INTERNAL ASSIGNMENT OF

PSYCHOLOGY

SUBMITTED BY
LOPAMUDRA PATRA
SEMESTER III
REG. NO.: 019133
SESSION: 2022-2023
TOPICS
1.DIFFERENT TYPES AND SOURCES OF STRESS.
2. THEORETICAL MODELS OF STRESS.
1. Different types and sources of stress.

Types of Stress:
Introduc on:
Given that stress has been linked as a co-factor in 95% or all disease processes, a keystone of holis c,
alterna ve health and healing is learning how to effec vely manage and reduce stress. Stress
management is a learning process begins with recognizing or iden fying four specific types of stress
affec ng you and how these stressors (that is, what demands a change from you) are showing up or
manifes ng as symptoms in your life. Stress factors broadly fall into four types or categories: physical
stress, psychological stress, psychosocial stress, and psycho-spiritual stress.

Physical stress:
This may include emo onal stress (resentments, fears, frustra on, sadness, anger, grief/bereavement),
cogni ve stress (informa on overload, accelerated sense of me, worry, guilt, shame, jealousy,
resistance, a achments, self-cri cism, self-loathing, unworkable perfec onism, anxiety, panic a acks,
not feeling like yourself, not feeling like things are real, and a sense of being out of control/not being
in control), and perceptual stress (beliefs, roles, stories, a tudes, world view).

Psychosocial stress:
This may include rela onship/marriage difficul es (partner, siblings, children, family, employer, co-
workers, employer), lack of social support, lack of resources for adequate survival, loss of
employment/investments/savings, loss of loved ones, bankruptcy, home foreclosure, and isola on.

Psycho-spiritual stress:
A crisis of values, meaning, and purpose; joyless striving (instead of produc ve, sa sfying, meaningful
and fulfilling work; and a misalignment within one’s core spiritual beliefs.
Overall, improperly or ineffec vely managed stress usually takes a toll on the body. When stress-
related feelings, moods, emo ons are pushed into the body, the soma, this is usually termed
psychosoma c or psychogenic illness, including headaches, heart palpita ons,
physical/cogni ve/emo onal pain and suffering, constricted throat and shallow, constricted breathing,
clammy palms, fa gue, nausea, anxiety, allergies, asthma, autoimmune syndromes related to acute
stress due to an ineffec ve func oning of the immune system, hypertension (high blood pressure),
and gastrointes nal disturbances such as diarrhea, upset stomach, duodenal ulcers and esophageal
reflux syndrome.

Prolonged chronic stress and acute stress can result in suppressed immune func on, increased
suscep bility to infec ous and immune-related diseases and cancer. Emo onal and prolonged stress
can also result in hormonal imbalances (adrenal, pituitary, thyroid, etcetera) that further interfere with
healthy immune func oning.

Sources of stress
Introduc on:
In our everyday life, we have so many things irrespec ve of our choices, such as whether we want
warm food or do not; want our boss' tantrums or do not. Therefore, these can be categorized in the
list of our surviving streak, STRESS is one of them that we need to cope up to live a normal life. Stress
is rela ve of our mind that is needed in every func on to keep the crowd bright, but too much can
lead to destruc on simultaneously. To put this ugly beast in the most convenient words, Hans Selye
explains, "Stress is the nonspecific response of the body to any demand." if we understand the words
of Selye, we can get an idea that it is not a targeted response. Therefore, the amount of its presence,
i.e., the nonspecific response, is all it takes to conclude whether it harms the person or makes the
person stand from its couch and get the work done. Now, to decide whether the stress is hal ng or
encouraging a person, we have to know the sources of stress as it is not a temporary thing, but a part
of life that can be proac ve if we know how to manage it. Managing one's stress ul mately makes
physical and mental health intact and du ful in Human beings.
The Relaxa on and Stress Reduc on Workbook (Davis, Eshelman & McKay, 2008) describes four
primary sources of stress. According to this, it consists of both external and internal pathways, which
specifically depend upon the situa ons and circumstances that people face in their daily life.

Environmental:
In this fast-paced world, where everything is on the doorstep and technology has become our second
language, it will not be a surprise to say that the environment we live in, is full of dirt and
communicable diseases and pollu on. The state of our environment is degrading day by day, which in
turn leads to a life full of hassle, and all these steps lead to the door where we meet stress and other
health related problems, which is a threat for the survival of a person. Climate Crisis is one such
important example that is directly causing stress in the lives of human beings. Even me has turned its
wheels, and con nents like Europe are suffering from heat waves which eventually affect health and
give rise to many life-threatening diseases in humans. The living popula on is growing and dying in
stress simultaneously as me passes by because environmental problems create insane
accommoda on. It decreases our mortality rate and gives birth to specific diseases, eventually leading
to Pandemic or Epidemic. The example of 2020 COVID-19 is one such situa on that affects humans
physically and mentally.

Social:
As human beings, there are several commitments that we have to complete without any obliga ons.
As social beings, interac ng, consuming, learning, and mee ng certain expecta ons are normal for us,
and having a li le stress in it is also beneficial to maintain the push of life. But as we all are part of the
rat race, losing the balance between personal and social life is quite evident, which creates major stress
in living on many levels such as family du es, self-care rou ne, and proper rest. As we learn to navigate
all the things with me, it might be possible we learn how to manage stress and if not, it can lead to
major nasty consequences in one’s life. If we focus on the stress cycle based on social perspec ve, it
always starts with a trigger, then mobiliza on or immobiliza on of the system, which ends in
connec on of protec veness that makes us feel Safe & Social in our environment.

Physiological:
Our body is like a house where lots of cellular organisms live and work; therefore, taking care of it is
our sole responsibility. O en, we do not sleep properly, do not eat healthy food, or never turn to the
gym to maintain our well-being. The fast-paced world dwells upon instant gra fica on, which is good
for short-term happiness, but as me passes, the body undergoes many changes. When changes in
our body happen due to environmental and social changes, stress originates because the system that
lies in our body is not strong enough to adapt to those changes. The consequences of this can be seen
in the form of anxiety, insomnia, high blood pressure, and other mental and physical problems.
Therefore, maintaining your house- like body is crucial to living a low-stress life. If we look at a wider
picture of physiological stressors, which occupy most of our unhealthy lifestyle, we can see its effect
 on the increased heart rate, breathing rate, and tense muscles. In order to reduce it, we can also
priori ze our needs and start prac cing gra tude and journaling. While it looks simple, a wave of
realiza on hits when a person starts doing it, and that will be the turning point of living. So, for minimal
stress, equilibrium is very important within ourselves through these prac ces.

Thoughts:
The most underrated source of stress, yet life-threatening, is one's thought process. Our internal
cogni ve system decides most of our day as healthy thoughts will always lead to a good life. Two
humans with the same life problems and situa ons can have different thought processes to deal with
them. One with an op mis c perspec ve always wins to manage the stress that comes with those
situa ons and problems. Therefore, prac cing medita on and relaxa on helps us to have lively
thought processes which keep the person sane even in the most stressful situa ons.

Conclusion:
Now, the ride of a roller-coaster of stress ended with a verdict that a human being cannot escape
stress, but managing stress is always a good op on for a be er lifestyle. In life, one has to do many
tasks; some lead to success, and others lead to failure, but how we handle and manage - it is up to us.
Therefore, prac cing a healthy lifestyle, becoming environmentally conscious, and keeping a work-life
balance is the key to a long life with li le stress, so the performance should always enhance. As low to
moderate stress develops resilience in human beings, instead of avoiding life stressors completely, one
should become aware of them and try to befriend them. Lastly, simple living is never rewarding
because it never lets a human being grow. Therefore, have some stress with rest and work at your best.

2. Theore cal models of stress.

Introduc on:
To suggest an interven on or treatment for any problem, first of all it is necessary to comprehend the
problem. For instance, if a person has fever, why the person has fever? Is it a mere flu or Malaria or
some other illness? will determine the treatment plan that the person will receive. In the case of stress
as well, we need to understand what kind of stress the individual is undergoing, what are its sources
and so on. Thus, further probing in to what is stress is important. In the previous Unit, we discussed
about stress, its concept and nature. Further, we also focused on the sources and measurement of
stress. In the present Unit we will highlight various models of stress that will help us understand the
concept of stress in much be er manner.

Models Of Stress:

Fight or Flight Response:

Cannon ini ally termed stress as the emergency response and further elaborated that stress had its
source in figh ng emo ons (Nelson and Quick, 2012). Cannon put forth the fight or flight response
with regard to stress. According to Cannon stress is an outcome of an environmental demand that was
external and that led to an imbalance in the natural steady state of an individual. He further stated
that body encompasses natural defence mechanisms that play a role in maintaining the homeostasis

or the natural steady state of an individual. Cannon was also interested in sympathe c nervous system
ac va on in an individual when in stressful situa on.
Thus, when an individual faces a situa on that is threatening, he/ she will either get ready to fight the
threat or may flight or run away from the situa on. The individual will experience certain physiological
changes that gets him/ her ready to fight or flight. These physiological changes include swea ng, dry
mouth, tensed muscles and so on. There is also increase in blood pressure and pulse rate. Besides the
breathing may also become rapid and pupils may widen. Basically, in this moment, the individual’s
body will transfer the energy from body systems that are not required to respond to the situa on to
the body systems that are required to func on in order to respond to the situa on at hand. The
s mula on of sympathe c nervous system and endocrine system takes place. For instance, if a person
suddenly comes across a snake, his/ her response would be either of fight or flight and in this case his/
her body will prepare the person for this situa on. Thus, there is a disequilibrium that disturbs the
homeostasis of the body. Though, once the situa on is over and there are no more challenges or
threats, the body will go back to normal and homeostasis will be restored. The physiological changes
taking place in fight or flight response can be understood with the help of figure 2.1. The flight and
fight response is advantageous as it helps deal instantly with the situa on. In a long run, experiences
of stress in this manner can have nega ve impact on the bodily and affec ve func oning of a person
(Ghosh, 2015).

Fig. 2.1. : Physiological Changes during fight or flight

response.
The fight or flight model has also been at the receiving end of cri cism as individual differences may
exist in the way people respond to threat situa ons. For instance, gender difference may exist in the
blood pressure changes experienced during stress (Sanderson, 2013). Further, women may in fact not
display a fight or flight response but may display ‘tend and befriend’ response that was described by
Taylor as a response to stress, that involves seeking social support during such situa ons (Sanderson,
2013).

General Adapta on Syndrome (GAS):

Stage one:

The first stage is that of ‘alarm reac on’ that is denoted by a decreased resistance to stress. This stage
is similar to that of fight or flight response. During this stage, the autonomic nervous system and
endocrine system are ac vated by the hypothalamus. Further, the epinephrine and norepinephrine
are released by the adrenalin glands. This can be termed as a countershock, where the defence
mechanisms of an individual are ac vated. These defence mechanisms are ac vated as a result of
enlargement of adrenocor cal that leads to discharge of adrenalin and thus leading to increase in
func ons related to respira on and cardiovascular ac vi es. Thus, similar to fight or flight response,
the body is prepared to face the threatening situa on. There is also increase in energy produc on that
is as a result of cor sol produced by adrenal glands. Adrenal glands are s mulated by
Adrenocor cotrophic hormone (ACTH) that is released by the pituitary gland. Similar to fight or flight
response, the individual’s body will transfer the energy from body systems that are not required to
respond to the situa on to the body systems that are required to func on as a response to the
situa on at hand. Thus, func ons related to diges on, immune system and even reproduc ve system
do not receive any energy during this stage.

Stage two:

In the second stage, that is ‘resistance’, the adapta on is maximum and the equilibrium is restored.
During this stage, there is an adapta on on part of the individual and he/ she resists the s muli that
create stress, though resistance to other s muli decreases. During this stage as well, a lot of energy is
required, thus, the nonessen al func ons related to diges on, immune system and even reproduc ve
system do not receive any energy. Thus, the individual con nues experiencing physiological changes
such as increased pulse rate and blood pressure, rapid breathing and so on. These ac vi es are mainly
directed towards restora on of the equilibrium or balance. Though, if the stress is s ll experienced
and the defence mechanisms are inac ve then the individual will experience the third and last stage.
The dura on of this stage will depend on the nature, degree and intensity of the stressor that the
individual is exposed to as well as the condi on of the individual when he/ she is exposed to the
stressor.

Stage three:

The last stage is that of ‘exhaus on’ where there is a collapse of adap ve mechanisms (Cartwright and
Cooper, 1997). Exhaus on occurs as a result of collapse in adapta on mechanisms and due to decrease
in the physiological resources. When an individual experiences stress for a long period of me, the
individual’s physiological resources deplete and this can have a nega ve impact on the physical health
of the individual and the individual may become suscep ble to various illnesses and health related
issues.

Though GAS provides valuable inputs with regard to stress, it does not focus on the psychological or
cogni ve reac ons to stress (Ghosh, 2015). Further, researches carried out later on stress also
indicated contrary results with regard to the release of hormones as stated by Selye. The researches
indicated that the release of certain hormones may differ based on the nature and intensity of the
emo ons experienced by the individual. Thus, the difference may exist in the physiological reac ons
and changes based on the stressor. Further, the dura on of exposure to stressor may also play a role.
In this context, we can also discuss about acute and chronic stress.

Acute stress is for a limited period of me. Example could be an examina on or interview. These may
not have significant effect on the individual as these are met with allosta c response from the body,
meaning there are physiological changes such as increase in blood pressure, release of hormones and
transfer of energy, but as the stressful situa on is over, the body will go to its normal state (Sanderson,
2013). With regard to chronic stress though, the stress will exist for a longer dura on and thus have
detrimental effect on the physiology of the individual experiencing such a stress. Examples of chronic
stress are living in a violent rela onship, con nued stress due to work overload and so on. In such a
case, there is cumula ve stress experienced by the individual and thus equilibrium is maintained by
the body that leads to certain physiological responses that can nega vely affect the immune system,
cardiovascular func oning and will have a nega ve impact on health of the individual (Sanderson,
2013). Refer to figure 2.2 for stages in GAS.

Perveived Alarm
of stress Reac on Resistance Exhaus on

Fig. 2.2: Stages in General Adapta on

Syndrome
Cogni ve Appraisal Model:

This model relates to the perspec ve put forth by Lazarus and his colleagues. Lazarus believed that
stress occurs as a result of an interac on between the individual and the environment. He also focused
on the cogni ve appraisal that is carried out by an individual while determining whether a situa on/
event is stressful or not. He further stated that individual differences exist in the way in which the
cogni ve appraisal is carried out. The term cogni on denotes various mental processes like thinking,
reasoning and deciding besides a en on, percep on, memory, problem solving and crea vity (Ghosh,
2015, pg. 113). The cogni ve appraisal model states that as the individual faces a stressful situa on,
they carry out appraisal of the situa on in terms of primary appraisal and secondary appraisal. Primary
appraisal is done on the basis of the nega ve effect of the stress on the physical and psychological
aspects of the individual. And secondary appraisal is done on the basis of whether the Models of Stress
individual possesses adequate resources to deal with the stressful situa on and avoid its detrimental
effects. Thus, as proposed by this model, the reac on of an individual, whether physiological,
psychological, affec ve or behavioural will depend on both primary and secondary appraisals. figure
2.3 explains the cogni ve appraisal model.

Fig. 2.3: The Cogni ve Appraisal Model

As can be seen in figure 2.3, as an individual faces a stressor, a primary appraisal is carried out in which
whether the stress is a threat or danger or not is determined. If the stressor is found to be dangerous
then secondary appraisal is carried out in which the resources of the individual are analysed on the
basis of whether they are sufficient or insufficient to deal with the stress. If the resources are
insufficient, stress is experienced which is then followed by coping and then there is reappraisal of the
stressor.

Person- Environment Fit Model (P-E Fit):

This model was proposed by French, Harrison and Caplan in 1982 (Ghosh, 2015). The main assump on
of this model is that individual differences exist with regard to needs and abili es and stress is created
when there is a misfit between the demands that an individual is exposed to and the resources that
he/ she possesses. An employee who is well prepared for one of the important presenta ons in his/
her organisa on will look at this as an opportunity and not threat and thus will not experience any
significant stress. But if the demands of the environment are high and the employee feels that he/ she
does not possess adequate resources or ability to carry out the presenta on, then he/ she will
experience stress.

Psychodynamic Theory:

The psychodynamic theory also explains stress. Freud described signal anxiety and trauma c anxiety.
Signal anxiety can be said to occur when an external and objec ve danger that is consistent with
rela onship between stressor and strain is present and trauma c anxiety is anxiety that occurs within
an individual and is related to the repressed sexual drives and ins ncts that are aggressive within the
individual (Ghosh, 2015). Trauma c anxiety can lead to development of psychopathology. And though
the anxiety may undergo a process where the ideas that are conflic ng are converted to ideas that
pose no harm, the energy emerging from the conflict may lead to strain in terms of physical symptoms
experienced by the individual.

Further, we can also discuss about the explana on of stress given by Levinson that is based on the
psychoanaly c theory by Freud. According to Levinson, two main elements of personality, namely, ego
ideal and selfimage interact with each other and lead to stress. Ego ideal can be described as
expression of an individual’s perfect self, whereas self-image is the way an individual perceives himself/
herself (nega vely or posi vely). Stress, thus, is an outcome of the gap between the ego ideal and self-
image. Thus, this approach mainly focuses on how stress can result due to the unconscious personality
factors in an individual.

Gene c Cons tu onal Theory:

The main focus of this theory is on how stress is resisted and coped with the help of genotype and
phenotype. To understand the terms genotype and phenotype, genotype denotes the gene c
cons tu on of individual and phenotype is the physiological characteris cs of the individual (Ghosh,
2015).

Diathesis- Stress Model:

The gene c cons tu onal theory mainly focuses on how gene c predisposi on can make an individual
prone to stress. The diathesis- stress model, on the other hand, focuses on the role of both gene cs
and environment in determining whether the individual will experience stress or not. This theory also
proposes that heredity and environment go hand in hand and compliment each other in determining
stress. For instance, an individual may experience breathing problem when he/ she is exposed to
prolonged high levels of stress. But in absence of any stress he/ she may not experience any breathing
problem, despite of the breathing problem being gene c in nature.

Check Progress:
1) Explain Gene c Cons tu onal Theory.

The main focus of this theory is on how stress is resisted and coped with the help of genotype
and phenotype. The theory states that how an individual resists stress will depend on his/ her
gene c predisposi on.
2) Complete the figure of physiological changes during fight or flight response.