this as conservation
of momentum. Ԧ = 𝑚(𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣𝑖 )
𝐹∆𝑡
Example 1:
A golf ball with mass 50 gram is struck with a club.
Assume that the ball leaves the clubface with a velocity
of 144 m/s.
a. Find the magnitude of the impulse due to the collision
b. Estimate the duration of the collision and the
average force acting on the ball, assuming a 2 cm
distance that the ball travels on the face of the club.
Example 2:
In a crash test, a car of mass 1500 kg collides with a wall
and rebounds. The initial and final velocities of the car
are 𝑣𝑖=−15.0 𝑚/𝑠 and 𝑣𝑓=2.60 m/s, respectively. If the
collision lasts for 0.150 s, find
a. the impulse delivered to the car due to the collision
b. the size and direction of the average force exerted
on the car
Example 3:
A 0.1 kg baseball is thrown with a velocity of 35 m/s. The
batter hits it straight back with a velocity of 60 m/s.
What is the magnitude of the average impulse exerted
on the ball by the bat?
Conservation of Momentum
In every collision where velocity is changed, the
momentum lost by one body or set of bodies is
equal to the momentum gained by another
body or set of bodies.
Then,
Ԧ = 𝑚(𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣𝑖 )
𝐹∆𝑡
𝐹Ԧ1 ∆𝑡 = 𝐹Ԧ2 ∆𝑡
For two bodies in collision,
𝑚1 𝑣𝑓1 − 𝑣𝑖1 = 𝑚2 (𝑣𝑓2 − 𝑣𝑖2 )
𝐹Ԧ1 ∆𝑡 = 𝑚1 (𝑣𝑓1 − 𝑣𝑖1 )
𝑚1 𝑣𝑓1 − 𝑚1 𝑣𝑖1 = 𝑚2 𝑣𝑓2 − 𝑚2 𝑣𝑖2
𝐹Ԧ2 ∆𝑡 = 𝑚2 (𝑣𝑓2 − 𝑣𝑖2 )
𝑚1 𝑣𝑖1 + 𝑚2 𝑣𝑖2 = 𝑚1 𝑣𝑓1 + 𝑚2 𝑣𝑓2
Example 1:
A 0.5-kg snowball moving at 20 m/s strikes and sticks to
a 70-kg man standing on the frictionless surface of a
frozen pond. What is the man’s final velocity?

Example 2:
A 15-g bullet is fired from a 5 kg rifle at a muzzle velocity
of 600 m/s. Find the recoil velocity of the rifle.
Conservation of Momentum
Coefficient of Restitution (e) Perfectly Elastic Collision, e=1
Refers to the negative ratio between Conserves kinetic energy after the
the relative velocities of two colliding collision. Relative velocities before and
after the collision is equal.
objects after and before they collide.
Coefficient of restitution lies between Perfectly Inelastic Collision, e=0
0 and 1. Kinetic energy is not conserved. After the
collision, the two bodies stick together.
𝑣𝑓1 − 𝑣𝑓2 Thus, the two bodies move at the same
velocity after collision.
𝑒=−
𝑣1 − 𝑣2 Glancing Collision
Is a two-dimensional collision. After two
bodies collide, they move at an angle 𝜃
with respect to the horizontal.
Example 1:
Two perfectly elastic balls, weighing 6 lbs and 4 lbs
approach each other with speeds of 20 ft/s and 35 ft/s,
respectively. What will be the speed of the 6-lb ball
after they collide?

Example 2:
A 500 kg car travels 20 m/s due north. It hits a 500 kg car
travelling due west at 30 m/s. The cars lock bumpers
and stick together. What is the velocity the instant after
impact?
Example 3:
A 7500 kg truck travelling at 5 m/s east collides with a
1500 kg car moving at 20 m/s in a direction 30° south of
west. After the collision, the two vehicles remain
tangled together. With what speed does the wreckage
begin to move?
 CEE 102/L
Physics 1 for Engineers

ULO 2b
Strength of Materials
 CEE 102/L
Physics 1 for Engineers

ULO 2b
Simple Stress
STRESS
- is the force acting on the unit area
of the material

𝑁 UNITS OF STRESS:
= 2 SI : Pascal (𝑁Τ𝑚2 )
𝑚 English : psi (𝑙𝑏𝑓ൗ𝑖𝑛2 )
CGS : 𝑘𝑔𝑓ൗ𝑐𝑚2
 Simple Stress
1. Axial/Normal Stress 2. Shearing Stress 3. Bearing Stress
❑ Axial/Normal Stress
− is the stress developed under the action of the force acting axially (or passing
through the centroid) of the resisting area. It can be directed away either
tensile stress or compressive stress.

where
σ = stress, Mpa or psi
F = applied force or load, N or lb
A = cross-sectional area, mm2 or in2
Example:
A steel bar is 10 mm in diameter and 2 m long. It is stretched with a force
of 20 kN. Calculate the stress carried.
❑ Shearing Stress
− is the stress developed when the force is applied parallel to the resisting area. It
is also known as tangential stress.

s
s
where
σs = shearing stress, Mpa or psi
F = applied force or load, N or lb
As = cross-sectional area, mm2 or in2
Example:
A single bolt is used to lap joint two steel bars together. Tensile force on
the bar is 8 kN. Solve the diameter of the bolt required if the allowable
shearing stress on it is 75 MPa.
❑ Bearing Stress
− is the stress developed when the force is applied parallel to a projected area. It
is the contact pressure between two bodies.

b
b

where
σb = bearing stress, Mpa or psi
F = applied force or load, N or lb
Ab = contact area, mm2 or in2
Example:
A 20-mm diameter rivet joints two plates which are each 100 mm wide. If the allowable
stresses are 140 Mpa for bearing in the plate material and 80 Mpa for shearing of the
rivet, determine the minimum thickness of each plate.
 CEE 102/L
Physics 1 for Engineers

ULO 2b
Stress due to Internal Pressure
 Stress due to Internal Pressure
▪ A tank or pipe carrying a fluid or gas under a pressure is subjected to tensile forces,
which resist bursting, developed across its longitudinal and transverse axis.

➢ Thin-Walled Cylinders ➢ Thin-Walled Sphere

 ❑ Stress on Thin-Walled Cylinder
due to Internal Pressure

▪ When a thin-walled tube or cylinder is subjected

to internal pressure a tangential and longitudinal
stress are produced in the wall.

Tangential stress
Hoop stress, Circumferential stress, Girth stress

𝑃𝐷 where;
𝜎𝑡 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝜎𝑡 = 𝑃 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
2𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘
𝐷 = 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑡 = 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠
 ❑ Stress on Thin-Walled Cylinder
due to Internal Pressure

▪ When a thin-walled tube or cylinder is subjected

to internal pressure a tangential and longitudinal
stress are produced in the wall.

Longitudinal stress
Axial stress

𝑃𝐷 where;
𝜎𝐿 = 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝜎𝐿 = 𝑃 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
4𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘
𝐷 = 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑡 = 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠
❑ Stress on Thin-Walled Spherical Tank
due to Internal Pressure

▪ Due to the symmetry, the surface (tangential

stress) is the same in all directions.

𝑃𝐷 where;
𝜎𝑡 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝜎𝑡 = 𝑃 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
4𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘
𝐷 = 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑡 = 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠
Example:
A cylindrical pressure vessel is fabricated from steel plates which have thickness of 20
mm. The diameter of the vessel is 500 mm and its length is 3 m. Determine the
maximum internal pressure which can be applied if the stress in the steel is limited to
140 Mpa.
Example:
A water tank is 8 m in diameter and 12 m high. If the tank is completely filled,
determine the minimum thickness of the tank plating if the stress is limited to 40 Mpa.
Example:
Commercial propane stored in a spherical steel tank generates a gage pressure of 160
psi. If the tank is 4 ft in diameter and has walls 0.25 inch thick, what is the maximum
tensile stress in psi is developed in the steel?
 CEE 102/L
Physics 1 for Engineers

ULO 2b
Strain
Strain (𝜀)
▪ Strain is defined as change of length per unit length.
ΔL or 𝛿 L

therefore,

∆𝐿 𝛿
𝜀= =
𝐿 𝐿
where;
𝜀 = 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙
𝛿 = 𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐿 = 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
Hooke’s Law
on Axial Deformation
▪ The law specified merely that stress (𝜎) is proportional to strain (𝜀).

𝜎∝𝜀
but to define the proportionality, Thomas Young introduced a constant of proportionality
called Young’s Modulus or commonly known as modulus of elasticity.

𝜎 = 𝐸𝜀 Hooke’s Law
where;
𝜎 = 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝜀 = 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝐸 = 𝑌𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔′ 𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠
= 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
❑ Axial Deformation
Axial Elongation
▪ It is a deformation caused by axial loads to the body.
𝛿
Strain 𝜀=
𝐿
Hooke’s Law 𝜎 = 𝐸𝜀

𝐹𝐿 where;

𝛿= 𝛿 = 𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
𝐴𝐸 𝐹 = 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑑
𝐿 = 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝐴 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
Food for the Brains: If not specified, the modulus 𝐸 = 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
of elasticity of steel is 𝟑𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝒑𝒔𝒊 or 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝑮𝑷𝒂
Example 1:
A bar having a circular cross section is carrying a tensile load of 30 kN. If
the diameter and length of the bar are 6 mm and 80 cm respectively,
calculate the deflection. Assume Young’s modulus of 207 GPa.
Example 2:
A steel column is 3 m long and 0.4 m in diameter. It carries a load of 50
MN. Given that the modulus of elasticity is 200 GPa, calculate the strain.
❑ Axial Deformation
on Reinforced Bodies
▪ Reinforced bodies with different types of materials.

𝐹𝐿
𝛿=
𝐴𝐸
where;
𝛿 = 𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
𝐹 = 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑑
𝐿 = 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝐴 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝐸 = 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
Example 3:
A steel bar 50 mm in diameter and 2 m long is surrounded by a shell of
cast iron 5 mm thick. Compute the load that will compress the combined
bar a total of 1 mm in the length of 2 m. For steel E = 200 GPa, and for
cast iron, E = 100 GPa.
 Axial Deformation
due to Own Weight
▪ Aside from the load exerted upon the body, its weight
also tends to result in deformation.

𝑊𝐿 2
𝜌𝑔𝐿
𝛿= 𝛿=
2𝐴𝐸 2𝐸
where; where;
𝛿 = 𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝜌 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦
𝑊 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝑔 = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝐿 = 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝐴 = 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠−𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
Example 1:
A steel rod having a cross sectional area of 300 𝑚𝑚2 and a length of 150
m is suspended vertically form one end. It supports a load of 20 kN at the
lower end. If the unit mass of steel is 7850 kg/𝑚3 and E = 200 GPa, find
the total elongation of the rod.
Axial Deformation
due to Temperature Effect
▪ If the temperature of the body is changed, it will experience
length, area and volume changes. The magnitude of these
changes will depend on the coefficient of linear thermal
expansion, 𝜶
where;
∆𝐿 = 𝛼𝐿(∆𝑇) ∆𝐿 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝐿 = 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝛼 = 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
∆𝑉 = 𝛽𝑉(∆𝑇) ∆𝑇 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
= 𝑇2 − 𝑇1
∆𝑉 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝛽 = 3𝛼 𝑉 = 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝛽 = 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
Food for the Brains: If not specified, the coefficient of linear
expansion for steel is 𝟔. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 /℉ or 𝟏𝟏. 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 /℃
Example 2:
A brass sleeve of inside diameter 1.9995 cm and at 20°C is to be heated
to that it will just barely slide over a shaft of diameter 2.0005 cm. To
what temperature must the sleeve be heated? For brass, 𝛼 = 11.7 ×
10−6 /℃
Example 3:
The coefficient of linear expansion of glass is 9 × 10−6 /℃. If a specific
bottle holds 50 mL at 15°C, find its capacity at 25°C.
 CEE 102/L
Physics 1 for Engineers

ULO 2c
Fluid Mechanics
Metalanguage
Fluid – is any liquid or gas or generally any material that cannot sustain a tangential, or shearing,
force when at rest and that undergoes a continuous change in shape when subjected to such a stress.

Extensive Property – is a property that depends on the amount of matter in a sample.

Mass – of an object is a measure of the amount of matter that an object contains.
Volume – of an object is a measure of the space that is occupied by that object.
Intensive Property – is a property of matter that depends only on the type of matter in a sample
and not on the amount.
Density – is a measure of how heavy it is for the amount measured.
Temperature – is a physical quantity that expresses hot and cold or a measure of the average
kinetic energy of the atoms or molecules in the system. Increasing the temperature generally
decreases its density and vice versa.
Properties of Fluid
Density
– is defined as its mass per unit volume.
– is the ratio between mass and volume or
mass per unit volume.
– is a measure of how much stuff an object
has in a unit volume.
– essentially a measurement of how tightly
matter is crammed together.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠, 𝑚
𝜌=
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒, 𝑉
where:
𝑚 = mass of object (kg)
𝑉 = volume (m3)
Example 1: Example 2:
Determine the volume of a 432 N lion Determine the density of seawater if
in gallons if the density of mammals at the same amount of water, it is 30
is roughly the same as of water. kg heavier.
Properties of Fluid Example 3:
Determine the specific weight of an
Specific Weight oak beam 10m by 20cm by 4m of
mass 58 kg.
– or weight density of a fluid is the weight
per unit volume.
– With increase in temperature volume
increase and hence specific weight
decreases.
– With increase in pressure, volume
decreases and hence specific weight
increases.
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡, 𝑤 𝑚𝑔
𝛾= =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒, 𝑉 𝑉
where:
𝑤 = weight of the object (N)
𝑉 = volume (m3)
Properties of Fluid Example 4:
A cylinder of plastic is 100 mm long,
Specific Gravity and 50 mm in diameter. It has a
mass of 1 kg. Determine its specific
– is the ratio between the density of an gravity and indicate whether it
object, and a reference substance. would float or sink in water.
– it can tell us, based on its value, if the
object will sink or float in our reference
substance.
– Usually our reference substance is water
which always has a density of 1000 kg
per cubic meter.
𝜌𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡
𝑆𝐺 =
𝜌𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
where:
𝜌 = density (kg/m3)
Hydrostatic Pressure of Fluids
– The term ‘pressure’ is used to indicate the normal force
per unit area at a point acting on a given plane within
the fluid mass of interest.
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒, 𝐹
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒, 𝑃 =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎, 𝐴
In engineering applications, PRESSURE can
be measured by either;

Absolute Pressure
– is the pressure of having no matter inside a
space, or a perfect vacuum.
𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ
where:
𝜌 = density of the fluid (kg/m3)
ℎ = depth or height of the test point (m)
Hydrostatic Pressure of Fluids
– The term ‘pressure’ is used to indicate the normal force
per unit area at a point acting on a given plane within
the fluid mass of interest.
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒, 𝐹 Example 5:
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒, 𝑃 = Determine the absolute pressure
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎, 𝐴 experienced by a diver at 20 m
In engineering applications, PRESSURE can below the sea level.
be measured by either;

Absolute Pressure
– is the pressure of having no matter inside a
space, or a perfect vacuum.
𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ
where:
𝜌 = density of the fluid (kg/m3)
ℎ = depth or height of the test point (m)
Hydrostatic Pressure of Fluids
– The term ‘pressure’ is used to indicate the normal force
per unit area at a point acting on a given plane within
the fluid mass of interest.
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒, 𝐹
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒, 𝑃 =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎, 𝐴
In engineering applications, PRESSURE can
be measured by either;

Gauge Pressure
– the pressure relative to atmospheric pressure.

𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 = 𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 + 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚

where:
𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑃𝑎
= 101,325 𝑃𝑎
Hydrostatic Pressure of Fluids
– The term ‘pressure’ is used to indicate the normal force
per unit area at a point acting on a given plane within
the fluid mass of interest.
Example 6:
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒, 𝐹
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒, 𝑃 = Determine the gauge pressure
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎, 𝐴 experienced by a coin at the bottom
of the completely filled water tank with
In engineering applications, PRESSURE can a radius of 0.2 m and height of 1 m.
be measured by either;

Gauge Pressure
– the pressure relative to atmospheric pressure.

𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 = 𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 + 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚

where:
𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑃𝑎
= 101,325 𝑃𝑎
Example 7:
In a huge oil tanker, salt water has flooded an oil tank to a depth of h2 = 5.00 m.
On top of the water is a layer of oil h1 = 8.00 m deep, as in the cross-sectional
view of the tank in the figure below. The oil has a density of 0.700 g/cm3. Find
the pressure at the bottom of the tank. (Take 1,030 kg/m3 as the density of salt
water.)
Example 8:
Estimate the net force exerted on your
eardrum due to the water above when
you are swimming at the bottom of a
pool that is 5.0 m deep.
Pascal’s Principle
“A change in pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is
transmitted undiminished to every point of the fluid and to
the walls of the container.” – Blaise Pascal

𝑃1 = 𝑃2

𝐹1 𝐹2
=
𝐴1 𝐴2
where:
𝐹 = force applied or force output (N)
𝐴 = area of the piston (m2)
Example 9:
In a car lift used in a service station, compressed air exerts a force on a small
piston of circular cross section having a radius of r1 = 5.00 cm. This pressure is
transmitted by an incompressible liquid to a second piston of radius r2 = 15.0
cm.
(a) What force must the compressed air exert on the small piston in order to lift
a car weighing 13 300 N?
(b) What air pressure will produce a force of that magnitude?
Archimedes’ Principle
“Any object completely or partially submerged in a fluid is
buoyed up by a force with magnitude equal to the weight
of the fluid displaced by the object.” – Archimedes

The buoyant force is not a

mysterious new force that
arises in fluids. In fact, the
physical cause of the buoyant
force is the pressure difference
between the upper and lower
sides of the object, which can
be shown to be equal to the
weight of the displaced fluid.

𝐹𝐵 = 𝜌𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑔𝑉𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑑
Example 10:
A bargain hunter purchases a “gold” crown at a flea market. After she gets
home, she hangs it from a scale and finds its weight to be 7.84 N. She then
weighs the crown while it is immersed in water and now the scale reads 6.86 N.
Is the crown made of pure gold?
Example 11:
A raft is constructed of wood having a density of 6.00 x 102 kg/m3. Its surface
area is 5.70 m2, and its volume is 0.60 m3. When the raft is placed in fresh water,
to what depth h is the bottom of the raft submerged?
 CEE 102/L
Physics 1 for Engineers

ULO 2f
Basic Electrical Concepts
Basic Electrical Quantities
Voltage, ( V ) is the potential energy of an electrical supply stored in the form of an
electrical charge. Voltage can be thought of as the force that pushes electrons through a
conductor and the greater the voltage the greater is its ability to “push” the electrons
through a given circuit. As energy has the ability to do work this, potential energy can
be described as the work required in joules to move electrons in the form of an
electrical current around a circuit from one point or node to another.

Then the difference in voltage between any two points, connections or junctions (called
nodes) in a circuit is known as the Potential Difference, (pd) commonly called the
Voltage Drop.
Basic Electrical Quantities
Electrical Current, ( I ) is the movement or flow of electrical charge and is measured in
Amperes. It is the continuous and uniform flow (called a drift) of electrons (the negative
particles of an atom) around a circuit that are being “pushed” by the voltage source. In
reality, electrons flow from the negative (–ve) terminal to the positive (+ve) terminal of
the supply and for ease of circuit understanding conventional current flow assumes that
the current flows from the positive to the negative terminal.
Basic Electrical Quantities
Resistance, ( R ) is the capacity of a material to resist or prevent the flow of current or,
more specifically, the flow of electric charge within a circuit. The circuit element which
does this perfectly is called the “Resistor”. Resistance is a circuit element measured in
Ohms, Greek symbol ( Ω, Omega )
How does voltage and resistance affect the current flow?
Georg Ohm found that, at a constant temperature,
the electrical current flowing through a fixed linear
resistance is directly proportional to the voltage
applied across it, and also inversely proportional to
the resistance. This relationship between the
Voltage, Current and Resistance forms the basis of
Ohm’s Law.
𝑉
𝐼=
𝑅
 Electrical Power, (P) in a circuit is the rate at which
ELECTRIC POWER energy is absorbed or produced within a circuit. A
source of energy such as a voltage will produce or
deliver power while the connected load absorbs it.
Light bulbs and heaters for example, absorb
electrical power and convert it into either heat, or
light, or both.
The quantity symbol for power is P and is the
product of voltage multiplied by the current with
the unit of measurement being the Watt ( W ).

𝑃 = 𝐼𝑉
𝑉 2
𝑃= 2
𝐼 𝑅 𝑃=
𝑅
 Example 1: Example 2:
An electric iron draws 2.5 A at 230 V A 100-volt lamp has a hot resistance
source. Determine its resistance. of 250 ohms. Solve the kWh of
Solution:
energy it will consume after 12
hours of using it.
𝑉
𝑅= Solution:
𝐼
where: 𝐸 =𝑃×𝑡
𝑉 = 230 𝑉 where:
𝐼 = 2.5 𝐴 𝑉 2 (100 𝑉)2
𝑃= = = 40 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
therefore: 𝑅 250 Ω
𝑡 = 12 ℎ𝑟𝑠
𝑉 230 𝑉
𝑅= = therefore:
𝐼 2.5 𝐴
𝐸 = 𝑃(𝑡) = (40 𝑊)(12 ℎ𝑟𝑠)
𝑅 = 92 Ω
𝐸 = 480 W−hr
SERIES CIRCUIT Resistance Relation:

𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3

Voltage Relation:

𝑉𝑡 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3

Current Relation:

𝐼𝑡 = 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 = 𝐼3
 Example 3: Example 4:
A 3-Ω, a 5-Ω and a 4-Ω resistors are A current drawn by a 7-Ω load across a
connected in series across a battery of 12-V battery is 1.6 A, solve for the
6 volts. Determine the total resistance internal resistance of the battery.
and the total current in the circuit. Solution:
For the total resistance,
Solution:
𝑉𝑇 12 𝑉
𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 𝑅𝑇 = =
𝐼𝑇 1.6 𝐴
𝑅𝑇 = 3 Ω + 5 Ω + 4 Ω
𝑅𝑇 = 7.5 Ω
𝑅𝑇 = 12 Ω
Batteries have its internal resistance. When connected across
a load, its resistance is connected as in series connection.
For the total current,
Therefore,
𝑉𝑇 6𝑉
𝐼𝑇 = = 𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙
𝑅𝑇 12 Ω
7.5 Ω = 7 Ω + 𝑅𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙
𝐼𝑇 = 0.5 𝐴
𝑅𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 = 0.5 Ω
PARALLEL CIRCUIT Resistance Relation:
1 1 1 1
= + +. . +
𝑅𝑡 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅𝑛
Voltage Relation:

𝑉𝑡 = 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 = 𝑉𝑛
Current Relation:

𝐼𝑡 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + … + 𝐼𝑛
Example 5:
An unknown resistance is connected in parallel with a 75-Ω
resistance. If a total current of 0.8 A flows when a 12-V battery
is applied across the combination, find the value of the
unknown resistance. Neglect resistance of the battery.

Solution:
For the total resistance, Therefore,
𝑉𝑇 12 𝑉 1 1 1
𝑅𝑇 = = = +
𝐼𝑇 0.8 𝐴 𝑅𝑇 𝑅1 𝑅𝑢𝑛𝑘𝑜𝑤𝑛
𝑅𝑇 = 15 Ω 1 1 1
= +
15 Ω 75 Ω 𝑅𝑢𝑛𝑘𝑜𝑤𝑛

𝑅𝑢𝑛𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 = 18.75 Ω
 CEE 102/L
Physics 1 for Engineers

ULO 2d
Fluid Dynamics
Metalanguage
Mass Flow Rate – The mass flow rate is the mass of a liquid substance passing per unit time. In
other words, the mass flow rate is defined as the rate of movement of liquid pass through a unit area.
The mass flow is directly dependent on the density, velocity of the liquid, and area of cross-section.

Static Pressure – is the pressure that a fluid exerts when it is not moving, and it's caused by the
weight of the fluid above it.

Dynamic Pressure – the pressure on a surface at which a flowing fluid is brought to rest in excess of
the pressure on it when the fluid is not flowing.
It can be thought of as the fluid's kinetic energy per unit volume.
Pressure Head – is the pressure exerted by a liquid column on the base of the container.
It is represented as the height of the liquid column.
Continuity Equation
For incompressible fluids
– The equation of continuity states that for an
incompressible fluid flowing in a tube of
varying cross-section, the mass flow rate is
the same everywhere in the tube.

– is the statement of conservation of mass in

the pipeline

𝑀1 = 𝑀2 therefore, we have
where:
𝜌1 𝑄1 = 𝜌2 𝑄2 𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝜌2 𝐴2 𝑣2 𝜌 = density of fluid (kg/m3)
where the volume flow rate (Q) is 𝐴 = area of opening (m2)
𝑣 = velocity of flow (m/s)
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑣 𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2 𝑀 = mass flow rate (kg/s)
𝑄 = volume flow rate (m3/s)
Example 1: Example 2:
Oil flows through a pipe 8 cm in A hose shoots water straight up for a
diameter, at an average speed of 4 height of 2.5 m. The end opening on
m/s. What is the volumetric flow? the hose has an area of 0.75 cm2.
How much water in liters comes out
Solution: in 1 minute ?
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑣 Solution:
where: Solve for the initial velocity first, which is the velocity at the
𝜋 tip of the opening.
𝜋
𝐴 = (𝐷) 2 = (0.08 𝑚)2 = 5.026 × 10−3 𝑚2 𝑣𝑓 2 = 𝑣𝑖 2 + 2𝑔ℎ
4 4
𝑣 = 4 𝑚/𝑠 02 = 𝑣𝑖 2 + 2(−9.81)(2.5 𝑚)
𝑣𝑖 = 7 𝑚/𝑠
therefore:
then solve for the volumetric flow:
𝑄 = (5.026 × 10−3 𝑚2 )(4 𝑚/𝑠)
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑣
0.75 2
𝑄 = 0.0201 𝑚3 /𝑠 𝑄= 𝑚 (7 𝑚/𝑠)
1002
1000 𝐿
𝑄 = 0.525 × 10−3 𝑚3 /𝑠 60 𝑠
1 𝑚3
𝑉 = 31.516 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
Bernoulli’s Principle
by Daniel Bernoulli
“an increase in the speed of a fluid occurs
simultaneously with a decrease in static pressure
or a decrease in the fluid's potential energy”
– is the statement of conservation of energy in
the pipeline

𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 + 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 where:

𝑃 = fluid pressure at opening (Pa)
1 1 𝜌 = density of fluid (kg/m3)
𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑣1 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ1 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌𝑣2 2 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ2
2
𝑔 = acceleration due to gravity
2 2 𝑣 = velocity of flow (m/s)
Example 3:
by Continuity equation:
A horizontal pipe 15 cm in diameter
𝑄1 = 𝑄2
has a constriction 7.5 cm in diameter. If
the velocity of water in the constriction 𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2
is 10 m/s, find the difference between where:
the pressures in the larger to the smaller 𝜋 𝜋
𝐴1 = (𝐷)2 = (0.15 𝑚)2 = 17.67 × 10−3 𝑚2
pipes. 4 4
𝜋 𝜋
Solution: 𝐴2 = (𝐷)2 = (0.075 𝑚)2 = 4.42 × 10−3 𝑚2
1 1 4 4
𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑣1 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ1 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌𝑣2 2 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ2
2
therefore:
2 2
1 1 (17.67 × 10−3 𝑚2 )𝑣1 = (4.42 × 10−3 𝑚2 )(10 𝑚/𝑠)
𝜌𝑣1 − 𝜌𝑣2 2 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ1 − 𝜌𝑔ℎ2 = 𝑃2 − 𝑃1
2
2 2 𝑣1 = 2.5 𝑚/𝑠
Since horizontal pipe, h=0, which makes the static
pressures to become zero. Therefore then:
1 2
1
1 1 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 = (1000) 2.5 − (1000)(10)2
𝑃2 − 𝑃1 = 𝜌𝑣1 − 𝜌𝑣2 2
2 2 2
2 2
𝑃2 − 𝑃1 = −46,875 𝑃𝑎
Example 4:
At a point A in a pipeline carrying water, the diameter
is 1 m, the pressure 100 kPa and the velocity is 1 m/s. At
point B, 2 m higher than A, the diameter is 0.5 m and
the pressure is 20 kPa. Determine the head loss.
Solution:
Solve for the velocity at point b first, using Continuity equation Head loss is the difference between the energies at point A and
𝑄1 = 𝑄2 point B, therefore

𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2 1 1
𝐻𝐿 = 𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑣1 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ1 − 𝑃2 − 𝜌𝑣2 2 − 𝜌𝑔ℎ2
2
where: 2 2
𝜋 𝜋 where ℎ1 = 0 (reference to the ground), therefore
𝐴1 = (𝐷)2 = (1 𝑚)2 = 0.785 𝑚2
4 4 1
𝜋 𝜋 𝐻𝐿 = 100 × 103 + 1000 1 2 − 20 × 103
𝐴2 = (𝐷)2 = (0.5 𝑚)2 = 0.196 𝑚2 2
4 4 1
− (1000) 4 2 − (1000)(9.81)(2)
therefore: 2

(0.785 𝑚2 )(1 𝑚/𝑠) = (0.196 𝑚2 )𝑣2 𝐻𝐿 = 52,880 𝑃𝑎

𝑣2 = 4 𝑚/𝑠
Toricelli’s Theorem
by Evangelista Toricelli
“the law that states that the speed of flow of a
liquid from an orifice is equal to the speed that it
would attain if falling freely a distance equal to
the height of the free surface of the liquid
above the orifice.”
– relates the velocity of fluid flowing from an
orifice (an opening on a pipe or a tube) to
the height of the fluid above the orifice.

from free-falling body formula, we have where:

ℎ = height of water (m)
𝑔 = acceleration due to gravity
𝑣= 2𝑔ℎ 𝑣 = velocity of flow (m/s)
Example 5:
A water tank was found out to be leaking after being filled to a height of 1.4
meters. The leak hole was situated 20 centimeters below the mid-height of the
tank. If the tank is 2 meters high, what is the velocity of the jet at the time
when the water level decreased 30 cm?
after the water decreased by 30 cm,
𝐻𝑊−𝐻 = 0.6 𝑚 − 0.3 𝑚
= 0.3 𝑚
ℎ = 2𝑚
𝑊𝐿 = 1.4 𝑚

𝐻𝑊−𝐻 therefore, by Toricelli’s Theorem

0.2 𝑚 𝑣= 2𝑔ℎ
𝑣= 2(9.81)(0.3 𝑚)

𝑣 = 2.426 𝑚/𝑠

initially, the height of the water with respect to hole (𝐻𝑊−𝐻 ) is

1 1
𝐻𝑊−𝐻 = 𝑊𝐿 − ℎ + 0.2 𝑚 = 1.4 𝑚 − (2 𝑚) + 0.2 𝑚 = 0.6 𝑚
2 2