Block 3

UNIT 8 UNEMPLOYMENT
Structure
8.0 Objectives
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Unemployment: Socio-economic Contexts and Dimensions
8.2.1 The Socio-economic Context
8.2.2 Problems of Identifying Unemployment
8.2.3 Estimating Unemployment
8.3 Types of Unemployment
8.3.1 Seasonal Unemployment
8.3.2 Disguised Unemployment
8.4 Educated Unemployed
8.4.1 Extent of Unemployment
8.4.2 Consequences of Educated Unemployment
8.5 Government Policies on Unemployment
8.5.1 Schemes for Educated Unemployed
8.5.2 Schemes for Rural Areas
8.5.3 Schemes for Women
8.6 Right to Work and its Implications
8.7 Let Us Sum Up
8.8 Key Words
8.9 Further Readings
8.10 Answers to Check Your Progress
8.0 OBJECTIVES
This unit deals with the problems of unemployment in India. After reading
this unit you should be able to:
z examine the problems in creating employment;
z discuss and define unemployment;
z analyse the nature and extent of unemployment among the educated and
its social consequences;
z explain the schemes introduced for tacking unemployment problems in
India; and
z narrate the constitutional provisions of right to work and its implications.
8.1 INTRODUCTION
This is the first unit of this Block. In this unit we shall be discussing the various
aspects of unemployment problems in India. This unit begins with a discussion
on the socio-economic context of the problem of unemployment, problems of
identifying unemployment and present an estimate of this problem in India.
The various types of unemployment viz. the seasonal, disguised etc. are
5
discussed here. The problems of educated unemployment are discussed in great
Structure in Tranistion – II length in this unit. Various government policies related to unemployment are
also discussed in this unit. Lastly we discussed the concept of right to work
and its implications. Now let us begin with the socio-economic context of this
problem in India.
8.2 UNEMPLOYMENT: SOCIO-ECONOMIC

CONTEXTS AND DIMENSIONS
The problem of finding employment for all able-bodied persons willing to
work in common to all countries, developed as well as developing. Every
country wants to provide employment to all its citizens. However, this is not
always possible. Even developed countries like England and the USA face
problems of unemployment. There are a large number of people who want to
work but are unable to get jobs. In developing countries the problem is more
serious because the number of unemployed are usually very large. Hence it
may not be possible for the state to provide employment for these people in a
short period of time. Moreover, a developing nation, being poorer than the
developed countries, may not be in a position to give employment to a large
number of people within the given economic infrastructure.
8.2.1 The Socio-economic Context
In India unemployment is a major problem. There are already a large number
of unemployed people in the country. At the same time, because of the high
rate of population growth, there are more and more people seeking employment.
Therefore we find all major programmes to provide for employment for all
fall short of expectations.
Employment basically means work. If more people work there will be grater
production of goods and services in society. Similarly, in a society where there
are a large section of people ready to work, but only few people get the
opportunity to work, there will be less production. Greater production of goods
and services ensures that these are available to a larger number of people.
Hence more and more people are able to improve their standard of living.
Employment, therfore should not be viewed merely as a means of livelihood
for people. It also means that if more people are employed in a country, the
more prosperous it is: because it is able to produce more and provide more
goods and services to the people as a whole.
Therefore we can argue that the best way for a country to develop is to provide
employment for all. Only then can there be economic advancement. This is
of course true but it is easier said than done. Developing countries face several
constraints and the most important is the lack of resources. For example, a
person can work either in agriculture or in industry. For work in agriculture
you require land. But this is not enough. You also require implements (plough,
bullocks, tractor etc.). Therefore, for work on land you require all these
investments, which we call capital. Similarly for work in industry factories
have to be set up. Most developing countries do not have the resources to
invest in creating employment in this manner. They have either to get loans or
aid from developed countries or they have to plan their resources in such a
way that the maximum number of people get the benefits with minimum
6 investment. We shall discuss these problems in a later section in this unit.
Unemployment has several dimensions. The most evident is that a prison who Unemployment
does not have work has no income and he is unable to support himself/herself
and his/her family. Moreover, as we have discussed earlier, unemployment
means that the country is unable to use the labour power of a large number of
people and this results in low production. These are mainly economic
consequences of unemployment. There are also serious social consequences
of unemployment which makes it not only an economic problem but a social
problem. For a person unemployment means that he is unable to meet his
basic needs. He has to depend on others for these. This makes him insecure or
frustrated. Such people can take resort to anti-social activities in order to get
some income. We will discuss these issues in another section of this unit.
However, before we proceed any further let us first try to understand what do
we mean by unemployment. We will see that there are various types of
unemployment and it is not easy to identify them.
8.2.2 Problems of Identifying Unemployment

For many of us the notion of unemployment is one of those who do not have a
job or, are paid no salary. This is partly correct but not wholly. Such a notion
would apply largely to the educated people who are not able to find work or to
those in urban areas who come to seek employment. We will leave out a large
section of people, in fact the majority, who are engaged in agriculture and who
may not be paid wages. For example, a person cultivating a small piece of
land which he owns is also employed, through he is not paid a wage. He is
more known as self-employed in agriculture. Similarly there are vast number
of people in rural and urban area who do not get wages for the work they do.
These are farmers, artisans, petty shop owners, small and big industrialists,
taxi drivers, mechanics etc. These people are also regarded as being employed.
All these people as well as those drawing salaries are regarded as being
“gainfully employed” because they get some material rewards (in cash or kind)
for the work they do. Those who are not gainfully employed are unemployed.
The next problem is of identifying the unemployed. This is not an easy task.
Normally in our country we regard those people who are between the ages 15
and 58 as being “economically active”. In other words these people have the
potential of being gainfully employed. Therefore those who are not gainfully
employed in this age group are unemployed. This supposition will again not
be fully correct. There could be a large number of people in this age group
who do not wish to seek employment. They could be students or people who
can depend on other people’s earnings and they do not wish to be employed.
Till recently women were considered in this category since a large section of
women (married women mainly) do household work. However, in recent years,
this has been considered as economic activities. The Census of 1991 and
2001 have taken this into consideration.
8.2.3 Estimating Unemployment

Assessing the extent of unemployment is a very important, but difficult task.
The government needs this information so that it can formulate the plans to
ensure that maximum people find some employment. It is also necessary to
assess where employment is needed. For this we have to assess the situation
7
in urban and in rural areas, among various sections of the population, namely,
Structure in Tranistion – II male, female, agricultural workers, industrial workers, educated people and
illiterates etc.
The number of unemployed persons has increased tremendously in India since
Independence. In 1983 the number of unemployed in Indian was 21.76 million.
In 1999-2000 there absolute number has increased to 26.58 million. However,
the rate of unemployment had decreased over the year from 8.30% to7.32%
(Planning Commission of India 2002). However a very recent estimate shows
that the unemployment rate in India is to the extent of 9%. The past and
present scenario of employment and unemployment and their state wise
variations are shown in table no. 1 & 2
Table 1 : Past and Present Macro-scenario on Employment and
Unemployment (CDS basis)
(person years)
(Million) Growth per annum (%)
1983 193-94 1999-2000 1983 to 1993-94 to
1993-94 1999-2000
All India
Population 718.20 894.01 1003.97 2.00 1.95
Labour Force 261.33 335.97 363.33 2.43 1.31
Workforce 239.57 315.84 336.75 2.70 1.07
Unemployment (8.30) (5.99) (7.32)
rate (%)
No. of 21.76 20.13 26.58 -0.08 4.74
Unemployed
Rural
Population 546.61 658.83 727.50 1.79 1.67
Labour Force 204.18 255.38 270.39 2.15 0.96
Work Force 187.92 241.04 250.89 2.40 0.67
Unemployment (7.96) (5.61) (7.21)
rate (%)
No. of 16.26 14.34 19.50 -1.19 5.26
Unemployed
Urban
Population 171.59 234.98 276.47 3.04 2.74
Labour Force 57.15 80.60 92.95 3.33 2.40
Work Force 51.64 74.80 85.84 3.59 2.32
Unemployment (9.64) (7.19) (7.65)
rate (%)
No. of 5.51 5.80 7.11 0.49 3.45
Unemployed
Source : Planning Commission 2002.
8
Table 2 : Employment Scenario in States Unemployment
(CDS Basis)
Sl. Selected Employment Employment Unemployment Employment GDP
No. States (‘000) growth) rate elasticity growth
1993-94 to (% per
1999-00 1993-94 to 1999- 1993-
1999-00 annum)
1999-00 (% 00 94
p.a) (%) (%) 1993-94
to
1999-00
1. Andra 30614 0.35 8.03 6.69 0.067 5.2
Pradesh
2 Assam 7647 1.99 8.03 8.03 0.737 2.7
3 Bihar 30355 1.59 7.32 6.34 0.353 4.5
4 Gujarat 18545 2.31 4.55 5.70 0.316 7.3
5 Haryana 5982 2.43 4.77 6.51 0.420 5.8
6 Himachal 2371 0.37 2.96 1.80 0.052 7.1
Pradesh
7 Karnataka 20333 1.43 4.57 4.94 0.188 7.6
8 Kerala 8902 0.07 20.97 15.51 0.013 5.5
9 Madhya 28725 1.28 4.45 3.56 0.272 4.7
Pradesh
10 Maharashtra 34979 1.25 7.16 5.09 0.216 5.8
11 Orissa 11928 1.05 7.34 7.30 0.262 4.0
12 Punjab 8013 1.96 4.03 3.10 0.426 4.6
13 Rajasthan 19930 0.73 3.13 1.31 0.104 7.0
14 Tamil Nadu 23143 0.37 11.78 11.41 0.052 7.1
15 Uttar 49387 1.02 4.08 3.45 0.185 5.5
Pradesh
16 West Bengal 22656 0.41 14.99 10.06 0.056 7.3
All India 336736 1.07 7.32 5.99 0.160 6.7
Source : Planning Commission 2002.
Check Your Progress 1

i) Why is higher level of employment necessary for the country? Answer in
about six lines
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ii) Tick whether the given statements are true or false:
i) Employment means having a permanent job. True/False
ii) Those performing gainful economic activities are employed.
True/False
iii) Unemployment is much lower in urban areas as compared 9
to rural areas. True/False
Structure in Tranistion – II
8.3 TYPES OF UNEMPLOYMENT
We have seen so far that though employment is a serious problem it is not
always easy to identify. The figures on unemployment quoted in the previous
section show what is actually known as visible unemployment. There are
other types of unemployment which are not very visible. A person can be
employed but he may be actually unemployed. How is this possible? Let us
try and find out. Hence we shall be discussing the typology of unemployment
to understand this phenomenon.
8.3.1 Seasonal Unemployment

Normally when we talk of employed people we mean those who have work
throughout the year. But this may not possible for all. In agriculture, work is
seasonal even though agricultural activities are performed throughout the year.
During the peak agricultural seasons (when the crop is ready for harvesting)
more people are required for work. Similarly in the sowing, weeding and
transplantation period more labour is required. Employment therefore increases
at this time. In fact we will find that there is hardly any unemployment in rural
areas during these peak agricultural seasons. However, once these seasons are
over the agricultural workers, especially those who do not own land or whose
land is not sufficient to meet their basic requirement (these are landless labourers
and marginal farmers respectively), remain unemployed. This type of
unemployment is known as seasonal unemployment. This also means that the
persons who get seasonal employment are unemployed for the rest of the year.
If these workers move away from the villages in search of employment
elsewhere then there will not be sufficient people to work during the season
and this will lower productivity. Hence it is necessary to find work during the
season and this will lower productivity. Seasonal employment is most common
in agriculture but it can be found in industries as well. There are some industries,
such as tea, sugar, jute etc., which are agro-based and they too employ people
during the peak seasons of their operation. Seasonal employment results in
large scale migration of the agricultural labourers from agriculturally backward
regions to that of the developed regions.
8.3.2 Disguised Unemployment

There are also instances where we find too many people working when so
many are not required. In agriculture we may find that all members of the
family work. It is possible that 3-4 people can do a given work in the farm, but
we find that the whole family of say 10 people doing the job. This may be
because the excess people are not able to find employment elsewhere, so rather
than remain unemployed they prefer to do the work along with others. This is
known as disguised unemployment. This occurs when more than the necessary
number of people are employed for the specified work. Disguised
unemployment is found in agriculture because of the lack of employment
opportunities elsewhere. Similarly disguised unemployment can be found in
industry and offices as well. It is not uncommon to find a lot of staff in some
offices who have very little or no work to do. In some factories also we find
that many more people than required are enployed. We may think that given
10 the present situation of high unemployment, there is nothing wrong if more
people are employed. However, just as employing too few people for the job
Unemployment
Types of Unemployment
reduces productivity, employing too many also has the same effect.
Understaffed government offices may be inefficient as the staff cannot cope
up with the given work load. Similarly overstaffed offices can also be inefficient
because there may be overlap of work because the same work is done by many
people.
In agriculture disguised unemployment means that the excess workers are being
paid or they are taking a share of the agricultural products without actually
helping to increase production. With the result the surplus viz. the amount
remaining after those involved in actual production take their share, is reduced.
For example, 10 people are required to work on a piece of land which will
yield, say around 100 quintals of grain. The requirements of these 10 will be
met by 50 quintals of grain. Now if instead of 10 we have 15 people working
on the same land and they produce around 100 quintals of grain the requirements
of the 15 will be 50% more than that of 10 i.e. 75 quintals. Hence only 25
quintals will be surplus whereas in the earlier situation 50 quintals was surplus.
In industry if more people than necessary are employed then the wage bill will
increase and the profits of the unit will be lower. This will also mean that the
industrial unit will have less resources to reinvest in improving production
(e.g. new machinery, better raw materials etc.). Therefore disguised
unemployment or surplus employment may look attractive in the short-run as
a means of providing more employment, but in the long run it can become a
cause for concern.
We can thus see that the problem of unemployment has several dimensions.
First of all we have to identify who the unemployed are. This as we have seen
11
occurs at two levels. Those who do not have gainful employment and who are
Structure in Tranistion – II seeking it. The last is the active factor for determining the unemployed as
there may be people who are not gainfully employed but they may not be
seeking employment for various reasons. Disguised unemployment and
seasonal employment are two such instances. Let us now turn our attention to
another problem of unemployment which affects most of us, namely, educated
unemployment.
i) Seasonal employment is:
a) found only in agriculture
b) found only in industry
c) most common in agriculture but it can be found in the industries as
well.
ii) We find disguised employment where:
a) less people are working when many are required
b) too many people are working when so many are not required
c) people are employed as per the requirements.
8.4 EDUCATED UNEMPLOYED

The problem of educated unemployed is serious in our country. There are a
large number of young educated people who are unable to find employment or
even if some of them do they are engaged in work which require less
qualifications. This means that these people accept work which does not give
them the income which persons with similar qualifications get elsewhere. For
example a person holding a Ph.D degree works as a lower division clerk in an
office, or a highly trained engineer working as a sales assistant in a shop. We
find though the overall picture of employment in India has shown an
improvement, the situation among the educated unemployed has remained the
same.
8.4.1 Extent of Unemployment

There has been enormous increase in the rate of unemployment among the
educated in India. The number of graduate unemployed increased from 9 lakhs
in 1965 to 5.6 million in 1977 with an annual growth rate of 21%. During
1980-88 there has been an annual growth rate of 23% of the graduate
unemployed. The number is much larger for matriculate, higher secondary,
and undergraduates. However, one has to take into account that many of these
people may not be looking for employment as they would be engaged in higher
studies. It seems strange that in a country like India where only a fraction of
its population has had college education there should be difficulty in finding
employment for these people. Let us try and find out the reasons.
The recent data available form the 939 employment exchanges in the country
indicate that as on September 2002, the number of job seekers registered with
the employment exchange (all of whom are not necessarily unemployed) was
to the order 4.16 crore out of which, approximately 70% are educated (10th
standard and above). The number of women job seekers was of the order of
12 1.08 crores (26% of the total job seekers). The maximum number of job seekers
waiting for employment were in West Bengal (63.6 lakh), while minimum were
in the union territory of Dadra and Nagar Haveli (0.06 lakh) and in the state of Unemployment
Arunachal Pradesh (0.2 lakh). The placement was maximum in Gujarat.
(Indiabudget.nic.in).
Growth in education is linked with economic development. As a country
develops it requires larger number of educated people to meet its requirements
for running the administration, for work in industry at different levels. As the
services sector (also known as the tertiary sector) expands, and the requirement
for educated, trained personal also increases. Graduates are required for work
in offices of these various organisations. Moreover the teaching profession
expands as there is a greater number of schools and colleges. Education therefore
contributes to production as it supplies the requisite manpower. However,
problems arise mainly because of the slowing down of economic growth that
results in the surplus supply of the trained/educated manpower. This results in
a situation where there is educational development but the growth in the
economy does not keep pace with it. This results in unemployment among the
educated.
There is also lacunae with the education system in contemporary India. Our
education system is not producing the required manpower as per the need of
our society. Thus it is producing a large number of educated manpower whose
knowledge and skill are not fully used at the present juncture of the transition
of the society. They have remained as surplus educated manpower,
unemployable and unemployed. The Kothari Commission (1964-66) pointed
that there is a wide gap between the contemporary education system and
practical need of the nation at present.
8.4.2 Consequences of Educated Unemployment
The social consequences of the educated unemployed are quite serious. We
will find that people with superior qualifications are doing jobs which could
be done by less qualified people. This results in under-utilisation of one’s
capacity. We can find graduate engineers doing jobs which could be performed
by diploma holders. Similarly there may be clerks and typists with post-
graduate qualifications where perhaps matriculates could do the work. This is
because people with lesser qualifications (matriculates) are unable to find jobs
so they go for higher education with the hope that they will be in a better
position to qualify for the same jobs. We therefore find that there are over
qualified job seekers. This ultimately leads to the devaluation of education.
An eminent educationist, A.R.Kamat, sums up the situation: “Education here
is not so much an investment in human capital as a quest for a credential
which will yield preference to its holder over those who do not possesses it”.
Apart form this, the educated unemployed become more frustrated than the
uneducated unemployed because their aspirations are higher. An uneducated
unemployed person may be willing to do any type of manual work but a graduate
would not be willing to do this even if such work is freely available. In fact
doing a job which is not suitable for ones qualification is not only frustrating
but it is also a waste of national resources. An engineer working as a clerk
because he is unable to find a job in his profession will make him frustrated. In
addition it also means that the investment made in making him an engineer
has been wasted. Similarly a graduate working as a coolie or as a taxi-driver
does so in most cases not because he prefers the work but because he has no 13
other option. This makes him feel frustrated. It also means that the resources
Structure in Tranistion – II spent on his education has been wasted because one does not need such high
qualifications for these jobs.
As mentioned earlier, unemployment makes the person feel insecure. He may
out of frustration take to anti-social activities. Many thieves, pickpockets,
smugglers, drug traffickers etc. take up these activities because they are unable
to find gainful employment. What is worse is that once they are in these
professions it is very difficult for them to take up respectable work later even
if it is available. They have been branded as anti-socials and no employer
would like to offer them jobs.
Social Consequences of Unemployment
Moreover the existence of a large number of unemployed in any country can

challenge the stability of the government. Not all the unemployed take to crime
as an alternative means of livelihood. In fact the vast majority of them search
for legitimate work. If they do not get work they become frustrated. Their
families too are unhappy. This means that the dissatisfaction of not having
work is not confined to only the unemployed but to many more people. If
there is large-scale unemployment, this may lead to the accumulation of
discontent against the government. This discontent usually manifests in the
form of uninstitutionalised action and mass mobilisation. This is why we find
in our country that any government or political party which wants to be in the
government makes eradication of unemployment as one of the main planks of
its programmes. At the same time the government tries to start schemes which
are employment oriented and also provides some aid to the unemployed in
order to contain the discontent of the people.
The increase in educated unemployed is therefore a threat to the harmonious
14
working of the economic system and to the political system. The social impact
of educated unemployed results in deviant behaviour. As mentioned earlier,
educated people have higher ambitions for work and rightly so. If these are Unemployment
not fulfilled they may take to drugs, crime etc. The drug problem among the
youth in our country is largely due to the bleak employment prospects. The
unemployed youth are frustrated and they take recourse to drugs or alcohol to
overcome their frustrations. Even the students when they find that jobs will
not be available for them when they pass out try to overcome their depression
through narcotics and drinks.
The frustrations of unemployed youth can also lead to terrorism. The highly
educated unemployed have anger against society for their state of affairs. They
feel that if this system cannot meet their aspirations for getting proper jobs it
should be destroyed. This leads them to take to organised violence against the
state. Terrorism in Assam and in many other parts of the country is largely a
result of the large number of educated unemployed youth in these states, among
other factors. Though Punjab is the most developed state and Assam one of
the more economically backward states both have the common problem of a
large number of educated unemployed youth. Punjab is agriculturally the most
developed. This has led to spread higher education among its youth. However
its urban-industrial sector and the educated are unable to find suitable jobs.
Therefore the need to provide proper jobs to the educated is not just an economic
problem. It is also a social problem which perhaps is more dangerous than the
economic dimension of waste of resources.
i) Explain in five sentences how growth in education is necessary for
economic development. Answer in about six lines.
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ii) Show how unemployment is linked with anti-social activities. Answer in
about six lines.
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8.5 GOVERNMENT POLICIES ON

UNEMPLOYMENT
We have seen how unemployment is a severe restraint in our economy and
15
society. In order to overcome some of the problems created by unemployment,
Structure in Tranistion – II the government has tried to formulate some programmes. These are directed
towards creating avenues for gainful employment for the unemployed.
There are a number of programmes for counteracting unemployment. It is
neither possible nor realistic to have only one scheme because, as we have
seen, there are different types of unemployment. We have educated
unemployment, unemployed among women, people in rural areas who are
unable to find secured work and so on. The features of each of these sectors
are different and hence each requires a separate scheme. Let us examine some
of these schemes.
8.5.1 Schemes for Educated Unemployed

There are mainly two approaches to help the educated unemployed. Some
states such as West Bengal, Kerala etc. provide stipends for unemployed for a
limited period. In most cases the minimum qualification is matriculation. The
amount varies from Rs.100 to Rs.200 per month for three years. It is expected
that persons availing of this scheme will be able to find employment within
this period.
The other scheme is aimed at promoting self-employment among unemployed
graduates. This is known as the Graduate Employment Programme. Here the
government provides loans to graduates to start small industries or business
with the help of the District Industries Centre. Preference is given to groups of
graduates (3-5) who come together with a viable scheme. One can find a large
number of them in the transport sector. The state government usually gives
them priority in allotting route permits and license to set up industries.
Unemployed engineers, both graduates and diploma holders, are encouraged
to set up small industries or take up civil contract work after they form
cooperatives. They are able to get loans at low rates of interest and they are
given priority in getting government contracts. Various training centers have
also been open by the government to promote the entrepreneurship and self-
employment among the youth.
8.5.2 Schemes for Rural Areas

The educated are not the only ones who face the problem of unemployment in
the urban areas. There are large numbers of people in the rural areas who do
not have a high level of education and who are unemployed. There are two
main schemes for tackling this problem. These are the National Rural
Employment Programme (NREP) and the Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (JRY).
Under these schemes the government creates public works programmes such
as road building, construction, land reclamation, irrigation work etc. which
provide employment to the rural poor. The advantages of such schemes are
that firstly they are located in or near the villages of the unemployed so that
they do not have to migrate out of their villages to seek work. Secondly they
help overcome the problem of disguised unemployment and seasonal
unemployment. The excess workers in agriculture can be drawn out and given
work in these schemes.
There is another scheme for rural youth known as Training of Rural Youth for
Self-employment (TRYSEM). This operates in selected development blocks.
16
It imparts skills to rural youth so that they can start employment generating
activities. These include weaving, training as mechanics, fitters etc.
8.5.3 Schemes for Women Unemployment
Apart from the above schemes which cover both males and females, there are
schemes which are directed mainly towards women. These schemes attempt
to provide self-employment to women through home-based work. The Khadi
and Village Industries Corporation (KVIC) provides various schemes for this
purpose. These include spinning and weaving, making papads, agarbattis and
other consumer products. The raw material is supplied to the women and they
make the final products in their homes. The KVIC pays them their labour
costs and markets the products. These schemes help increase the family income
of the rural poor.
Activity 1
Interview a self-employed youth of your area. Try to find out the problems faced
by him or her in starting his/her activities. Also try to find out the reasons for their
being opting for self-employment. Prepare a note of around 20 lines and if, possible,
exchange it with your co learners in the Study Centre.
8.6 RIGHT TO WORK AND ITS IMPLICATIONS

The growing rate of unemployment in our country is a serious problem which
has been the focus of government policy. In order to ensure that government
takes this up seriously it has been argued that the right to work should be
included as a fundamental right to work for its citizens. The Directive Principles
of the Indian Constitution however are the guidelines on which government
policies should be formulated. They do not have legal backing for
implementation. Hence if the right to work is made a fundamental right then
every government will be forced to take measures which ensure that people
get work. What exactly is meant by right work? Essentially it means that every
adult citizen should have the right to do physical labour for eight hours a day,
at the minimum wages. It does not mean that every citizen has a right to
government employment. Nor does it mean that a person must be provided
employment of his/her choice. In other words the right to work is like an
employment guarantee scheme. In order to achieve the right to work it will be
necessary to go in for large scale rural employment. This would essentially
mean that our investments have to be directed to this sector. It would mean
ensuring that artisans, craftsmen and the small farmers get enough inputs in
the form of credit and raw materials so that they do not have to leave their
work in the villages and join the unskilled unemployed in the cities. This will
help reduce urban unemployment. In order to achieve this goal the infrastructure
in the rural areas has to be improved. There has to be irrigation facilities so
that there is water for land cultivation. The communication network has to be
built up, roads have to be constructed and transport improved so that the farmers
and the artisans can get a wider market for their product.
Box 1
Constitutional Provisions for Right to Work
The Directive Principles of the Indian Constitution speak of the right to work for
Indian citizens. Article 30 reads “The state shall, in particular, direct its policy
towards securing – (a) that the citizens men and women equally, have the right to 17
an adequate means of livelihood.”
Structure in Tranistion – II Article 41 especially speaks of the “Right to Work, to education, and to public
assistance in certain cases” It reads”: The state shall, within the limits of its
economic capacity and development, make effective provision for securing the
right to work, to education and to public assistance in case of unemployment.
Other facilities have to be improved as well. People can work hard and produce
more only if they are healthy. Therefore health facilities and proper nutrition
has to be ensured. Moreover the vast section of illiterates can be made to learn
new skills only if their illiteracy is removed. Hence education and schooling
facilities must be expanded to cover the entire population.
These are some of the requirements for ensuring that all able bodied people
get work. To achieve this it requires not only ore investment in the rural sector
but also a change in the orientation of our planning. Perhaps this is why most
governments promise to take steps to ensure the right to work but do not translate
this into reality.
i) Right to work is included in the:
a) Directive Principles of the State Policy
b) Ninth Schedule of the Constitution
c) Article 370 of the Constitution
d) Article 356 of the Constitution
ii) Right to work means every citizen has the right to:
a) government employment
b) non-government employment
c) semi-government employment
d) do physical labour eight hours a day at the minimum wage.
8.7 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have covered various aspects relating to unemployment in our
country. We have first of all discussed the meaning of unemployment and its
dimensions. We have tried to identify the unemployed on this basis. This has
led us to define unemployment and then discuss it in all the aspects, namely,
visible, invisible, seasonal etc., and its consequences.
We have also discussed at length the problem of educated unemployment and
why it is so common in our country. The social consequences of unemployment
have also been discussed. We have seen that there are over-qualified job seekers
which results in a wastage of resources. Educated unemployment causes
frustration and frequently leads to anti-social activities.
We have examined some of the schemes initiated by the government to
overcome unemployment. There are separate schemes for the educated, for
the unemployed rural poor and for women. Lastly, we have also examined the
meanings and implications of right to work in Indian context.
18
Unemployment
8.8 KEY WORDS
Disguised unemployment : a situation in which more than the optimal
(required) number of people are employed
to undertake certain tasks. Hence the
excess people are actually unemployed as
they are not doing required work though
they may be paid.
Educated unemployed : in most cases (unless notified otherwise)
a person who has finished schooling
(metric) and is on the look out for
employment is regarded as educated
unemployed. The important period here is
that the person must be actively seeking a
job, because there will be a large number
of cases where matriculates may not be
interested in being employed as they will
be engaged in higher education.
Seasonal employment : a situation in which employment
opportunities exist during some parts of
the year but in regular annual cycles. In
other words employment is available
during the some few months every year.
This happens mainly in agriculture.
8.9 FURTHER READINGS

Behari, B. 1983, Unemployment, Technology and Rural Poverty, Vicaes
Publishing House: New Delhi.
8.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

i) Employment basically means work. If more people work there will be
greater production of goods and services in society. The greater production
of goods and services ensures that these are available to a larger number
of people. It will help improve the standard of living. The country will
also be more and more prosperous.
ii) a) False
b) True
c) False
i) c)
b)
i) Growth in education is linked with economic development. As a country
develops it requires larger number of educated man power to meet its
requirements for running the administration, work in the industry etc. 19
Structure in Tranistion – II The service sector also expands and the requirement for the educated
trained man power also increases. Hence education contributes to the
growing needs.
ii) Unemployment makes the person feel insecure. He may out of frustration
take resort to various anti-social activities. Many thieves, pickpockets,
smugglers, drug trafficers etc. take up these activities because they are
unable to find gainful employment. They may also be involved in violence.
i) a)
ii) d)
20
UNIT 9 LABOUR : INDUSTRIAL
Structure
9.0 Objectives
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Industry and Industrial Labour
9.2.1 Features of Industrial Labour
9.2.2 Industrial Labour in India
9.3 Labour in the Organised and Unorganised Sectors
9.3.1 Organised Sector
9.3.2 Unorganised Sector
9.3.3 Linkages Between Organised and Unorganised Sectors
9.4 Labour Welfare Measures in India
9.4.1 Responsibility of the State and Labour Laws
9.4.2 Regulation at Work and Social Security in the Organised Sector
9.4.3 Labour Welfare and Women Workers in the Organised Sector
9.4.4 Labour Welfare in Unorganised Sector
9.5 Labour Unrest
9.5.1 Trade Union
9.5.2 Forms of Labour Unrest
9.6 Let Us Sum Up
9.7 Key Words
9.0 OBJECTIVES
This unit discusses the various problems of industrial labour in India. After
going through this unit you should be able to:
z discuss the features of industrial labour and the process of their emergence
in India;
z explain the major problems of the industrial labour working both in the
organised and unorganised sectors;
z describe the various aspects of labour welfare measures; and
z examine the nature and forms of labour unrest in India.
9.1 INTRODUCTION
In this block, as stated in the objectives we shall be discussing the various
problems of industrial labour in India. In Unit 26 of ESO-04 we discussed
various dimensions of urban working class in India. Since that unit is directly
related to our present discussion you may like to refer that unit as and when it
is required.
21
In this unit we begin with a discussion on the important features of the industrial
working class and the processes of their emergence in India. Various important
Structure in Tranistion – II problems faced by the workers in the organised and unorganised industrial
sectors are discussed at great length in this unit. We have also explained the
linkages between organised and unorganised sectors. Labour laws are an
important aspect of the labour welfare in India. We shall discuss this aspect in
reference to industrial labour in general and women industrial labour in
particular. We will also discuss the trade union activities and the forms of
labour unrests in India.
9.2 INDUSTRY AND INDUSTRIAL LABOUR

Before we discuss the major processes related to the emergence of industrial
labour force in India let us begin with the basic features of the industrial labour
force in general.
9.2.1 Features of Industrial Labour

The term industry is normally associated with the use of machine technology.
In industrial societies production is largely done through machines rather than
solely through the physical labour of human beings. Another characteristic of
industrial societies is the marketing of human labour. This means that labour
can be bought and sold. In real terms we can translate this as, people sell their
labour and are paid wages in return. The worker here enjoys two types of
freedom. Firstly the freedom to work or not to work and secondly freedom to
work where he/she wants to work. In reality of course the worker may not be
in a position to exercise either of these freedom. If he/she does not work he/
she will starve. Moreover he/she can exercise his/her choice of working where
he/she wants to only if jobs are available.
The above types of freedom may be notional but this system can be contested
with the earlier feudal and slave societies. The slave had no rights of his own.
He had to work for his master irrespective of his will to do so. In the feudal
system the tenant worked on the land of his landlord. He could not leave his
landlord to work elsewhere even if the terms and conditions were better. It is
in this sense that industrial worker enjoys comparatively greater freedom. Apart
form this we can see in the present times that industrial employment offers
better prospects than employment in agriculture. Workers in large factories or
offices get good wages, job security and other facilities. But not all those who
leave their homes in their villages to find work in industries are able to find
such jobs. In fact an overwhelmingly large section is able to find only low
paid jobs where the work is tougher than in the better-paid jobs. Therefore in
industry we find two sector. These are the organised and the unorganised sectors.
The organised sector consists of workers in the larger factories and
establishments where workers are employed following laid-down procedures
and their terms and conditions of work are well defined by the laws of the
land. These include all services under the government (central and state), local
bodies, public sector undertakings and factories using power and employing
at least 10 workers or those without power and employing at least 20 workers.
The unorganised sector consists of casual and contract workers, workers in
small industries and the self-employed ventures. (e.g. petty shopkeepers, skilled
artisans such as carpenters, mechanics etc. who are not employed in factories
22 but work on their own, unskilled manual labour such as porters, home based
workers etc.). In this sector usually no laid-down procedures or laws are
followed/required to be followed while employing workers up to certain Labour : Industrial
numbers.
9.2.2 Industrial Labour in India

In Unit 26 of ESO-04 we discussed the emergence of urban industrial working
class in India. There we mentioned that the urban working class was a product
of the eighteenth century Industrial Revolution in Europe. India was one of
the colonies of England at that time and she served to quicken the process of
Industrial Revolution of her master-country. The imperialist rulers plundered
the natural resources of India to maximize their industrial production. The
prolonged colonial administration and intensified exploitation reduced a large
section of Indian people to miserable impoverished mass. Their rule amounted
to destruction of self-sufficient village community, traditional village and
college industries, displacement of rural artisans and craftsmen and migration
of a section of impoverished rural people to the urban areas.
In India the early phase of industrialisation started in the 1850s which coincided
with the emergence of industrial working class. Cotton and jute mills and mines
gradually flourished in various parts of the country. Between the two world
wars there was a phenomenal increase in the demands of factory products in
India. However, the British government made no serious efforts to foster the
growth of capital goods industries. It was only after Independence that the
Government of India made conscious and deliberate efforts for industrialisation
though its successive Five Year Plans. Between 1960 and 1965 the rate of
growth of employment in the factories was 6.6% only. However in 1970 the
factory employment absorbed only 2% of the labour force. In India since 1951
there has been a marginal shift of workers in favour of the industrial and recently
the services sector. The following table will elaborate such a shift.
Table: Sectoral employment growth (CDS basis)
Employment (in million) Annual growth (%)
Sector 1983 1987-88 1993-94 1999- 1983 to 1987 to 1983 to 1993-94 to
2000 1987-88 1993-94 1993-94 1999-2000
Agriculture 151.35 163.82 190.72 190.94 1.77 2.57 2.23 0.02

Industry
Mining & 1.74 2.40 2.54 2.26 7.35 1.00 3.68 -1.91
quarrying
Manufacturing 27.69 32.53 35.00 40.79 3.64 1.23 2.26 2.58
Electricity, 0.83 0.94 1.43 1.15 2.87 7.19 5.31 -3.55

gas and
water supply
Construction 7.17 11.98 11.02 14.95 12.08 -1.38 4.18 5.21
Services
Trade, hotels 18.17 22.53 26.88 37.54 4.89 2.99 3.80 5.72
and restaurant
Transport, 6.99 8.05 9.88 13.65 3.21 3.46 3.35 5.53

storage and 23
communication
Structure in Tranistion – II Financial, 2.10 2.59 3.37 4.62 4.72 4.50 4.60 5.40
insurance,
real estate and
business services
Community, 23.52 27.55 34.98 30.84 3.57 4.06 3.85 -2.08

social and
personal services
All sectors 239.57 272.39 315.84 336.75 2.89 2.50 2.67 1.07
Source : NSSO-Different rounds.

Website : indiabudget.nic.in
Activity 1
Try to interview 10 to 12 industrial or agricultural or plantation labourers. Collect
information on the terms and conditions of their employment. Now compare and
contrast your findings with the feature of the industrial labourers as described in
section 9.2.1. If possible exchange your note with your colearners at the Study
Centre.
9.3 LABOUR IN THE ORGANISED AND

UNORGANISED SECTORS
Our industrial sector may broadly be categorised under two broad headings:
organised or formal sector and the unorganised or informal sector. There are
different sets of norms and conditions of work for these two sectors.
Workers who are employed in the organised sector enjoy some privileges which
make them different from those in the unorganised sector. These workers enjoy
permanent employment. Their jobs cannot be terminated by the whims of their
employer. Once a worker is permanent he has certain rights and privileges.
His/her employer can terminate his/her employment only on legal grounds
(i.e. if he/she has violated the laws governing his/her employment). The
privileges which the worker enjoys are granted to him/her by law and not
merely by the good-will or charity of his/her employer.
i) Protective Laws
There are a number of laws governing work in the organised sector. Two of
the most important laws in this respect are the Factories Act of 1948 and the
Industrial Disputes Act of 1947. The Factories Act in fact defines the organised
sector (as mentioned above). Any factory coming under the scope of the Act
has to abide by certain rules governing regulation of working hours, rest,
holidays, health, safety etc. For example, the Act lays down that a worker
cannot work for more than 48 hours in a week and not more than 9 hours in a
day. He/she has to be given a rest intervals of atleast half an hour after 5 hours
of work. The worker is also entitled to a weekly holiday and leave with pay.
The Industrial Disputes Act provides protection to the worker in case of disputes
arising from his work (e.g. The amount of wage, nature of work, termination
or suspension etc.). There are a number of other Acts such as the Minimum
24
Wages Act, Payment of Bonus Act. Provided Fund Act., Employees State
Insurance Act etc. which provide protection and some facilities to the workers.
ii) Trade Unions Labour : Industrial
Apart from getting government protection through these various Acts, the
workers in the organised sector are able to form trade unions. This is a very
important aspect of this sector. Trade unions unite the workers to defend their
rights. They ensure that the various legal provisions are implemented. It would
be difficult for workers in the organised sector to secure the rights granted to
them if there were not trade unions. The government alone cannot protect the
workers. The formation of trade unions is a very important aspect of this sector.
We shall see while discussing the unorganised sector that even if laws are
passed to protect workers they are ineffective if the workers are not able to
collectively ensure their implementation.
Workers in the Organised/Unorganised Sector

Apart from workers in small factories and establishments there are a large
number of workers in the organised sector who do not enjoy the same privileges
as the regular workers. These workers are employed as casual labour and
contract labour. They too come in the unorganised sector. There are some
problems in this sector which are reflected in the terms and conditions of
employment, work security etc. of workers. Let us examine these aspects.
i) Casual Labourers
We have seen earlier that workers in organised sector enjoy a number of 25
privileges. This means that the employers have to spend more, besides their
Structure in Tranistion – II wages, for employing them. In many cases the employers try to cut down their
costs by employing casual workers i.e., workers who are not permanently
employed but are employed for a limited number of days. In most cases the
government rules prescribing permanent employment state that a worker who
has been employed for more than a certain number of days (180 in most cases)
have to be treated as permanent workers. The employers try to dodge this law
by breaking the service of the workers for a day or so and reemploying them
again. In this way the worker is not able to complete the minimum number of
days after which he/she can become permanent. The existence of casual labour
in organised industry ensures that the costs are reduced. These workers are
usually granted no rights, except for their minimum wages. They have very
little security of employment and they can be removed from employment at
any time.
ii) Contract Labourers
There is another category of workers who are in the organised sector but, like
casual labour, are not a part of it. These are the contract labourers. The employers
in this case get workers not through direct employment but through labour
contractors. Here too the workers is deprived of the advantages of permanent
labour, even though he/she may be performing the same type of work as a
regular worker. The contract worker at times is employed by a contractor who
in turn is engaged by the employer to undertake certain types of work.
iii) Work Security of the Casual and Contract Labourers
Casual and contract labour forms a fairly large proportion of the workforce. In
several cases we can find in a factory as many casual workers number as much
as the permanent ones. Therefore we can see that within the organised sector
there exists an unorganised sector. The employment of these types of workers
is not restricted to the private sector alone. In the public sector undertaking too
they are frequently employed. The contract labour Regulation and Abolition
Act lays down that such workers (contract) can be engaged only in certain
types of work. However we usually find that even in the public sector the Act
is openly violated and contract workers are made to work in the same manner
as the regular workers, but get less wages.
The common features of the workers in the unorganised sector, whether in
small scale sector or as casual and contract labour, are that they enjoy little or
no job security, they get low wages and their working homes and working
conditions are largely unregulated.
The unorganised sector is also known as the informal sector. The sector can in
many ways be contrasted with the organised sector. The informal sector, by
implication, means a sector which is not guided by rules. The industrial
establishments in this sector are small in size and they employ a small number
of workers. As such they do not come under the purview of the Factories Act.
Hence the workers here do not get the facilities and protection given by this
Act. They are however under the purview of some of the other Acts such as
Minimum Wages Act, Contract Labour Regulation and Abolition Act.
However, as we shall discuss later that many of these Acts remain only on
paper as far as the workers are concerned. Therefore, for all practical purposes
26 the workers here are unorganised and helpless.
iv) Low Wages to Women and Child Labour Labour : Industrial
This sector also employs a large number of women and children because they
are cheaper. The employment of women in the organised sector has declined.
We shall discuss some of the reasons for this in a subsequent section on labour
welfare. Since the scope for female employment has reduced in the organised
sector, women are to depend largely on the unorganised sector for work. Since
there is little regulation in this sector it makes it easier for the employers who
are unscrupulous to employ women and children for work at low wages so
that the profit margin increases.
v) Expansion of Low Paid Employment
Because labour is cheap and the investment required is small, the unorganised
sector has expanded rapidly. It also offers more scope for employment.
Estimates show that the unorganised sector generates two-thirds of the national
income. The positive contribution of the unorganised sector with regard to
employment is that it is able to provide jobs to unskilled workers who would
have otherwise been unemployed or in low paid and more exploited conditions
as agricultural workers. In estimating the potential of this sector let us take the
example of the textile industry. There are three sectors here, namely the large
textile mills in the organised sector, the powerloom sector and the handloom
sector. The latter two are in the unorganised sector. In terms of employment,
the textile industry in Maharashtra has a little more than 2,00,000 jobs in the
textile mills. The powerlooms provide over 5,00,000 jobs and the handloom
sector much more. Another positive aspect of the handloom sector is that it
provides jobs in the villages. On the other hand it is also a fact that the total
wage bill of the 5,00,000 powerloom workers is less than the wage bill of the
2,00,000 textile mill workers. Moreover workers in the powerlooms work for
as long as 10 to 12 hours a day while the textile mill workers have regulated
work hours. Therefore though the unorganised sector offers more scope for
employment, the conditions of its workers are a matter of serious concern for
the policy planners, social workers and the academicians as well.
9.3.3 Linkages Between Organised and Unorganised Sectors

We have seen so far that the organised and the unorganised sectors have distinct
features which contrast with each other. This may give the impression that
these sectors are independent of each other. However, there are strong links
between these two sectors. In fact one can even argue that they are dependent
on each other in many ways. Let us examine how this is so.
In the case of the unorganised sector which exists within the organised sector,
namely contract and casual labour, it is clear that there is a strong link between
the two. Contract and casual labour, as mentioned earlier, are cheaper to employ
than permanent workers. The employers have fewer responsibilities towards
these workers as they do not come under the purview of many of the Acts. The
employers are therefore able to decrease their costs and subsequently increase
their profits.
A more or less similar principle is followed in the linkages between the large
(formal) sector and the small scale (informal) sector. The large factories do
not manufacture all the components they require for the final product. They 27
usually buy these from other industries which specialise in manufacturing the
Structure in Tranistion – II needed components. Usually it is the small factories which provide these
services. For example a factory manufacturing automobiles never manufactures
all the parts required for making a car. It has been estimated that 60% or more
of the components required are made by other manufacturers, usually in the
small sector. The large factory assembles these components. In other cases,
as in any large and reputable consumer goods such as shoes, garments, hosiery,
etc., the entire product may be manufactured by the small sector and it is
marketed under the brand name of the large sector company. This process is
known as ancilliarisation. The small unorganised sector factories act as
ancillaries to the large company. They manufacture parts which are sold
exclusively to the concerned factory. In other words the small factory has its
market in the large factory and it does not seek a market elsewhere.
One can therefore see that a large factory provides scope for setting up smaller
units which employ larger number of workers. For the small sector this
arrangement may be beneficial because it saves them from the problem of
marketing of their products as they do not have the resources to do so. In
many cases the large factories give loans or momentary advances to these
small industries so that they can meet the costs of production. The organised
sector benefits from this arrangement because it saves the trouble of
manufacturing these components at a higher cost. By buying them at low costs
it is able to cut down its total production costs.
On the other hand we can argue equally strongly that the linkages between the
two sectors are in effect an exploitative one. The informal sector, in this
arrangement, is tied down to the formal sector and because it cannot find its
own market, it has to accept the prices offered by the buyer. Since the formal
sector is at an advantage, it can fix prices which are low and the informal
sector too will accept it as it has no other alternative. In order to maintain their
profits (which in any case may be low) they too have to cut down costs and the
most effective way to do so is to reduce wages and increase workload. In this
way more is produced at less cost. Therefore the organised sector exploits the
unorganised sector which in turn exploits its workers. Finally, in spite of the
low prices at which the components are brought the process of the food sold
by the organised sector are high. Usually the cutting of costs through
manufacture in the small sector only adds to the profits of the organised sector
because it does not lead to lower prices. Hence even the consumers do not
benefit through this method.
Tick mark the correct answer.
i) Workers in the organised sector consists of…..
a) all services under the government,
b) local bodies and big factories
c) factories employing 10 workers or more with power or 20 workers
or more without power.
d) All of the above.
ii) The workers in the unorganised sector consists of…..
28 a) casual and contract workers,
b) workers in the cottage and village industries.
c) the self-employed Labour : Industrial
d) all of the above

iii) The unorganised sector within the organised sector comprises
a) permanent workers
b) contract and casual labourers
c) both of the above categories of workers
d) none of the above categories of workers.
iv) State whether true of false.
a) The Factories Act covers all factories in the country.
True False
b) The workers in the organised sector enjoy greater job security
True False
c) Workers in the unorganised sector get no legal protection
True False
9.4 LABOUR WELFARE MEASURES IN INDIA

The above sections discusses the nature of the employment in different sectors
of industry. We find that there are unequal relationships within the industry
and within the labour. Let us now turn to another important aspect of labour,
namely, its welfare. We will now discuss the measures which have been taken
to ensure labour welfare.
9.4.1 Responsibility of the State and Labour Laws
In any form of employment it is the obligation of the employer to provide
decent living and working conditions for their employees. When employers
fail to do so the government steps in to safeguard the interests of the workers
by enacting legislations. Labour laws are therefore passed mainly to ensure
that the employers fulfil their obligations to their employees. India has had a
history of labour laws stretching to around 150 years. However it was only
after Independence that several new laws were passed by the Central and State
Governments which covered a wide range of workers in different types of
industries. Many of the old laws (e.g. Factories Act) were amended to make
them more effective.
The change in the government’s attitude towards labour was mainly because
the post-Independence government took a positive stand as far as the welfare
of the workers was concerned. Moreover the trade union movement developed
and it pressurised the Centre and State Governments to take a positive stand
regarding labour.
Merely passing laws is not enough to protect workers. It is more important to
ensure that the laws are implemented. The employers are of course excepted
to implement the laws but they do not do in many cases. In such instances the
government is expected to ensure that they are implemented. The Government
at the Centre and the States have the labour department which has labour 29
officers, assistant labour commissioners etc. who have been entrusted with the
Structure in Tranistion – II task of ensuring the implementation of the Laws. The employer can be
prosecuted in a court of law if he/she is found violating the laws. However in
spite of various efforts, Government finds it difficult to perform its task
efficiently. This is mainly because factories are widespread and large in size
and the government machinery is not large enough to cover all cases. There is
another important organisation i.e. the trade union which tries to ensure that
the laws are implemented. The trade union organisation mainly tries to protect
the interests of the workers. In doing so it tries to ensure that the laws are
implemented.
Since labour is in the Concurrent list of the Constitution of India, both the
Central and State Governments have the right to pass laws for protection of
the workers. There are a large body of legislation on this matter. We have
mentioned some of the more significant ones earlier which cover the organised
sector as well as the unorganised sector.
9.4.2 Regulation of Work and Social Security in Organised
Sector
We can divide these legislations into two groups, one dealing with the regulation
of work and the other dealing with social security. In the first group we can
place the Acts such as Factories Act, Industrial Disputes Act, Minimum Wages
Act, Shops and Establishment Act, Workmen’s Compensation Act, Contract
Labour Regulation and Equal Remuneration Act and so on. Acts such as
Payment of Bonus Act, Employees provident Fund Act, Employees Family
Pension Scheme, Employees State Insurance Act, Payment of Gratuity Act
and other fall in the second category. There are other Acts too which cover
workers in specific industries such as the Plantation Labour Act, Mines Act,
Motor Transport Worker’s Act etc.
Box 1
Workmen’s Compensation Act, 1923
This act provides for payment of compensation to workmen and their dependents
in case of injury by accident including certain occupational diseases arising out of
and in the course of employment and resulting in disablement or death. The Act
applies to railway servants and persons employed in any such capacity as is specified
in Schedule II of this Act. The Schedule II includes persons employed in factories,
mines, plantations, mechanically—propelled vehicles, construction works and
certain hazardous occupations. Minimum rate of compensation for permanent
disablement and death have been fixed at Rs.24,000 and 20,000 respectively.
Maximum amount for death and permanent total disablement can go up to Rs.90,000
and Rs.1,14000 respectively depending on the wage of worker.
These Acts ensure various facilities and protection to the workers and they
embrace all aspects of the workers lives. Acts such as the Factories Act.
Industrial Disputes Act, Workmen’s Compensation Act, Minimum Wages Act,
Equal Remuneration Act, Shops and Establishment Act, Contract Labour
Regulation and Abolition Act are effective at the work place. They protect the
workers against high handed oppressive actions of the employers. The other
Acts provide security to workers outside their place of work. For example the
Employees State Insurance Act provides for medical facilities to the workers
and is based on a nominal contribution made by the employer and the employee.
30 The Payment of Gratuity Act ensures that a worker gets an amount of money
on retirement. The pension Scheme and the Provident Fund Act are designed
to help the workers financially on their retirement.
We can see from the above that the industrial workers enjoy a fairly extensive Labour : Industrial
measure of protection. We can contrast this with the welfare facilities to
agricultural workers (discussed in the next unit). However the laws may appear
attractive on paper but they come of use only if they are implemented. We
have pointed this out earlier. This becomes evident when we compare workers
in the organised and unorganised sectors. And when we look at women and
child labour. In fact we find that it is only the worker in the organised sector
who is able to enjoy some of the welfare facilities mentioned in these acts.
This is because they are able to organise themselves into trade union and are
able to pressurise their employers to enforce the laws. Those who are unable
to do this are forced to depend on the good offices of the government or on
their employers. Let us briefly look at the problems of woman in the unorganised
sector.
9.4.3 Labour Welfare and Women Workers in the Organised
Sector
We have mentioned earlier that women workers are found less and less in the
organised sector. This is partly caused by the protection granted to them in
this sector. There are various Acts which seek to regulate and protect women
workers in the industry. The Factories Act lays down that women cannot be
employed in the night shift. The Mines Act also prevent employers from making
women work underground. In the case of children, the Factories Act lays down
that those below the age of 14 cannot be employed in factories. Moreover
above 14 who are employed cannot be given work for more than 4½ hours a
day. Pregnant women are to be given four months of maternity leave with full
pay for the leave period. The employers have to provide for creches at the
workplace for the children of the working mothers. The Equal Remuneration
Act (discussed in Unit 11) provides that there should be no discrimination
between male and female workers if the nature of the work they perform is
similar.
Implementation of these laws causes additional expenses for the employers.
Hence they try to see that these workers are gradually removed from
employment. Unfortunately the trade unions do not put up a strong resistance
to this form of retrenchment. This is perhaps because the unions are male
oriented and in the present situation of high unemployment they look at
retrenchment of women workers as a way of providing employment to make
worker in their place. Therefore with little resistance from the workers
themselves, women find little employment opportunity in the organised sector
and they have to seek employment in the unorganised sector.
Box 2
Abolition of Bonded Labour
The Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Act 1976 abolished the bonded labour
system all over the country. This Act envisages release of all bonded labourers and
simultaneous liquidation of their debt. The New 20 point programme stipulated
full implementation of laws abolishing bonded labour system which implies: (i)
identification (ii) release, (iii) action against offenders, (iv) constitution and holding
of regular meetings of vigilence committees at district and subdivisional levels…
etc. With a view to supplementing efforts of state governments, a centrally
sponsored scheme has been in operation since 1978-79 under which state govts.
31
are provided central financial assistance for rehabilitation of bonded labour (India
1990 : 651).
Structure in Tranistion – II 9.4.4 Labour Welfare in Unorganised Sector
We have mentioned earlier that the workers in the unorganised sector are less
protected legally than workers in the organisd sector. There are a few Acts
which cover the workers in this sector (contract Labour Regulation and
Abolition Act, Equal Remuneration Act, Minimum Wages Act etc.). In most
cases since the industrial units do not come under the purview of the Factories
Act, the working conditions mostly remain unregulated. Workers also do not
get facilities like provident fund, gratuity, medical facilities, compensation, or
in most cases paid leave.
Even the Acts providing for some regulation in their work are not implemented.
The biggest drawback that the workers face is that they rarely have trade unions.
They are thus unable to ensure that the existing laws are used in their favour.
The workers are thus helpless and accepts the unregulated exploitative work
conditions because there is no other alternative.
In looking at the situation one can see that if the workers here were able to
form trade unions and if the governments supervision over the employers was
more effective, they would be better off. Trade unions usually shy away from
organising unorganised sector workers as it is more difficult to do so. They
instead prefer to concentrate on the organised sector as the workers are easier
to organise. However we can see that the unorganised sector need the help of
trade unions more than any other sector. Hence till this help comes the workers’
position will remain unchanged.
i) Explain in about five lines the relationship between the small scale and
the large scale sector.
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
ii) Name the two major groups of laws protecting workers.
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
iii) Describe in about five lines on the regulation of work for women workers.
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
32 ...................................................................................................................
iv) Explain in about five lines the main causes for the failure to implement Labour : Industrial
laws in unorganised sector.
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
v) State whether true or false
a) Trade unions are more active in the unorganised sector.
True False
b) Wage discrimination between male and female workers is banned.
True False
c) Children of any age are allowed to work in factories.
True False
d) The organised and unorganised sector are independent of each other.
True False
e) The central government is solely responsible for passing labour
legislation.
True False
9.5 LABOUR UNREST

We have seen so far that workers are able to get the benefits accrued to them
only when they are united in their action and are organised into trade unions.
In this section we shall be discussing the importance of trade union in an
industrial set-up and forms of labour unrest and protest. Let us begin with the
trade union.
9.5.1 Trade Union
In the unit on Urban Class Structure I of ESO-04, we discussed the important
facets of the growth and characteristics of urban labour movements in India.
You may like to read section 26.4 of that unit. Here we shall be dealing with
the importance of trade unions in solving the labour problems in India. In
normal cases workers are able to put forth their demands through their trade
unions to the management. These demands are discussed by the two parties
(management and workers) and the management may accept some of the
demands. Trade union therefore help to chanalise the grievances of the workers
in an institutional manner. The management also benefits because it becomes
aware of the worker’s problems through the trade union. In the absence of 33
trade unions the management may not be aware of what these problems are. If
Structure in Tranistion – II workers have no common platform for putting forth their demands, it is possible
that they will resort to individual acts of violence. In the earlier stages of
industrialisation in India and in England workers were not allowed to form
trade unions. They had no means to air their grievances. At times when their
grievances increased they resorted to violent acts such as beating up their
supervisors or destroying machinery. Trade unions therefore helped to prevent
these types of acts. At the same time they proved to be effective in protecting
the workers’ interest.
Labour unrest is to be viewed in the above background. It would be incorrect
to say that trade unions are the cause of labour unrest. The causes can be
traced to the dissatisfaction among the worker on certain issues relating to
their work or work life. Trade unions give vent to this dissatisfaction and in
the process they organise the workers to collectively put forth their grievances
before the management. This is why labour unrest is seen more often in the
organised sector than in the unorganised sector. It is not that the unorganised
sector workers have less grievances. In fact they have more grievances than
workers in the organised sector. However, they are unable to put forth their
demands because they lack a collective forum to do so. In such a situation it is
not unnatural to find workers in this sector take extreme steps by resorting to
violence when they are unable to express their grievances effectively.
9.5.2 Forms of Labour Unrest
Labour unrest can take different forms. The only weapon the workers have in
combating the might of the employer is withdrawal from work. Similarly for
the employer the most effective weapon is lock-out or suspension of the
workers. Unrest is usually centred around these means. When negotiations
between the workers and the employers fail or are restrained, initially the
workers may express their dissatisfaction by holding demonstrations or dharnas.
These actions are directed towards demonstrating their solidarity and it is
expected that the management will take note of this, Usually if this does not
have the necessary effect on the management workers find ways to withdraw
their labour (i.e. stop or slow down work). They can resort go-slow, where
they report for duty but do not complete the work allotted. In such a situation
workers’ wages cannot be deducted because they are not absent from work but
production is nonetheless affected. Another version of the go-slow is work-to-
rule. Workers claim that they will work strictly by the rules and if there is even
a slight change in the work situation they refuse to work. In normal conditions
workers overlook certain shortcomings. For instance, most of the public buses
have some damaged parts. Their rear view mirrors may be missing or the
speedmeters or feulguages are not functioning. Under normal conditions bus
drivers drive the vehicle inspite of these lapses. In case of work-to-rule the
drivers would refuse to drive the buses because they are not functioning well.
This would result in slowing down work or in bringing it to a total standstill.
The difference between go-slow and work-to-rule is that in the former workers
deliberately slow down the pace of production but in the latter they work strictly
according to the rule.
The most effective form of labour unrest is the strike. This means that the
workers totally withdraw their labour by refusing to work. Production thus
comes to a standstill. Normally unions resort to a strike as a final attempt at
34 confronting the management. This is an extreme step and it may have adverse
effects on the workers if it is unsuccessful. During the strike period workers
Labour : Industrial
Labour Unrest
do not get their wages. This result in hardships for them. The extension of a
strike depends to a large extent on how long the workers can sustain themselves
without their wages. Labour unrest is therefore a part of the industrial system.
It reflects the changes taking place in industrial relations. Workers no longer
blindly follow the orders of the management. They are aware of their rights
and they want them to the implemented. At the same time unrest is not a
healthy sign for industry and it should be avoided. It causes strain in labour-
management relations and it affects production. Therefore it is necessary for
both sides, labour and management, to take into account the changing situation
and adapt to it.
Tick mark the correct statements
i) Trade unions helps to channalise the grievances of the workers
a) in an unistitutional manner
b) in an institutional manner
c) both are correct
d) none is correct
ii) Trade unions help
a) the labourers to express their dissatisfaction
b) the managers to be aware of workers problem
35
c) both are correct
d) none is correct
Structure in Tranistion – II iii) The only weapon the workers have in combating the might of the employer
in is organised way
a) attacking the employer
b) breaking the machine
c) withdrawal from the work
d) none of the above.
9.6 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have covered various aspects of industrial labour. We have
compared and contrasted the two major sectors in industry, namely, the
organised and the unorganised sectors. We have found that labour in the
unorganised sector is not only more in number than that in the organised sector
but it is much worse off in terms of job security and work regulation. There are
few laws governing work and social security and even these are not properly
implemented. The main problem with workers in the unorganised informal
sector is that they are usually not organised into trade unions. They cannot
collectively ensure that granting them protection are enforced. They have to
depend on the benevolence of their employers or on the government for this.
The two sectors are linked to each other as they depend on each other in their
production process. The organised sector gets inputs and components at cheaper
rates from the unorganised sector while the latter depends on the former for
marketing its products. At the sametime the large number of casual and contract
labour in the organised sector shows that there is an unorganised sector within
the organised sector. Though the two sectors are linked to each other, their
relationship is not on equal basis. The unorganised sector and its labour are in
a weaker position.
Finally we examined the steps taken for labour welfare and found that during
the post-Independence period a number of laws granting protection and social
security to the workers have been passed. Their implementation depends largely
on the initiative of the government and the steps taken by the trade unions.
Labour unrest is largely linked to these problems.
9.7 KEY WORDS

Primary Sector : Primary sector of economy includes
agriculture, livestock, forestry, fishing,
hunting and plantations.
Secondary Sector : It includes mining, quarrying, household
industry, other than household industry and
construction.
Tertiary Sector : It includes trade and commence, transport,
storage communication and other services.

Holmstrom, H. 1987. Industry and Inequality, Orient Longmans: Delhi.
Ramaswamy, E.A. & U. Ramaswamy 1987. Industry and Labour, Oxford
36 University Press: Delhi.
Labour : Industrial
i) d
ii) d
iii) c
iv) a) False, b) True, c) False
i) The small scale sector manufacturers components for the large scale sector
at a cheaper rate. The large scale sector benefits as it gets a market for its
products.
ii) One group deals with regulation of work. The other group deals with
social security outside the work place.
iii) Women workers in factories are not allowed to work in the night shift in
factories. In mines also they are not allowed to work underground.
iv) Firstly there is very inadequate government supervision to ensure
implementation. Secondly the trade union movement is weak therefore
workers cannot pressurise their employers to implement the laws.
v) a) False, b) True, c) False, d) False, e) False.
i) b
ii) c
iii) c
37
UNIT 10 LABOUR : RURAL
Structure
10.0 Objectives
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Rural Labour in the Pre-British and British Period
10.3 New Measures and Rural Labour in the Post-Independence Period
10.3.1 Land Reforms
10.3.2 Agricultural Modernisation
10.4 Problems of Non-Agricultural Labourrs and Artisans
10.4.1 Pre-Independence Period
10.4.2 Post-Independence Period
10.5 Rural Unrest and Labour Welfare Measures
10.5.1 Rural Unrests: An Over View
10.5.2 Status of Labour Laws
10.5.3 Welfare Programme for the Rural Poor
10.6 Contemporary Social Processes and Rural Labourers
10.6.1 General Impact on Agricultural Labourers
10.6.2 Impact on Female Labourers
10.7 Let Us Sum Up
10.8 Key Words
10.0 OBJECTIVES
In this unit an effort is made to introduce to you the changing status of rural
labourers in the country. After reading this unit you should be able to:
z explain the situation of agricultural labour during the British rule;

z examine the changes brought about by the Indian government through
various land reforms and welfare measures;
z discuss the changing status of village artisans and other non-farm workers;
z describe the nature of conflict in rural areas in the context of agrarian
social structure;
z explain the policy formulations for alleviating various problems of
agricultural labourers, tenants and artisans; and
z discuss the impact of broad social process on the rural labourers in general
and rural female labourers in particular.
10.1 INTRODUCTION
38 In this unit we shall discuss the social problems of rural labour in India. Rural
labourers constitute a distinct component of rural labour force. However, the
socio-economic position of rural labourers has not been the same over the Labour : Rural
broad historical periods. Hence, besides making a brief historical over view
on the issues of the agricultural labourers, this unit also presents various
dimensions of the problems of rural labourers. This unit begins with a discussion
on the rural labour force in the pre-British India and the emergence of a new
labour force in the British period. The problems of the rural labour of
contemporary India are discussed at great length here with special reference to
land reform and agricultural modernisation. The problems of non-agricultural
labourers and artisans are also discussed in this unit. Rural unrest is an integral
part of rural labour problems in India. An over view of the rural labour unrest
in India and also the major labour laws and welfare programme for rural poor
are presented in this unit. Lastly we have placed the socio-economic position
of the agricultural labourers in general and female labourers in particular in
the context of the broad social processes in India.
10.2 RURAL LABOUR IN THE PRE-BRITISH AND

BRITISH PERIOD
India is predominantly an agrarian society with three-fourths of her population
living in villages and depending mainly on agriculture and related occupations
for its livelihood.
i) Pre-British Period
Traditionally, the dominant Hindu society was divided into hierarchical caste
groups. Village based occupations were linked with caste groups where mostly
the upper castes owned and controlled the land. They wielded economic and
political power over all low castes and tribes and acted as patrons of the social
and ethical codes of the entire village. The landless groups over a period of
time were reduced to serving castes at the farms or related work places of
higher castes. The jajmani system, under which hereditary patron-client
relationships were maintained, provided minimum security to the serving castes.
The result was that the serving castes lived a life of want and misery. As the
control of land mainly decided the productive relationship among various
sections of village population, the low caste groups remained a deprived section
of the rural population.
The above types of land relations were associated with the subsistence nature
of agriculture with low production and subsistence economy. Each village
lived almost an independent and self-sufficient life. It represented a relatively
closed society governed by caste and community rules.
ii) British Period
These traditional relationships in land experienced a steady transformation

during the British rule in the country. The colonisers introduced private property
in land through the new land system and thus created class of landowners,
tenants, sharecroppers and agricultural labourers (see Units 24 and 25 of ESO-
04). Without modernising the agriculture and by appropriating the surplus land,
the British rulers inflicted untold miseries particularly on the marginal farmers
and agricultural labourers. There were instances of tenant-cultivators fleeing
from the land once they were unable to pay the rent or clear the debt. Wherever 39
the commercial crops were introduced, their benefits went to the middle-men
Structure in Tranistion – II and land owners. The conditions of tenant-cultivators and agricultural labourers
in prosperous agricultural zones, instead of showing any improvement,
deteriorated. Thus the British rulers in India not only disturbed the age-old
self-sufficient village economy but also created land and property relations
which proved to be disadvantageous to the rural poor. Another set-back to the
village economy was the destruction of the artisan class by colonisers by turning
India into a dumping ground for the finished products manufactured in their
home land.
Thus in due course of functioning of British land policy the rural society of
India emerged to be highly stratified. It led to the concentration of land in the
hands of a few while many of the poor peasants lost their land. Many of these
poor peasants who lost lands, because of poverty etc. were resettled on these
lands as sharecroppers. And those who were not resettled joined the army of
agricultural labourers. Many of the displaced artisans and craftsmen also joined
the army of agricultural labourers. In this period the volume of rural labourers
increased enormously.
Thus prior to Independence, Indian agriculture had a large class of poor peasants
and landless labourers, the two groups together forming the majority within
the agricultural sector. With the deterioration of the rural economy the survival
condition of these groups of people became highly precarious. They were
exploited by the landowners. Indeed they were under utter insecurity and misery.
1) Who were the serving castes in traditional India? Write a note on their
socio-economic positions in about six lines.
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
2) Tick mark the correct answer.
In the British period the colonisers introduced
a) community ownership on land
b) only subsistence crop cultivation
c) private ownership in land
10.3 NEW MEASURES AND RURAL LABOUR IN

POST-INDEPENDENCE PERIOD
In this section we shall be discussing the major facets of land reform and
agricultural modernisation, that have enduring impact on rural labour in India.
40
Let us begin with land reform.
10.3.1 Land Reforms Labour : Rural
When the country became independent, it was faced with the major task of
removing inequality and exploitation in the agrarian socio-economic structure.
The most exploited group—agricultural labourers and marginal farmers—had
to be the main focus in such efforts. The land, being central to village economy,
needed redistribution. In the First Five Year Plan itself the land reform policy
was concretised at government level. Hence the main objectives of the land
reform have been: (a)abolition of intermediaries, (b) imposition of ceiling
restrictions on landholding, (c) distribution of surplus land, (d) tenancy reforms
and (e) increase in agricultural production. As the first and major step, the
various state governments passed acts to abolish zamindari system and
redistribute surplus land to the tenants and poor peasants. Most of these acts
were passed sin the early 1950s. As a result of these measures the governments
assumed direct responsibility for revenue administration. However, these
measures met with several set-backs. The zamindari interests used every means
at their disposal to prevent, delay or dilute the legislation. In some parts of the
country, they managed to acquire ownership rights on vast extent of land by
claiming them to be their personal estates. Large number of tenants were evicted
in the process. Overall, the abolition of zamindari did not make significant
impact to improve the position of share croppers and labourers. Many of the
tenants, however, get ownership rights of the lands. In view of the above the
land reform policies were radicalised again in early 1970s. Some of the states
enacted various progressive laws. Mobilisation of rural poor was also initiated
in various parts of the country for the implementation of these laws. You may
see Unit 24 of ESO-04 for further details.
As regards the protection of tenant from forceful eviction by the landlord and
also the transfer of ownership of land into the hands of tiller at reasonable
terms the outcome was quite disappointing. In many cases, the reform resulted
in forceful eviction of tenants by their landlords. This happened mainly because
the landlords exercised economic and political power over their tenants. In
areas where the zamindari system existed revenue collection rights were already
in the hands of government. The cultivators automatically became the owners
of land.
Box 1
Tenancy Reforms
It is an inseparable part of the land reform programme. You are aware that the old
agrarian social structure was not very conducive to modernisation of agriculture
and needed to be replaced by a more egalitarian social structure. The land reform
programme has, therefore, been designed to break the old feudal socio-economic
structure by abolishing the intermediary system of land tenure, distributing surplus
vested lands among the rural poors and protecting the interests of the tenants.
Under the tenancy reforms legislative provisions have been made in most states
providing ownership rights and security of tenure to the tenants or sub-tenants or
to the sharecroppers. For example, under Operation Barga (a tenancy reform
programme) in West Bengal arrangements are made to give sharecroppers
permanent tenurial security, 75% of the produced crops as their share, institutional
facilities required to cultivate the land etc.
10.3.2 Agricultural Modernisation

41
Other than the agrarian reforms there were several factors which influenced
Structure in Tranistion – II the rural society in the last four decades. These could be listed under two
categories—institutional efforts and general changes. Under the first category,
Indian government which committed itself to a democratic system, introduced
several schemes for the welfare of rural poor. Particularly the landless labourers
and non-farm workers. Government also invested heavily on the modrenisation
of agriculture. Several irrigation schemes were taken up and improved seed
and technology were introduced.
The thrust of the government to change village economy was based on a
technological perspective which was best reflected in the Green Revolution
experiment in Indian Agriculture. India adopted modernisation of agriculture
by improving technology and other inputs. The Punjab-Haryana Western U.P.
experience of dramatic growth in agricultural production and rural incomes is
often cited as evidence of the validity of the perspective. Such experiments
have shown very encouraging results in these states and part of Andhra. The
country today is in a position to produce more than 170 million tons of
foodgrains.
Agricultural Modernisation
However, some experts are skeptical about this ‘technological thrust’ of

agricultural growth. For instance, about the Punjab-Haryana success story, G.
Parthasarthy, an agricultural economist, observes: “It fails to note the unique
circumstances particularly the substantial public investments in irrigation in
Punjab agriculture, the relatively large size of holdings and relatively low
demographic pressures, etc. Technology spreads in high resource areas and on
richer farms by sucking the resource of the poor areas and of the poor people.”
42
It is also worthnoting that the higher productivity and more income to big
landlords do not necessarily bring better rewards to the farm labourers whose Labour : Rural
share in the increase is negligible as compared to the gains of landloards. High-
technology cultivation reduces the intensity of labour absorption. Equally
relevant is the fact that for attaining some kind of equity in the distribution of
productive resources Indian government needs to allocate more and more
funds for the backward regions where the condition of marginal farmers and
farm labourers is pathetic. Overall, the present trends of development in
agriculture shows a highly unequal distribution of resources with its benefits
mainly going to some regions only. The rural or are the critical manifestation
of this growing imbalance. Several experts have brought out the fact that in
the early years of agricultural growth, in few prosperous zones like Punjab,
Haryana and Western Uttar Pradesh, wages in real terms had declined over a
period of time. Though the situation shows a positive change in the eighties
when the real wages increased steadily, the quantum of increase particularly
in backward agricultural zones is less than satisfactory.
Equally disturbing is the fact that due to more and more privatisation of land,
the common property resources (bachat land, grazing grounds, forest land,
etc.)—which mainly used to benefit the poor rural families—have been
diminishing fast. This has deprived them of free access to fuel and grazing
grounds for their cattle. (for further information see Unit 24 and 25 of
ESO-04.)
1) What are the major objectives of the land reform laws in India. Answer in
about five lines.
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
2) Write a note on the impact of agricultural modernisation on the rural labour
in India in about five lines.
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
10.4 PROBLEMS OF NON-AGRICULTURAL

LABOURERS AND ARTISANS
The non-agricultural labourers and artisans constitute an important segment
of rural labour force since ages. However, their socio-economic position has
not been uniform in nature over a period of time. Hence, let us know their 43
position in the pre-independent and post-independent India.
Structure in Tranistion – II 10.4.1 Pre-Independence Period
The artisans formed the base of village and urban economy in India during the
pre-colonial and early-colonial periods. All members of an artisan family were
usually involved in production with specific division of labour for males,
females and children. Numerous lower caste families have traditionally been
engaging in various crafts and agriculture-related non-farm activities. The main
among them were those of carpenter, blacksmith, potter, weaver, leather worker
and basket maker. In addition to these, non-farm labourers used to perform
jobs requiring special skills spread in various regions of the country—depending
on the availability of particular raw materials or nature of cultivation. All these
skills and activities were limited to the extend of either manufacturing articles
to meet the local requirements or to provide technical services to the local
population. The artisans’ products usually remained out of the modern market
economy—confining to the poor village consumers. Most of them worked at
subsistence level of economy and usually did subsidiary jobs to supplement
their earnings. Indeed the jajmani system formed the backbone of the rural
society of that period. It gave them substantial socio-economic security in
daily life.
In spite of many odds, village artisans and craftsmen enjoyed a reasonably
good social status in the society. However, the socio-economic condition of
these artisans and craftsmen deteriorated sharply with the introduction of British
rule in India. Because of the import-oriented British Policy these artisans and
craftsmen lost their traditional market. Many of them also lost these traditional
avenues of employment. This displaced labour force was in search of alternative
employment. They were extremely insecure in the rural economy. Many of
them joined either the army of the agricultural labourers or migrated to the
urban areas for the mainstay of their livelihood. Only those who remained in
their old occupation tasted the pains of insecurity, exploitation and alienation
in the society.
10.4.2 Post-Independence Period

The post-Independence period changed the situation further. The growth of
urbanisation as a manifestation of the linkages between society and modern
technology resulted in the weakening of traditional bonds of society. Equally
significant was the creation of new opportunities in non-farm occupations.
Many of the traditional artisans and craftsmen either migrated to urban areas
for improving their incomes, or shifted from their traditional occupations to
non-farm employment. This further weakend the traditional ‘jajmani’ system
and caste linkages of occupations.
Due to the sharp increase in rural population, it is considered necessary to
relieve agriculture from the pressure of excess labour. This would check decline
in the land man ratios and thereby increase labour productivity in agriculture.
It is also being realised that urban areas cannot absorb the growing migratory
rural labour force due to the ever-growing number of job-seekers in both formal
and informal sectors. Therefore, it becomes essential to promote non-
agricultural employment in rural areas. Several studies show a slow but steady
increase in the proportion of non-farm labourers in the total rural workforce.
44
Table: Work Participation in India by Rural and Urban areas Labour : Rural
State India/State Total Persons Total Category of workers (Main +Marginal) with
Code /Union Workers percentage to Total Workers
Territory* Rural Males (Main
+Marginal
Urban Females
Cultivators Agricultural Workers Other

Labourers in Workers
Household
Industry
Number Percent Percent Percent Percent
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
INDIA Total Persons 402,512,190 31.7 26.7 4.1 375
Males 275,463,736 31.3 20.8 3.0 44.9
Females 127,048,454 32.5 39.4 6.4 21.7
Rural Persons 310,655,339
Males 199,199,602
Females 111,455,737
Urban Persons 91,856,851 3.2 4.7 5.1
Males 76,264,134 3.0 3.4 3.8 90.1
Females 15,592,717 4.3 11.0 12.9 71.8
Source: Census of India 2001
Government has intimated a number of schemes through which the artisans

and non-farm workers are trained in various trades or skills and are helped
financially to improve their earnings. There are efforts to organise them under
cooperatives so that they could be freed from the cluches of middlemen. Also,
several research and development schemes have been implemented in order to
raise their productivity and to make their products competitive in the market.
For those non-farm labourers who are engaged in seasonal works, efforts are
there to provide them gainful employment during the off-seasons. It is more
and more felt that the integration of non-farm manufacturing activity with the
farm activity can only create a viable economy absorbing the surplus man
power in rural India. There is a need for taking up an appropriate combination
of farming activities with animal husbandry, priggery, poultry, duckery and
fish farming. Such an approach has taken deeper roots and is extensively 45
practiced with substantive social and private profitability in China and in a
number of South-East Asian countries.
Structure in Tranistion – II Activity 1
You may have come across some artisans or craftsmen working in your
niehgbourhood. Collect information from them on the items produced and problems
faced by them for the marketing of their products. Now based on your observation
and discussion write a note in about two pages on the problems and the prospects
of the artisans and craftsmen in your area. If possible, exchange your note with
your colearners at the Study Centre.
10.5 RURAL UNREST AND LABOUR WELFARE

MEASURES
In this section we shall be discussing the important of rural unrest and welfare
measures initiated by the government. Let us begin with an over view of the
rural unrest.
10.5.1 Rural Unrest : An Overview
As stated in the introductory remarks, traditionally village India remained a
self-sufficient, closely maintained. Well-knit society. The prevalent hierarchy
in socio-economic relations was primarily based on the caste system, with the
dominant castes controlling power and acting as guardians of the serving castes.
Such a static village, once in a while, experienced dissent from the peasants
when it became almost impossible for them to survive against the odds such as
inadequate crops and ruthless exploitation by kings, their middlemen and
moneylenders. The British rule polarised the landowners against the landless
groups on one hand and weakened the traditional power of caste panchayats
on the other. The isolation of the peasantry from the ruling class was well
manifested in repeated insurgencies by peasants. Ranjit Guha, a well known
historian, has cited as many as 110 known instances of such uprisings between
the period, 1783 to 1900.
In Unit 25 of Block 6, ESO-04 we talked about the important facets of rural
revolt in India. In the pre-colonial period there had been numerous rural revolts
against the tyranny of the rulers. You may be aware that in the 17th and 18th
centuries the Marathas of today’s Maharasthra, the Jats and Rajputs of
Rajasthan, Sikhs of Punjab revolted against the Mughal rule on the issues of
rack renting and allied agricultural problems and religious persecutions. The
latent discontent of the poor peasantry against the colonial rule were manifested
through their participation in the revolt of 1857. In the independent movement
the issues of the peasantry viz. the racks renting, indebtedness, growth of
poverty, decline of rural industries etc. were the major concerns of the leaders.
Thus the peasant movements in Champaran (Bihar), Kheda and Bardoli
(Gujarat), Oudh and other places of U.P., Bihar, Chirla and Perala in Andhra
and the formation of the All India Kisan Sabha became the integral parts of the
Independence Movement. The discontents of the rural labour were also
manifested in vehement out burst of the radical peasant movements viz., the
Tebhaga Movement 1946-47, Telangana 1948-52 and in the Naxalite
Movement 1967-1971. For details you may like to go through the above
mentioned Unit.
In the post-Independence period, village India has no more remained a harmonic
46 system. Various socio-economic and political changes have created conflict
of interests within the village community. Traditionally, the higher castes used
to receive obedience and marked difference from their tenants and agricultural Labour : Rural
labourers—mostly the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes—but are now
finding them to be ‘disobedient’ and ‘defiant’. Due to a high proportion of the
Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribe among landless labourers, a conflict
between landowners and labourers can easily turn itself into an inter-caste
conflict. Such conflicts many times turn violent resulting in inhuman torture
particular of the Scheduled Castes and Tribes and their families. Mass murders,
rapes, burning of houses and eviction of tenants from land, are the outcome of
such growing intolerance among higher castes towards the serving castes.
Efforts to organise farm and non-farm labourers by voluntary social groups or
political parties have resulted in their intimidation by the employers. Wherever
the labourers have become conscious of their rights and try to assert themselves
against injustice and exploitation, the feudal elements try to suppress this new
awakening among them with increased brutality. Social oppression in its worst
form is rampant in almost all parts of the country. The Scheduled Caste workers
are discriminated in getting employment, their women are criminally assaulted,
their holdings are destroyed and properties looted. The distressing aspect is
that such oppression is often aided and abetted by public officials who are
usually linked with the rural rich. This way the law sides with the powerful.
Looking into the causes of such state of affairs, A.R. Desai observes….. “The
genetic causes of numerous struggles in rural areas are the existing land relations
whereby a handful of landlords own a sizeable land and the left out majority—
the sharecroppers or labourers—live below the poverty line. Wherever there
are mobilisations, the conflict is bound to occur. Many times, as the ownership
of the land is on caste lines, such initiative take the shape of caste struggles”.
10.5.2 Status of Labour Laws

Though officially rural labourers are covered under the Minimum Wage Act
of 1948, it by and large remains on paper. One often sees reports in newspapers
about rural workers agitating to get the minimum wages. As compared to
industrial workers, only a few labour laws exist for agricultural labourers and
those also supply to a few sections of them. Leaving aside a few activities like
tea plantations which have a history of the organised labourers, in majority of
the categories the affected workers never get benefits under these Acts: In
reality, a majority of them are not even aware of such legal measures which
protect their interests. The main factors which make it difficult to organises
the workers are:
z the large number of employers (land holders), dispersal of workers over a
large geographical region,
z uncertainty of employment (seasonal in nature),
z rapid growth of rural population resulting in surplus man power,
z family labour substituting for the hired labour, and overall low productivity
in agriculture.
There are other factors too which contribute towards their backwardness. The
continuance of the caste system results in a form of patron client relationship.
Here the worker feels obligated to his master who usually belongs to a higher 47
caste. This prevents the worker from taking any independent decisions. The
Structure in Tranistion – II various forms of social backwardness is further enforced by widespread
illiteracy. This keeps the agricultural labourer backward and isolated. All these
ultimately result in their loss of self confidence. They are therefore unable to
organise themselves against the exploitative relationship perpetuated by their
masters. However, in spite of all these limitations rural labourers of India are
organised under the auspices of various peasant organisation and political parties
in various parts of the country. Their organisational ability and strength have
been manifested during organised mass mobilisations and peasant movements.
These mobilisations are usually directed against the landlords, businessmen
and the administrative apparatus of the state.
10.5.3 Welfare Programme for the Rural Poor

We have discussed so far the problems faced by the weaker sections in rural
society. These are mainly a result of uneven and unbalanced development in
the rural economy. Therefore in order to protect the rural labourers and marginal
farmers the government launched several anti-poverty programmes. Some of
these programmes, such as the NREP, JRY and TRYSM, have been discussed
in Unit 8. There are other schemes such as the Integrated Rural Development
Programmes (IRDP) which operated at the level of the development block.
This programme identified the weaker families in the villages and provides
them loans and subsidies for obtaining inputs which would help improve
production or create self-employment. The selected families are provided seeds,
fertilisers, milch or draught cattle, pigs, looms etc. according to their needs. A
major part of the cost of procuring these inputs are covered by government
subsidies and the rest is through bank loans at low interest rates.
Besides the IRDP, there is the Indira Avas Yojana which provides homes and
house-sites for the rural poor. The Integrated Child Development Scheme
(ICDS) seeks to improve the mental physical growth of the children. It provides
for crèches, balwadis, anganwadis nutrition programmes and mother and child
care programmes.
These programmes are initiated at the national level but operate through the
various state governments. Some more programmes are run by some state
Rajasthan started the antyodaya programme in 1978 through which five of
the poorest families in every village are provided special assistance to improve
their economic conditions. This state and some others have the Drought Prone
Areas Programme for providing development activities to overcome draught
and the Desert Development Programme. West Bengal introduced the Food-
for-Work Scheme in 1977 where the rural unemployed were provided work
and were paid partly in food grains and partly in cash. Maharashtra during the
same time started the Employment Guarantee Scheme in rural areas which is
similar to the NREP. The objective of all these development schemes is to
provide some form of employment or inputs to the rural poor so that they are
not left to the mercies of the exploiting sections.
Several official and unofficial evaluations of these programs have been done.
One major criticism is that a majority of them are independent of the agricultural
activity—without direct linkage to agriculture and allied sectors. The
beneficiaries of these programmes are not necessarily the most needy. This is
48 mainly because of the malpractices and inefficiency of the implementing
agencies. Programmes are devoid of creating a sustainable activity, and
Labour : Rural
Labour Welfare in Rural Area
therefore, are more relief-oriented than development-based. In some states like

West Bengal and Kerala the results are more encouraging as compared to many
other states. An observation on the IRDP, states that at the end of seven years
of operation of the IRDP, only about 3 per cent of the poor households in rural
India have been helped to rise above poverty, and that too only for a while.
This programme attempts to provide assets to the rural poor which are labour
intensive and it helps in marketing the products. In order to ensure continuity
the recipient (the poor household) has to be assured of continuous institutional
credit (i.e. from banks or other sources). If this is withdrawn then there is
every chance of failure.
1) Tick mark the correct answers.
With the introduction of British rule in India the economic conditions of
the rural artisans and craftsmen
a) improved enormously
b) declined sharply
c) remained unaffected
2) A rural development programme, started in 1978 through which five of
the poorest families in every village are provided special assistance to
improve their economic conditions, is known as
49
a) Balwadis Programme
Structure in Tranistion – II b) Employment Guarantee Scheme
c) Desert Development Programme
d) Antyodaya Programme.
10.6 CONTEMPORARY SOCIAL PROCESSES

AND RURAL LABOURERS
Other than the institutional efforts for raising life standards of agricultural
labourers, several changes have been occurring in both rural and urban societies
which have also influenced their life.
10.6.1 General Impact on Agricultural Labourers
Regions close to the command areas of agricultural growth have been
experiencing exodus of manpower, which in turn, hikes the wages of farm
labourers. Similar situation has emerged in regions which are in contact with
industrial growth centres. Earlier studies on the consumption pattern of rural
poor showed that over three-fourths of their income used to be spent on food
items alone. Such a trend is on the decline and wherever wages of labourers
show an improvement, they spend more on durable items like purchasing a
bicycle or a transistor, or improving housing. There is also evidence of change
in food habits in some regions—from the coarse grains to wheat and rice.
Though in the areas of health or education no appreciable change are witnessed,
the fact cannot be denied that in prosperous agricultural zones, farm labourers
show improvement in their health or education. Conditions of farm and non-
farm laboures also show improvement in a state like Maharashtra which has a
long history of socio-religious reforms, or a state like Kerala which has
successfully implemented several welfare schemes for the poor. In contrast, in
states like Bihar, Orissa and eastern Uttar Pradesh, the rural poor remain a
victimized lot. Particularly the Harijan labourers become the main target of
social oppression. The situation of tribal is equally appalling. Commercialisation
and market integration of tribal areas coupled with the replacement of collective
land tenure system by individual holdings has led to growing landlessness,
loss of food security and diminishing access to forest produce. These
developments are slowly dividing the traditionally egalitarian communities
into class-based social groups.
Wherever there are mobilisations of the rural poor by voluntary organisation
or political parties, a new consciousness has emerged among them against
their age old exploitation and about their rights. This has earned them social
pride and economic relief. It is also a fact that such organised groups have to
face the wrath of rich landlords and dominant caste groups. Traditional caste
system is also going through several changes which has affected the rural poor.
Rigid caste discriminations against the lower castes are slowly losing their
effect. Caste based occupations are no more a binding. Caste groups are taking
shape of ‘interest groups’ in order to mobilise resources against other competing
groups. Even political mobilisations are more and more on caste lines. This is
bound to create caste tensions and intolerance.
Thus, several interrelated changes are occurring in rural (as well as urban)
50
society which are bound to create impact on the lives of farm and non-farm
labourers. Their outcome is again uneven without substantial gains to the
deprived sections of rural population.
10.6.2 Impact on Female Labourers Labour : Rural
Traditionally females have actively been participating in the farm activity.

They look after the cattle, domestic work and even part of the farming activity.
In paddy cultivation, for instance, operations like weeding, harvesting and
post-harvest operations require active participation of females—whether
labourers or working on their own farms. In a male dominant society like
India, it is well expected that female share the main burden in the deprived
agricultural families. They are also discriminated as farm labourers against
their counterparts. A few case studies show evidence to this effect. According
to the NSS data the average daily earnings (of females) are found to be lower
than those of male labourers in all the states and in various age groups. Punjab
and Haryana, where the overall earnings of male labourers are higher, have
higher female earnings. However, there are gender differential in earnings.
The reported differences in the daily earnings of male and female agricultural
labourers are a clear indication of discrimination against the latter. Women
also suffer from a higher instability in employment. It was found that more
than 50 per cent of the male workers are cultivators, while more than 60 per
cent of women workers are agricultural labourers in the rural sector.
For improving the work conditions of female labourers, experts suggest
measures like training of women for unconventional jobs, provision of land
rights, permanency in jobs and equal wage for equal work. To achieve this, the
need is felt of educating women against their victimisation on all fronts of life.
Several voluntary organisations which are working among the rural poor have
their programmes for the upliftment of women. Recently action groups
exclusively of women have emerged which are spearheading the cause of
emancipating the women from exploitation in a male dominated society.
Tick mark the correct boxes
i) In the rural India caste based occupations are no more binding.
True False
ii) In rural India no political mobilisation takes place on caste line.
True False
iii) In prosperous agricultural zones farm labourers show improvement in
their health and education.
True False
iv) In tribal areas commercialisation of agriculture and rapid spread of market
forces have led to landlessness among the tribal people.
True False
10.7 LET US SUM UP

This unit began with a brief discussion of the present status of agricultural and
non-agricultural labourers in the country. The discussion was spread in six
main sections which covered issues like condition so agricultural labourers in 51
the Pre-Independence and Post-Independence period, role of agrarian reforms,
Structure in Tranistion – II general changes influencing their lives, condition of female labourers, status
of non-farm labourers and artisan, and scope for their improvement, peasant
unrest during pre and post-Independence periods, and need of appropriate
policies and strategies for improving socio-economic status of farm and non-
farm labourers. All these put together should give us a general profile of their
life conditions.
10.8 KEY WORDS

Green Revolution : It is also widely known as the new strategy for
agricultural development. Under the influence
of Western economies, India adopted the
modernisation of agriculture by improving
technology and other inputs. The Punjab,
Haryana, Western U.P. experience of dramatic
growth in the agricultural production is
popularly knows as the ‘green revolution’ in
India.
Jajmani System : In traditional rural India, the producing castes
were treated as ‘jajman’ by the serving castes
or groups (like agricultural labourers,
carpenters and washermen), who used to get
payments for their services in cash or kind from
the producing castes. Such a system of giving
and taking of services in rural areas is known
as ‘jajmani system’.
Ryotwari System : Prior to the British rule in India, the collection
of revenue by a king from his peasantry was
practiced mainly under two systems—the
‘Ryotwari’ system and the ‘Mahalbari’ system.
Under the ‘Roytwari’ system, the king directly
collected revenue from the peasantry by
appointing revenue officials. In the British
period Ryotwari system was operational only
in some parts of the country.
Tenancy Act : The main purpose of introducing Tenancy Acts
by the governments was to confer permanent,
heritable and transferable rights on the actual
tillers of the land.

Bardhan, Pranab K. 1984. Land, Labour and Rural Poverty. Oxford University
Press: New Delhi.
Desai, A.R. 1978. Rural Sociology in India (Vth edition). Popular Prakashan:
Bombay.
Thorner, D. and A. Thorner 1962. Land and Labour in India. Asia Publishing
House : Bombay.
52 SinghaRoy, D.K. 1992. Women in Peasant Movements : Tebhaga, Nexalite
and After. Monohar : New Delhi.
Labour : Rural
10.10 ANSWER TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1) The landless low caste people formed the bulk of the serving castes in
traditional India. Through the jajmani system they were tied up with the
upper castes of the village which provided them minimum security of
life. Indeed, they lived a life of want and misery. They remained a deprived
section of the rural population.
2) c)
1) The major objectives of land reform in India are as follows : (a) abolition
of intermediaries, (b) imposition of ceiling restrictions on landholding,
(c) distribution of surplus vested land, (d) tenancy reforms, and (e) increase
in agricultural production.
2) The technological modernisation has helped tremendously to enhance
agricultural production in India especially in the Punjab, Haryana, Western
U.P., parts of A.P. etc. places. However, experts are of the opinion that
technological modernisation has not helped the rural poor improve their
economic lot. It has led to the concentration of wealth in the hands of a
few, while the majority of the rural poor remained in ultered insecurity
and poverty.
1) b)
2) d)
i) True
ii) False
iii) True
iv) True
53
UNIT 11 LABOUR : WOMEN
Structure
11.0 Objectives
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Extent and Nature of Women’s Work Participation
11.2.1 Women’s Work Participation
11.2.2 Nature of Work Done by Women Workers
11.2.3 Categories of Women Labour
11.2.4 Factors Affecting Women’s Work Participation
11.3 Women Workers by Various Sectors of Employment

11.4 Labour Laws for Women Workers

11.4.1 Equal Remuneration Act
11.4.2 Minimum Wage Act
11.4.3 Maternity Benefits Act
11.5 Women’s Work Participation : Challenges and Response

11.5.1 Mobilising and Organising Efforts
11.5.2 Institutional Efforts : Anti-Poverty Programme
11.6 Let Us Sum Up

11.7 Key Words
11.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through the unit you should be able to :
z describe the nature and extent of women’s labour force participation;
z explain reasons for the ‘invisibility’ and under enumeration of women’s
labour contribution in the home and outside;
z examine reasons for over concentration of women in certain sectors of
economy;
z discuss various legislations for the protection of women labour;
z narrate the need for organising the poor rural and urban women; and
z analyse the various policies for training and income generation for poor
women.
11.1 INTRODUCTION
This unit aims to introducing you to various dimensions of women’s labour
54 and factors affecting their productive roles in the Indian society. The unit
discusses the nature and extent of women’s involvement in key sectors of
economy, socio-economic determinants of women’s labour force participation, Labour : Women
their access to productive resources, and opportunities for skill development
through training and education within the family and outside. The unit also
looks into government interventions and direct measures to alleviate poverty
and responses of the rural and urban women’s organisations to improve their
access to resources and bargaining capacities.
The unit begins with an analysis of the context of women’s paid and unpaid
labour within and outside home. It also analyses the socio-cultural,
developmental and locational (rural-urban, agro-climatic zones) factors
responsible for variations in women’s labour utilisation patterns. In the units
on Women’s Status and Women and Work in Block 7, ESO-02, we discussed
at length about various facets of women’s work participation. In this unit we
shall look into those issues in relation to social problems in India. You may
like to look into those units before start working on the present one.
11.2 EXTENT AND NATURE OF WOMEN’S

WORK PARTICIPATION
Women play an important role in the Indian economy and are engaged in a
variety of occupations in rural and urban areas. The report of the Committee
on the Status of Women in India (1974) pointed out that “the status of any
given section of population in a society is ultimately connected with its
economic positions which (itself) depends on roles, rights and opportunities
for participation in economic activities”.
The Report further observed that “sex inequality cannot in reality be
differentiated from the variety of social, economic and cultural inequalities in
India society”. The inequalities inherent in our traditional social structure based
on caste, community, class and gender, influence women’s economic roles
and opportunities. Their participation is also affected by the state of
development and rural urban locations. In an earlier unit (ESO-12, Unit 31)
Women and Work you have learnt that traditional role expectations, differential
socialisation of girls and boys and sexual division of labour affect women’s
labour force participation. In this unit we shall begin with a brief discussion
on the nature and extent of women’s work participation.
11.2.1 Women’s Work Participation
Accurate data regarding the extent and nature of women’s work is limited
because of the limited definition of ‘work’ in the Census which excludes much
of the work women do within the household for the family’s survival and
maintenance. The data is also not comparable because of changes in the
definitions of ‘worker’ from Census to Census and lack of uniformity in the
classification of workers by age, sex and educational levels. Earners and earners’
dependents have been classified differently in various census. Again, the 1971
census used the labour time disposition criterion over the reference year, and
defined workers as only those who spent the major part of their time in economic
activities. Thus all irregular, marginal and part-time workers come under the
category of non-workers. However, the marginal, irregular workers were more
likely to be concentrated among women, children and aged persons. Therefore,
the census report does not give the real picture (Chattopadhyay, M. 1982:44).
55
The Labour Bureau has brought out a document titled Statistical Profile on
Women Labour. Many of these sources underestimate women’s labour
Structure in Tranistion – II contribution in so far as the work that women do on family farms and home-
based family occupations remains unpaid and ‘invisible’ to data collectors.
No economic value is givens to work such as collection of fuel, fodder and
water, collection of minor forest produce for subsistence and household
maintenance activities as it does not come under the purview of market
economy. Sexual division of labour relegates women’s primary responsibility
to providing goods and services to the family. For the poor women, all work is
for subsistence and survival of the family.
Even if one does not take into account the above mentioned aspect of the
women’s contribution to the economy there exists a difference in assessing
the workforce participation of women.
Table 1: Workforce by Gender and Rural-Urban Location: All India, 1993-94 to
1999-2000
(in ’000)
Population Usual status crude worker
Segment Population ratios (per 1000)
1993-94 1999-2000
Rural
Males 553 531
Females 328 299
Total 444 419
Urban
Males 520 518
Females 154 139
Total 347 337
All Areas
Males 544 527
Females 283 254
Total 418 395
Note: Usual Status = principal status + subsidiary status.
Source: Sundaram, K., ‘Employment and Poverty in 1990s: Further Results from NSS 55th
Round Employment—Unemployment Survey, 1999-2000, Economic and Political
Weekly, 11 August 2001, pp. 3039-49. cf. India Development Report. 2002.
Majority of the women workers are employed in the rural areas and in
agriculture. Amongst rural women workers 87% are employed in agriculture
as labourers and cultivators. Amongst the women workers in the urban areas
80% are employed in unorganised sector like household industries, petty trade
and services, building and construction etc. The employment of women in the
organised sector (both public and private) as on March 2000 was about 4.9228
million. This constitutes 17.6% of the total organised sector employment in
the country. The distribution of women employees in major industries reveals
that community, social and personal services sectors continued to absorb the
majority of women employees. The lowest employment of women was noticed
in electricity, gas and water sectors. In the factory and plantation establishment
women workers constituted 14% and 51% respectively of the total workers in
1997. In mine establishments, women workers constituted 5% of the total
56
workers (India 2003). According to the Human Development Report in South
Asia female labour force constituted 32% of the total labour force in India in
2000.
According to 2001 Census of the total female population 25.7% are workers Labour : Women
(main and marginal. Again of the total workers 32.5% are cultivators and 39.4%
are agricultural labourers, 6.4% work in the household industry and 21.7% are
other category workers.
According to Dr. Asok Mitra ‘the under-reporting of female work force
participation rates in the Census varies from 30 to 40 per cent’. The
measurement and analysis of female labour force participation suffers from
underestimates, inadequate attention to unpaid work at home and outside, and
lack of support services to reduce their drudgery i.e. provision of drinking
water, fuel and fodder, childcare etc. All these have adverse impact on the
status of women labour force.
11.2.2 Nature of Work Done by Women Workers
In the unit on Women and Work in ESO-02 we discussed in detail the nature
of women’s work participation and work done by women workers. It was
pointed out that women’s work had been subjected to invisibility because of
the census bias and conservative estimate of work done by women. Here let us
describe the nature of work done by women.
Women and Work
The NSSO has identified the following household activities in which women
area regularly engaged. Maintenance of kitchen garden, orchards etc, work in
household poultry, work in household dairy, free collection of fish small game, 57
etc., free collection of firewood, cattle feed. etc., husking paddy, preparation
Structure in Tranistion – II of gur, grinding of foodgrains, preparation of cow dung cakes for use as fuel,
sewing, tailoring, tutoring of children, bringing water from outside the
household premise, bringing water from outside the village.
However, a major part of the work done by women in the household is not
recognised as work since these are not paid in the economic sense and not
visible in the public eye as well.
11.2.3 Categories of Women Labour

On the basis of their work status, women labour can be grouped under the
following three categories:
— Self-employed both within and outside home.
— Wage Workers outside home e.g. agricultural workers, construction
workers, factory workers, contract workers etc. and inside home (home-
based workers engaged in work on out put basis)
— Unpaid Family Labour on their own farm or family occupations like
weaving, pottery, handicrafts etc.
Let us discuss these categories in detail.
i) Self-employment
They constitute the predominant sector of employment in our country.
According to the National Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO) in 1987, 57.3
per cent of total workforce was absorbed by this sector. The choice of activity
depends on family situation, women’s control over the means of production,
skills, technology and work organisation.
A significant number of self-employed women are working outside the home
(57 per cent) with irregular income and many a time operating from the
pavements (vegetable sellers, vendors, hawkers etc.).
The distribution of female work participation by status of employment indicates
that there is a pronounced declining trend in the importance of the self employed
category in both rural and urban areas and an overall increase in the casualisation
of the women work force from 31.4 per cent in 1972-73 to 40.9 per sent in
1997 in rural India with a marginal decline to 39.6 pr cent in 1999-2000. In
urban India there is a reversal of this trend with an increase in work participation
rates of females under regular employment category and a decline in
casualisation. Further, as per the NSSO 55th Round on Employment and
Unemployment in India 1999-2000, women trend to enter the labour market
later than men. Work participation of males is considerable higher in the age
group of 15-29. In rural areas female work participation rate has been the
highest at 58.6 per cent in the age group of 40-44 and is above 50 per cent in
the age group 30-54. In urban areas female work participation rate is highest at
28.5 per cent in the age group 35-39 and is 38.3 per cent in age group 40-44.
Early marriage and multiple child bearing depress the female work force
participation rates in the 15-29 age group. In most developed and developing
countries, the age group 15-25 exhibits a peak in women’s work force
participation rates.
58
In the construction sector the proportion of casual labour is high. The proportion
of women workers has increased from 9.1 to 9.91 per cent during 1971-1981.
The increase is primarily in rural areas as numerous public works programmes Labour : Women
for employment generation were taken up under anti-poverty programmes of
the government.
Box 1
Wage Disparities
The average earnings of female casual workers are extremely lower than the
average earning of regular wage earners and salaried workers. The wag inequality
between men (Rs. 10.27) and women (Rs. 4.49) is higher in rural areas than in
urban ones. Women workers are mostly employed as piece-rate workers doing
manual work for contractors and middlemen. They provide cheap labour to
industries and contractors.
Average Wage Salary Earnings Per Day for Casual Wage Labour (in Rupees)
Rural Urban
Male Female Male Female
0-5-14 5.68 3.57 5.19 3.50

15-59 10.53 5.11 5.11 5.30
60+ 9.35 3.77 9.94 4.65
All ages 10.27 4.89 11.09 5.29
Source : NSSO, 1987 (Quoted in National Commission on Self-employed Women, 1988)
Usual, Weekly and Daily Work Status by Sex

Male Female Male Female
Usual Status 2.12 1.41 5.86 6.90
Weekly Status 3.72 4.26 8.69 7.46
Daily Status 7.52 8.98 9.23 10.99
Source : NSSO, 1987
It is again to note that the incidence of unemployment and under-employment

is higher among women causal workers than among men.
An important category of working women, is home-based workers. They are
engaged in a variety of activities like bidi-making, food processing, garment
making, agarbati making, spinning, toy making, fish processing, pottery, cane
and bamboo work, lace making Zari work etc. No reliable statistics are available
regarding the number of home-based women workers as their work is not always
‘visible’.
Home-based workers fall in two categories: the self-employed, and those
engaged in piece-rate work.
There is a large section of women who are doing piece-rate work. The employers
have tremendous advantage in giving out work to women on a piece-rate basis
as they don’t have to invest in tools and machinery or any extra cost for
providing the work benefits. There are not trade unions and hardly any 59
legislation to protect their rights relating to wages, social security benefits
(health and maternity benefits) etc. A lot of child labour is used in home-based
Structure in Tranistion – II production activities. The industrial units specially smaller ones have financial
advantage in not employing them directly. You will read more about child
labour in the next unit (Unit No. 12).
iii) Unpaid Family Workers
Women provide unpaid labour on family farms, home-based small industries,
family maintenance activities. The average hours of unpaid work done by
women within and outside home varies from 6-8 hours per day. Women from
poorer households have a heavier burden of work.
11.2.4 Factors Affecting Women’s Work Participation

Women’s work participation rate in general has been declining over the decades.
The decline has occurred due to several factors:
a) Absence of a comprehensive and rational policy for women’s development
aiming at improving their employability through education, training and
improving their access to resources (land, credit) and technology.
b) The perception of ‘male as the bread winner’ of the family conceals the
fact that in low-income households woman’s earning is crucial for the
sustenance of the family. This perception adversely affects investment in
women’s education and training. Employers also visualise women workers
as ‘supplementary earners’.
c) Structural changes in the economy e.g. decline in traditional rural industries
like pottery, blackmithy, weaving and handicrafts due to competition from
modern industries have increased the dependence of women on agricultural
sector and have adversely affected the status of women workforce.
d) Lack of assets (land, house) in their own name in order to have access to
credit and self-employment opportunities has been the important hurdle
in the upward mobility of women workers.
e) The heavy demand on the time and energy of women for subsistenance
tasks (fuel, fodder and water collection) and burdens of child-bearing and
rearing in addition to participation in labour force, leave them little time
for education, training and self development. Besides working as labourer,
they spend 6-8 hours per day on collection of fuel, fodder, water, child
care and other domestic chores. Efforts to reduce women’s drudgery have
been highly inadequate.
f) Division of labour between women and men and technological changes
in the production system also work against women. They are the first to
lose their jobs and the last to be hired. Higher illiteracy and low skill
development among women also result in low wages and insecure or casual
employment.
i) What are the different categories of women labourers? Use about five
lines to answer.
...................................................................................................................
60 ...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................... Labour : Women
...................................................................................................................
ii) Tick mark the correct box (true or false)
a) In India most of the women workforce are self-employed.
True False
b) More women are employed in the non-agricultural sector.
True False
c) Men and women get equal wages in all sectors of employment.
True False
11.3 WOMEN WORKERS BY VARIOUS

SECTORS OF EMPLOYMENT
Almost 90% of women workers are in the primary sector which include
agriculture (87%) and livestock, forestry, fishing, plantation and orchards
(1.8%). Agriculture remains the major sector of women’s work.
Women engaged in agricultural operations work on an average about 12 hours
a day on the farm in taking care of the cattle at home. There is a division of
labour between the tasks men and women do in agriculture. Although it is not
rigid and there are regional variations, however, some patterns are uniform.
Women do not plough the field due to social taboos. Women are mainly engaged
in sowing, weeding, transplanting and spraying chemical pesticides. In
agriculture, women work mostly as casual labour. As agriculture labourers
they comprise 60% of all agricultural workers.
Other activities where the number of women workers exceeds the number of
male workers are cashewnut processing, cotton and wool spinning and weaving,
manufacturing of bidis, tobacco processing, canning and preservation of fruits
and vegetables.
Activity 1
Identify about 20-25 workers in your neighbourhood and place their work in the
different types of economic activities as discussed in earlier sections. Analyse the
gender differentials. If possible, exchange your note with your colearners at the
Study Centre.
Let us examine the nature and extent of women’s work participation in terms
of various sectors of employment. You may be interested to know about the
unorganised sector first.
The nature and extent of women’s work participation in the rural unorganised
sector is qualitatively and quantitatively different in the rural areas from that
of the urban areas. Hence we should discuss the rural and urban areas separately
for a better understanding.
61
Structure in Tranistion – II i) Rural Unorganised Sector
A little over 87 per cent of women are employed in the unorganised sector in
rural and urban areas. Employment in this sector is characterised by lack of
job security, low wages, long hours of work; and unhealthy working conditions.
There are very few workers’ unions to bring pressure on employers to provide
more humane conditions of work. Inadequate legislation for these workers
and totally ineffective enforcement of the few legislations enacted to protect
their interests further aggravate their situation.
Women workers in this sector are mostly illiterate. They are drawn from the
poorer sections and they lack opportunities to improve their skills through
training and education. A large share of work in the rural unorganised sector is
done by women.
Government programmes to increase employment and productivity are focused
more on men; and women are seen as beneficiaries rather than active
participants. The predominantly male bureaucracy and extension workers are
not very sensitive to women’s needs and problems. Land ownership and division
of labour often works to women’s disadvantage.
ii) Urban Unorgansied Sector
A large number of women are engaged in services. Forty per cent of the self-
employed women are in the service sector and 30% are in petty trades. Eight
per cent of the women are engaged in construction activities . A majority of
the self-employed women are in petty business selling pan-bidis, fruits and
vegetables, leaf, cane and bamboo products and sale of firewood etc. A
significant number of self-employed women (57%) are working outside the
home with irregular income and many a time operating from the pavements.
Domestic service is another area where a large number of women workers are
engaged as part-time or full-time workers.
In manufacturing, the percentage share of female workers in traditional
industries i.e. food, tobacco and textiles has not changed. In some industries
like cashew processing, coffee curing etc. it has declined due to mechanisation.
Women have been employed more where ‘putting cut system’ is common like
garments, engineering products, plastics, rubber and tobacco processing.
The organised sector (both public and private) accounts for about 13.0 per
cent of the female labour force. In the public sector as well as major industrial
groups in coal, iron ore and metal mining, women’s employment during the
last two decades has either remained static or has declined. There has been a
sharp decline in the number of women workers in coal mining, particularly
after the nationalisation of the industry. There are reports that the public sector
coal mines have encouraged women to ‘retire voluntarily’ after nominating a
male from the family for the job.
In both public and private sector there is an extensive use of women contract
and casual labour with a view to avoid provision of labour laws i.e. providing
child-care centers, minimum wages and maternity benefits.
Here we can sum up the main characteristics of female labour working in
various sectors of economy as follows:
62 i) Low overall participation rate of women vis-a-vis men.
ii) Regional variations in female work participation rate.
iii) Large concentration of women workers in the agricultural sector and Labour : Women
household industries in all states.
iv) Majority of women i.e. 87% are working in the ‘informal sector’ which is
characterised by low wages, non-unionisation, bad working conditions
and irregular work.
v) Women are mostly engaged in low productivity and lowpaid occupations.
Wage discrimination is widely prevalent in such jobs. About 89% of
women in rural areas and 69.48% of women in urban areas are unskilled
workers.
The entry of majority of women from socially and economically disadvantaged
section into the labour market as unskilled workers had to be understood in
terms of the factors leading to it.
In the units on Women’s Status and Women and Work of Block 4. ESO-02,
you have learnt that not only that women’s labour within the home is unpaid
and undervalued but also traditional role expectations, differential socialisation
of boys and girls and gender role stereotyping have an adverse impact on
women’s roles and educational opportunities. Society’s perception of their
contribution and value of caste and community also have a significant influence
on women’s labour participation.
i) Which are the activities where women exceed the number of male workers?
Use about three lines to answer.
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
ii) What are the employment characteristics of informal sector? Answer in
about four lines.
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
iii) Mention a few important occupations for women in the informal sector in
the rural areas. Use about four lines to answer.
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
11.4 LABOUR LAWS FOR WOMEN WORKERS

Invisibility of women’s work, marginalisation of women workers by the process
of development and their concentration in the unorganised or informal sector
(about which you have learnt earlier) make it difficult for women to benefit
from labour laws enacted to protect them and regulate their working conditions.
Labour laws are enacted to provide safe working conditions like health and
maternity benefits prevent their exploitation and regulate wages.
63
Since majority of women are in the unorganised sector, we will discuss the
legislation which affects this group of women workers.
Structure in Tranistion – II 11.4.1 Equal Remuneration Act
This Act states that there should be no wage discrimination between male and
female workers when they are engaged in the same type of activity. In other
words men and women would get the same wages if the nature of work is
similar.
The Act applies to workers in the organised sector, it has been largely ignored
in the unorganised sector. Women in agriculture, construction, household
industry etc. continue to receive lower wages than men. However the Act has
been effective in the organised sector, especially in plantations where nearly
half the workers are women and also in mines and factories. Wage differences
between the sexes have been abolished in these industries.
11.4.2 Minimum Wages Act
For workers in the unorganised sector, this law provides a mechanism for
fixing up minimum rates of wages which should reflect the basic minimum
needs of the workers.
While notifying minimum wages, certain types of work done by women are
classified as ‘light work done by women’ and ‘heavier work done by men’.
This is one of the methods to fix lower wages for women.
In addition women in the organised sector are entitled to maternity benefits.
Employers are also expected to provide creche where more than 30 women
are employed.
64 Law and Women Labourers

11.4.3 Maternity Benefits Act Labour : Women
This Act provides that women workers are entitled to 24 weeks of leave with
full pay during pregnancy. Usually the female worker is allowed to take leave
for 4 weeks before the birth of the child and 8 weeks leave after the birth of the
child. They are also allowed to take leave for 6 weeks for abortion.
It is usually being argued that one of the reasons for the decline in the
employment of women in the organised sector is that the employers have to
pay maternity benefits to female employees. Since the number of women
employed in the organised sector is very small, the amount paid as maternity
benefit is very low in comparison to other social security benefits paid to male
employees.
The National Commission on Self Employed Women suggested that maternity
benefits and child care should be recognised as a package and a fund should be
created to provide necessary assistance to women. Various women’s
organisations have been demanding that child care should be included under
the basic needs programme of the government and suitable steps should be
taken to implement it.
Activity 2
Interview 10-15 working women engaged in the informal sector and find out if
they are aware of any of the three Acts we have discussed. If possible exchange
your note with your colearners at the Study Centre.

i) Write a note on Equal Remuneration Act in about four lines.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
ii) The Maternity Benefit Act provides that women workers are entitled to:
a) 12 weeks of leave without pay during pregnancy
b) 12 months of leave without pay during pregnancy
c) 12 weeks of leave with full pay during pregnancy
d) 12 days of leave with full payment.
11.5 WOMEN’S WORK PARTICIPATION :

CHALLENGES AND RESPONSE
In recent years there have been significant efforts to organise women workers.
Efforts have been also made by the government to launch various programmes.
Let us discuss the efforts made and initiatives undertaken for the mobilisation
and upliftment of poor women who form the bulk of the workforce in our
country.
65
Structure in Tranistion – II 11.5.1 Mobilising and Organising Efforts
Increasing emphasis is now given to organisation and mobilisation of
unorganised women workers in order to give them voice and collective strength
for the improvement of their working conditions and wages. A few organisations
like Self-employed Women’s Association (SEWA), Ahmedabad, Working
Women’s Forum (WWF), Madras, Annapurna Mahila Mandal (AMM),
Bombay and several grassroots organisations have mobilised urban and rural
poor women workers in order to strengthen their bargaining capacities and
improve their access to credit and other resources. SEWA is a trade union of
over 40,000 poor women workers in Gujarat. WWF has a membership of 15,000
women and has now spread its activities to Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka.
Women have struggled for land ownership, minimum wages, access to forest
produce, water resources, rights of hawkers and vendors etc. The revitalisation
of women’s movement in the 1970s and 1980s, has resulted in an increasing
awareness about women’s rights and their participation in local and larger
struggles.
Housing, water and sanitation are the other major concerns of poor women
workers. They have also organised for legal and policy changes and against
sexual exploitation of women workers. The Report of the National Commission
on Self-employed Women, widely known as Shram Shakti has observed that
“today we are witnessing the gradual rise of a movement of poor women
organising on issues, asserting themselves, articulating their needs and bringing
themselves to the forefront of our political consciousness……… It has been
possible only because of many earlier movements and attempts to organise by
these women.” Such example are however, few and far between. Some of the
trade unions and most of the political parties have also set up women’s wing
within their organisations.
The attempts of poor women to organise themselves are often met with strong
oppositions by vested interests in both rural and urban areas. The National
Commission on Self-employed Women recommended a strategy to promote
organisations of women and suggested that the government should play an
active and positive role by insisting that all government project, schemes and
programmes for the poor should have a component of organising as this will
help in buildings a people’s base.
11.5.2 Institutional Efforts : Anti-Poverty Programmes

Anti-poverty programmes were launched by the Government in the Fourth
Five Year Plan. It was much later in the Sixth Five Year Plan that a separate
strategy was considered for employment and income generation for poor
women. The report of the CSWI (1974) stressed the fact that the ‘poor’ are not
a homogeneous group. Since then several studies have highlighted the unequal
burden of poverty on women due to their familial responsibilities and the need
to provide for the subsistence needs of women.
The major anti-poverty programmes in the country are as follows:
i) Programmes for providing self-employment through loans for
productive assets. The Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP)
66
has fixed a target of 30% women beneficiaries to be covered under the
programme. In 1982-83 a separate programme for Development of Women
and Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA) was taken up to provide self- Labour : Women
employment to rural women.
ii) Programmes of wage-employment like National Rural Development
Programme, Rural Landless Employment Guaranteee Programme. The
employment generated under this programme is mainly through public
works programmes like repair of roads and construction activities.
iii) Special Programmes for tribal areas, hilly areas and drought prone areas.
iv) Training Programme for upgrading or imparting new skills for generating
self-employment (Training of Rural Youth for Self Employment);
iv) Distribution of surplus land to the poor. In these schemes under the
hand reform programme mostly male head of the households have been
given land.
One of the major problems with anti-poverty programmes was that poor women,
handicapped by illiteracy, socio-cultural factors (as most of them are SC/ST)
and inability of these agencies to imaginatively plan and implement these
programmes, could not benefit from these schemes. Due to predominantly
male ownership of land and other productive assets, women were not able to
give bank guarantee and take advantage of the credit schemes.
There were also programmes in identifying viable activities and adequate
planning for economic programmes for women and giving them support in
terms of technology, training, raw material and marketing of goods.
The government estimates of surplus land distributed to the landless poor show
that a very small portion has been acquired and distributed except for West
Bengal and Kerala. Most of it is uncultivable or needs lots of input like
fertilisers, irrigation and good soil management etc. The land was distributed
to the ‘male heads of households’ ignoring the fact that many households were
headed by women and they play an important role in marginal and landless
households. It is estimated that about 30-35 per cent of households are headed
or managed by women where men have migrated to towns.
Tick mark the correct answers.
i) Which one of the following is not an organisation involved in the
mobilisation of working women?
a) Self-employed Women’s Association
b) Working Women’s Forum
c) Annapurna Mahila Mandal
d) None of the above.
ii) The Committee on the Status of Women recognises that
a) poor women are a homogenous group
b) poor women are not a homogeneous group
c) poor men bear more burden of poverty than women 67
d) none of the above is correct.
Structure in Tranistion – II iii) Which one of the following is responsible for not giving women sufficient
access over the anti-poverty programmes launched by the government?
a) Illiteracy
b) Predominantly male ownership of land
c) Inability of the agencies to plan imaginatively
d) All of the above.
11.6 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have acquainted you with the major problems of the women
workers in India. The unit began with a broad discussion on the nature and
extent of women’s labour force participation in India. There we discussed the
various categories of women labourers, nature of work done by women labour,
and the socio-economic factors affecting their work participation. Problems
of women workers working both in the organised and unorganised sectors are
discussed in this unit. There are various labour laws viz. Equal Remuneration
Act, Minimum Wage Act, Maternity Benefits Act. We also discussed these
laws in relation to contemporary women’s work participation in India. Lastly
we discussed the efforts made to organise the poor women workers and the
broad welfare measures undertaken to improve women’s work condition and
work participation in India.
11.7 KEY WORDS

Home-based Production : Commodity produced based on family
labour mainly.
Self-employed : Those who occupied independently in their

own economic activities are categorised as
self-employed. They may be the
cultivators, artisans, vendors, petty
shopowners, businessmen etc.
Wage earners : Those who work to receive wage for their

work from their employers are categories
as wage earners viz., agricultural labourers
etc.

Jose A.V.(Ed.), 1989. Limited Options : Women Workers in Rural India. Asian
Regional Team for Employment Promoton, ILO : New Delhi.
Singh Andrea M. and Anita K. Vitanen (Eds.), 1987, Invisible Hands: Women
in Home-based Production, Sage Publications: New Delhi.
SinghaRoy, D.K. 1992. Women in Peasant Movements: Tebhaga, Naxalite
and After, Manohar; New Delhi.
68
Labour : Women
i) Women workers can be categorised under three broad headings: (a) Self-
employed both within and outside home; (b) Wage workers outside home
and (c) Unpaid family labour work on their own farm or family occupations
like weaving, pottery and handicrafts etc.
ii) a) False
b) True
c) False
i) According to a report prepared by the Government of India, Women out
numbered men in the following activities: dairying, small animal
husbandry and handloom.
ii) Employment in the informal sector is characterised by lack of job security,
low wages, long hours of work and unhealthy working conditions.
iii) Agriculture, dairying, fisheries, animal husbandry, khadi and village
industries, handicrafts, sericulture, handloom etc.
i) This Act states that there should be no wage discrimination between made
and female workers when they are engaged in the same type of activity.
ii) c)
i) d)
ii) b)
iii) d)
69
UNIT 12 LABOUR : CHILDREN
Structure
12.0 Objectives
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Definition, Estimates, Literacy Level and Social Background
12.2.1 Definition
12.2.2 Estimates
12.2.3 Literacy Levels
12.2.4 Socio-Economic Background
12.3 Causes and Conditions of Child Labour
12.3.1 Rural Areas
12.3.2 Urban Areas
12.4 Constitutional Provisions and Government Policies
12.4.1 Constitutional Provisions
12.4.2 Committee on Child Labour
12.4.3 Legislations on Child Labour
12.4.4 Problems of Implementation
12.5 The Challenges of Meeting the Basic Needs of Children
12.6 Let Us Sum Up
12.7 Key Words
12.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through the unit you should be able to:
z Explain who is a child labourer;
z Discuss various reasons for child labour;
z Describe various sectors where child labour is employed;
z Narrate the conditions of child labour; and
z Explain the application of policies and legislations enacted for the
regulation of child labour.
12.1 INTRODUTION
In this course there are two units on children. One is on child labour and the
other (in Block 5 Unit 14) is on the general problems of children. This unit
discusses the problems of child labour in India. It begins with a discussion of
its definition, and then gives the estimates and social background of child labour
in India. The nature of employment of the child labour in the rural and urban
areas has also been examined in this unit. This unit also goes into the various
70
constitutional provisions and legislations on child labour in India. And finally
the unit tells you about the challenge of meeting the basic needs of children.
Labour : Children
12.2 DEFINITION, ESTIMATES, LITERACY
LEVEL AND SOCIAL BACKGROUND
In this section we shall be discussing the conceptual aspect and social
background of the child labour in India.
12.2.1 Definition
According to the Census of India definition a child worker is one who works
for the major part of the day and is below the age of 14 years. There is no
agreement about the definition of the ‘child’. The 1989 UN Convention on the
‘Rights of the Child’ sets the upper age at 18. The International Labour
Organisation refers to children as those who are under 15 years. In India children
above the age of 14 years are old enough to be employed.
12.2.2 Estimates
Estimates of child labour vary widely. Children’s work participation is higher
in the less developed regions of the world them these of the more developed
ones. While in 2000, the world average of the child work participation rate
was 11.3%, their participation rates in the less developed regions and the least
developed countries were 13% and 31.6% respectively. Child work participation
has been eliminated from the more developed regions of the world. In India in
2000 child work participation was 12.1% (Children Data Bank 2001). As
indicated there are varied estimates on child labour in India. The Human Rights
watch (1996) estimates that there are 60 to 115 million working children in
India. According to UNICEF this figures range between 70 to 90 million.
According to ILO one third of the child labour of world live in India. The
UNDP estimate says that there are more than 100 million child labour in India
of which around one million work as bounded labour. The 32nd round of the
National Sample Survey estimated that about 17.36 million children were in
the labour force. A study sponsored by the Ministry of Labour and conducted
by Opreations Research Group (1985) puts the figures of working children
around 44 million. Recent studies also suggest that Indian has about 44.5 million
child labourers of whom nearly 7.5 million are bonded labourers. According
to another estimate by Asian Labour Monitor every third household in India
has a working child in the age group of 5-14. It is thus very difficult to arrive
at correct estimates of child labour because of wide variations in different
studies.
A large number of child workers are in the informal sector and many are self-
employed on family farms and enterprises. The work participation rate of
children in rural areas is three times more than in urban areas. According to
1981 Census there were 6.7 million male children and 3.5 million female
children working in the rural areas for the major part of the year who were
recorded as main workers. Their work participation rates were 9.2 per cent for
boys and 5.3 per cent for girls. After including marginal workers the
participation rate increased to 10.0 per cent boys and 7.6 per cent for girls. In
other words child work participation rate was substantial among rural children
as compared to urban areas. In the urban areas the work participation rate
(including marginal workers) was 3.6 per cent among boys and 1.3 per cent 71
among girls between 5-14 years.
Structure in Tranistion – II Child labour makes a very significant contribution in arid and semiarid areas
where families have to use maximum resources in traditional rainfed farming
systems for about 3-4 months during the rainy season. A lot of child labour is
used in collection of goods viz., fuel, fodder, minor forest produce etc. Child
labour is an integral part of farmers’ adaptive methods to cope with seasonal
demands for labour. These situations usually do not encourage the children to
go to school for study. This is more so for the female children. However, it is
very difficult to make a correct estimate of these child labour.
12.2.3 Literacy Levels

Most of the studies have found a strong correlation between low literacy levels
and work partcipation rates. In rural areas only 4.1 per cent boys and 2.2 per
cent girl child workers were literate. Similarly in urban areas 7.0 per cent boys
and 2.5 per cent girl child workers were literate. The main reason for not sending
these children to school is the opportunity costs to parents who lose the wages
earned by the child.
Activity 1
You may have come across a number of child labour working in your locality.
Collect information directly from them about their educational status/levels of
literacy. Based on your findings prepare a note of about one page, on their levels
of literacy. Also explain the major cause of their illiteracy. If possible, exchange
your note with your colearners at the Study Centre.
Box 1
Gender Differentiation and Child Labour
The process of gender differentiation and division of responsibility begins early in
our society. Most of the children out of schools come from disadvantaged sections,
and the majority of them are girls, as their parents do not see the relevance of
educating them. In most economically disadvantaged families, the greater the
poverty the more aggravated is the situation of the girl child. The unequal access
to education, health, and nutrition, as compared to boys in the family, further restricts
their growth and development. The situation of wage earning girls in the informal
sector or in home-based work is even worse. As an invisible worker she is also
required to look after younger siblings and do all the domestic chores in addition
to helping mother in her work.
A study of girl ragpickers in Delhi noted that all the girls interviewed were from
families which has migrated from Bangladesh and West Bengal. Besides ragpicking
they were also engaged in preparing match sticks, domestic work, collecting fuel
and water. Four years old girls used to go with their elder brothers and sisters for
ragpicking. They are prone to catch intestinal infection and skin diseases.
The industries which employ a large percentage of girl children are glass works,
gem cutting and polishing, match stick factories and fireworks. In these industries
their work conditions are very bad.
12.2.4 Socio-Economic Background

You have earlier learnt in Unit 12 of Block 1, ESO-02, about the nature and
extent of rural and urban poverty in India. The problem of poverty in India has
72 been described in terms of social classes and castes. In rural areas landless
agricultural labourers, marginal landholders, and artisans constitute poor
households. Landless labourers mostly belong to Scheduled Castes and Labour : Children
Scheduled Tribes. In urban areas the poor people live in slums or in temporary
hutments or on pavements. The problem of poverty in India has also been
discussed in terms of its magnitude e.g. according to official figures about 40
per cent people in India live in object poverty. Rural poor unable to earn a
living often migrate to towns in search of work. The face of urban India is
changing, as 40 million people including 6 million children are living in slums.
Millions of children from these poorer households in rural and urban areas are
forced to work at an early age to supplement the family’s inadequate income.
Child Labour is used as a survival strategy by poor households. Thus, India
has the largest child labour force in the world.
i) What are the reasons for child labour? Answer in about six lines.
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
ii) Who is a child worker in India? Answer in about three lines.
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
12.3 CAUSES AND CONDITIONS OF CHILD

LABOUR
Children, as we have seen, are employed in all types of work. We can examine
the type of work they do in the rural and urban areas.
12.3.1 Rural Areas

Children work as wage earners, as self-employed workers and as unpaid family
helpers. In rural areas children are often employed for grazing cattle, in
agricultural activities, in home-based industries (bidi making, handlooms,
handicrafts etc.). The National Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO) analysis
shows that the prevalence of child labour across India is related to:
i) proportion (high concentration) of Scheduled Caste population
ii) low levels of female literacy
iii) low wage rates for adult workers
iv) nature of (small) size of land holdings 73
v) home-based production.
Structure in Tranistion – II Higher wage rates for women had correspondingly lower participation of girls
as they were retained by their families for domestic work. Hence the NSSO
study also suggested that improving the working conditions of adult women
and providing alternatives to employment of children, can reduce child labour.
Various studies have shown that the number of child workers is large in rural
areas. Most of the child workers are concentrated among the landless
agricultural households, in agriculture and livestock activities and in home-
based enterprises (food processing, weaving, handicrafts, bidi rolling, papad
making etc.).
The demand for child labour is also determined by culturally prescribed division
of labour by age and gender. Girls in the age-group of 10-14 work much harder
than boys.
Child Labour
12.3.2 Urban Areas

In urban areas children work as wage earners in small industries and workshops
such as bidi, match and fireworks, glass and bangle, carpet weaving, handloom,
gem polishing, potteries, paper bags, plastic goods and fish processing. Match
making and fireworks industries have a large incidence of working children of
a very young age. They also work at construction sites, stone quarries or in
loading and unloading operations.
They serve tea and food in dhabas (small roadside eating places and tea shops)
and restaurants, sell vegetables and milk, work as domestic servants, car
74
clearners and newspaper vendors. Children from slums also work as porters
and casual workers.
Children, in both rural and urban areas work as unpaid family helpers in Labour : Children
employers’ homes in contract work done by families on piece-rate basis or in
families’ own farms or small enterprises. The child gets no recognition or
money for the work done at home. Usually the work done at home is considered
to be less exploitative but many a times child abuse and long hours of work in
difficult conditions takes place within the family.
Studies conducted in several parts of the country invariably show that child
labourers are required to work for longer period of time for wage; and they are
usually paid less. They are to work in many places also under inhuman working
conditions, even without the minimum security to life.
Activity 2
Collect information from 10 child labourers who have been working in your locality,
on the nature of work done, working hours and wages received by them. Prepare a
note on these and compare it with other students at your Study Centre, if possible.
A significant number of the child labourers in urban and metropolitan areas

consists of street children. They are children who have no homes and they live
on the pavements. In Delhi alone it is estimated that of the 22 lakh children,
approximately 4 lakhs are working children and of these about 1.5 lakhs are
street children. Often the harsh living conditions in rural areas and domestic
conflicts force children to run away.
The run aways and destitute street children are the most vulnerable group of
child workers. A study of child porters in a metropolitan city found that most
of them came from large families with low family earnings. Violence was
stated to be an important reason for leaving their homes. They mostly slept on
the pavements or on railway platforms.
Most of the child labour of our country are in situation in which they are
forced to work. They have to work not for their own survival alone but also for
the survival of the members of their family. However, they have to work in
very unhealthy and insecure work conditions which are detrimental to the total
growth of a human being. They mostly remain illiterate and are sickly build.
Today’s children are tomorrow’s citizen of the nation. Indeed, they are likely
to grow up as illiterate, frustrated and unhealthy citizens.
As already mentioned, child labourers are from poor economic background.

With the limited income they earn, it is not possible for them to satisfy their
needs. Hence many of them resort to anti-social activities at a very low age. In
the urban areas, taking advantage of their poverty, insecurity and ignorance as
well many of the organised anti-social elements use these children for their
crude purposes. Hence many of these children spend their childhood in despair.
In long run, many of them become destitute children.
Every state, as a welfare institution, undertakes some measures for the

prohibition of child labour as also for the well being of the children. Hence, it
is essential for us to look into these provisions. In the next section we shall be
examining these aspects.
75
Structure in Tranistion – II Check Your Progress 2
i) Studies have shown that the number of child workers is
a) large in rural areas
b) large in urban areas
c) equal in rural and urban areas
d) None of the above is correct.
ii) Briefly state the types of work done by child workers as paid workers in
urban areas. Answer in about six lines.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
12.4 CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS AND

GOVERNMENT POLICIES
In post-independent India several institutional initiatives have been undertaken
to deal with the issues of children. Let us examine these briefly.
12.4.1 Constitutional Provisions

Prohibition and Regulation of Child labour has received considerable attention
in the last few decades. The Constitution of India, in Article 24, provides that
no child below the age of 14 years shall be employed in any factory or mine or
be engaged in any hazardous employment. Article39(e) and (f) of the Directive
Principle of State Policy requires the State to ensure that ‘the health and strength
of workers, men, women and tender age of children are not abused’ and ‘children
are given opportunities and facilities to develop in a healthy climate, and are
protected against exploitation’. The Constitution also provides that the state
shall endeavor to provide, within a period of ten years from its commencement,
free and compulsory education for all children up to 14 years of age.
12.4.2 Committee on Child Labour

The Report of the National Commission of Labour (1969) and the Report of
the Committee on Child Labour (1981) examined the causes and consequences
of child labour in India. Following the Report of the Committee on Child
Labour (1981) the Government appointed a special Central Advisory Board
on Child Labour under the Ministry of Labour. The Board reviews the
implementation of existing legislations and suggests further legal and welfare
76
measures. It also identifies industries/occupations where child labour needs to
be eliminated.
In 1975, after the National Policy Resolution for Children was adopted, a Labour : Children
National Children’s Board was constituted with the objective of creating greater
awareness about children’s problems, promote their welfare and review and
co-ordinate educational health and welfare programmes for children.
12.4.3 Legislations on Child Labour

In 1881 the first legislation was passed for regulating employment of children
in factories. The Indian Factories Act 1881 prescribed the minimum age for
employment as seven years and the working hours not to exceed nine hours.
The 1891 amendment raised the minimum age of employment to nine years
and maximum hours of work to seven hours. The Factories Act, 1948 prohibits
employment of children below the age of 14 years.
The Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act 1986 is the first
comprehensive legislation which prohibits employment of children below 14
years, and in some cases 15 years, in the organised industries and in certain
hazardous industrial occupations like bidi and carpet making, cloth dyeing
and weaving, manufacture of matches, explosives and fire works, soap
manufacturing, leather tanning and building and construction industry. However
the bulk of children are employed in nonformal sector.
12.4.4 Problems of Implementation

More than 80% of working children are in rural areas in the agricultural sector.
A large number of them work in the self-employed and unorganised sector
such as domestic servants, children working in small eating shops, at
construction sites or as porters etc. which are not covered by any protective
legislation.
The government subscribes to the view that child labour cannot be abolished
but can only be regulated. The 1986 Act is totally inadequate to deal with the
problems of child labour as they are rooted in poverty. The 1986 Act prohibits
use of child labour in hazardous occupations and processes. Employers bypass
the legislation by either not maintaining the muster roll or framing out work to
smaller units or to home-based workers. Most of the children work in small
industries which are not covered by legislation. Approximately 40,000 girl
children working in Sivakasi match factories are below 14 years of age. In the
growing carpet industries in eastern U.P., according to non government
estimates, more than 25,000 child labourers work. Because of poverty many
of them have migrated there from Bihar etc. places.
From employers point of view children are a source of cheap and docile labour
and they do not have any obligations. Some of the employers even claim that
they employ them out of sympathy and thus help poor families to supplement
their income. They feel that if not employed, these child labour would be
involved in anti-social activities and many of them would die of starvation.
Employment of children keeps the cost of production low through low wages
and thus the margin of profit increases.
Several investigative reports and documentaries have highlighted the abuse of
child labour in glass and bangle industry in Ferozabad, match and fireworks
industry in Sivakasi, carpet weaving industry in Mirzapur etc. Recently, in a 77
landmark judgment, the Supreme Court put a ban on the employment of children
Structure in Tranistion – II in bidi manufacturing. Despite legislations, exploitation of child labour
continues.
i) Tick mark the correct box (true or false):
Article 24 provides for the employment of children below the age of 14

years.
True False
ii) In India education is free and compulsory for children upto 14 years of
age.
True False
iii) Write in a few words, about the National Policy Resolution for Children.
Use four lines to answer.
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................
12.5 THE CHALLENGES OF MEETING THE

BASIC NEEDS OF CHILDREN
The United Nations Conventions on the Rights of the child sets universal legal
standards of protection of children against neglect, abuse and exploitation at
work as well as guarantees them basic human rights. The Convention contains
54 Articles which cover children’s civil, economic, social, cultural and political
rights. Yet millions of children are denied their ‘right to life with justice and
dignity’, and are forced to work under subhuman condition because they are
poor and deprived. They are ‘children without childhood’. India had co-
sponsored the UN General Assembly’s Resolution on the International Year
of the Child and was the first country to adopt a National Plan of Action. The
theme for the International Year of the Child (1979) was ‘reaching the Deprived
Child’.
Universalisation of elementary education is expected to play a dominant and

effective role in reducing child labour participation rate. However, it is the
poverty which forces children to drop out from school. In order to develop his/
her potential, a child has to be free from hunger, neglect, exploitation and
abuse. Rights of children cannot be implemented through legislation alone,
but will depend on a society’s commitment to improve the quality of life and
particularly strengthen the economic roles of women from the poorer
households.
78
Labour : Children
Labour Welfare : is it Myth?
Children are the starting point of any development strategy. The Government
of India’s National Policy on Children (1974) emphasised that children are a
nation’s supremely important asset and declared that the nation is responsible
for their ‘nature and solicitude’. It also states that ‘children’s programmes
should find a prominent place in our national plans for the development of
human resources so that children grow up to become robust citizen…. Equal
opportunities for development of all children during the period of growth,
should be our aim, for this will serve our larger purpose of reducing inequality
and ensuring social justice.”
Following the proclamation of this policy, a National Children’s Board was
set up in 1975 to ensure planning, monitoring and co-ordination of child welfare
services i.e. nutrition, immunisation, health care, pre-school education of
mothers etc. at the national level.
Despite these policy measures, the infant mortality rate in India remains very
high (93 per thousand live births). Child mortality rates are higher for girls due
to neglect and discriminatory treatment in terms of food, nutrition and health
care. More girls than boys drop out of school or are not enrolled from low
income groups as the girl child’s labour is needed by the family to release her
mother’s work time.
The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) has expressed
their concern for the future of the girl child and suggested for the enlargement
of the definition of the ‘child’ to include 14-20 age groups as the adolescent
girl. However, this is neither reached by government programmes for children
nor by those for adult women. The greater the poverty, the more aggravated is 79
the situation of the girl child.
Structure in Tranistion – II The SAARC countries had declared the 90s the Decades of Girl Child to achieve
a universal coverage of education and health services for children and ensure
their survival, growth and development. Hence effective economic and social
policies are needed for the low income groups to bring about a significant
improvement in the quality of life.
Women and children welfare is never high on the agenda of national
governments. Sustained political will and united action is required by the
government, international agencies and non-governmental organisations to
ensure the protection and development of children.
i) Which one of the following is expected to play a crucial role in reducing
the child labour participation rate?
a) High wage
b) Good work condition
c) Universalisations of elementary education.
d) None of the above.
ii) The 1990s was declared as the ‘Decade of the Girl Child’ by the
a) European Countries
b) Latin American Countries
c) African Countries
d) SAARC Countries.
12.6 LET US SUM UP

The problem of child labour is related to the problem of poverty in India. Most
of the child workers come from the families of landless agricultural labourers,
marginal farmers, artisans and migrants living in urban slums. There are no
reliable estimates of child labour. However child labour is used as a survival
strategy by poorer households. Children work as wage earners, unpaid family
helpers and as self-employed workers selling various products. They are also
employed in several hazardous occupations like match and fireworks, glass
and bangle industries, carpet weaving etc. despite the legislation prohibiting
their employment in such occupations.
Providing education, health care, nutrition and better living standards to millions
of deprived children is the biggest challenge facing the country. To deal with
all these aspects in this unit we have covered the social background and
estimates and the nature of employment of child labour in India. We have also
discussed the constitutional and legal provisions made in India to deal with
the issues of child labour. Lastly we have discussed the challenges that need to
be faced in meeting the needs of the child labour.
12.7 KEY WORDS

80 Home-based Production : Items produced exclusively using the
labour of the family members.
Informal Sector : In India production activity can broadly be Labour : Children
defined as formal and informal. The formal
sector is governed by statutes enacted by
formal bodies. By informal sector we mean
various economic that are performed but
no record is maintained as per the statutes.
Their activities are scattered throughout the
county. Most of the self-employed persons
belong to this category.
Piece-rates : Wage given for per piece of work.
Self-employed : Persons employed in their own enterprise.

Gupta, M. 1987, Young Hand at Work: Child Labour in India. Atma Ram and
Sons Publications: New Delhi
UNICEF, 1990, Development Goals and Strategies for Children in the 1990s.
A UNICEF Policy Review: New York.

i) A significant proportion of Indian population live in poverty. Many of
them are forced to migrate to urban areas in search of employment. Millions
of children from poor households in rural and urban areas are forced to
work at an early age to supplement the family’s inadequate income.
ii) According to census definition a child worker is one who works for a
major part of the day and is below the age of 14 years.
i) a)
ii) In urban areas children work as wage earners in small industries and
workshops such as bidi, match and fireworks, glass and bangle, carpet
weaving, handloom, gem polishing, potteries, paper bags, plastic goods
and fish processing. They also work at construction sites, stone quarries
and in loading and unloading.
i) False
ii) False
iii) In 1975, after the National Policy Resolution for Children was adopted, a
National Children’s Board was constituted with the objective of creating
greater awareness about children’s problem, to promote their welfare and
to review and coordinate education, health and welfare programmes for
children.
i) c
81
ii) d
Structure in Tranistion – II
REFERENCES
Ahuja, R., 1992. Social Problems in India. Rawat publications : New Delhi.
Bardhan, P.K., 1984, Land, Labour and Rural Poverty. Oxford University
Press: New Delhi.
Behari, B. 1983, Unemployment, Technology and Rural Poverty, Vices
Publishing House: New Delhi.
Chattopadhyay M., 1982. “Role of Female Labour in Indian Agriculture”.
Social Scientist. Vol. 10. No.7 pp. 45-54.
Desai, A.R., 1978, Rural Sociology in India. Popular Prakashan: Bombay.
Govt. of India, 1963. Census of India 1961. Govt. of India: New Delhi
Gupta, M. 1987, Young Hands at Work : Child Labour in India. Atma Ram
and Sons Publications : New Delhi
————— 1966. Education and National Development. Report of the
Education Commission 1964-66, Ministry of Education: New Delhi.
————— 1974. Towards Equality —Report of the Committee on the Status
of Women in India. Department of Social Welfare : New Delhi.
————— 1972. Census of India 1971. Govt. of India: New Delhi.
————— 1980. Profile of the Child in India: Policies and Programme.
Govt. of India : New Delhi.
————— 1982. Census of India 1981. Govt. of India: New Delhi.
————— 1988. National Perspective Plan For Women 1988-2000 AD.
Department of Women and Child Development Ministry of Human Resource
Development : New Delhi.
————— 1988. Shram Shakti. Report of the National Commission on Self-
employed Women in Informal Sector. Department of Women and Child
Development, Ministry of Human Resource Development: New Delhi.
————— 1990. India 1990. Publications Division. Govt. of India: New
Delhi.
Holmstrom, H., 1987. Industry and Inequality. Orient Longman: New Delhi.
Jose, A.V., (Ed.) 1989. Limited Options: Women Workers in Rural India. Asian
Regional Team for Employment Promotion. ILO: New Delhi.
Kamat, A.R., 1985. Education and Social Change in India. Samaiya: New
Delhi.
National Sample Survey Organisation, 1980. National Sample Survey. NSSO:
New Delhi.
————— 1982. National Sample Survey. NSSO : New Delhi.
82 ————— 1985. National Sample Survey. NSSO : New Delhi.

————— 1987. National Sample Survey. NSSO : New Delhi.
Ramaswamy E.A.D. and U.Ramasswamy, 1987. Industry and Labour, Oxford Labour : Children
University Press: Delhi.
Singh Andrea M. and Anita K. Vitanen (Eds.), 1987, Invisible Hands: Women
in Home-based Production, Sage Publications: New Delhi.
SinghaRoy, D.K. 1992. Women in Peasant Movements: Tebhaga, Naxalite and
After, Manohar; New Delhi.
Singh, M.A. and A.K. Vitanam, (Eds.) 1987. Invisible Hands: Women in Home-
based Production. Sage Publications: New Delhi.
Thorner, D. and A. Thorner, 1962. Land and Labour in India. Asia Publishing
House: Bombay.
UNICEF, 1990, Development Goals and Strategies for Children in the 1990s.
A UNICEF Policy Review : New York.
UNICEF, 1990. Development Goals and Strategies for Children in the 1990s.
UNICEF: New Delhi.
83

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UNIT 8 UNEMPLOYMENT

8.2 UNEMPLOYMENT: SOCIO-ECONOMIC

8.2.2 Problems of Identifying Unemployment

8.2.3 Estimating Unemployment

Source : Planning Commission 2002.

Source : Planning Commission 2002.

Check Your Progress 1

8.3.1 Seasonal Unemployment

8.3.2 Disguised Unemployment

8.4 EDUCATED UNEMPLOYED

8.4.1 Extent of Unemployment

Social Consequences of Unemployment

Moreover the existence of a large number of unemployed in any country can

8.5 GOVERNMENT POLICIES ON

8.5.1 Schemes for Educated Unemployed

8.5.2 Schemes for Rural Areas

8.6 RIGHT TO WORK AND ITS IMPLICATIONS

8.7 LET US SUM UP

8.9 FURTHER READINGS

8.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

9.2 INDUSTRY AND INDUSTRIAL LABOUR

9.2.1 Features of Industrial Labour

9.2.2 Industrial Labour in India

Employment (in million) Annual growth (%)

Sector 1983 1987-88 1993-94 1999- 1983 to 1987 to 1983 to 1993-94 to

2000 1987-88 1993-94 1993-94 1999-2000

Agriculture 151.35 163.82 190.72 190.94 1.77 2.57 2.23 0.02

Manufacturing 27.69 32.53 35.00 40.79 3.64 1.23 2.26 2.58

Electricity, 0.83 0.94 1.43 1.15 2.87 7.19 5.31 -3.55

Construction 7.17 11.98 11.02 14.95 12.08 -1.38 4.18 5.21

Transport, 6.99 8.05 9.88 13.65 3.21 3.46 3.35 5.53

Community, 23.52 27.55 34.98 30.84 3.57 4.06 3.85 -2.08

Source : NSSO-Different rounds.

9.3 LABOUR IN THE ORGANISED AND

Workers in the Organised/Unorganised Sector

9.3.2 Unorganised Sector

9.3.3 Linkages Between Organised and Unorganised Sectors

d) all of the above

9.4 LABOUR WELFARE MEASURES IN INDIA

9.5 LABOUR UNREST

9.6 LET US SUM UP

9.7 KEY WORDS

9.8 FURTHER READINGS

z explain the situation of agricultural labour during the British rule;

10.2 RURAL LABOUR IN THE PRE-BRITISH AND

These traditional relationships in land experienced a steady transformation

Check Your Progress 1

10.3 NEW MEASURES AND RURAL LABOUR IN

10.3.2 Agricultural Modernisation

However, some experts are skeptical about this ‘technological thrust’ of

10.4 PROBLEMS OF NON-AGRICULTURAL

10.4.2 Post-Independence Period

Cultivators Agricultural Workers Other

Number Percent Percent Percent Percent

INDIA Total Persons 402,512,190 31.7 26.7 4.1 375

Males 275,463,736 31.3 20.8 3.0 44.9

Females 127,048,454 32.5 39.4 6.4 21.7

Rural Persons 310,655,339