DHATRI REDDY IPS -AIR–233-CSE-2018

NOTES- MEDIVAL HISTORY

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 ABOUT DHATRI REDDY IPS
I am Dhatri Reddy. I am AIR 233 of UPSC CSE 2018 and got allotted to the IPS. I am a
graduate of IIT Kharagpur. I worked with Deutsche Bank in their Corporate Finance
and Investment Banking Division before deciding to quit and prepare for the Civil
Services Examination. I managed to clear the exam in my second attempt and first
mains. You can find my marksheet here.

I hail from Hyderabad and prepared for the exam from the comfort of my home
(except for the brief period where I took coaching in Delhi). I followed the blogs of
several previous toppers during my preparation and found them useful as I took
notes, guidance and even motivation from those blogs during my times of solitude. I
decided to put together this blog after some aspirants reached out to me regarding my
notes and approach. I also hope to share my experiences during training and later
work through this medium.

To make a candid confession, I expected a better rank (much better, if you will) than
what I have. However, I have been blessed with the service that I always wanted. May
be things do fall in place if you give your best. So shed all your apprehensions and give
it all you got.
All the very best to whoever is reading this! :)

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 BLANK PAGE

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 1. Struggle for empire in (1525-1555)

MUGHALS, AFGHANS AND SUR

Central Asia and Babur:

 14C: disint of Mongul emp, Timur united everything again.
 End of 15C: Timurids declined because of the trad of partitioning empire.
 North: Turko Mongol tribe, Uzbeks rose. Sunnis.
 West: new dynasty called Safavid came up in Iran. They were Shiite => sectarian strife.
 West of Iran: Ottoman was growing. 16C was marked by conflict of these 3 big emp.
 Babur (Timurid dyn) succeeded to Faghana in Trans-Oxania (Uzbek) but ousted by Uzbeks and then
he tried to regain it back for a very long time. Later even Safavid was removed and Uzbeks grew
stronghold, so he gave up hopes and turned towards India.

Conquest of India:
 Babur was ruling over Kabul, meagre income there - so wanted fertile regions of PJ.
 Sikandar Lodi had died, Ibrahim Lodi was trying to create a large emp and this alarmed Rajputs and
Afghan chiefs.
 Daulat Khan Lodi - powerful Afghan chief and gov of PJ. He invited Babur to invade India and
remove Ibrahim. Rana Sanga also sent same message.
 Battle of Panipat (1526):
o Babur used new things like Ottoman Device (RUMI) - where soldiers rest their guns and
fire, use of gunpowder (he used 1st time in attack on Bhira and made it popular but
was already known and used in India).
o Used 2 Ottoman gun masters - Ustad Ali and Mustafa.
o Considered one of the most decisive. But after this, Babur had to fight 2 battles against Rana
Sanga (Mewar) and Eastern Afghans (UP)
 Battle of Khanwa: vs Rana Sanga of Mewar. Almost all Rajputs united for this. But Babur declared
it jihad and won.
 Afghan sardars of East were led by Nusrat Shah (Bengal guy) - B decided to make pact after failing
to dominate through war.

Significance of Babur:
 1st time after Kushanas, Kabul and Qandhar became part of NI - buffer zone regained. Because of
this, successors of B could give a safe rule + strengthened India's hold over Asia's trade.
 Destroyed balance of power that was leading to constant struggles - started all-India emp. (means
many small rulers had created pockets of power)

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  intro new mode of warfare. since artillery was expensive, it favoured large empires which could it
afford it from now on.
 re-estd prestige of crown - declined after Firuz T.
 B was descendant of Timur and Changez Khan - 2 greatest, no nobles questioned his right.
 B deeply learnt in Persian and Arabic. Tuzuk-i-Babari.
 Masnavi (Turkish form of lit.), Sufi work - also he did.
 Naturalist, gardening enthusiast.
 new concept of State - strong, absence of religious bigotry and patron of fine arts

Humayun:
 Had threat from Bahadur Shah of GJ and eastern Afghan sardars.
 Chunar under Afghans - was Gateway of Eastern India.
 Sher Shah was gaining power among E Afghans.
 Legend - Rani Karnavati, widow of Rana Sanga sent rakhi to H seeking help against Bahadur.
 Later H chilled - opium, new city Dinpanath etc.
 BS become occupied with Portugese so his threat subsided.
 Sher Shah made H get into Bengal invasion - was a disaster to H. Battle of Kanauj - H was defeated.
his brothers captured parts of Afghan, he had no kingdom.
 After Sur emp broke up, again he regained. New phase in archi - dome of marble (H's tomb).

Sur Empire:
 Bengal to Indus, excl Kashmir. W upto RJ, Malwa.
 Improved trade and communications. Built Grand Trunk Road from Indus to sonargaon
(Bengal) (revived an earlier exisitng road during CGM)
 Build road from Agra to Jodhpur and Chittor (linking up GJ seaports), road from Lahore to Multan -
very imp for West and CA.
 built a Sarai for every 8km - under Shahna (custodian). Roads and sarais -> arteries of emp.
 many sarais dev into Qasbas (market towns), had dak-chowkis (mail delivery service)
 in entire emp, customs duty paid only at 2 places - Bengal, Indus. no one allowed to levy anything
extra.
 Sur emp was like a continuation of Delhi Sultanate, with B and H as interregnum.
 Sher Shah made local muqaddams and zamindars responsible for any theft from merchants on
roads -> made them very safe.
 Currency reform - struck gold, silver, copper coins of uniform standard instead of earlier mixed
metal.
 fixed std weights.
 but excessive centralisation was a weakness.

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  Land revenue - was to be based on measurement of sown land. Crop rate called Ray was fixed as %
of crop yield. Could be converted to cash based on prevailing market rate.
 Peasants could pay cash/crop. Pattas - with details of crops, amount to be paid etc. so peasant was
informed.
 Cess of 2.5 seers per bigha for famine management.
 Chehra - descriptive roll of every soldier fixed and horse was branded with imperial sign (similar to
A Khilaji's dagh)
 SS built his tomb at Sasaram - culmination of earlier style archi. Old Fort (Purna Qila). Padmavat
was completed in his time (began earlier).
 Emphasis on justice.
 His successor Islam Shah codified laws.

2. Consolidation of Mughal Empire

AGE OF AKBAR

Bairam Khan and Maham Anga helped overcome threats when Akbar was young.
1st phase of expansion (1560-76):
 A conquered GJ, Bengal and Chittor (this was 1st and last massacre by A) - because he considered it
imp to command surrender of other Rajputs also shortest route bw Agra to GJ and symbol of
Rajput spirit.
 Afghans continued to dominate Bengal, Bihar - A won against them and rooted out the last Afghan
kingdom in NI.

Administration:
 Land revenue:
1. 1st adopted Sher Shah's sys - but many hardships to peasants due to delay and centralisation.
2. Reverted to annual assessment. Qanungos - hereditary holders of land report actual produce,
state of cultivation, prices etc. but they were dishonest - so Karoris were appointed to
check figures submitted.
3. Dahsala - new sys. Avg produce over 10 yrs of diff crops calculated and 1/3rd of it fixed. (this
is not permanent settlement)
4. Later by grouping of parganas, peasant was to pay based on local productivity and prices.
Adv: as soon as area was sown, by measuring, both peasant and state knew dues. Peasants
were given remissions for crop failure.
5. Zabti system - sys of measurement and assessment. Dahsala was a further dev of this.
Aka Todar Mal's Bandobast. (he was a good revenue officer, who first served SS)

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 6. Other sys co-existed. Oldest was Batai or Ghalla-bakhshi. Peasants had an option to choose
Batai or Zabti.
7. Nasaq - another sys where rough calculation was done. Aka Kankut (estimation).
 Cash crops - were the ones where State wanted payment in cash, like indigo, sugarcane etc.
 In fixing LR, continuity of cultivation was considered:
1. Polaj: land which remained under constant cultivation
2. Parati: when polaj wasn't cultivated
3. Chachar: fallow for 2-3 yrs
4. Banjar: longer
 For 3, 4, concessional rates were fixed so that incentivised cultivation of wasteland.
 Taccavi: agri loans were given.

Mansabdari system and Army:

 each officer was assigned a rank (Mansab) - ranging from 10 (lowest) to 5000 (highest nobles)
 Mirza Aziz koka and Raja Man Singh were the only 2 to get 7k.
 Ranks divided into 2 -> Zat (personal status and salary) and Sawar (no. of cavalrymen to be
maintained)
 there were again 3 categories in each mansab. + chehra, dagh continued. 2:1 ratio of horses and
men.
 mixed contigents of nobles - pathans, rajputs, mughals etc was encouraged.
 unique and has no parallels outside India.
 some influence from mongol sys like Sadis and Hazaras - commanders of 100 and 1000 sawars
 Inc. ranks: Mansabdar -> amirs -> amir-i-umda or umda-i-azam (they could have mansabs serve
under them)
 People generally started in lowest rung and were promoted or demoted - meritocracy to some
extent.
 Lack of strong navy was a weakness of Mughals.

Government:
 Pargana, Sarkar continued.
 Sarkar: chiefs - Faujdar (maintain L&O), Amalguzar (assessment and collection of land revenue)
 Territories:
1. Jagir: alloted to nobles and royal family
2. Khalisa: revenue directly to royal exchequer
3. Inam: religious purposes
4. Iqta: instead of salaries
 A made DoP and checks and balances. Mir bhakshi, diwan balanced each other.

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  Diwan or Diwan-i-ala: revenue expert
 Mir Bakhshi: head of military dept., also head of nobility who made recos on promotions etc. also
head of intelligence
 Barid (intelligence officers) and Waqia-navis (news reporters)
 Mir Sanam: took care of royal HH, court etiquette etc.
 Judicial dep - qazi, religious endowments - sadr.
 2 features of inam under Akbar - granted them to all faiths - Sanads of grant to Hindu maths by
Akbar still preserved + half of inam was wasteland so cultivation was expanded.
 Diwan-i-am: open darbar, Jharoka: A made public appearance from here, Ghusal Khana: for pvt
consultations.
 Divided emp into 12 subhas in 1580 and replicated same gov structure => orderly govt estd.

Rajputs:
 even though matrimonial relations were present before akbar, he was diff - gave complete
religious freedom to wives and honured positions to her parents.
 All Rajput states except one accepted - Mewar by Rana Pratap. Battle of Haldighati. After this no
other Rajputs were supporting Rana's cause because A gave them good autonomy and they saw no
need of fight.
 A's alliance forming policy helped both sides - allowed Mughals to recruit brave warriors, their
loyalty helped in consolation, expansion and peace. Opened imp posts to Rajputs, hereditiary
kingdoms, jagirs - good resources.
 Jahangir, Shah jahan continued this policy.
 J's great achievement was that he made peace with Mewar.
 Rebels other than Rajputs were also there - A had to march to Kabul to supress after which
he handed over Kabul to his sister => open minded and liberal.
 Consolidation of NW and fixing scientific frontier - achievements of A. Conquest of Sindh opened
trade down R. Indus for Punjab.
 Also expanded till Ahmednagar - 1st time came in contact with Marathas. Policy of integration of
NI, focus started on Deccan and simultaneous cultural and emotional integration of people.

Religion and Social Reform:

 Policy of religious tolerance.
 Abolished Jizyah in 1564, earlier removed pilgrimage tax
 Stopped practice of forcible conversion of PoW.
 Emp based on equal rights to citizens irresp of religion - Hindus like Bribal (aka Mahesh Das), Todar
Mal were given high posts.

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  Abul Fazl - Akbar's biographer. Said his conception of true ruler was based on Farr-i-izadi means
ruler with paternal love towards subjects.
 Policy of sulh-kul means peace to all.
 Ibadat khana - to discuss diverse religions, spiritual stuff. However it brought discontent.Instead of
leading to religious harmony, debates led to more bitterness so A discontinued it in 1582. But he
cont his investigations:
1. Purushottam Devi: hinduism
2. Maharji Rana: Zoroastrianism
3. Portugese priest: Aquaviva and Monserrate for Christianity.
4. Hiar Vijaya Suri: Jainism
 Later action against Abdun Nabi (Chief qazi) for corruption in charitable lands (madad-i-mash) and
bigotry -> furthered mullahs' issues with A, who he suppressed successfully.
 he issued Declaration or Mahzar to strengthen his position. Said among those who interpret Quran
(ie Mujtahids), king had the power to choose the interpretation he likes based on welfare of state.
This was worngly pictured by mullahs as Decree of infallibility.
 But Mahzar has statutory effect in stabilizing religious situation in emp.
 Started Tauhid-i-ilahi as an order of Sufism and later as a faith/din - it meant divine monotheism.
Those who joined got Shast or formula given by the emperor. No ceremonies, book, priests etc. no
one was forced to join. It ensured loyalty of nobels towards the emperor, because only close ones
were invited.
 Historian Badayuni, says flatterers made A feel like Perfect man of age or insan-i-kamil. So he
restarted Pabos (which is reserved for God). this habit of looking at king as divine continued upto
Aurangazeb.
 Singhan Battisi, Atharva Veda, Bible were translated. Quran was translated (1st time)
 He stopped sati unless the women wanted it. widow remarriage legalised. marriage age for girls
raised to 16. moral edu, secular subjects etc. - but limited success as ppl were orthodox.

Akbarnama - by Adul Fazl. Ain-i-Akbari is part of it - this itself has 5 parts

1. imperial household
2. servants of emperor, CS, military etc.
3. imperial admin
4. Hindu philo, science, customs etc.
5. Akbar's sayings

3. Deccan and SI (UPTO 1656):

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Ahmednagar: Nizam Shahi
Bidar: Barid Shahi
Berar: Imad Shahi
Golconda: Qtub Shahi
Bijapur: Adil Shahi (Chand Bibi when Ibrahim was minor)

 Bargirs/Bargis: Maratha troops which were employed in Bahmani emp.

 Marathas unlike Rajputs were not indep rulers, didn't have any kingdom. Nor were they leaders of
any clan whose support they could claim - more like military adventurers.
 16C Deccan states tried to win the Marathas over their side. Ibrahim Shah of Bijapur followed this
max. => policy of allying with local landed and military classes was started by Deccani rulers even
before Mughals itself.

Situation in Deccan:
 all empires fought among themselves.
 Hostility bw Deccanis and Afaqis or Garibs (ie new comers). Even wn Deccanis
- Habshis (Abyssinians or Africans) and Afghans were divided. All these groups had little contact
with life and culture of locals => commanded little loyalty.
 Sectarian conflicts: When Shiism rose in Iran, Deccani states like Golconda, Bijapur and
Ahmednagar adopted it.
 Mahdawi ideas also spread in Deccan. (Shia, Sunni, Mahdawi are 3 sects of Islam. Mahdis believed
that every epoch a man from Prophet's family will make an appearance and strengthen religion
and justice. In India - Saiyid Muhammad clamed to be the Mahdi, and estd dairas (or circles).
Orthodox elements bitterly opposed.)

Mughal expansion:
 Initial reasons:
1. Didn't want sectarian strife to spill over.

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 2. Akbar was apprehensive of Portugese, who started intervening in pilgrims to Mecca and did
proselytising activities. Even lay hands on Surat. A thorough coordinated effort by Deccan
states under mughals can check them.
3. Hostilities and internal strifes => perfect time
 A's time - struggle for Ahmednagar with Bijapur. Chand Bibi defended Ahmdngr from Mughals.
 Malik Ambar: Abyssinian, who was sold as slave. Served a noble. He gathered Maratha bargis and
fought with guerilla warfare - common in Deccan but not known to Mughals. He made it difficult
for Mughals to consolidate their position.
 Success of Marthas under Ambar made Marathas confident to play imp role later on.
 Shah Jahan was convinced that Ahmednagar needs to be annexed if Mughals wanted peace in
Deccan. Major departure from A's and Jahangirs policy.
 Ahdnama - treaty bw SJ and Bijapur. Adil shah recognised Mughal suzerainty and paid indemnity.
Stopped direct fights with Golconda, which was now under Mughals (similar agreement with
Golconda too). These 2 treaties were statesmen like and in effect, SJ fulfilled A's vision.
 Peace with Mughals enable Deccanis to expand southward. In a matter of years they became
double their size. But couldn't consolidate position, rapid expansion weakened internal cohesion,
nobels like Shahji Bhonsale (Shivaji's father), Mir Jumla in Golconda started gaining power.
 Mughals also found balance of power being upset and wanted bounty for being neutral during
expansion.

Cultural contribution:
 Ali Adil Shah, Bijapur:
o loved discussions with Hindu, muslim saints. He was callled a Sufi. He invited Catholic
missionaries even before A did.
o Huge lib, appointed Sanskrit scholar - Waman Pandit incharge of it.
 Ibrahim Adil shah:
o Title Abla Baba - means friend of the poor.
o Music lover, composed Kitab-i-Nauras which has songs in different ragas.
o New capital - Nauraspur.
o Freely invoked Goddess Saraswati in songs. His broad approach => title Jagat Guru
o Gave patronage to all, even grants to Pandharpur - centre of worship of Vithoba, which
became centre of Bhakti in MH.
 Ibrahim Qutub Shah:
o Murahari Rao - became Peshwa
o Military affairs by brothers - Madanna and Akkanna
 Quli Qutub Shah: contemp of A

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 o lover of literature
o Dakhini form of Urudu, Persian, Telugu
o 1st to introduce a secualr note in poetry
o constructed Charminar in 1591
 Bijapur:
o also patronised Urdu. Poet Nusrati wrote romantic tale of Prince Manohar, ruler of Kanak
Nagar and Madhu Malati.
o Famous buildings - Ibrahim Rauza (tomb of Ibrahim) and Gol Gumbaz.
Overcoming early phase of sectarain strife, Deccan States maintained fine stds of communal harmony
and contributed to music, art archi and lit.

*Ijara- contract land

4. 15,16,17 Mughals :

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Political and Adminis dev:
 J, SJ gave capable rule - peace, dev. Deccan also
 Rajput alliances smooth, allied w powerful sections of Afghans, Marathas
 Archi, cultural life

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  Stabilised India's relations with neighbouring Asian powers like Iran, Uzbeks, Ottomon Turks etc
=> greater trade
 Concessions to European traders to inc foreign trade
 -ves: disparities grew, neglected S&T, navy. Prob of succession to throne created instability and
posed a threat to political sys and eco and cultural dev. Ex. Khusrau rebelled against J, J himself
againt A but brother died so chill, SJ against J etc.
 J's achievements: Malik Ambar controlled, peace w Mewar, hold over Bengal. -ves: Persian
conquest of Qandahar, due to SJ's rebellion, failure of health, Nur Jahan, struggle among princes.
 Apparently Nur Jahan "managed" J thru her "janta" - a close knit group. Initially SJ with her, later
he rebelled stating her as cause.

Foreign Policy of Mughals:

 Uzbeks were natural enemies of Mughals because they ousted Babur and other Timurids.
 Cordial ties with Persians, who were Shias. Refused to form tripartite alliance with Uzbek and
Ottoman on sectarian grounds. Good relations with Iran helped in trade with CA.
 Annoyed by this, Uzbeks tied to stir up fanatic Afghans and Baluchi tribesmen in NWF againt
Mughals.
 Ottomans called themselves Pashah-i-islam and successor of caliphate at Baghdad. These Turks
had superior navy, and Mughals were suspicious of them (both reasons)
 Akbar:
o Saffavids of Iran helped both B and H so good relations from then only.
o Abduallah Uzbek was main threat. He appealed to Akbar to lead an expedition agaisnt the
Shias but A never encouraged such narrow thoughts - sent return embassy saying "diff in
religion and law can't be regarded as sufficient ground for conquest".
o A needed Iran to keep Uzbeks in check + didn't want to encounter Uzbeks also unless they
directly threatened Mughal territory in Afghan.
o A maintained his scientific frontier line of Qandhar-Kabul. Qandhar was imp for Mughals
because of fertile province, hub for movement bw CA and India, strategic.
 Jahangir:
o Shah Abbas - greatest ruler of Iran. Very good realtions, infact both have imaginary potrait
embracing. But this ties made J too comfortable to seek relations with Turks.
o But Shah Abbas annexed Qandahar while still being friendly - J couldn't respond due to
unprep + SJ's rebel. Later after Shahs death, SJ made the Iranian gov defect and occupied it
off.
 Balkh campaign of SJ:
o Many don't agree that he tried to fix scientific frontier at Amu Dayara (R. Oxus) becoz it
wasn't a defensible line.

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 o Can't say he was motivated to occupy Samarqand and Farghana, the Mughal "homelands".
This was more a diplomatic ploy by the Mughals which was never seriously pursued.
o Was trying to have friendly rule in Balkh and Badakhshan, to control hostile Afghan tribes.
o Though military success, politically not much but it raised Mughal prestige among
contemporary global powers.
o Would have saved money, time if SJ just stuck to A's Qandahar-Kabul-Ghazni line.
o Later Persians again attacked Quandahar - despite 3 campaigns by SJ (for 2 of them he sent
Auran) no success. Auran then accepted it.
o SJ was more sentimental than realistic about Q - becuase it had lost its strategic imp by then.
 Broad themes - friendly to Persian despite setbacks, Mughal homeland, commanded equality with
Safavid, Ottomans etc. and used FP to promote commerce.

Changes in Mansabdari after Akbar:

 Decreased zat and Sawar - both J and SJ.
 Du-aspah si-aspah: could maintain more Sawar than that corresponding to his zat.
 SJ reduced no. of sawars a noble had to maintain - 1/3 or 1/4 of his rank.
 Jama: register of income of various areas/jagirs. Aka Jama-Dami becoz it was calculated in Dams
(40Dams =1Rs)
 Mansabdari was a complex sys - reqd multiple things to function properly: dagh was to be correct,
jama-dami couldn't be inflated, etc.
 During SJ area under cultivation, jama-dami, cash crops all inc. but price rise was also high.

Mughal army:
 Ahadis: individual gentlemen trooper, paid much higher
 Baraq-andaz - skilled musketeers, Tir-andaz - bowmen
 Walashahis - royal bodyguards
 Piyadgan - footmen, Banduquchi - held firearms

Social and eco life:

 Disparities
 Muzartan - tenants
 Khudkhas/Khudkashts - peasants who owned land themselves
 New crops: Tobacco, Maize (17C). Potato, Red Chillies (18C).
 Surplus silk, stopped importing.
 No new agri tech was intrduced, but decently efficient.

Nobility:

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  Mughals managed to bureaucratise nobility to some extent by rules of business. But feudal
attachment to land continued.
 Lavish livestyle, very high salaries, attracted foreigners - but they also assimilated.
 J: 1st to add Marathas.
 Hindu nobles - 16% (A), 24% (SJ), 33% (Auran)
 Often divided on ethnic lines but formed a composite ruling class which created a composite
culture. + became money minded, aided commerce and inc consumption.
 Zamindars were also present - diff names like Deshmukhs, Patil, Nayaks etc. central power couldn't
allienate or ignore them.
 Madadd-i maash: land grants for religious ppl (aka Sasan)

Trade and Commerce:

 Seth, Bohra, Modi: long distance trade.
 Beoparis, Banik: inter regional trade.
 Banjaras: specialised in carrying bulk goods.
 Movement of goods was facilitated by complex networks of Gumashtas, Dalalas (commission
agents). Indian traders were efficient, competitive ie why when Europeans came they were
alarmed and started acquiring territories to make profits.
 Hundis: letter of credit payable later on a discount. These helped trade by decreasing carrying of
risky money.
 Sarrafs/Shroffs: specialised in changing money, hundis - acted as private banks.
 Virji Vohra - richest guy of his time, Ghafur Bohra, chetti, Kashi Viranna - rich ppl.
 T&C expanded because:
o political integration under Mughals, L&O, peace in Deccan
o Roads, sarais and communication
o Uniform tax on goods at point of entry
o Road cess or Rahdari was illegal
o High quality, std silver dams
o salaries to standing army (not nobles) paid in cash -> boost to money sys.
o rural grain markets led to small townships (gasbas).
o demand for luxury goods - expansion of handicrafts and towns.
o demand for Indian steel swords, A and Auran dev guns.
o SJ started a small scale ship buidling prog, dec freight rates
 Calicoes: undied cloth because died one was banned in Europe due to unfavourable trade balance.
 Portugese and Magh pirates hindered growth in BoB, but later English and Dutch revived.
 Salt Petre was also a major export item

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  Monserrate, the Jesuit priest who came to A - said Agra and Fatehpur Sikri were bigger than
London.
 -ve: money market penetrated to villages, inc their disparities, influx of gold and silver => prices
rose, corruption inc and nobles grew greedier => more oppressive.

Cultural and Religious dev:

 2nd classical age after Guptas.

 Timurid court at Samrqand was an imp cultural centre so babur had cultural heritage - critical of
Indian ways and wanted to improve.
 Baolis: water tanks

Architecture:
 use of running water - charac feature
 gardens - Nishat Bagh in Kashmir, Shalimar in Lahore, Pinjore in PJ
 A: Fatekpur Sikri (fort cum palace), Agra Fort, Boland Darwaza - to mark GJ victory
 SJ: moti mosque inside Agra fort with marble, Jama Masjid in red sandstone
 Harmandir or golden temple also influenced from Mughal style.

Painting:
 H brought 2 Persian artists when in exile, A used them to create a unique school. Combined Persian
style with India colours (peacock blue, red) and more rounded features to create 3D effect.
 Daswant, Baswant - 2 famous painters at A's court.
 Some features of European painting also intrduced by Portugese priests during A's time - principles
of fore-shortening (ie near and distant perspectives).
 Largest no. of books on classical Indian music in Persian were written during Aurangzeb's time.

Sikh Movement:
 1st 4 gurus continued tradition of quiet meditation. 5th Ajun Dev - compiled Adi Granth.
 To emphasise worldly leadership, he adopted aristocratic lifestyle - lavish.
 Akbar as usual was impressed by Sikhs visited also. But J and SJ had issues - minor and silly only
(support to rebels, hawk thingy).
 Sachcha Padshah: means true sovereign, as called by Gurus followers
 no real atm of confrontation or persecution.

Orthodoxy vs Liberalism:

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  Dadu, from GJ taught Nipakh - non sectarian path and indivisibility of Brahma. Didn't associate
with any religion.
 Raghunandan of Bengal - Hindu Orthdox, wrote on Dharmashastras. Asserted privileges of
Brahmanas and said rest all were Shudras in Kali yug.
 Ram Das, guru of Shivaji put forwards philosphy of activism, against Brahmin hegemony.
 Tauhid: Muslim mysticism, unity in God. Liberal
 Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi: orthodox Naqsbandi school of Sufis declared Tauhid unislamic and wanted
to be harsh to Hindus etc. J imprisoned him, Auran also didnt give him any bhav.
 Recurring cycles of liberalism and orthodoxy due to struggle for power and privilege vs. humanism.
 clash bw both became heightened in aurangs time.

5. Disintegration of Mughals :

Civil war for SJ's succession kept the empire distracted for 2 years. It proved that neither
nomination (coz SJ nominated his liberal son Dara) nor plans of empire division were likely to
be accepted by the contenders for throne. Military force became the only arbiter for succession
and the civil wars streadily became more destructive.

Aurangzeb:
 ruled for ~50years
 hardworking, disciplined, close attention, simple yet orthodox, suspicious
 Religious policy:
o Forbade kalma being inscribed on coins
o Discont. Nauroz (Zoroastrain)
o Appointed Muhtasibs to ensure ppl lived according to Shara/Sharia
o Banned wines, bhang in public palces. Regulated gambling etc.
o Forbade singing but instruments and Naubat (royal band) cont.
o Discont Jharoka darshan - public appearance of emperor. he thought it was
superstitious.
o forbade weighing of emperor with gold and silver on budday. A started this.
o Tried to reserve posts of petty revenue officers for muslims - peshkars and karoris
o jizyah, pilgrimage tax back
o Position of Shara on temples, churches, synagogues: "long standing temples cant be
destroyed but no new temples can be built. Old ones can be repaired because
buildings can't last forever." Followed since Sultanate time. Auran went overboard.

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 o Some opine Aurang wanted to convert India from dar-ul-harb (land of infidels which
accepted and paid jizyah) to dar-ul-islam.
 Mustaid Khan - wrote Aurangs history and his close associate. Author of Maasir-i-
Alamgir wrote about destruction of Temple of Keshav Rai at Mathura.
 Jizyah: sanctioned by Sharia. not meant to be an economic press to force conversion
becuase it was too light + many were exempt. No evidence that any significant section of
Hindus converted because of this alone. Imposition was political and ideological in nature:
o meant to rally muslims in defence of state againt Marathas and rajputs.
o was to be collected by God fearing Muslims ie Ulmas - so was like a bribe to
theologians
o resented by hindus - discriminatory, nature of collection itself where ppl had to
personally go and pay, corruption.
o Aurang suspended its collection in Deccan due to war in 1705, formally abolished in
1712.
 Reversed A'spolicy of tolerance - undermined Hindu loyalty to the empire
 Hanafi school of Muslim was followed in India, so emperor issued Zawabit to supplement
Sharia. Compilations of Aurang's zawabits - Zawabit-i-alamgiri.

Aurang's problems:
1. Marathas: question of local independence.
2. Jats: efforts to set up indep regional state. Started as peasant uprising and culminated into
one led by Jat ruling class.
3. Sikhs: Guru Tegh Bahadur was beheaded. Later Guru Gobind Singh wasn't able to
withstand Mughal might but created a tradition of fighting against oppression. An
egalitarian religious mov transformed in to a militaristic, political mov.
4. Rajputs: prob of succession of Marwar and Mewar. Mughals acted like conquerers and
breached trust. Aurangs policy was clumsy, brought no adv to Mughals at all. Mughal army
failure here damaged its prestige. Contemp Rajasthani work Hukumat-ri-Bahi mentions
about the fight.
5. Afghans: tribal in nature. Raushanai was a religious revivalist movement led
by Bhagu which emphasised on ethical life. This mov shows that resistance to Mughals
wasn't only from hindus. This afghan prob diverted attention away from Shivaji when he
rapidly expanded.

Marathas:
 Treaty of Purandar: shivaji accepted to side with Aurang. But some weird insults etc
happened when he visited Agra. Defected.

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  1674: shiv formally crowned. gave him legetimacy over other maratha chiefs, Gaga
Bhatta - the priest presiding also made announcement that Shiv was high caste Kshatriya -
gave status of equality with other Deccani Sultans and no more just a rebel. Also an imp
step for growth of Maratha nationalism.
 Shiv took title of Hindava-Dharmoddharak (protector of Hindus) - but he himself
plundered many hindus.
 Sys of admin:
o Ashtapradhan: 8 ministers
o Peshwa (fin and gen admin)
o Sari-i-naubat: senapati
o Majumdar - accountant, Wakenavis - intelligence
o Surnavis/Chitnis - correspondence, dabir - ceremony incharge
o Nyayadhish - justice, panditrao - charitable grants
o Saranjam/Mokasa - land grants
 Army was maintained under strict discipline, no dancing girls allowed to accompany.
 New revenue sys by Annaji Datto in 1679 was adopted. Unlike popular belief, he didn't
abolish Deshmukhi, he regulated the Mirasdars ie those with hereditary rights to land.
Suppressed Deshmukhs to estb strong state.
 Chauth - 1/4 land revenue levied on neighbouring states.
 Can't be called just a war state, though it was regional in nature it had popular support.

Aurang and Deccan (1658-87):

 Phase 1: Main tussle was to recover from Bijapur the territories belonging to Ahmadnagar.
 Phase 2: Marathas seen as the biggest danger in Deccan and Auran tried to pressurise
Bijapur and Golconda to join hands against them.
 Phase 3: Bcoz B&G weren't cooperating, decided to conquer them before he destroyed
Marathas.
 Cost of maintaining Mughal armies in Deccan was high, income was insufficient. (This was
the same reason why SJ broke the treaty of 1636 too)
 After annexing B&G, Aurang killed Shivajis son - Sambaji. this was a huge political
mistake because it now gave the Marathas a cause. In the absence of a single ralying point,
the Maratha sardars plundered Mughal territories. Maratha opposition became all
pervasive in Deccan. Had he come to terms with Marathas after getting B&G, he couldve
consolidated his position in Deccan.
 Also Maratha resistance shifted from west to east post this.
 He fought in futility after this till he died in 1707.

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  Major mistakes: Treaty of Purandar shouldve made frnd with Shiv, the unity of hearts bw
Aurang and Deccani states which he wanted desperately was a psychological impossibility
becoz when SJ broke 1636 treaty itself trust was broken, Aurang also delayed Forward
Policy in Deccan due to his own succession prob while SJ was alive, Afghan distraction also
helped Marathas.

Decline reasons: Spectrum

6. MISC- Read :

8-17th C:

Social life:
 Caste remained strong despite decline of Rajput power (who upheld Dharma) and being
against Islam
 Bhakti Sufi saints, regional lang
 Women's position worsened, purdah as a symbol of respect etc.
S&T:
 Too much emphasis on spiritual affiairs - set back in S&T
 Both Turks and Mughals had no links with sea.
 India's lagging behind in naval power is a reflection of growing backwardness in field of
S&T.
 Even mechanical clock which signified European inventions in field of dynamics wasn't
introduced in India till 17th C!
 Superiority of Europeans in artillery was openly acknowledged but no effort was made to
innovate.
 Social structure, historial trad also to blame.
 Too much emphasis on past learning and too much respect to "knowledge repositeries" -
ie the Brahman and mullahs
 Akbar tried to include secualr subjects and sceinces by orthodox elements resisted.
Political:
 Political and admin integration initiated by Turks and consolidated by Mughals
 Significant contri of Turks is to guard India from Mongol slaughter
 For 200 yrs Mughals secured NWF from foreign invasions
 Currency sys, comm, sarai, city life => handicrafts dev.
 Politcal integration => composite ruling class dev. Mughals tried to bureaucractise to some
extended but mainly feudal (due to land factor)

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Economic:
 trade, cultivation, production increased
 but can't say India would have become industrial had Europeans not come, because means
of production were really crude and no innovation was happening.
 Bengal, coramandal coast and GJ developed rapidly
But the most remarkable feature was dev of unified culture depsite multiple differences of
race, religion, language, class etc.

7. Bakti Sufi (8-18th Centaury)

 Hagiographies: biographies of saints

 Integration of cults:
1. dissemination of Brahminical ideas - through Puranic texts now meant for women and
shudras also
2. modification of Brahminic ideas

BHAKTI:
 Tulsi Das: contemp of akbar (he was imprisoned). Devotee of Rama.
wrote Ramacharitamanas
 Surdas: blind poet, Akbar was his patron. Wrote Sur Sagar, Sur Saravali and Sahitya Lahiri
 Amir Khusro: contemp of Khilji, he went with him to capture Ranthambore.
 Ganandeva
o founded Maharashtra Dharma
o wrote Gnaneswari - commentary on Gita
 Tukaram
o MH, contemporary of Shivaji
o Maratha nationalism
 Kabir
o 3 sources of his verses:
1. Kabir Bijak is preserved by the Kabirpanth in Varanasi
2. Kabir Granthavali is associated with the Dadupanth in Rajasthan
3. Adi Granth Sahib
o some are composed in the special language of nirguna poets, the sant bhasha.
Others, known as ulatbansi (upside-down sayings), are written in a form in which
everyday meanings are inverted
 Guru Nanak

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 o born in Nankana Sahib (Ravi river)
o Nirguna, rejected sacrifices, image worship and the scriptures of both Hindus and
Muslims
o Said Absolute or “rab” had no gender or form
o set up rules for congregational worship (sanga), appointed one of his disciples, Angad,
to succeed him as the guru, and this practice was followed for nearly 200 years.
o did not wish to establish a new religion, but after his death his followers consolidated
their own practices and distinguished themselves from both Hindus and Muslims.
o Guru Angad - Gurmukhi script
o 5th one Guru Arjun , compiled Baba Guru Nanak’s hymns along with those of his four
successors and other religious poets like Baba Farid, Ravidas (aka Raidas) and Kabir in
the Adi Granth Sahib . These hymns, called “gurbani”, are composed in various
languages.
o 10th Guru Gobind Singh, included the compositions of the ninth guru, Guru Tegh
Bahadur, and this scripture was called the Guru Granth Sahib. He foundation of
the Khalsa Panth (army of the pure) and defined its five symbols: uncut hair, a
dagger, a pair of shorts, a comb and a steel bangle. Consolidated as a socio-religious
and military force.
 Mirabai: Rajput princess from Merta in Marwar who was married against her wishes. Her
preceptor was Raidas, a leather worker.

Alvars and Nayanars of TN:

 against caste sys, opposed B&J
 Nalayira Divyaprabandham - compositions of 12 Alvars (5th Veda)
 Women - Andal (alvar) and Karaikkal Ammaiyar (nayanar). Not nuns; their very existence
and compositions posed a challenge to patriarchal norms.
 Appar, Sambandar, Manikyavachakar and Sundarar (Nayanars) SAMS -> compiled
as Tevaram
 Both were revered by vellala peasants and in turn rulers patronised as they want support
of general ppl etc.
 Chola ruler Parantaka I had consecrated metal images of Appar, Sambandar and Sundarar
in a Shiva temple.
 Manikkavachakar: a devotee of Shiva who composed devotional songs in Tamil

Virashaiva, KN (12th C):

 By Basavanna - a Brahmana and minister in the court of a Kalachuri ruler.
 jangama - wandering monks

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  beleive after death - union with Shiva, don't cremate but bury their dead
 against caste and rebirth
 encouraged certain practices disapproved in the Dharmashastras, such as post-puberty
marriage and the remarriage of widows
 Vachanas - composed in Kannada

North India:
 Period when Rajputs emerged - Brahminical stronghold was there
 Naths, Jogis and Siddhas - any of them came from artisanal groups who were becoming
increasingly important with the development of organised craft production + emergence
of urban centres + trade with CA and West Asia.
 questioned Veda, spoke in languages of ordinary people (but didn't get much support of
elites)
 Establishment of the Delhi Sultanate (thirteenth century) - undermined the power of many
of the Rajput states and the Brahmanas who were associated with these kingdoms.

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SUFI
 Ulamas to guide rulers and ensure that Shria was being followed
 Zimmit - ppl of other religions who pay jizya and get protected by Muslim rulers
 Sharia based on -> Quran, Hadis (traditions of Prophet), Qiyas (reasoning by analogy) and
Ijma (consensus of the community). Last 2 started as Islam spread to new areas with
different customs.
 5 pillars of Islam
1. There is one God, Allah, and Prophet Muhammad is his messenger (shahada)
2. offering prayers five times a day (namaz/salat)
3. giving alms (zakat)
4. fasting during the month of Ramzan (sawm)
5. performing the pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj)

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  Khojahs, a branch of the Ismailis (a Shia sect), developed new modes of communication,
disseminating ideas derived from the Quran through indigenous literary genres. These
included the ginan (derived from the Sanskrit jnana, meaning “knowledge”), devotional
poems in Punjabi, Multani, Sindhi, Kachchi, Hindi and Gujarati, etc.
 Shah Hamadan mosque in Srinagar, on the banks of the Jhelum. Built in 1395, it is one of
the best examples of Kashmiri wooden architecture.
 More general term for these migrant communities was mlechchha, indicating that they did
not observe the norms of caste society (derogatory).
 Khanqah - hospice
 Shaikh, Pir, Murshid, Wali - teacher
 Murid - disciple
 Khalifa - successor
 Silsila literally means a chain, signifying a continuous link between master and disciple
 Ziyarat: pligrimage to dargah of a saint
 wali claimed to be close to Allah, acquiring His Grace (barakat) to perform miracles
(karamat)
 Because of extreme asceticism called Qalandars, Madaris, Malangs, Haidaris, etc. Because
of their deliberate defiance of the sharia they were often referred to as be-sharia, in
contrast to the ba-sharia sufis who complied with it.
 Sultans set up charitable trusts (auqaf ) as endowments for hospices and granted tax-free
land (inam).
 4 imp sources of Sufis: 1) Hujwiri work, 2) Malfuzat, 3) Maktuat, 4) Tazkiras
 Tazkiras (literally, “to mention and memorialise”; biographical accounts of saints) – The
fourteenth-century Siyar-ul-Auliya of Mir Khwurd Kirmani was the first sufi tazkira written
in India. Akhbar-ul-Akhyar of Abdul Haqq Muhaddis Dehlavi.

Sufi Schools:
 SUHRAWARDI SUFIS:
o did not reject government service, active part in politics
o The founder of the silsilah, Shihabuddin Suhrawardi, had close contact with the
Caliph in Baghdad
o Bahauddin Zakariya - founder of this Suhrawardi silsilah in India
o more orthodox than the Chisti silsila.
 CHISTI SAINTS:
o Khwaja Muin-ud-din-Chisti established Chisti Silsila in India.
o His disciple Hamidudin Nagori (Nagaur, RJ).
o Non-vegeterian and live the life of simple peaseant.

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 o Most popular, accepted donations of rulers.
o Khwaja's other disciple Qutub-din-Baktiyar Kaki established Chisti Silsila in Delhi.
Qutub Minar is named after him.
o Kaki -> Baba Farid Ganje-Shakar (founder of Punjabi lang, verses are found in Guru
Granth Sahib)-> Nizamudin Auliya (aka Mehboob-e-Illahi) -> Amir Khusaro
o Auliya called SIDH by Nathpantis (respected by ppl of all religions).
o poets such as Amir Hasan Sijzi and Amir Khusrau and the court historian Ziyauddin
Barani, all of whom wrote about the Shaikh.
o Abul Hasan Hujwiri: wrote Kashful-Mahjub in Persian to explain Sufism. He is
called Data Ganj Bakhsh or “Giver who bestows treasures” and his mausoleum is
called Data Darbar or “Court of the Giver”.
o Malfuzat: means conversations of sufi saints (such as Fawaid-al-Fuad, a collection of
conversations of Nizamuddin Auliya, compiled by Amir Hasan Dehlavi)
o Nizamuddin Auliya aka Sultan-ul-mashaikh (Sultan amongst shaikhs) => some friction
with Sultanes for power.
o Muinuddin's dargah:
 Muhammad bin Tughlaq 1st Sultane to visit
 Akbar freqented
 funded in the late fifteenth century by Sultan Ghiyasuddin Khalji of Malwa
 Jahanara (Shah Jahan's daughter) wrote biography of Shaikh Muinuddin
Chishti, titled Munis al Arwah

o
 NAQSHBANDI SILSILA:
o POPULARIZED BY BABUR.
o Khwaja Baqu Billah came to India to oppose Akbar's liberal policies [1563-1603]
o His disciple Sheikh Ahmed Sarhindi called himself Mujaddin (renovator of I
millennium of Islam).
o They opposed both Shias and Hindus, Orthodox in outlook.
o Aurangzeb was initiated into Naqshbandiya order.
o Maktubat (collections of letters) - ex. Maktubat-i Imam Rabbani, of Ahmad Sirhindi

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  QADARIYA SILSILA:
o MIYA MIR or MIR MOHD imp sufi
o associated with Guru Ramdas in laying the foundation of the Golden Temple at
Amritsar.
o Dara Shukoh and Jahanara joined Qadariya silsila under the influence of Mullan Shah
Badakshi.

8. Vijayanagara :

VIJAYANAGARA (14-16 C)

 Both the name of a city and empire.

 Discovery of Hampi: by Colonel Colin Mackenzie in 1800. In 1815 he was appointed
the first Surveyor General of India.
 Contemporaries described it as the karnataka samrajyamu

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  Gajapati (lord of elephants) - OR, Ashvapati (lord of horses) - Deccan Sultans, Narapati
(lord of men) - Rayas
 Trade of horses was initially controlled by Arab traders. Local communities of merchants
known as kudirai chettis or horse merchants also participated in these exchanges
 Krishnadeva Raya:
o subdued rulers of Orissa, inflicted defeats on Sultan of Bijapur
o captured land between the Tungabhadra and Krishna rivers (the Raichur doab)
o wrote Amuktamalyada, on statecraft, in Telugu
o wrote Jambavati Kalyanam in Sanskrit
o founded a suburban township near Vijayanagara called Nagalapuram after his mother
o supported some claimants to power in the Sultanates and took pride in the title
“establisher of the Yavana kingdom”
o Sultan of Bijapur intervened to resolve succession disputes in Vijayanagara following
the death of KDR => not always hostile.
 Dynasties:
1. Sangama
2. Saluvas (military commanders)
3. Taluvas - KDR belonged to this
4. Aravidu (till end)
 Nayakas: military chiefs who controlled forts and had armed supporters, moved from
place to place with peasants. Generally spoke Telugu or Kannada.
 Amara-nayaka system was a major political innovation of the Vijayanagara Empire
- derived from Iqta system of Sultanate.
 Water resourses:
o natural basin formed by the river Tungabhadra which flows in a north-easterly
direction
o Kamalapuram tank - imp tank built in 15thC
o Hiriya canal: drew water from a dam across the Tungabhadra and irrigated the
cultivated valley that separated the “sacred centre” from the “urban core". (by
Sangama kings)
 Foritfications encircled not only the city but also its agricultural hinterland and forests.
(objective of medieval sieges was to starve, so many cities had granaries etc. these ppl
went a step ahead to include agri lands)
 No mortar or cementing agent was employed anywhere in the construction.
 Paes (traveller) described audience hall and the mahanavami dibba, which together he
called the “House of Victory”
 Mahanavami Dibba was a massive platform supported by wooden base.

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  Lotus Mahal had nine towers – a high central one, and eight along the sides.(may have
been a council chamber, a place where the king met his advisers)
 Hazara Rama temple. This was probably meant to be used only by the king and his family.
 Kings took titles like “Hindu Suratrana” - meaning Hindu sultan.
 Virupaksha temple was built over centuries. hall in front of the main shrine was built by
Krishnadeva Raya to mark his accession
 In 1976, Hampi was recognised as a site of national importance.
 beautiful statue of Krishnadeva Raya placed on the gopuram of the temple at
Chidambaram, Tamil Nadu.
 Fall:
o In 17th C these nayaks started their own kingdoms and hastened the fall of empire.
o 1565: Rama Raya, the chief minister of Vijayanagara, led the army into battle
at Rakshasi-Tangadi (also known as Talikota), where his forces were routed by the
combined armies of Bijapur, Ahmadnagar and Golconda. The victorious armies sacked
the city of Vijayanagara. This Rama raya played an adventurous policy to play off one
Sultan against another -> led to them uniting.
o Aravidu dynasty shifted to east and ruled from Penukonda and later from Chandragiri
(near Tirupati)

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VITTALA TEMPLE, HAMPI
 Stone Chariot: not monolithc but skilfully made of many granite pieces.
 Remains of paintings are still found on the carvings of chariot.
 In front of the chariot 2 elephants are positioned - these were brought later as originally
horses were carved
 one of 3 most famous chariots - the other two chariots are situated in Konark (Odissa) and
Mahabalipuram (Tamil Nadu).
 56 Musical Pillars of the Ranga Mantapa - carved out of huge single pieces of resonant
stone
 The market was known as the Vittala Bazaar and was famous for horse trading

9. ISLAMIC ARTICHTURE :

Sufis
Shaikh Muinuddin Chisti - Ajmer
Khwaja Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki - Delhi
Shaikh Fariduddin Ganj-i-Shakar - Ajodhan (Pak)
Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya - Delhi
Shaikh Nasiruddin - Delhi

Shaikh Salim Chisti- Dargah Fatehpur Sikri(descendant of Baba Farid)

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Dhatri Reddy IPS, CSE 2018, AIR-233 www.ourstudycircle.org