Indian Geotech J (October 2023) 53(5):1041–1052

https://doi.org/10.1007/s40098-023-00724-5

ORIGINAL PAPER

Construction and Evaluation of Low-Volume Roads

Incorporating Emulsion Treated Base Layers
Jithin Kurian Andrews1 • Vishnu Radhakrishnan2 • Reebu Zachariah Koshy3 • C. S. R. K. Prasad2

Received: 22 August 2022 / Accepted: 7 March 2023 / Published online: 22 March 2023
 The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Indian Geotechnical Society 2023

Abstract Emulsion treated base (ETB) is a cold mix base and evaluate the required pavement thicknesses. Based on
layer stabilization technique in which virgin aggregates or the calculated equivalent layer thickness of ETB, it was
recycled aggregates are treated with slow-setting bitumi- concluded that 1 unit of ETB layer was equivalent to
nous emulsion. ETB in low-volume roads (LVR) can act as 1.4–1.7 times the conventional granular base layer,
a stabilized base layer, which could replace the granular depending upon the mix constituents.
base layer. However, not many projects are coming up with
ETB due to the absence of appropriate construction Keywords Emulsion treated base  Low-volume roads 
guidelines and pavement design catalogues for LVR Back-calculated moduli  Design catalogues
incorporating ETB. In the present study, test sections were
constructed on a LVR with six different combinations of
Abbreviations
ETB, and moduli values were back-calculated from the
AASHTO American Association of State Highway and
deflection data collected using falling weight deflectome-
Transportation Officials
ter. Moduli of ETB layers were back-calculated using
CBR California bearing ratio
KGPBACK software, and the critical pavement responses
CTB Cement treated base
were evaluated using IITPAVE software. Design cata-
ETB Emulsion treated base
logues were developed based on mechanistic empirical
FWD Falling weight deflectometer
design principles, considering the back-calculated moduli
GSB Granular sub-base
of ETB, and was compared with the thicknesses required in
ITS Indirect tensile strength
case of pavements incorporating conventional granular
LEF Layer equivalency factor
base layers. It was observed that the application of ETB in
LVR Low-volume roads
LVR can reduce the need for virgin aggregates in base
Mr granular Resilient modulus of granular layer
layers by 35–40%. The study proposes relationship
Mr subgrade Resilient modulus of subgrade
between indirect tensile strength and back-calculated
N Number of standard axle load repetitions
moduli of ETB, so that the designer can appropriately
OEC Optimum emulsion content
select the moduli values corresponding to the design mix,
OFC Optimum fluid content
RAP Recycled asphalt pavement materials
& Jithin Kurian Andrews SG1 Subgrade with 5% CBR
[email protected] SG2 Subgrade with 10% CBR
1
TR1 Design traffic of 0.5 msa
APJ Abdul Kalam Technological University, TR2 Design traffic of 1 msa
Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India
TR3 Design traffic of 2 msa
2
Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of WMM Wet mix macadam
Technology, Warangal, Telangana, India
ez Vertical compressive strain
3
Department of Civil Engineering, Saintgits College of
Engineering, Kottayam, Kerala, India

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1042 Indian Geotech J (October 2023) 53(5):1041–1052

Introduction to 10% CBR and nine different traffic conditions ranging

from 0.01 to 2 msa.
Low-volume roads (LVR) are generally classified as those The guidelines for the design of LVR in India are
roads which carry less than 450 commercial vehicles per developed based on the concept of structural number fol-
day or less than 2 million standard axle load (msa) repe- lowed in AASHTO (American Association of State High-
titions during its design life [1, 2]. These roads are usually way and Transportation Officials) pavement design
constructed using granular base course and sub-base course philosophy for LVR [11]. AASHTO pavement design
materials, with thin bituminous surfaces. As per the current philosophy is an empirical pavement design approach, in
practice in India, open-graded granular sub-base (GSB) is which pavements are designed for a selected drop in
used as the sub-base course, and dense-graded Wet mix pavement serviceability. Many road agencies across the
macadam (WMM) is used as the base course material. world are migrating from empirical to mechanistic empir-
Open-graded surface mixes such as the surface dressing, ical pavement design approach, due to the possibility of
open-graded premix carpet, or mixed seal surfacing of being extrapolated beyond the conditions at which they
20-mm thickness are provided as the surface course layer were initially developed. However, it is essential to
for LVR [3]. These open-graded surface layer mixes gen- develop performance equations based on observed field
erally permit infiltration of storm water into base layers, performance. Sahoo and Reddy [12] evaluated the field
resulting in increased pore-water pressure under traffic, performance of several LVR constructed in India, having
resulting in premature failure [4, 5]. Although application conventional cross section, and developed performance
of dense bituminous mixes can reduce surface permeabil- equations for rutting and roughness failure criteria. Since
ity, construction of dense surface mixes would be difficult LVR have thin bituminous surface layers (thickness less
in the absence of a strong structural base. However, con- than 40 mm), cracking of bituminous layer was not con-
struction of dense surface mixes such as the bituminous sidered as a major failure mode. For both roughness and
concrete of 30–40-mm thickness can be considered as a rutting performance criteria, pavement life was correlated
possible option along with stabilized base layers such as to vertical compressive strain coming on top of subgrade.
the cement treated base (CTB) with crack relief layer or The design of high-volume roads in India presently follows
emulsion treated base (ETB) layer [6]. The guidelines for mechanistic empirical pavement design philosophy, in
LVR in India recommend the use of CTB and has provided which pavements are designed using rutting and fatigue
pavement design catalogues for LVR incorporating CTB performance equations. Performance equations are pro-
[2]. Considering the possibility of fatigue cracking in CTB, vided for two reliability levels: 80% and 90%. The 90%
it is necessary to provide a minimum of 75-mm-thick reliability equation is used for the design of highways
granular layer as crack relief layer, along with CTB layer. exceeding traffic volume of 20 msa, and the 80% reliability
The present situation of shortage for virgin aggregates has equation is used for the design of pavements with traffic
urged researchers to come up with stabilized base layer volume between 2 and 20 msa. The rural roads manual IRC
materials, which can effectively reduce the need for virgin SP 20 [13] states that the design curves developed based on
aggregates, without compromising on the structural per- analytical evaluation of pavement sections of Other District
formance of pavement [7]. ETB is one such base layer Roads and village roads based on vertical compressive
stabilization method in which virgin aggregates or recycled strain criterion of IRC 37, holds good for design traffic
aggregates are treated with bituminous emulsion [8, 9]. between 0.1 and 2 msa. Hence, in the present study for
ETB exhibits enhanced cohesion and moisture resistance, developing pavement design catalogues for LVR incorpo-
due to the presence of bituminous film surrounding the rating ETB, the 80% reliability rutting performance equa-
aggregate particles [10]. ETB is usually prepared by tion has been used. In the absence of any other
blending aggregates of the required gradation with a slow- performance equation developed based on field perfor-
setting bituminous emulsion (emulsion content in the range mance data of LVR constructed with different pavement
of 2–5%), premixing water and 1% active filler (cement or composition, the 80% reliability rutting performance
lime) [10]. Although ETB has been successfully adopted in equation can be adopted for the mechanistic empirical
many countries, the present guidelines for LVR in India is design of LVR.
yet to propose construction guidelines and pavement For estimating critical strain, linear elastic layered the-
design catalogues for LVR with ETB. Design templates are ory is followed in India. Pavement design is carried out
only proposed for pavements incorporating conventional using IITPAVE software, where pavement layers are
unbound and CTB layers. Catalogues are provided for five characterized by elastic material properties such as the
different subgrade conditions (subgrade strength measured resilient modulus and Poisson’s ratio. In the present study,
in terms of California bearing ratio, CBR) ranging from 2 efforts are made to evaluate the back-calculated moduli of
pavement layers incorporating ETB mixes, in LVR.

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Indian Geotech J (October 2023) 53(5):1041–1052 1043

Although few road agencies have recommended represen- was adopted in the present study. Mix design of ETB
tative moduli values for ETB, it is necessary to estimate the basically involves the determination of OFC using work-
moduli values that can be effectively achieved at the field. ability criteria and determination of OEC using strength
The fourth revision of IRC 37 proposed indicative moduli criteria. Marshall compactor is recommended by IRC 37
value of 600 MPa for bitumen-stabilized base layers using for preparing specimens for workability and strength cri-
bitumen emulsion (3% emulsion) or foam bitumen (2% teria. The properties of aggregate and emulsion used in the
residual binder). Fifth revision of IRC 37 proposed study are summarized in Tables 1 and 2, respectively.
indicative moduli value of 800 MPa for bitumen-stabilized 1% ordinary Portland cement was used as the active
base layers using bitumen emulsion (4% emulsion) or foam filler in all the cases. A blend of fluid incorporating 50%
bitumen (2–2.5% residual binder) [1, 14]. South African water and 50% emulsion was used for the determination of
technical guidelines (TG2) recommend minimum moduli OFC. Corresponding to a maximum dry density (MDD) of
values of 500 MPa and 700 MPa for bitumen-stabilized 2.25 g/cc, 7% was obtained as the OFC, and corresponding
materials with granular supporting layer, for LVR and to the minimum strength criteria of 225 kPa, 3% emulsion
high-volume road applications, respectively. However, the content was obtained as the OEC. For ETB incorporating
guidelines recommend slightly higher moduli values for 50% RAP, OFC and OEC were found to be 6.5% and 3%,
bitumen-stabilized material with cemented supporting respectively. Since the ETB mixes were proposed to be
layer, indicating that the field moduli value of bitumen- used in a LVR with design traffic of 1 msa, design com-
stabilized material will depend on the composition of the paction effort of 50 Marshall blows on either side of the
pavement system and the position of the ETB layer within specimen was adopted for the sample preparation [16].
the pavement system. [10, 15]. Hence, the present study Before extraction, compacted specimens were cured in the
focusses on estimating the moduli values that the ETB mould for 24 h at room temperature. It was followed by
layer in LVR can effectively mobilize in the field. 72 h of oven curing at 40 C. Figure 1 presents the samples
Considering the above aspects, the specific objective of prepared for indirect tensile strength (ITS) test, and Fig. 2
the present study is to evaluate appropriate material layer shows the loading frame used in the study for the ITS test.
properties required for the design of low-volume roads The ITS of mixes was evaluated at 25 C, following the
incorporating ETB and propose design catalogues for testing procedure outlined in ASTM D 6931 [17]. The
various traffic and subgrade conditions. Material layer samples were found to satisfy the minimum tensile strength
properties were evaluated from test sections constructed in ratio requirement of 0.5 [15]. Tensile strength ratio is
a low-volume road incorporating ETB layers constructed considered as a measure of moisture resistance of the
with different emulsion contents, and with sections incor- mixes, and it is calculated as the ratio of wet ITS to dry
porating recycled asphalt pavement materials (RAP) along ITS. For wet ITS test, samples were conditioned for 24 h,
with virgin aggregates. Design templates have been pro- using a water bath maintained at 60 C.
posed for two different subgrade conditions (5% and 10%
CBR) and three different traffic categories (0.5, 1 and 2 Construction of Test Sections
msa). The pavement thicknesses proposed were compared
with pavement section incorporating granular materials, so During the laboratory research work of emulsified mixes
as to make a comparison of aggregate savings that would was in progress, the Local Self Government Department of
incur. Layer equivalency factors were also proposed for Kerala state, India, was approached to incorporate six test
ETB layer, so that the designers can compute the material sections of ETB mixes with varying emulsion content and
savings due to each combination of ETB. aggregate type (test sections of ETB prepared with virgin
aggregates alone and with ETB mixes incorporating 50%
RAP aggregates). Upon receiving permission from Local
Material and Methods Self Government Department of Kerala, six test sections
incorporating ETB mixes were constructed one after the
Mix Design of ETB other in the model test road project constructed in Kan-
nadikavala Kallapuram road in Muhama Grama Panchay-
Prior to the field application of ETB, it was necessary to ath of Alappuzha district in Kerala. The design traffic
formulate the mix design for ETB mixes. Corresponding to estimated for the road was 1 msa, and subgrade CBR was
the aggregate gradation adopted in the study, optimum fluid 7%. All the test sections constructed had 150-mm-thick
content (OFC) and optimum emulsion content (OEC) were granular sub-base and ETB layer of 150-mm thickness. The
determined corresponding to the mix design guidelines length of each test section was 50 m, and width was
given in IRC37 [14]. The aggregate gradation specified in 3.75 m. Out of the six ETB test sections, three of them
Annexure IX of IRC 37 for ETB mixes incorporating RAP were constructed with 100% virgin aggregates and another

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Table 1 Physical properties of aggregates used in test sections

Sl. no. Property Result Test method

1 Specific gravity 2.71 BIS 2386—Part 3

2 Angularity number 9 BIS 2386—Part 1
3 Combined flakiness and elongation 29% BIS 2386—Part 1
4 Los Angeles abrasion value 28% BIS 2386—Part 4
5 Impact value 24% BIS 2386—Part 4

Table 2 Properties of cationic slow-setting emulsion used in test sections

Sl. no. Property Result Test method

1 Residue on 600-micron sieve 0.02% BIS 8887 (2018)

2 Storage stability after 24 h 0.40%
3 Residual bitumen 62%
4 Miscibility with water No coagulation
5 Stability to mix with cement (percentage coagulation) 1.84%
6 Particle charge Positive
7 Penetration of residual bitumen (25 C, 100 g, 5 s) 71

Fig. 1 ETB specimens for ITS test

three test sections were constructed with 50% RAP along

with 50% virgin aggregates. In the test sections incorpo-
rating RAP, virgin aggregates were blended in such a Fig. 2 ITS testing equipment
proportion that the target ETB gradation would be achieved
at the field. For the aggregate gradations used in the field, production rate was relatively lower. The blended aggre-
mix design for ETB was done using material samples gates were introduced into mixer, and it was followed by
collected from the field (mentioned in the previous sec- the addition of cement and premixing water. Once the
tion). In both the combinations, emulsion content was aggregate surface was uniformly coated with premixing
varied as 2%, 3% and 4% (OEC-1%, OEC and OEC ? water and cement, emulsion of the required dosage was
1%). The sections incorporating virgin aggregates, with introduced and mixed for 2–3 min. In another project,
the above-mentioned emulsion contents, are designated as where ETB was incorporated (low-volume road construc-
S1, S2 and S3, and those incorporating RAP aggregates are tion site under Rebuild Kerala Initiative, Government of
designated as S4, S5 and S6, respectively. Kerala, India), aggregates and emulsion was added to a
For the present study, concrete drum mixer of 0.5 m3 cement slurry prepared using the premixing water and 1%
capacity was used for the mixing process, and hence the cement. In this project, mixing was done inside a concrete

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mixer of 2 m3 capacity, and hence production rate was Table 3 Recommended aggregate gradation for ETB and WMM
relatively higher. Figure 3 shows the ETB mixing process Sieve size Percentage passing— Percentage passing—
using concrete mixers of 0.5 m3 and 2 m3 capacity. (mm) ETB WMM
Alternatively, ETB can also be prepared in a WMM pro-
53 100 100
duction plant with suitable modifications. The advance-
ments in construction mechanism of ETB should be 45 100 95–100
seriously considered, since it would significantly help to 37.5 87–100 –
reduce the cost of ETB construction. 26.5 77–100 –
RAP used in the study was procured from a nearby 22.4 – 60–80
recycling project in National Highway (NH) 66. RAP 19 66–99 –
mostly consisted of materials in the range of 4.75–20 mm, 13.2 67–87 –
and residual binder content was found to be 4%. Since 11.2 – 40–60
dense aggregate gradation would require sufficient time for 4.75 33–50 25–40
mixing and coating, slow-setting emulsion procured from 2.36 25–47 15–30
Hindustan Colas Private Limited was used for the prepa- 0.6 12–27 8–22
ration of ETB [18, 19]. Table 3 shows the recommended 0.3 8–21 –
gradations for ETB and the conventional granular base 0.075 2–9 0–5
layers (WMM). It can be inferred that the gradation rec-
ommended for ETB is slightly denser than the gradation
recommended for WMM. Field aggregate gradations (dry surface course, field density of all the ETB sections was
blends) were ensured by sieve analysis before addition of evaluated using sand replacement method and was found to
active filler and emulsion. In the test section project, ETB have achieved a minimum of 97% of MDD. Following the
mixes were spread manually on compacted sub-base layer. guidelines recommended by the Ministry of Rural Devel-
Alternatively, asphalt/wet mix pavers can also be utilized opment (MoRD) [3], 20-mm-thick open-graded premix
to place ETB mixes. Utilizing paver can accelerate the carpet along with 6-mm seal coat was applied as the sur-
speed of construction. Figure 4 presents the laying of ETB face course in all the six test sections. Viscosity grade
mixes for the test section project as well as the project VG30 binder was used to prepare the bituminous mixes.
undertaken by Rebuild Kerala Initiative. Compaction of The construction of test sections was completed in October
ETB layers was carried in two lifts of 100-mm each (loose 2020.
thickness), compacted to 75 mm. Compaction was carried
by static steel wheel rollers of 8 T capacity. Density of Deflection Study Using FWD
ETB layers were evaluated by sand replacement method
after construction and was found to have achieved 94–95% In the present study, structural responses of the test sections
of maximum dry density [20]. Traffic was opened for light were evaluated using the falling weight deflectometer
commercial vehicles after 24 h of construction. Bituminous (FWD). FWD is one of the widely used non-destructive
surface layer of the test sections was constructed after testing equipment in which a standard load is dropped on to
7 days of ETB layer construction. This provided sufficient the pavement surface, and the corresponding pavement
time, for ETB mixes to undergo curing, and densification response measured in the form of deflections at radial
due to movement of vehicles. Prior to construction of distances is measured using geophones placed at

Fig. 3 ETB mixing using

a 0.5 m3 concrete mixer, b 2 m3
concrete mixer

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Fig. 4 Laying of ETB a using

manual method, b using
mechanical pavers

Fig. 6 Geophones in FWD

Fig. 5 FWD loading system software, for evaluating the properties of individual pave-
ment layers.
predetermined distances. In order to back-calculate the
pavement layer properties, deflection studies are to be Back-Calculation of ETB Layer Moduli Using
conducted ideally during the period following monsoon, KGPBACK Software
when the pavement is under the weakest condition.
Accordingly, it was decided to conduct deflection study The moduli of ETB layer in the six test sections were back-
using FWD during October 2021. During this one-year calculated using KGPBACK software. KGPBACK is a
service period, pavement was expected to complete the back-calculation software used in India, for evaluating the
initial curing phase and reached a stable state of densifi- individual layer properties, from the deflection bowl data
cation. Three sets of deflection data were taken from all the captured under a standard loading condition. KGPBACK
six test sections. Each set of data represents an average was developed by the Transportation Engineering Division
deflection value observed out of the three load drops of of IIT Kharagpur, under the Ministry’s Research
same magnitude on the same location. The test was carried Scheme R-81 [21]. KGPBACK is a genetic algorithm-
out following the procedure outlined in IRC 115 [21]. based model which requires a moduli range as input, rather
Figures 5 and 6, respectively, show the loading system and than a seed moduli. Software requires information’s such
the geophones attached to the FWD used in the study. A as the upper and lower limits of the moduli value, surface
200-kg load was dropped from a predetermined height, in deflections normalized to a standard load of 40 kN, radial
order to simulate a force of 40 kN on a loading plate of distances of geophones, applied peak load, contact pres-
300-mm diameter. The machine automatically adjusts the sure, layer thicknesses and Poisson’s ratio of different
height, in case if the impact force deviates from the layers, for back-calculating the layer properties. The soft-
required force of 40 kN. Geophones placed at different ware considers pavement as a three-layer system consisting
radial distances of 0, 200, 300, 450, 600, 900 and 1500 mm of a bound surface layer, unbound base layer and the
record the deflections produced at the respective locations. subgrade. For the present study, 20-mm-thick bituminous
This deflection bowl data were used in the back-calculation surface course and 150-mm base layer were combined
together as the top most layer, granular sub-base layer was

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considered as the middle layer, and subgrade was consid- layer in MPa and h represents thickness of granular layer in
ered as the bottom most layer. A representative value of mm. Moduli of ETB was considered based on the values
0.35 was assumed as the Poisson’s ratio for the base layer, back-calculated from the test sections. Analysis was done
granular sub-base layer and subgrade. The range of moduli for two conditions: assuming ETB as the base layer and
value considered for the top layer was 600–1200 MPa, assuming WMM as the base layer. Considering the
middle layer was 400–1000 MPa, and bottom layer was minimum layer thickness requirement based on the
50–200 MPa, in most of the cases. However, suit- nominal maximum aggregate size, thickness of GSB
able changes were made in cases where it was expected layer was adopted as 150 mm. Similarly, the thickness of
that the moduli values may cross the specified limits. surface layer was fixed as 20 mm in all the cases. The 20-
mm surface layer was considered as part of the base layer,
Design Catalogues for LVR with ETB while the sub-base and subgrade layers were considered as
two separate layers of the three-layer system. Thickness of
In the present study, design catalogues were proposed for the base layer was then iterated until the calculated strain
two different subgrade conditions (5% and 10% CBR) and values were within the limiting strain values estimated for
three different traffic conditions (0.5, 1 and 2 msa). The the traffic condition selected.
two subgrade conditions are represented as SG1 and SG2, Mr subgrade ¼ 10  CBR; if CBR \5% ð3Þ
and the three traffic conditions are represented as TR1,
TR2 and TR3 in the present study. The methodology out- Mr subgrade ¼ 17:6  CBR0:64 ; if CBR [ 5% ð4Þ
lined in the present study, along with the appropriate 0:45
Mr granular ¼ 0:2  h  Msubgrade ð5Þ
moduli values, can be used for developing design cata-
logues for any given subgrade and traffic conditions. Per- In order to simplify the pavement design procedure,
formance equation given in IRC 37 [1], corresponding to equivalent layer thicknesses for ETB layers with different
subgrade rutting criteria with 80% reliability (Eq. 1), was ITS values were also calculated using the Odemark
used in the present study for calculating the limiting strain principle [22].
corresponding to the given traffic condition. Equation 1
can be rearranged as shown in Eq. 2, for calculating the
limiting strain corresponding to the three traffic conditions Results
considered in the present study. In Eqs. 1 and 2, N repre-
sents number of standard axle load repetitions (expressed Observations from the ETB Construction Site
in terms of msa) and ez represents vertical compressive
strain coming over the subgrade. Accordingly, the limiting The construction procedure for ETB slightly differs from
strain for TR1, TR2 and TR3 was calculated as 1303, 1118 the construction practice of conventional base layers, as it
and 960 le, respectively. requires additional mechanism for the mixing of emulsion
 4:5337 and active filler, along with the premixing water and
8 1
N ¼ 4:1656  10  ð1Þ blended aggregates. From the cost analysis done using
ez
PRICE software (software used by the Government
ez ¼ 0:023557N 0:22057 ð2Þ Department of Kerala State for quantity estimation and
budget preparation), it was observed that the cost of one
The layer thickness required to limit the critical cubic metre of conventional base layer was Rs. 3500, while
compressive subgrade strain within the specified values the cost of one cubic metre of ETB (with 2% emulsion)
were evaluated using IITPAVE software. IITPAVE is a was Rs. 7000. However, modification in the production
software developed for the analysis of elastic layered mechanism and incorporation of recycled aggregates can
pavement system [1]. Software requires input information help to reduce the cost of ETB. The material laid on the
such as the layer thicknesses, moduli values, Poisson’s GSB surface was kept exposed for 5–10 min, so that the
ratio, wheel load, tyre pressure and type of wheel set. For emulsion undergoes breaking, and the colour changes from
the present analysis, dual wheel set with 40 kN load and brown to black. However, due to slight variations in the
0.56 MPa tyre pressure was selected. Poisson’s ratio was estimation of in situ water content within the aggregates,
assumed as 0.35 for all the layers. Moduli values for the the total fluid content slightly exceeded OFC, and hence
subgrade were calculated as the function of CBR (Eqs. 3 94–95% of MDD could only be achieved after compaction.
and 4), and moduli of granular layers (GSB and WMM) It is essential to evaluate the in situ water content precisely
were calculated using the shell equation (Eq. 5). In Eqs. 3 and adjust premixing water content during the time of
and 4, Mr subgrade represents modulus of subgrade layer in construction. Light commercial vehicles were permitted to
MPa. In Eq. 5, Mr granular represents modulus of granular

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travel after 24 h of construction. ETB is expected to gain

strength gradually due to combined effect of curing and
densification. It is necessary to evaluate the density and
water content of ETB layer, so as to have an estimate of the
strength gain. For the test sections in the present study, it
was observed that ETB layer attains 97% of MDD and
completes 60–70% curing after 7 days of construction. The
presence of emulsion and active filler in ETB helps to hold
the particles together and hence loss of materials due to
construction traffic and the resulting dust generation was
minimal. Since the aggregates in ETB are partially bound,
further delay in surfacing, and opening of finished base
layer to heavy commercial vehicles may lead to loss of
aggregates from the surface. Hence, it is recommended that
the surfacing of ETB layer should be ideally completed
after 7–14 days of construction. Construction of ETB
should not be preferred in the monsoon season, since it may
affect the curing and strength gain of ETB. Figures 7 and 8,
respectively, show the ETB section immediately after
construction and ETB section after undergoing the initial
curing phase.

Back-Calculated Moduli of ETB Layer Fig. 7 ETB after construction

In order to develop design catalogues based on mechanistic

empirical design philosophy, it was necessary to have
moduli values corresponding to each material used in the
pavement system. Since application of ETB was beyond
the current scope of design guidelines for LVR in India, no
indicative values were provided in the design guidelines for
LVR [11]. However, guidelines for flexible highway
pavements in India [1, 14] provide an indicative value of
800 MPa for ETB with 4% emulsion and 600 MPa for
ETB with 3% emulsion. In the present study, moduli values
were back-calculated using the deflection bowl data
observed from the six ETB test sections. Table 4 shows the
deflection data collected at seven radial distances of 0, 200,
300, 450, 600, 900 and 1500 mm. The deflection values
were found to be lower in ETB sections incorporating
higher emulsion content. ETB sections incorporating 50%
RAP materials exhibited lower deflection values, when
compared with ETB sections incorporating 100% virgin
aggregates. The moduli back-calculated from these
deflection data are summarized in Table 5. It can be seen
that the moduli values range from 578 to 919 MPa,
depending upon the composition of ETB.
Fig. 8 ETB after initial curing
Relationship Between Back-Calculated Moduli
and ITS the field. Table 5 shows the dry ITS value along with the
back-calculated moduli of the six test sections. It was
In order to establish the relationship between ITS and back- observed that the ITS of ETB correlated well with the
calculated moduli, ITS specimens of ETB were prepared as back-calculated moduli (Eq. 6). This relationship shown in
per the emulsion content, gradation and density achieved at

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Table 4 Deflection bowl data (mm)

Section 0 200 300 450 600 900 1500
FWD deflection observed during the monsoon season
S1-1 0.463 0.302 0.233 0.166 0.132 0.093 0.055
S1-2 0.474 0.298 0.232 0.164 0.127 0.089 0.054
S1-3 0.516 0.315 0.247 0.187 0.147 0.099 0.057
S2-1 0.410 0.292 0.211 0.148 0.123 0.094 0.060
S2-2 0.450 0.300 0.231 0.159 0.127 0.090 0.052
S2-3 0.419 0.279 0.224 0.172 0.136 0.092 0.053
S3-1 0.390 0.280 0.214 0.147 0.118 0.088 0.058
S3-2 0.366 0.250 0.203 0.156 0.124 0.084 0.048
S3-3 0.419 0.280 0.211 0.154 0.121 0.085 0.052
S4-1 0.391 0.273 0.211 0.151 0.127 0.089 0.051
S4-2 0.437 0.288 0.227 0.158 0.127 0.087 0.055
S4-3 0.408 0.261 0.217 0.152 0.123 0.095 0.047
S5-1 0.403 0.275 0.226 0.150 0.124 0.086 0.054
S5-2 0.371 0.264 0.210 0.167 0.137 0.094 0.059
S5-3 0.420 0.299 0.224 0.165 0.134 0.093 0.055
S6-1 0.368 0.244 0.183 0.137 0.110 0.082 0.051
S6-2 0.408 0.276 0.217 0.153 0.119 0.092 0.059
S6-3 0.381 0.275 0.229 0.180 0.146 0.100 0.058

Fig. 9 would enable a designer to prepare ETB mixes based 225 kPa, moduli value calculated using Eq. 6 was
on the required composition, and select appropriate moduli 862 MPa. The obtained value was found to be close to the
values to be used in the mechanistic analysis. In Eq. 6, Mr moduli value of 800 MPa, recommended by IRC 37 [1] for
indicates back-calculated moduli of ETB layer in MPa and ETB incorporating 4% emulsion and 1% cement. To be on
ITS represent dry ITS of ETB in kPa. the conservative side, 800 MPa was chosen as the repre-
Mr ¼ 3:265ðITSÞ þ 127:72 ð6Þ sentative ETB moduli value for the present study. How-
ever, a designer has the freedom to proportion the ETB
Design Catalogues for LVR with ETB constituents and choose the moduli value corresponding to
the laboratory dry ITS value obtained for the mix. Fig-
In the present study, design catalogues were proposed for ures 10 and 11, respectively, show the design catalogues
LVR with ETB as well as for LVR with conventional for LVR with ETB and LVR with WMM. Templates have
unbound granular base layer (WMM). For the analysis of been proposed for two different subgrade conditions
pavement design catalogues, it was necessary to select a (indicated as SG1 and SG2) and three different traffic
moduli value for the ETB layer to be used in LVR. Cor- conditions (indicated as TR1, TR2 and TR3). SG1 repre-
responding to the minimum ITS strength requirement of sents subgrade with 5% CBR, and SG2 represents subgrade
with 10%CBR. Similarly, TR1, TR2 and TR3, respec-
tively, indicates 0.5, 1 and 2 msa design traffic. Table 6
Table 5 ITS and moduli of six ETB combinations shows a summary of thickness reduction that can be
Section Emulsion content RAP content ITS Back-calculated achieved by replacing the conventional unbound granular
(%) (%) moduli base layers with ETB. Compared to sections incorporating
conventional unbound base layers, use of ETB in LVR
S1 2 0 140 578
would help to reduce the need for virgin aggregates by
S2 3 0 200 745
35–40%.
S3 4 0 230 879
S4 2 50 190 783
S5 3 50 220 862
S6 4 50 245 919

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1050 Indian Geotech J (October 2023) 53(5):1041–1052

Back calculated moduli (MPa)

1000 of conventional WMM layer. In fact, moduli of WMM
layer would depend on the layer thickness and supporting
900 conditions. For the present study, a representative value of
200 MPa was assumed as the moduli of WMM layer, and
800
moduli of ETB was taken corresponding to the laboratory
700 dry ITS value. From Fig. 12, it can be inferred that the LEF
calculated using Eq. 8 ranges from 1.4 to 1.7, corre-
600 sponding to the ITS values ranging from 140 to 245 kPa.
R² = 0.9625 Hence, it can be concluded that 1 unit of ETB layer is
500 equivalent to 1.4 to 1.7 times the conventional WMM
120 140 160 180 200 220 240
layer, depending on the dry ITS value of the designed ETB
ITS (kPa)
combination.
Fig. 9 Relationship between back-calculated moduli and ITS

Layer Equivalency Factors for ETB Conclusion

Layer equivalency factor (LEF) is a concept used to From the field application of ETB in LVR, it was observed
quantify the relative structural capacity of a pavement layer that ETB has a huge potential in pavement construction, as
relative to another layer. For the present study, LEF of ETB it can effectively reduce the need for virgin aggregates.
layer is calculated relative to the thickness requirement of Lack of appropriate production equipment and construction
the conventional WMM layer. LEF provide easy access for guidelines continue to be the major factors which pull back
the field engineers to quantify the benefits due to each the field application of ETB. Following are some of the
combination of ETB, in terms of thickness reduction. LEF major findings from the present study:
was calculated using Odemark principle which assumes • Construction of ETB should be undertaken only when
that the stiffness of a layer is a function of elastic modulus, the climatic conditions favour curing of the mixes.
thickness of the layer and Poisson’s ratio. According to Surfacing of ETB layer ideally needs to be done after 7
Odemark principle, pavement layers with same stiffness to 14 days of construction. Light commercial vehicles
can be represented as shown in Eq. 7, provided that the can be permitted to travel over the ETB layer after 24 h
Poisson’s ratio remains same for both the layers [22]. of construction.
E1 h31 ¼ E2 h32 ð7Þ • Back-calculated moduli of ETB layers were found to
 1=3 vary from 578 to 919 MPa, and the corresponding dry
h2 E1 ITS value varies from 140 to 245 kPa. The present
LEF ¼ ¼ ð8Þ
h1 E2 study recommends to adopt a conservative moduli value
In Eqs. 7 and 8, h1 and h2 represent the thicknesses of ETB of 800 MPa for ETB samples satisfying the minimum
layer and WMM layer, respectively. E1 is taken as the ITS requirement of 225 kPa.
back-calculated moduli of ETB layer, and E2 is the moduli

Fig. 10 Pavement layer 600

thicknesses for LVR with ETB
GSB ETB OGPC
Pavement layer thickness (mm)

500
20
20
400 20 20
20
20
300
275 310
240 215 250
185
200

100
150 150 150 150 150 150
0
SG1-TR1 SG1-TR2 SG1-TR3 SG2-TR1 SG2-TR2 SG2-TR3

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Indian Geotech J (October 2023) 53(5):1041–1052 1051

Fig. 11 Pavement layer 700

thicknesses for LVR with
20 GSB WMM OGPC
conventional base layers 600 20

Pavement layer thickness (mm)

20 20
500 20
20
400 480
430 400
380 350
300 295

200

100
150 150 150 150 150 150
0
SG1-TR1 SG1-TR2 SG1-TR3 SG2-TR1 SG2-TR2 SG2-TR3

Table 6 Reduction in base layer thickness due to application of ETB

Section ID CBR (%) Traffic (msa) WMM base (mm) ETB base (mm) Thickness reduction (%)

SG1-TR1 5 0.5 380 240 37

SG1-TR2 5 1 430 275 36
SG1-TR3 5 2 480 310 35
SG2-TR1 10 0.5 295 185 37
SG2-TR2 10 1 350 215 39
SG2-TR3 10 2 400 250 38

1.7 ETB provides the benefit of utilizing marginal materi-

als, thereby reducing the need for virgin aggregates.
Layer equivalency factor

1.65
• The construction cost of ETB layer with 2% emulsion is
1.6 almost twice that of the conventional unbound granular
base layer. However, the application of ETB in LVR
1.55
can reduce the thickness requirement by 35–40%, and
1.5 hence the effective construction cost of ETB layer
becomes comparable with that of the conventional base
1.45 R² = 0.9588
layer.
1.4 • ETB acts as an improved granular layer and exhibits
120 140 160 180 200 220 240
moduli value equivalent to that of a binder course.
ITS (kPa
Hence, application of ETB in LVR would help to
Fig. 12 Layer equivalency factors for ETB replace WMM layer, and open up the possibility of
applying dense bituminous surface mixes of 30–40 mm,
• When compared with the conventional base layers, use without the application of a separate binder course.
of ETB as base layer in LVR could help to reduce the • Since the particles in conventional base layers are
need for virgin aggregates by 35–40%. ETB is highly unbound, there exits loss of particles due to construc-
recommended in regions with shortage of virgin tion traffic, which causes extra burden on the contrac-
aggregates. tors. Moreover, it causes undesirable dust generation
• From the back-calculated moduli values of six test and results in a condition where further profile correc-
section, it was evident that ETB with 50% RAP tion of base layer would be required. ETB, being a
incorporation exhibits improved performance than the partially bound layer, can hold particles together,
mixes prepared with 100% virgin aggregates. Hence, without loss of aggregates and undesirable dust
generation.

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1052 Indian Geotech J (October 2023) 53(5):1041–1052

• Considering the equivalent layer thickness of ETB layer reclaimed asphalt and virgin aggregates. Buildings 8(177):1.
based on the Odemark principle, it was observed that 1 https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings8120177
9. Perez I, Medina L, Val MA (2013) Mechanical properties and
unit of ETB layer was equivalent to 1.4 to 1.7 times the behaviour of in-situ materials which are stabilised with bitumen
conventional WMM layer, depending on the dry ITS emulsion. Road Mater Pavement Des 14(2):221–238.
value of the designed ETB combination. https://doi.org/10.1080/14680629.2013.779301
10. Technical Guideline (TG 2) (2020) Bitumen Stabilised Materials.
Asphalt Academy, South Africa
Acknowledgements The authors wish to acknowledge the Local Self 11. AASHTO (1993) Guide for Design of Pavement Structures.
Government Department (LSGD), Government of Kerala, for pro- American Association of State Highways and Transportation
viding the financial assistance to construct test sections. Authors also Officials
wish to acknowledge the Science and Engineering Research Board 12. Sahoo UC, Reddy KS (2011) Performance criterion for thin-
(SERB) for providing the financial support for conducting the per- surface low volume roads. Transp Res Rec 1:178–185.
formance evaluation of test sections, and the Kerala Infrastructure https://doi.org/10.3141/2203-22
Investment Fund Board (KIIFB) for offering the technical support 13. IRC SP 20 (2002) Rural Roads Manual. Indian Road Congress,
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(FWD). 14. IRC 37 (2012) Tentative guidelines for the design of flexible
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Funding This project has been funded by the Local Self Government 15. Technical Guideline (TG 2) (2009) Bitumen stabilised materials.
Department (LSGD), Government of Kerala and the Science and Asphalt Academy, South Africa
Engineering Research Board (SERB). 16. Asphalt Mix Design Methods, MS 2 (2014) 7th Edition. Asphalt
Institute
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