CIE Biology GCSE

6: Plant Nutrition
Notes

(Content in ​bold​ is for Extended students only)

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 Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis ​is a metabolic reaction occurring in plants in which​ light energy ​converts raw
materials into ​carbohydrates​ such as glucose, ​which can be stored in cells and used as an
energy source via respiration.

Photosynthesis occurs in the ​chloroplasts​ of plant cells. Chloroplasts contain​ chlorophyll​ that
transfers light energy into chemical energy​ ​to make carbohydrates.

Equations for photosynthesis:

carbon dioxide + water → glucose + oxygen

Factors affecting rate of photosynthesis:

The rate of photosynthesis is limited by the​ limiting factor​. This is the​ factor which is least
available​ to the plant. For example, at night, light intensity is very low hence the rate of
photosynthesis is also very low, regardless of the carbon dioxide concentration and
temperature.

● Carbon dioxide concentration​ ​- as CO2 concentration increases, rate of photosynthesis

also increases.

● Temperature​ ​- photosynthesis requires enzymes to carry out the reaction. As these

enzymes have an optimum temperature, photosynthesis also has an optimum
temperature. This is usually about 25°C.​ At low temperatures, for example in the
winter, plants photosynthesize slowly as the enzymes have little kinetic energy, thus
few enzyme-substrate complexes are made. At very high temperatures, these
enzymes denature, also slowing the rate of photosynthesis.

● Light intensity​ ​- As the light intensity increases, rate of photosynthesis increases. ​A high
light intensity can sometimes lead to the plant heating up above the optimum
temperature. This means that temperature would become the limiting factor and the
rate of photosynthesis would not be increased by a further increase in light intensity.

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Knowledge of limiting factors is useful for farmers as they can reduce the limitation on the
rate of photosynthesis due to these factors. This will mean that the plants have more energy
to use for growth, thus the ​yield is higher and growth time is shorter​. Farmers can reduce the
effects of these limiting factors by placing plants in a ​greenhouse​. Greenhouses​ trap heat​,
thus the plants are always kept at their optimum temperature. In addition,​ artificial lighting
can be used so that the plant can photosynthesize during the night as well, and carbon
dioxide can be pumped into the greenhouse.

Leaf structure:
Plant leaves must be ​adapted​ to allow photosynthesis to occur. This means limiting water loss,
absorbing as much light energy as possible and allowing for efficient gas exchange.

● Chloroplasts​ ​- This is where photosynthesis occurs. Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll

which allows light energy to be absorbed and converted to chemical energy.

● Cuticle​ ​- The cuticle is a clear waxy layer that surrounds the leaf. ​This provides
waterproofing and reduces water loss from the leaf without reducing light absorption.

● Guard cells and stomata​ ​- Stomata are located on the lower side of the leaf and allow
carbon dioxide in by diffusion, and water vapour and oxygen out of the leaf by diffusion.
Guard cells surround the stomata and can control the opening and closing of the
stomata to limit water loss from the plant; ​when there is a limited water supply, the
guard cells cause the stomata to close to prevent water loss.​ ​This, however, also
reduces the diffusion of carbon dioxide through the stomata for use in photosynthesis,
so can cause carbon dioxide to become the limiting factor and reduce the rate of
photosynthesis. Plants in hot places often have fewer stomata to reduce water loss.
Some plants, for example cacti, only open their stomata at night.

● Upper and lower epidermis​ ​- the epidermis acts as a protective barrier around the leaf
to prevent pathogens entering and causing harm to the organism. ​Epidermis cells are
transparent to let light pass through and do not contain chloroplasts.

● Palisade mesophyll ​- these cells are positioned near the top of the leaf where most
sunlight hits, ​thus palisade cells are adapted to absorb light energy efficiently.​ ​The
palisade layer cells contain many chloroplasts to carry out photosynthesis. There are
also gaps between the cells to allow for efficient gas exchange and osmosis to occur.
CO2 and water move into the cells to be used in the photosynthesis reaction.

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 ● Spongy mesophyll ​- This is the lower layer of the leaf. ​Cells are loosely spaced and have
a large surface area to allow rapid diffusion of CO2, water and oxygen when the
stomata are open.

● Vascular bundles​ ​- vascular bundles form the plant’s transport system. They consist of
the xylem and the phloem, as well as other cells around them which provide support.

● Xylem​ ​- the xylem is used to transport water through plants from the roots in
transpiration. The xylem is made from hollowed-out dead cells that have the ends
removed to make a tube for water to pass through. ​They have a thick cell wall to
provide structural strength and are thin to allow capillary action.

● Phloem​ ​- the phloem is made of living cells and is used to ​transport sugars and food
nutrients in translocation. The cells of the phloem are adapted by having no nucleus.

Minerals in plants:
Minerals are taken up actively by root hair cells and have a variety of important roles in the
plant.

● Nitrate ions​ ​- nitrate ions are used in the plant to build ​amino acids​, and thus proteins
and enzymes. ​Without nitrate ions, the plant would not be able to grow or repair
itself.

● Magnesium ions​ ​- magnesium ions are used to make ​chlorophyll​; ​thus, a lack of
magnesium ions will lead to a lack of chlorophyll, meaning that photosynthesis cannot
occur. This means that sugars cannot be formed through photosynthesis, therefore
the plant will not have a sufficient enough energy source to grow and repair itself.

The lack of either of these ions leads to ​yellow leaves and poor growth​, eventually leading to
the plant’s death.

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 Edexcel Biology GCSE

Topic 6: Plant Structures and Their

Functions
Notes
(Content in ​bold​ is for higher tier only)

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CONTENTS

6.1, 6.2, 6,3 - Photosynthesis

6.4 - **Higher Only** Interaction of Limiting Factors in Photosynthesis
6.5 - Core Practical: Light Intensity and Rate of Photosynthesis
6.6 - ​**Higher Only** Inverse Square Law: Rate of Photosynthesis
6.7 and 6.8 - Structure Adaptations
6.9 - Transpiration and the Stomata
6.10 - Translocation
6.11B - **Biology Only** Adaptations of the Leaf
6.12 - Environmental Factors and Rate of Water Uptake
6.13 - Rate Calculations for Transpiration
6.14B - **Biology Only** Extreme Adaptations
6.15B - **Biology Only** Plant Hormones and Growth
6.16B - **Higher and Biology Only**​ ​Commercial Uses of Plant Hormones

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 6.1, 6.2, 6,3 - Photosynthesis

Plants and algae are the main ​producers​ of food, which they synthesise from sunlight in a
process called ​photosynthesis​. They are also therefore the primary producers of ​biomass
in all food webs and food chains.

- Photosynthesis occurs in ​plants​ and ​algae​.

- It is an ​endothermic​ ​reaction​, meaning that it takes in more energy than it releases.
- Light energy from the environment is transferred to ​chloroplasts​ in leaves.

The equation for photosynthesis is:

light
carbon dioxide + water → glucose + oxygen

Each compound has its own ​chemical symbol​:

Carbon dioxide: ​CO​2
Water: ​H2​​ O
Oxygen: ​O​2
Glucose: ​C​6​H​12​O​6

The rate of the process is affected by a number of factors.

Factor Effect

Temperature With an increase in temperature, the rate of

photosynthesis increases. As the reaction is
controlled by ​enzymes​, this trend continues
up to a certain temperature until the
enzymes begin to ​denature​ and the rate of
reaction decreases.

Light Intensity For most plants, the higher the light

intensity, ​the faster the rate of the
reaction.

Carbon dioxide concentration Carbon dioxide is also needed to make

glucose (see equation). As the
concentration of carbon dioxide increases,
the rate of reaction increases​.

Any of the factors above may become a ​limiting factor​. This is an environmental condition
(such as light intensity) which, in low levels, restricts any increase in the rate of
photosynthesis. Despite increases in other factors (such as temperature or carbon dioxide

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concentration), the rate of photosynthesis will not increase any more. This can be seen on a
graph as the curve levelling off.

6.4 **Higher Only** - Interaction of Limiting Factors in

Photosynthesis

By carrying out an experiment measuring​ ​the ​oxygen production ​of a plant, you can
calculate the rate of photosynthesis.
● Pondweed is placed in a test tube full with water. The top is sealed with a bung.
A ​capillary tube​ also containing water leads into the test tube, and it is
attached to a syringe.
● A lamp is placed at a measured distance from the test tube.
● As it photosynthesises, oxygen is produced, forming a gas tube in the capillary
tube
● The distance the bubble has moved is measured using a ruler to calculate the
volume of oxygen produced.
● Many variables can be changed to observe their effect on photosynthesis: the
temperature (using a ​water bath​), time the pondweed is left, the light intensity
(varied by the distance the lamp is from the plant).
● It is important to control all factors that may affect photosynthesis except your
independent variable​ (the one you want to observe), so it is a valid experiment.

Any of the factors above may become a ​limiting factor​. This is an environmental
condition (such as light intensity) which, in low levels, restricts any increase in the
rate of photosynthesis. Despite increases in other factors (such as temperature or
carbon dioxide concentration), the rate of photosynthesis will not increase any more.
This can be seen on a graph as the curve levelling off.
● A graph involves one limiting factor if it has one line which levels off, with the
factor on the horizontal axis and rate of photosynthesis on the vertical axis.

● A graph with two lines represents two limiting factors in two experiments. The
investigation involves increasing the factor on the horizontal axis, and is
carried out at two different other environmental conditions, such as two
different temperatures.

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Light intensity is measured in lux and in this graph we can see that the limiting factor
is light intensity. This is because the 50 lux levels limits the rate of photosynthesis
compared to the 100 lux experiment, showing that at 50 lux light intensity was the
limiting factor - it had the potential to increase the rate of photosynthesis further if it
were increased.

● A graph involves three limiting factors is similar to the one above, but another
factor is stated on each line, which is the same in each

The limiting factor is temperature as light intensity is the same in each and
carbon dioxide is increasing.

Farmers can use the knowledge of limiting factors to enhance the conditions in the
greenhouse for a greater rate of photosynthesis. This will increase growth leading to
increased profits.

6.5 - Core Practical: Light Intensity and Rate of Photosynthesis

We can set up a simple experiment to measure the rate of photosynthesis in a plant:

We will need a ​sealed 100ml flask​ filled with ​water at room temperature​, a ​gas syringe​, a
small amount of ​pondweed​, a small ​lamp​ and a ​1m ruler​.

1. Use the ruler to place the flask and pondweed 15cm from the lamp.
2. Leave the apparatus for around 10 minutes to allow the pondweed to adjust.
3. Connect the gas syringe to the flask and record the change in volume on the syringe
after 5 minutes.
4. Move the lamp 10cm further away and measure the volume change again. Repeat.

Plot your results on a ​graph of distance from lamp on the x-axis​, and ​change in gas
volume on the y-axis​.

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 6.6 **Higher Only** - Inverse Square Law: Rate of Photosynthesis

As mentioned above, light intensity is directly proportional to the rate of

photosynthesis. This is because the greater the intensity of light, ​the more photons
(light energy) hit the chloroplasts in the leaf​, and the ​more photosynthesis can occur
at once​.

It makes sense, then, that the opposite pattern can be seen between the rate of
photosynthesis and the distance from the light source: ​inverse proportion​ describes a
relationship between two factors which involves one increasing whilst one
decreasing. As the distance between the light source and the plant increases, the
light intensity decreases. The light intensity is inversely proportional to the square of
the distance- called the ​inverse square law​.

Light intensity ​∝​1/distance​ 2

This means that if a lamp is 2 metres away from a plant, then then light intensity of the
lamp is a ¼ of its original value.
1/2​2 ​= ¼

6.7 and 6.8 - Structure Adaptations

Several cells in plants are adapted to perform specific functions:

Root hair cells: ​specialised to take up water by osmosis and mineral ions by active
transport from the soil as they are found in the tips of roots
● Have a large surface area due to root hairs, meaning more water can move in
● The large permanent vacuole affects the speed of movement of water from
the soil to the cell
● Mitochondria to provide energy from respiration for the active transport of
mineral ions into the root hair cell

Xylem cells: ​specialised to transport water and mineral ions up the plant from the roots
to the shoots
● Upon formation, a chemical called lignin is deposited which causes the cells
to die. We say that these dead cells have become ​lignified​. They become
hollow and are joined end-to-end to form a continuous tube so water and
mineral ions can move through.
● Lignin is deposited in spirals which helps the cells withstand the pressure
from the movement of water

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Phloem cells: ​specialised to carry the products of photosynthesis (food) to all parts of
the plants
● Cell walls of each cell form structures called sieve plates when they break
down, allowing the movement of substances from cell to cell
● Unlike xylem, these cells within phloem are ​alive
● Despite losing many sub-cellular structures, the energy these cells need to be
alive is supplied by the mitochondria of the companion cells.
● These cells use this ​energy ​to transport ​sucrose​ (the sugar that plants use)
around the plant

6.9 - Transpiration and the Stomata

Transpiration ​is the loss of water of water vapour from the leaves and stems of the plant. It
is a consequence of ​gaseous exchange​, as the stomata are open so that this can occur.
● Water also evaporates at the open ​stomata ​(pores) on the leaf surfaces
● As water molecules are attracted to each other, when some molecules leave the
plant the rest are pulled up through the xylem
● This results in more water being taken up from the soil resulting in a continuous
transpiration stream​ through the plant

Guard cells ​close and open stomata.

● They are kidney shaped
● They have thin outer walls and thick inner walls
● When lots of water is available to the plant, the cells fill and change shape, opening
stomata (they are also light sensitive)
● This allows gases to be exchanged and more water to leave the plant via evaporation
● More stomata are found on the bottom of the leaf, allowing gases to be exchanged
whilst minimising water loss by evaporation as the lower surface is shaded and
cooler.

6.10 - Translocation

Translocation​ is the movement of food substances (such as sucrose) made in the leaves
up or down the phloem, for use immediately or storage.

● Translocation ​only​ occurs in the phloem, not the xylem or any other tissues in the
plant.
● Translocation of sucrose occurs from the ​sources​ (the places where it is made) to
the ​sinks​ (the places where it used or stored)
● The location of the sources and sinks can ​depend on the season​. For example, in
spring the ​source could be located in the root​, and the ​sink in the leaf​ - and in
summer this could be the other way around.

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 6.11B **Biology Only** -​ ​Adaptations of the Leaf

Leaves have several adaptations to allow them to perform specific functions:

Stomata​: See above. They are able to close to minimise water loss and open to increase
evaporation and transpiration. Stomata also allow gas exchange to occur when they are
open.
Chlorophyll: ​Chlorophyll is green, which is the most efficient colour for absorbing light. This
means that the most light possible is absorbed.
Thinness: ​Leaves are very thin, meaning that carbon dioxide only has a short distance to
travel to enter the leaf (and work in photosynthesis) and oxygen only has a short distance to
diffuse out.
Large surface area: ​Having a large surface area means that the leaf can absorb more light
at once, maximising the rate of photosynthesis

6.12 - Environmental Factors and Rate of Water Uptake

The factors that affect the rate of water uptake and transpiration are very similar to those that
affect the rate of evaporation:

Factor Effect

Increase in temperature The molecules move faster, resulting in ​evaporation

happening at a faster rate and therefore the rate of
transpiration increases.
The rate of photosynthesis increases, meaning more stomata
are open for gaseous exchange, so more water evaporates
and the rate of transpiration increases.

Increase in relative If the ​relative humidity​ is high, then there will be a reduced
humidity (the measure of concentration gradient ​between the concentrations of water
the concentration of water vapour inside and outside the leaf, resulting in a slower rate
vapour in the air in of diffusion. This will decrease the rate of transpiration.
comparison to the total
concentration of water
that air can hold)

Increased air movement If more air is moving away from the leaf due to it being blown
(wind) away, then the concentration of water vapour surrounding the
leaf will be lower. This will mean there will be a steeper
concentration gradient resulting in diffusion happening faster.
This will increase the rate of transpiration.

Increase in light intensity This leads to an increased rate of photosynthesis, so more

stomata open to allow gaseous exchange to occur. This
means more water can evaporate, leading to an increased

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 rate of transpiration.

6.13 - Rate Calculations for Transpiration

Measuring the uptake of water by the plant gives an indication to the rate of transpiration,
because water is only taken up if water leaves the plant. This is observed by using a
potometer​, which involves placing a plant in a capillary tube in water, and measuring the
distance travelled by a bubble.

We can place a leaf shoot in one end of the potometer, and use a ruler to measure how far
the bubble travels up the capillary tube in a set time (e.g 1 minute). The further the bubble
moves in this time, the greater the rate of transpiration and thus the greater the rate of water
uptake.

6.14B **Biology Only** -​ ​Extreme Adaptations

Many plants are adapted to survive in extreme environments. To do so, they need to have
specific adaptations which maximise their ability to take in sunlight and carbon dioxide:

Leaf shape and size - ​many desert plants do not have leaves, or have very small leaves.
This reduces the amount of water lost as a result of transpiration.

Presence of a waxy cuticle - ​many leaves have a waxy ​cuticle ​on top, preventing
evaporation of water in environments where water is scarce.

Stomata - ​stomata are ​small pores on the surface of a leaf​. They can be ​closed​ to
prevent ​evaporation​ of water in extreme environments, and ​opened​ when carbon dioxide is
needed for photosynthesis. This is useful, as it means that the plant can ​adapt​ when water
is scarce.

6.15B **Biology Only** -​ ​Plant Hormones and Growth

Plants need hormones to coordinate and control growth. They are needed for tropisms.
Examples of these include ​phototropism​, the response to light, and ​gravitropism​ or
geotropism​, the response to gravity. Hormones move from the place they are made to
where they are needed in order to produce the appropriate response.

Auxins
Most plants show ​positive phototropism​ because they grow towards the light source.
● The plant is exposed to light on one side.
● Auxin​, a growth hormone, moves to the shaded side of the shoot.

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 ● Auxin stimulates cells to grow more here.
● This means the shoot bends towards the light.
● The plant receives more light, meaning photosynthesis can occur at a faster rate.

Most shoots show ​negative gravitropism​ as they grow away from gravity. If a shoot is
horizontal:
● Auxin moves to the lower side.
● The cells of the shoot grow more on the side with most auxin, so it stimulates cells to
grow more here.
● This makes the shoot bend and grow away from the ground.
● This is beneficial as light levels are likely to be higher further away from the ground.

Most roots show ​positive gravitropism​ as they grow towards gravity. If a root is horizontal:
● Auxin moves to the lower side.
● The cells of the root grow more on the side with less auxin, so it stimulates cells to
grow on the upper side.
● This makes the root bend and grow downwards.
● This is beneficial as there are more likely to be increased levels of water and
nutrients lower down, and it provides stability for the plant.

When the auxin distribution becomes equal on both sides it grows straight in that directions.

You can investigate the effect of light or gravity on ​newly germinated ​seedlings by varying
conditions.
● Placing in cardboard box and shining light from one side
● Attaching a ​petri dish​ containing the seedlings to a wall (effects of gravity)

6.16B **Higher and Biology Only** -​ ​Commercial Uses of Plant

Hormones

Humans can use plant hormones to alter plant growth. They are used in areas such as
agriculture and horticulture for many reasons: to increase yield, obtain desirable
features and to lower costs.

Auxin
1. As ​weed killers
● Many weeds are ​broad-leaved
● Weedkillers, containing auxin, have been synthesised so they only
affect broad-leaved plants
● The increased amount of auxin causes the cells to grow too rapidly
● This results in the weed dying
2. As​ rooting powders
● Plants with desirable features are cloned to make more plants with the
same feature

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 ● One way to clone a plant is to take ​a cutting ​from the original plant
● Rooting powder containing auxin is applied to it and it is placed in the
ground
● Roots grow and the new plant begins to grow very quickly

3. To promote growth in ​tissue culture

● Another way to clone a plant is to use tissue culture
● Cells from the plant are taken are placed in a ​growth medium​ containing
lots of nutrients
● Hormones such as auxins are added
● The cells begin to form roots and shoots

Gibberellins are used in germination, for fruit and flower:

● Gibberellins allow seed germination to occur by ​breaking seed
dormancy​ (the period before germination)
● They allow fruits to grow heavier and larger, ​increasing yields​.
● They encourage flowering plants to flower at a ​faster rate.

As ethene controls ripening, it is used in the food industry.

● Fruit is picked when it is ​not ripe
● It is firm which means that during transport it gets l​ess bruised and damaged
● When it is needed to be sold, it is exposed to ​ethene​ and ​warmer temperatures
● Ethene is involved in ​controlling cell division​ and stimulates enzymes that
result in​ fruit ripening​.
● This ​reduces wastage ​as more fruit is suitable to be sold and ​it does not ripen
too early

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