Engineering Physics (FIC 102)

UNIT-III
 UNIT I – CLASSICAL PHYSICS
CONTENT UNIT II – OPTICS

UNIT III – MODERN PHYSICS

UNIT IV – ELECTROMAGNETISM I

UNIT V – ELECTROMAGNETISM II
 LECTURE-
01

Black Body Radiation

 NATURE OF LIGHT
1801 1873 1887

• Thomas • James C. • Heinrich

Young. Maxwell. Hertz.
• Wave Nature •Maxwell’s •Experimental
Equation.
of Light is •Light as an proof of Light
demonstrated. EM Wave is as an EM
proposed.
Wave.

By the end of nineteenth century wave nature of light was firmly established!
However, This certainty lasted only a decade or so!
 BLACKBODY
• Initial theoretical complication came from attempts
to explain the origin of the radiation emitted by
bodies of matter.
• We are all familiar with the glow of a hot piece of
metal, which gives off visible light whose color varies
with the temperature of the metal, going from red to
yellow to white as it becomes hotter and hotter.
• The ability of a body to radiate is closely related to
its ability to absorb radiation.
• It is convenient to consider as an ideal body one that
absorbs all radiation incident upon it, regardless of
frequency.
• Such a body is called a blackbody.
 REVISITING EM WAVE SPECTRA

Visible light – Wave length (380 to 740 nm)/Frequency range (430–770 THz)
 BLACKBODY
• A blackbody can be approximated by a
hollow object with a very small hole
leading to its interior.
• Any radiation striking the hole enters the
cavity, where it is trapped by reflection
back and forth until it is absorbed.
• The cavity walls are constantly emitting
and absorbing radiation.
• It is in the properties of this radiation
(blackbody radiation) that we are going
to study here.
 BLACKBODY
SPECTRA
➢Experimentally we can study
blackbody radiation simply by
inspecting what emerges from the hole
in the cavity.
➢The spectral distribution of energy in
the radiation depends only on the
temperature of the body.
➢The higher the temperature, the greater
the amount of radiation and the higher
the frequency at which the maximum
emission occurs.
 BLACKBODY SPECTRA
Classical Prediction
• The was examined at the end of the
nineteenth century by Lord
Rayleigh and James Jeans.
• They started by considering the
radiation inside a cavity of absolute
temperature T whose walls are
perfect reflectors.
• So, Electromagnetic Waves inside
the cavity can form a series of
standing waves after many
reflections.
• This is a three-dimensional
generalization of standing waves in
a stretched string.
 Rayleigh-Jeans formula
• These standing waves that have nodes at
the walls, which restricts their possible
wavelengths.
• Lord Rayleigh and Sir Jeans used these
properties of the 3D standing waves to
calculate the number of independent
standing waves 𝐺(𝜈)𝑑𝜈 in the frequency
interval between 𝜈 and 𝑑𝜈 per unit volume
in the cavity:
8𝜋ν2 𝑑ν
G 𝜈 𝑑𝜈 =
𝑐3
 Rayleigh-Jeans formula
• Using the theorem of equipartition of energy
and assuming that the cavity is filled with
monatomic ideal gas they have estimated
the energy per standing wave
𝜖𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
𝐵𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑧𝑚𝑎𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. ⇒ 𝑘𝐵 = 1.381 × 10−23 𝐽/𝐾

• So, the total energy u(𝜈)𝑑𝜈 in the frequency

interval between 𝜈 and 𝑑𝜈 per unit volume
in the cavity
8𝜋ν2 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 𝑑ν
u 𝜈 𝑑𝜈 = 𝜖𝑎𝑣𝑔 ∙ G 𝜈 𝑑𝜈 =
𝑐3 Rayleigh-Jeans formula
 UV Catastrophe
• Rayleigh-Jeans formula of classical
radiation:
8𝜋ν2 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 𝑑ν
u 𝜈 𝑑𝜈 =
𝑐3
• However, a quick look at the prescribed
theory and experimental data suggests
some serious discrepancy among them!
As per theory as ν → ∞ ⇒ u 𝜈 𝑑𝜈 → ∞.
Experimentally, as ν → ∞ ⇒ u 𝜈 𝑑𝜈 → 0‼
• This discrepancy is formally called
Ultraviolet Catastrophe of Classical Physics.
• Where did Rayleigh and Jeans go wrong?
BLACKBODY SPECTRA
Quantum Reality
• In 1900 the German physicist Max
Planck produced his brilliant solution:
Planck Radiation Formula
8𝜋ℎ ν3 𝑑ν
⇒ u 𝜈 𝑑𝜈 = 3 ∙ ℎν
𝑐 𝑒 ൗ𝑘𝑇 − 1
• Here h is the Planck Constant
h = 6.626 × 10−34 𝐽 ∙ 𝑠
 Planck Radiation Formula
8𝜋ℎ ν3 𝑑ν
u 𝜈 𝑑𝜈 = 3 ∙ ℎν
𝑐 𝑒 ൗ𝑘𝑇 − 1
ℎνൗ
• 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 ℎν ≫ 𝑘𝑇 ⇒ 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 →∞
• ⇒ u 𝜈 𝑑𝜈 → 0.
• No Ultraviolet Catastrophe!
ℎνൗ ℎν
• 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 ℎν ≪ 𝑘𝑇 ⇒ 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 → 1+
𝑘𝑇
• ⇒ u 𝜈 𝑑𝜈 → 𝑅𝑎𝑦𝑙𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ − 𝐽𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎.
• So, Planck developed a complete
theoretical framework.
 Concept of Quanta
8𝜋ℎ ν3 𝑑ν • Possible energies of the oscillators, 𝜖𝑛
u 𝜈 𝑑𝜈 = 3 ∙ ℎν must have only the specific energies
𝑐 𝑒 ൗ𝑘𝑇 − 1
𝜖𝑛 = 𝑛ℎν
• Planck arrived at his formula assuming
average energy per standing wave: • An oscillator emits radiation of frequency
ν ν, when it drops from one energy state to
𝜖𝑎𝑣𝑔 = ℎν the next lower one,
𝑒 ൗ𝑘𝑇 − 1
• To have this type of average energy • and it jumps to the next higher state
distribution Planck realised that the when it absorbs radiation of frequency ν.
oscillators in the cavity walls could not • Each discrete bundle of energy h𝝂 is
have a continuous distribution of called a quantum (plural quanta) from
possible energies! the Latin for “how much.”
Fascinating and mysterious world of
Quantum Physics opened in front of humanity!
 Wien’s
Displacement Law
• Remember Blackbody
radiation:
✓The higher the temperature,
the greater the amount of
radiation and higher the
frequency at which the
maximum emission occurs.
𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑦 (ν)
∝ 1ൗ𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ λ
• And we find the Wien’s Law:
𝑏
λ𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 =
𝑇
b = 2.897 x 10-3 m.K
❑The wavelength of maximum solar emission is observed to be approximately
0.475 μm. What is the surface temperature of the sun (assumed as a
blackbody)?

❑The plots of intensity versus wavelength for three black bodies at

temperatures T1, T2 and T3, respectively are as shown in figure.
Their temperatures are such that,
a) T1 > T2 > T3
b) T1 > T3 > T2
c) T2 > T3 > T1
d) T3 > T2 > T1
INTERACTIVE PRESENTATION
 POLL QUESTIONS
Using Classical Physics and assuming that an ideal
black body is filled with ideal monatomic gas
molecules, calculate the average energy of a
standing wave when the temperature of the
blackbody is 600°C
A. 𝜀𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 300 ∙ 𝑘𝐵
B. 𝜀𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 600 ∙ 𝑘𝐵
C. 𝜀𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 573 ∙ 𝑘𝐵
D. 𝜀𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 873 ∙ 𝑘𝐵
 POLL QUESTIONS

Calculate the value of associated energy quanta of

an atomic oscillator that emits and absorbs orange
light whose frequency is 5.00 x 1014 Hz.

A. 𝜀 = 1.45 × 10−18 𝐽

B. 𝜀 = 2.62 × 10−19 𝐽

C. 𝜀 = 3.32 × 10−19 𝐽

D. 𝜀 = 4.04 × 10−19 𝐽
 LECTURE-02

Photo Electric Effect

and concept of Photon
 Photo-electric
Effect
• In the early twentieth century, it
has been repeatedly observed that
electrons were emitted from a
metal surface kept in a vacuum/low
pressure when the frequency of the
light was sufficiently high!

• This phenomenon is known as

the photoelectric effect and the
emitted electrons are called
photoelectrons.
 Experimental Set-up
✓ An evacuated tube contains two electrodes connected
to a source of variable voltage, with the metal plate
whose surface is irradiated as the anode.
✓ Some of the photoelectrons that emerge from this
surface have enough energy to reach the cathode -
which create the Photo-current.
✓ The slower photoelectrons are repelled before they get
to the cathode.
✓ When the voltage is increased to a certain value V0, of
the order of several volts, no more photoelectrons arrive
and the phot-current drops to zero.
✓ This extinction voltage is called the Stopping Potential
and it corresponds to the maximum kinetic energy of
the photoelectrons.
 Classical Attempt
• The existence of the photoelectric
effect was not surprising.

• After all, light waves carry energy,

and some of the energy absorbed by
the metal may somehow concentrate
on individual electrons and reappear
as their kinetic energy.

• Something like water waves

dislodging pebbles from a beach.
 However, following
observations can’t be
Critical Observations explained by the classical
wave interpretation.
• Why there is no delay?
• Why higher light intensity
does not change photo-
electron energy?
• Why there is a threshold
frequency above which only
photo-electron emission
starts?
• Why higher the frequency of
the light, more energy of the
photoelectrons?
 Quantum Theory of Light
• In early 20th century, Albert Einstein realized that the
photoelectric effect could be understood if the energy
in light is not spread out over wavefronts but is
concentrated in small packets, or photons.

• Each photon of light of frequency 𝝂 has the energy h𝝂,

the same as Planck’s quantum energy.

𝒉𝒄
𝑬 = 𝒉𝝂 =
𝝀
• Einstein received Noble Prize in Physics in 1905 for
this pathbreaking discovery.
 Three experimental observations listed
above follow directly from Einstein’s
Quantum Theory of hypothesis.
Light (1) Because EM wave energy is
concentrated in photons and not
spread out over wave-fronts, there
should be no delay in the emission of
photoelectrons.
(2) All photons of frequency 𝝂 has same
energy, so changing the intensity of a
monochromatic light beam will change
the number of photoelectrons but not
their energies.
(3) The higher the frequency 𝝂, the greater
the photon energy h𝝂 and more energy
for the photoelectrons.
 Work Function
➢ Photo-electrons need to overcome a
critical energy Φ to come out of the
metal surface.
➢ Otherwise, electrons will always
come out of a metal surface
destabilizing it’s crystalline order!
➢ This critical energy (Φ) is called the
Work Function of the metal.
1eV = 1.602 x 10-19 Joules ➢ Work Function Φ = hν0, where ν0 is
the threshold frequency above which
Greater the Φ, more energy is required
photo-electron emission starts.
for PE Effect, higher is the ν0.
Work Function and Photoelectron Energy

𝑃ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦

𝐴𝑐𝑐. 𝑡𝑜 𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙
⇒ 𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎν − 𝛷 ⇒ ℎν − ℎν0
⇒ 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 ℎν = 𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝛷
⇒ 𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ(ν − ν0 )
INTERACTIVE PRESENTATION
 Solution:
Using the values of POLL QUESTIONS
1. electron-volt (eV),
2. Planck const h and Calculate energy of a 700nm photon
3. Velocity of light in free space (c) ;
A. 1.35eV 𝒉𝒄
we can re-write energy equation: 𝐻𝐼𝑁𝑇: 𝑬 = 𝒉𝝂 =
𝝀
𝟏𝟐𝟒𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝒆𝑽. 𝒎 B. 1.77𝑒𝑉 1eV = 1.602 x 10-19 Joules
𝑬=
𝝀
C. 1.89eV
𝑬= 4.136 × 10−15 ∙ ν 𝑒𝑉 ∙ 𝑠
Use these formulae to rapidly D. 1.97eV
convert frequency, wavelength and
energy in eV.
 POLL QUESTIONS
Calculate the critical wavelength (λ0) for photo-
electron emission for Sodium metal surface
(Work Function = 2.3eV)
𝒉𝒄
A. λ0 = 360 nm 𝐻𝐼𝑁𝑇: Φ = hν0 ≡
λ0
B. λ0 = 470 nm 1eV = 1.602 x 10-19 Joules
C. λ0 = 540 nm

D. λ0 = 720 nm
 POLL QUESTIONS
Calculate maximum kinetic energy of the emitted
photo-electrons from Li (Φ = 2.5eV) if bluish-violet
light of 350nm is used for photo-current generation.

A. KEmax ≈ 0.5 eV

B. KEmax ≈ 0.8 eV

C. KEmax ≈ 1.0 eV

D. KEmax ≈ 1.3 eV

𝑯𝑰𝑵𝑻: 𝑭𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝑷𝒉𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒏 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒊𝒏 𝒆𝑽