Modern PID/FOPID Controllers For Frequency Regulation of Interconnected Power System by Considering Different Cost Functions

www.nature.
com/scientificreports
OPEN Modern PID/FOPID controllers

for frequency regulation
of interconnected power system
by considering different cost
functions
1* 2 3
Mohamed Ahmed Ebrahim Mohamed , K. Jagatheesan & B. Anand
This article presents frequency regulation of an interconnected three-area power system

(Thermal + Wind + Hydro). Fractional Order PID (FOPID) and Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID)
controllers are applied as subsidiary regulators to control the electrical power interconnected
system at the time of sudden load variation. To accomplish this study, Genetic Algorithm (GA), Grey
Wolf Optimizer (GWO), Sine Cosine Inspired Algorithm (SCIA) and Atom Search Inspired Algorithm
(ASIA) are implemented to optimize the secondary regulators’ gains (PID and FOPID) by considering
various cost functions such as Integral Absolute Error (IAE), Integral Time Absolute Error (ITAE),
Integral Square Error (ISE), and Integral Time Square Error (ITSE). Performance analysis in this work
is conducted using various cost functions based on GA, GWO, SCIA and ASIA. The comparative
analysis of the attained results reveals that GWO-PID and ASIA–PID settle at (83.83 s) and (30.31 s),
respectively and ASIA-FOPID at (25.12 s). The controllers based on ITSE as a cost function outperform
the comptrollers with other cost functions (ISE, IAE and ITAE). In addition, the ISE-based GA–PID and
SCIA–PID settle at (113.92 s) and (35.1 s), respectively and SCIA-FOPID at (24.78 s). The ISE-based
regulators yield improved response equated to other cost functions (ITSE, IAE and ITAE) optimized
controllers. The robustness test also is carried out to validate the effectiveness of the proposed
optimization techniques by changing the system parameters within ± 25% and ± 50% from their
nominal values as well as changing the load pattern.
The primary aim of a power-generating system is to monitor and control the supply frequency, ensure stable
power flow in the tie line of interconnected systems, maintain voltage profile and ensure stability of load flow
conditions between areas within the desired value. The load-generation equilibrium ensures that customers are
always provided with reliable and secure power. During nominal loading conditions, each power plant has self-
control of stability and operating point. If sudden load demand arises, it will disturb the system supply frequency
and power flow in the tie-line between interconnected power systems1,2. Thus, the frequency response contains
oscillations that produce errors. To maintain the stability of the power generating system, a primary control loop
(speed governor) and secondary controller are also introduced to ensure that the system parameters are kept
within the specified limits1,2. The role of Automatic Generation Control (AGC) in a power system is to adjust
the generated power output of several generators at dissimilar power generating plants, in response to modifica-
tion in the load demand. In the AGC of the power system, area control error acts as the input for the controller
to generate the required control signal that complies with the desired output response during the sudden load
disturbance in the system.
Based on the literature review, it is found that many secondary controllers are introduced based on Bio- com-
putation Inspired Algorithms (BIA). The authors of3 investigated the optimal gain value of PID controller using
the Stochastic Particle Swarm Optimization technique for single-area AGC including Super Magnetic Energy
Storage (SMES) and Redox Flow Battery (RFB) units with Integral Time Absolute Error (ITAE) and Integral
1
Electrical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering at Shoubra, Benha University, Cairo,
Egypt. 2Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Paavai Engineering College, Namakkal, Tamilnadu,
India. 3Department of Electronics and Instrumentation Engineering, Hindusthan College of Engineering and
Technology, Coimbatore, Tamilnadu, India. *email: [email protected]
Scientific Reports | (2023) 13:14084 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-41024-5 1
Vol.:(0123456789)
www.nature.com/scientificreports/
Time Square Error (ITSE) cost functions. In addition, SPSO technique is proposed for tuning PID controller gain
values for load frequency control of a single area reheat thermal power system4. Also, the authors of5 implemented
SPSO algorithm for tuning the decentralized Load Frequency Control (LFC) of interconnected two-area thermal
power structures. Moreover, a new variant of PSO had been deployed for controlling the frequency and voltage
of multi-area power s ystems6. Harmony Search Algorithm (HSA) had been deployed for tuning PID controller
of LFC p roblem7. Moreover, reduced order HSA is presented i n8 to tune PID controllers for LFC of multi-area
interconnected power systems. In addition, the authors o f9 had been employed HSA based PID regulator for
frequency control of multi-area systems including nonlinearities and boiler dynamics. Also, a Modified HSA
(MHSA) is considered to tune PID regulator gain values for LFC of interconnected nonlinear thermal-hydro
power networks10. In11, Bat Inspired Algorithm (BIA) is utilized to fine-tune the PI controller gain values for
LFC of two area interconnected power networks. Hybrid Firefly and Pattern Search algorithm is executed to
acquire optimal gain values of PI as well as PID regulators in12. Moreover, the performance of the proposed
technique is compared with Bacteria Foraging Optimization Algorithm (BFOA), Genetic Algorithm (GA) and
Ziegler Nichols (ZN) technique. Firefly Algorithm (FA) is executed to obtain PI/PID regulator gain values in
multi-area LFC of grid-connected non-reheat electro-thermal power generating network and the performance
response is equated with BFOA, GA, ZN, Differential Evolution (DE) and Particle Swarm Optimizer (PSO)
based optimization methods in13. Neuro-Fuzzy Hybrid intelligent based PI regulator was considered for LFC
of interconnected four-area power generating system i n14. An emotional learning-based intelligent controller is
proposed in15. Evolutionary computation techniques had been used for the control of single area power produc-
ing systems16. The design and modeling of various power system components with their behavior are given in17.
LFC of 3-area organized power producing unit (Thermal, wind and hydro unit) is investigated with artificial
intelligence technique tuned controller i n18. In19, the author designed PSO based PI controller for LFC of three
area interconnected systems to study AGC performance. The hydro-thermal interconnected nonlinear power
system is examined by applying a fuzzy logic c ontroller20 to improve the performance of the system. The LFC of
the interconnected power system is investigated by considering the non-linearity effect of the Generation Rate
Constraint (GRC) using the Hybrid Genetic-Firefly Algorithm (HGFA)21. Local Unimodal Sampling-TLBO
(LUS-TLBO) optimization technique-based fuzzy PID controller is implemented in22. Self-adaptive modified
bat algorithm has been implemented to acquire the proposed controller gain values of AGC controller for
the grid-connected (four area) power network in23. Grey Wolf Optimization (GWO) algorithm-based classical
controllers are introduced in24 multi-area interconnected (solar & thermal system) power generating units.
The simulation behavior of the obtained results for GWO optimized controller is equated through GA, FA and
PSO-tuned regulators. Many LFC-based optimization techniques are introduced such as c lassical25, fuzzy l ogic26,
supervised artificial neural network27, GA28, PSO29, Artificial Bee Colony (ABC)30, FA31 and Cuckoo Search
(CS)32 are available for the investigation of literature survey in LFC of interconnected power system. Using hybrid
harmony search and cuckoo optimization, the Fuzzy PID controller is designed to resolve LFC problems in two
area connected thermal (non-reheat) systems33. Moreover, Interval type 2 fuzzy PID with Big Bang Big-Crush34,
fuzzy PID controller with fi lter35, Quasi-oppositional based learning (Q-OBL)36, Craziness based PSO (CPSO)37
are introduced as solutions for LFC challenges. In38, the author proposes Moth Swarm Algorithm (MSA) based
PID controller for frequency stability of a hybrid power system with high wind power penetration in conjunction
with Super Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES). In addition, the interior-point a lgorithm39, aggression m ethod40,
tracking approach , fixed mode evaluation a lgorithm , chaotic optimization a lgorithm , and DE a lgorithm44
41 42 43
are executed to overcome LFC emergency in power systems. Dual gain scheduling PI regulator is demonstrated
by applying a bat-inspired procedure for LFC of two area connected reheat thermal power n etwork11. For LFC of
interlinked two region interconnected power grid, the BFOA-developed PID controller is implemented consid-
ering nonlinearity e ffects45. FA constructed PI controller is designed for two area interconnected power system
to solve LFC crisis which comprises Photovoltaic (PV) and thermal generation u nits46. AGC of a power system
is investigated and rectified by applying multiple neural networks with an actor-critic s trategy47. A multi-agent
double deep Q network-action discovery (DDQN-AD) technique-based control strategy is applied for AGC
of the power network in48. AGC crisis of interlinked power grid is analyzed by utilizing a deep reinforcement
learning algorithm for overcoming crisis raised in the power g rid49. Virtual generation ecosystem-based control
strategy has been applied in the microgrid for solving AGC crisis and improving the superiority of produced
power supply under sudden load demand conditions in the grid50. AGC issues of islanding smart networks have
been overcome by implementing a wolf pack hunting strategy to solve AGC crisis of the grid understudy51. Multi-
agent reinforcement learning-based scheme is applied for getting a smart control scheme in the power system
network52. AGC issues in multi-area interlinked power systems are examined by applying a multi-step unified
reinforcement learning s cheme53. In54, the authors proposed a multiple-step greedy attribute and multiple-level
allocation strategy for solving AGC issues in the power system.
The author proposes a novel hybridized harmony search algorithm designed fuzzy-3D controller in imple-
menting LFC of a hybrid system that includes diverse energy sources i n55, the power management of wind / solar
integrated system is discussed with 3DOF-FOPID controller based on AI in56. Similarly, AGC of power generating
unit is analyzed by designing and applying modified sine cosine algorithm-based fuzzy-aided PID c ontroller57,
deep Q-network-based type-II fuzzy controller58, hybridized GWO-SCA based type-II fuzzy controller59,
improved-salp swarm optimized type-II fuzzy c ontroller60 in LFC of AC microgrid system. By analyzing the
above-published literature review, it is clearly shown that in recent days optimization techniques are mainly
used for solving electric power system-related crises. Mainly applied for finding optimal values of parameters
during emergencies. The main research gap in the literature is found that the previous work is not investigated
with different controllers and various optimization techniques. Moreover, the authors of the presented article
investigated the robustness of the suggested control techniques by changing load patterns and system parameters
from their nominal values.
Vol:.(1234567890)
The key contributions provided by the authors of the proposed work are as follows:
1. Two modern optimization techniques namely, the Sine Cosine Inspired algorithm (SCIA) and Atom Search
Inspired Algorithm (ASIA) are employed to design optimal LFC-based Proportional-Integral-Derivative
(PID) and Fractional Order PID (FOPID) controllers with four different cost functions to obtain the most
optimal controller gain values of the suggested interconnected power system.
2. Robustness test is carried out to validate the efficiency of the suggested optimization framework and the
developed controllers by changing the load pattern and system parameter values from their nominal values.
3. A comprehensive comparative study of the applicable cost functions is synthesized to validate the efficiency
of four different cost functions-based (GA-PID, GWO-PID, ASIA-PID and SCIA – PID, ASIA-FOPID and
SCIA – FOPID) controllers response during sudden load demand in the proposed system.
The paper’s organization is as follows: The introduction section gives crucial details about the present work
and a literature review of various related works to resolve LFC/AGC crisis in multi-area connected power sys-
tems. The Proposed Simulink model that investigates the power generating system is given in the “Investigated
power system model” section. The transfer function model and controller details and the objective function is
given in “Design of controller and cost function”. Comparisons of the simulated response of PID and FOPID
controllers tuned using different algorithms and cost functions are compared and discussed in “Simulation result
and discussion” section and at the end; the “Conclusion” section summarizes the planned work’s performance
in tuning controller gain values.
Investigated power system model

The proposed interconnected three-area power generating system is displayed in Fig. 1. It consists of thermal,
hydro and wind power systems. That All three power-generating areas are organized with the support of a tie-
line and are implemented as a subordinate controller to regulate power-generating system performance at the
time of the unexpected load-changing scenario. Nominal parameter values of each proposed power-generating
network are dispatched i n12–14 and relevant abbreviations are given as follow:
f = 60 Hz, Tt = 0.3 s, Tg = 0.08 s, Ptie max = 200 MW, Tr = 10 s, Kp = 120 Hz/puMW, T12 = 0.544, H = 5 s, Tp = 20 s,
Pr = 2000 MW, R = 2.4 Hz/p.u.MW, D = 0.00833 p.u.MW/Hz Density of air = 1.25 kg/m3, Tpt = 10.55 , Gear
ratio = 70 , Radius of turbine blade = 45 m, Average wind velocity = 7 m/s, K pt = 0.012, H = 5 s, Ti = 3 s, Tp = 20 s,
Kr = 0.5.
The secondary PID controller input is Area Control Error (ACE) and it is defined as a linear grouping of
errors in system frequency & errors in tie-line power flow changes. The output of the controller is u1, u2 and u3
control signals. The expression of the input signal is given in Eq. (1)–(3)12,13.
Figure 1. Three area interconnected power generating system Transfer function model with PID controller.
Vol.:(0123456789)
ACE1 = B1 f 1+ Ptie12 (1)
ACE2 = B2 f 2+ Ptie13 (2)
ACE3 = B3 f 3+ Ptie23 (3)

where ACE1, ACE2, ACE3 represent ACE in areas 1, 2 and 3. B1, B2 and B3 represent frequency bias constant
in areas 1, 2 and 3 correspondingly. ∆f is denoted as frequency deviation in areas 1,2 and 3 respectively. ∆Ptie
represents the deviation of power flow in the tie-line between connected power system areas 1 to 2, area 2 to 3
and area 3 to1.
Design of controller and cost function

PID controller. The PID controller output is the combination of proportional, integral, and derivative con-
trol actions61. The proportional controller takes care of and reduces the steady state error in system response62–65.
The integral controller reduces the settling time and the derivative controller is responsible for the stability of the
entire system at the time of emergencies66–69. This combination reduces the consequence of a disturbance and
shortens the time it takes for the frequency level to return to its set point in all critical s ituations70. Moreover, PID
is the most simple industrial controller for solving critical i ssues6,71–75.
PID controller configuration is shown in Fig. 2. It contains three controllers namely, proportional, integral
and derivative. The input of the secondary controller is area control error (ACE) and based on the error signal
it generates the required control signal (delPref) to power generating system for frequency regulation. Therefore,
the controller design with suitable gain values plays a vital part to achieve a healthier controller response during
sudden load d emand13,15.
FOPID controller. The main modification between PID controller and FOPID controller is that the order of
the FOPID controller is not an integer o ne76–78. Based on this characteristic, it provides an extra degree of free-
dom for tuning controller gain values and its performance is superior compared to conventional PID controller.
Regarding the above characteristics of FOPID controller over conventional PID controller, it receives a consider-
able amount of attention over fast few years. Podlubny introduces the concept of FOPID controller in76,77. The
transfer function of FOPID controller is given as follows:
Ki
G(s)FOPID = Kp + + Kd Sµ (4)
S
The gain values of proportional, integral and derivative controllers are represented as Kp, Ki and K
d. λ, µ rep-
resents the order of integral (I) and derivative (D) controller, respectively. Figure 3 demonstrates the structure
of the proposed FOPID controller.
The dynamic response of the controller should provide quick relaxation time with minimal values of peak
over and undershoot during sudden load demand. From the literature review, it is undoubtedly evident that
many nature-inspired algorithms are presented to obtain optimal gain values of the controller. In this work,
SCIA and ASIA optimization techniques are proposed to optimize controller gain values with four dissimilar
cost functions and are compared with well-mature optimizers namely GA and GWO. The cost functions used
are ISE, IAE, ITAE and ITSE. To design the regulator, the cost function is initially defined based on the essential
description and constraint.
Expression for each cost function is given in Eq. (5)–(8)13–15.
Integral squared error
Figure 2. Arrangement of PID controller.
Vol:.(1234567890)
Figure 3. Arrangement of FOPID controller.
T
J = ∫(�fi,j + �Ptie⇄⇄⇄ i,j )2 dt (5)
o
Integral time squared error

T
J = ∫ t.(�fi,j + �Ptie⇄⇄⇄ i,j )2 dt (6)
o
Integral absolute error

T
(7)

J = ∫ fi,j + Ptie⇄⇄⇄ i,j dt
o
Integral time absolute error

T
(8)

J = ∫ t.fi,j + Ptie⇄⇄⇄ i,j dt
o
where J = performance index, t = simulation time, ∆f = frequency deviations, ∆Ptie = tie-line power deviations.
Meta‑heuristic optimization techniques (MOTs)

In AGC of the power system, area control error acts as the input for the controller to generate the required
control signal that complies with the desired output response during the sudden load disturbance in the system.
The simulation process ended after reaching maximum iteration and the system yield a better response at the
time of sudden load demand situations in the power system. Different MOTs have been developed and applied
in recent years to address numerous dynamic computational issues and provide solutions for LFC problems79.
Moreover, MOTs have better flexibility compared to conventional optimization methods and it deals with vari-
ous complex optimization problems effectively such as blade pitch control problem in wind energy fi eld71,80–84,
maximum power point tracking in photovoltaic-based energy fi eld85–95 and energy management schemes in
renewable energy-based electrical power s ystems96–100.
Despite MOTs being utilized in various applications. However, there is no single MOT that can solve all
optimization problems24,25. A population-based meta-heuristic approach, which is the actual GWO value, is
suggested in101. It can be successfully extended to many functional implementations due to the GWO algorithm’s
simplicity, consistency, and efficiency101. Many improvements have subsequently been made to the original GWO
algorithm. These modifications, however, use binary or decimal encoders to place the GW; information on the
individual genes is also minimal. The simple GWO, therefore has recently been suggested as a modern MOT to
solve numerous optimization p roblems102,103.
In the proposed research work, GWO technique is developed to obtain optimal controller gain values in
LFC of a multi-area power-generating system network. GWO technique is used to solve nonconvex engineering
optimization problems. In nature, it replicates the social stratum and chasing system of grey wolves. The grey
wolves are split into four primary levels. Leaders are the first-level wolves and their duty is decision-making.
Decisions or other actions are made by the second-tier wolves. Scouts, sentinels, elders, hunters, and caretakers
are the third-level wolves who perform orders but can direct other underlying entities and their duties. In all the
wolves, in the fourth stage wolves act as an executor.
Optimized gain values are collected by applying four types of cost functions which are IAE, ITAE, ISE and
ITSE. The performance of GWO-PID controller is verified by comparing it against GA-PID controller’s perfor-
mance based on the same system18. The details of the proposed algorithm and optimized gain values are given
in the following section.
Grey Wolf optimization. The Grey Wolf Optimization technique is a most recently developed MOTs based
on the hunting behavior and leadership hierarchy nature of grey wolves. GWO is the freshest metaheuristics
Vol.:(0123456789)
swarm intelligence computational method. Due to its attractive characteristics over other swarm computational
intelligence techniques. In addition, it is simple to use, more flexible and scalable. Due to these reasons, GWO
has nowadays gained an enormous research interest with tremendous listeners from numerous domains in engi-
neering. There are a greater number of factors considered at the time of developing a genetic algorithm for
optimization. Many normal parameters value can be customized to affect the performance. Such as variable
specification, tight variable bounds, weighting strategies and constraints. which may slow down the optimiza-
tion process.
The major role of MOT algorithms is to find global optima while avoiding being stuck in local optima. The
proposed GWO technique is robust, simple and it has been developed to solve various complex optimization
issues101–103. In GWO technique, the group of grey wolves is classified into four different groups such as alpha
(α), beta (β), omega (ω) and delta (δ).
The hunting manners are divided into the following three steps:
Step 1: Tracking, Hurtling and approaching the prey.
Step 2: Surrounding and distressing prey till it stops moving.
Step 3: Aggressive prey.
The surrounding behavior is represented by the following mathematical e xpression101:
−
→ − →− → −
→

D = C .XP (t) − X (t) (9)
−
→ −
→ −
→− →
X (t + 1) = X p (t) − A . D (10)
−
→ −
→
In these above equations XP—indicates the prey position vector,— X signifies the grey wolf position vector,
−
→ −
→
A and C vectors are coefficients and t represents the current iteration.
−
→
A = 2−
→ r 1−−
a .−
→ →
a (11)
−
→
C = 2.−
→
r2 (12)
−
→α Value decreases linearly from 2 to 0 during iteration and r 1, and r 2 indicate the random numbers which
lie in the range of 0 to 1. During the optimization process, values of ω wolves revise their positions around α, β
and δ. Based on these values,ω wolves are repositioned.
The updated mathematical models of wolves’ positions are determined as per the following20–22:
−
→ −→ −→ −
→

D α = C 1. X α − X (13)
−
→ −→ − → −
→

D β = C 2. X β − X (14)
−
→ −→ − → −
→

D δ = C 3. X δ − X (15)
−
→ −
→ −
→ − →
X 1 = X α − A 1. D α (16)
−
→ −
→ −
→ − →
X 2 = X β − A 2. D β (17)
−
→ −
→ −
→ − →
X 3 = X δ − A 3. D δ (18)
−
→ −
→ −
→
−
→ X1+ X2+ X3
X (t + 1) = (19)
3
−
→ − → − → −
→− →− → −
→ − → − →
where→Xα, Xβ , Xδ are signifies the position of the, β, and δ respectively, C1, C2, C3 and A1, A2, A3 represent vec-
−
tors,(X) indicates the current solution position and the number of iterations is represented by (t). Then, based
on the position’s
−
→ values of α, β and δ the ω wolves update
→ their positions regularly.
−
The A which represents the random vector and C which represents the adaptive vector used to assist the
algorithm with the local optimization value (prey). The half of iterations are committed to investigation, if |A > 1|,
the value of A is decreased from A > 1 over the course of the iteration. The value of C is in the iteration value
range of 2 to 0. When the value of C is greater than 1, the vector C starts exploration. In between, the remaining
other half of the iterations are dedicated to exploitation when |A|< 1 exists. When the condition C < 1 occurs,
exploitation is c onfirmed101,102.
The steps followed by GWO algorithm during PID controller gain value optimization are as f ollows102–104.
Step 1: Start the process.
Step 2: Initialize GWO population.
Step 3: Calculate the fitness function of each search agent.
Step 4: Update the position of the current agent a, A and C.
Vol:.(1234567890)
Step 5: All search agents’ fitness is calculated.

Step 6: Check if the satisfied condition is reached or not.
Step 7: Go to Step 4 if, No and repeat.
Step 8: Display optimal PID gain values, if Yes.
Step 9: Stop.
Sine cosine inspired algorithm. Mirjalili104 developed a sine cosine-inspired algorithm based on the sine
cosine laws. The random solutions are generated automatically in the first population (controller gain values in
the form of a variable vector) by the software. The best locations are defined based on the fitness function with
the help of search agents for the minimization of area control error. With the support of this new position P is
obtained by assessing the entire population in search agent.
The mathematical modeling of SCIA technique is developed based on search agent updating104, as depicted
in the below Eq. (20).

 Xit − (R1 sin(2πR2 )�2R3 Pit − Xit �k ≤ 0.5
� �
t+1
Xi = (20)
 t
Xi − (R1 cos(2πR2 )�2R3 Pit − Xit �k > 0.5
� �
In the above equation k,R2 & R3 are randomly generated random values, in addition R1 is calculated with the
support of Eq. (21).
S
R1 = S − t (21)
tmax
In the above t and tmax is pointing out the iterations number and maximum value, whereas S represents
constant value.
Figure 4 denotes SCIA technique and its methodology that depends on a circular pattern. In that center of
the circle, it is denoted that the best solution and remaining feasible solutions are available outside. The limita-
tions and constraints for operations are represented in the border of the circle. The variable vector upper and
lower limits are denoted in the borders of each segment. In addition, two sub-areas are divided and assumed to
discover potential areas of Xi solutions.
The motion direction of X_i^ ( P position is outward when R_1 value < 1 and inward when R_1 is > 1) is
defined using control factor R1. Based on the R1 and R2 values the inward and outward movements of Xi are
determined within the range of 0 to" 2π". Within those probabilistic weights, P is defined using R3. Also switching
factor k between two parts (sine and cosine) is determined randomly as per Eq. (20) and the random number
Ki is (0:1).
At the time of Xi movement, the boundaries are defined in the range of [-1, + 1] to achieve Pbest position
and each search space exploited by the algorithm. The search space is exploited using Pbest position. The steps
involved in SCIA methodology are clearly shown in the below flow chart Fig. 5.
Atom search inspired algorithm. Based on the behavior of atomic dynamics, the atom search-inspired
algorithm (ASIA) is developed in 2018 by Zhao et al.105. ASIA is developed to mimic the atomic motion model
because it follows certain molecular mechanics standards. In the atmosphere, all substances include atoms.
Atoms are bounded by bonds (covalent) and transformed into molecules. There are two types of forces gener-
ated within the atom, such as attractive and repulsive forces. The interactions and forces are developed because
of the gap between atoms. Whenever the gap between atoms decreases equally repulsive force increases between
them. The frequency of atoms increases when the gap between atoms increases105–108. By using the constraint
force (CF), the flow of motion of the atom is controlled and with the support of interactive forces (IF), the
motion action is induced in atoms. The value of acceleration is calculated by applying the second law of Newton
and it is given by:
αi = (Fi + Gi )/mi (22)
Figure 4. SCIA Searching sub-areas.
Vol.:(0123456789)
Figure 5. SCIA Optimization Algorithm.
In the above equation αi signifies the acceleration of ith atom, Fi printouts the interaction force, Gi indicates
constraint force and mi represents the mass of the ith atom. The motion of the atom due to forces is shown in
Fig. 6108.
y105–108:
The velocity and position of ith atom at (t + 1) iteration are given b
Velocity i d(t+1) = rand d Velocity i d(t+1) + Ai d(t) (23)
atomi d(t+1) = atomi d(t) + velocity i d(t+1) (24)

The enhancement of exploration and exploitation at the time of the initial and final process of iterations had
been validated by the authors o f105–108.
The tuning of the controller gain values by applying ASIA techniques follows the following phases:
Phase 1: Start.
Phase 2: Initialize atoms’ position and velocity.
Phase 3: Check criterion is reached or not. If yes go to phase 9. Otherwise, go to the next phase.
Phase 4: Calculate atoms fitness and best atom.
Phase 5: Calculate the mass of the atom.
Vol:.(1234567890)
Figure 6. The motion of the atom due to CF and IF.
Phase 6: Find K neighbors for each atom.

Phase 7: Calculate the force (interaction and constraint).
Phase 8: Update the position of the atom.
Phase 9: Update the velocity of the atom.
Phase 10: Return to the best atom.
Phase 11: Stop.
Figure 7 shows the convergence curves for applying the optimization methodologies ASIA, SCIA, and GWO
in addition to GA with the pre-specified constraints on the interconnected power system using ITSE cost func-
tion. From this figure, it is noted that for the same number of iterations (300) and the same number of search
agents (100), ASIA converges faster than SCIA, GWO and GA methodologies in terms of minimum iterations
number and low computation time. Moreover, ASIA needs only 33 iterations, whereas SCIA, GWO and GA
require 41, 57 and 137 iterations to reach the optimal objective function value, respectively.
By applying ASIA technique, the controller gain values are optimized and the respective gain values are listed
in Tables 4 and 6. The GA-PID, GWO-PID, ASIA-PID and SCIA-PID controllers with various objective func-
tions are dispatched in Tables 1, 2, 3 and 4. The gain parameters of ASIA-FOPID and SCIA-FOPID controllers
are given in Tables 5 and 6.
Simulation result and discussion

The model (Simulink) of the proposed power-generating network is designed and demonstrated by using MAT-
LAB/SIMULINK environment by considering PID and FOPID controllers as secondary controllers. The PID
controller’s gain values are optimized using SCIA, ASIA, GWO and GA algorithms with four different cost func-
tions by considering 1% sudden load pattern (SLP) in area 1 is given in Tables 1, 2, 3, and 4. Similarly, FOPID
controller parameters (gain values) are optimized by applying SCIA, ASIA technique with four dissimilar cost
functions. The simulation results are compared and evaluated in the following sections:
Analysis of GA‑based PID controller behavior. Figure 8 illustrates the response of area 1 (thermal)
frequency deviations by considering GA-optimized gain values with four different cost functions. Based on the
comparison, it is undeniably observed that compared to other cost features, the PID controller with ISE provides
a quicker settled response.
Figure 7. convergence curves of the applied optimization techniques for ITSE cost function.
Vol.:(0123456789)
GA
Cost function/controller gain IAE ISE ITAE ITSE
Kp1 − 1.2077 − 0.3623 − 1.2639 − 0.6528
Ki1 − 0.1296 − 0.4369 − 0.2782 − 0.3828
Kd1 − 1.4253 − 1.0438 − 1.5719 − 1.6603
Kp2 − 0.8588 − 0.9991 − 1.6123 − 1.98
Ki2 − 0.3143 − 0.4292 − 0.3633 − 0.2841
Kd2 − 0.9982 − 1.0593 − 0.5691 − 0.0228
Kp3 − 0.5880 − 1.3855 − 1.0372 − 0.9267
Ki3 − 0.1848 − 0.0082 − 0.2240 − 0.1681
Kd3 − 0.8567 − 0.4770 − 0.5023 − 1.2302
Settling time (s) 153.1791 113.9218 130.1834 132.6339
Table 1. Parameters of PID controller by applying GA method with various cost functions. Significant values
are in [bold].
GWO
Kp1 − 0.5074 − 1.6995 − 0.8044 − 0.8177
Ki1 − 0.0104 − 0.2139 − 0.1068 − 0.3081
Kd1 − 1.3125 − 1.7371 − 1.9677 − 0.2504
Kp2 − 1.1145 − 1.5442 − 1.9083 − 0.9705
Ki2 − 0.2475 − 0.2365 − 0.2388 − 0.1893
Kd2 − 1.7634 − 0.0026 − 1.5031 − 0.7088
Kp3 − 0.0551 − 1.5897 − 0.8096 − 1.2603
Ki3 − 0.0835 − 0.0775 − 0.2898 − 0.0676
Kd3 − 1.5751 − 0.6098 − 1.3102 − 0.9499
Settling time (s) 155.2114 133.7831 295.4874 83.7516
Table 2. Parameters of PID controller by applying GWO method with various cost functions. Significant
values are in [bold].
SCIA
Kp1 1.97 1.58 1.80 1.48
Ki1 0.42 0.19 0.48 0.45
Kd1 1.33 0.52 0.87 0.96
Kp2 1.29 1.28 0.37 0.95
Ki2 0.23 0.40 0.27 0.38
Kd2 1.88 1.48 1.55 1.43
Kp3 1.49 1.21 0.44 0.09
Ki3 0.08 0.08 0.03 0.03
Kd3 1.68 0.58 0.48 1.26
Settling time (s) 45.6 35.1 42.6 48.4
Table 3. Parameters of PID controller by applying SCIA method with various cost functions. Significant
Further investigation shows that ISE cost function with GA-tuned controller response settles faster com-
pared to other cost functions. The system responses are yields minimum damping oscillation during sudden
load demand.
Figure 9 shows a relaxation time comparison. It is noted that the GA-PID controller response based on ISE
settles faster compared to the GA-PID controller response based on other cost functions.
Table 7 represents the percentage of improvement of ISE-based GA-PID controller over IAE, ITAE and ITSE-
based GA-PID controller at the time unexpected load demand conditions.
Vol:.(1234567890)
ASIA
Kp1 0.95 1.40 1.70 1.34
Ki1 0.22 0.18 0.35 0.23
Kd1 1.02 0.48 0.55 1.24
Kp2 1.96 0.70 0.13 1.94
Ki2 0.34 0.45 0.17 0.06
Kd2 0.42 0.80 0.82 0.36
Kp3 0.51 0.16 0.25 0.40
Ki3 0.04 0.01 0.10 0.02
Kd3 1.59 0.28 0.89 1.72
Settling time (s) 65.1 64.1 42.8 30.31
Table 4. Parameters of PID controller by applying ASIA method with various cost functions. Significant
SCIA
Kp1 0.25 1.85 0.64 0.31
Ki1 0.21 0.48 0.47 0.10
Kd1 0.36 0.46 1.81 0.60
λ1 0.90 0.78 0.77 0.95
μ1 0.68 0.92 0.86 0.85
Kp2 0.19 0.16 0.58 0.53
Ki2 0.17 0.04 0.49 0.04
Kd2 0.21 0.29 1.23 0.05
Λ2 0.75 0.45 0.82 0.63
μ2 0.23 0.63 0.92 0.63
Kp3 0.87 0.13 0.19 0.72
Ki3 0.06 0.18 0.49 0.33
Kd3 1.79 1.28 1.96 0.16
λ3 0.40 0.54 0.41 0.36
μ3 0.42 0.77 0.70 0.30
Settling time (s) 25.69 24.78 25.30 25.05
Table 5. Optimized gain values of FOPID controller by utilizing SCIA method with various cost functions.
Significant values are in [bold].
Based on the values tabulated in Table 7, it is evident that ISE constructed GA-PID controller improves system
performance during emergency load demand conditions.
Analysis of GWO‑tuned PID controller behavior. Figure 10 represents the deviations in frequency by
considering GWO algorithm-tuned PID controller with four cost functions. Based on the results, it is detected
that ISE—GWO-PID controller provides a fast response and settles with lesser peak overshoot and undershoot
value compared to ITSE, IAE, and ITAE-based PID controllers.
Figure 11 displays the relaxation time comparison plot and it is apparent that the ITSE-based GWO-PID
controller response settles faster than the ISE, IAE, and ITAE-PID-based controllers’ response.
Table 8 provides a performance analysis of ITSE cost function tuned GWO-PID controller over the other
three cost functions (ISE. IAE, ITAE) based GWO-PID controller response during unexpected load variation in
the grid-connected power system. The values tabulated in Table 8 justify that ITSE-based GWO-PID controller
gives superior results over ISE, IAE, ITAE based controllers.
Analysis of SCIA‑tuned PID and FOPID controller behavior. The behavior of SCIA technique tuned
PID and FOPID controller is analyzed in this section under 1% SLP in area 1 with four different cost functions.
Analyzing the response comparisons in Fig. 12 and bar chart comparisons in Fig. 13 effectively depicted that
ISE cost function utilized SCIA technique tuned controller provides better controller performance compared to
additional cost functions (IAE, ITSE and ITAE). Moreover, Table 9 validate the Percentage of improvement of
ISE-based SCIA-PID controller over other cost functions.
Vol.:(0123456789)
ASIA
Kp1 1.28 0.52 1.39 1.34
Ki1 0.09 0.39 0.25 0.26
Kd1 1.98 0.15 0.62 0.74
λ1 0.94 0.8 0.94 0.83
μ1 1 0.84 0.63 0.73
Kp2 1.61 1.72 1.43 0.64
Ki2 0.04 0.31 0.32 0.38
Kd2 1.34 1.95 1.14 0.23
Λ2 0.95 0.1 0.95 0.99
μ2 0.39 0.48 0.11 0.82
Kp3 0.17 1.3 0.8 1.49
Ki3 0.3 0.38 0.13 0.11
Kd3 0.07 1.05 0.83 1.27
λ3 0.2 0.45 0.36 0.03
μ3 0.39 0.13 0.54 0.57
Settling time (s) 28.1 26.98 27.59 25.12
Table 6. Optimized gain values of FOPID controller by utilizing ASIA method with various cost functions.
Significant values are in [bold].
Figure 8. Area 1 Frequency deviation comparisons of GA PID controller response with dissimilar cost
functions.
Figure 9. Settling time comparisons for GA PID controller with dissimilar cost functions.
Vol:.(1234567890)
Cost function Relaxation time (s) Percentage of improvement (%)

IAE 153.8 25.93
ITAE 130.18 12.49
ITSE 132.63 14.11
Table 7. Percentage of improvement of ISE-based GA-PID controller over other cost functions.
Figure 10. Area 1 Frequency deviation comparisons of GWO-tuned PID controller response with different cost
functions.
Figure 11. Settling time comparisons for GWO-PID (IAE, ISE, ITAE & ITSE) controller.

IAE 155.2 46.01
ISE 133.8 37.37
ITAE 295.5 71.64
Table 8. Enhancement of ITSE-based GWO-PID controller over other cost functions.
The different functions created FOPID controller behavior in Fig. 14 and numerical values comparisons in
bar chart Fig. 15 proved that ISE cost functions based FOPID controller get a more superior response over the
other cost functions utilized controller response. Also, the improvement of ISE cost function-based response in
terms of settling time is given in Table 10.
Analysis of ASIA‑tuned PID and FOPID controller behavior. ASIA optimization technique is applied
to tune the gain values of PID and FOPID controllers in frequency regulation of interconnected power systems
Vol.:(0123456789)
0.005
0.000
-0.005
defF1 in Hz
-0.010
SCIA-IAE-PID
-0.015 SCIA-ISE-PID
SCIA-ITAE-PID
SCIA-ITSE-PID
-0.020
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time in sec
Figure 12. Area 1 Frequency deviation comparisons of SCIA-tuned PID controller response with different cost
functions.
Seling Time in seconds
60 48.4
45.6 42.6
35.1
40
20
0
IAE ISE ITAE ITSE
Cost Funcon
Figure 13. Settling time comparisons for SCIA-tuned PID controller with different cost functions.

IAE 45.6 23.03
ITAE 42.6 17.61
ITSE 48.4 27.48
Table 9. Percentage of improvement of ISE-based SCIA-PID controller over other cost functions.
with four different cost functions. The response comparisons of ASIA technique-tuned PID and FOPID control-
lers are investigated in this section.
The response assessments in Fig. 16 effectively show that ITSE-based ASIA PID controller provides more
enhanced response remaining functions (cost) employing minimal settling time. Also, respective numerical
values of improvement for ITSE-based ASIA-FOPID controller over other functions are highlighted in Fig. 17
and tabulated in Table 11.
The response comparisons of ASIA technique-tuned FOPID controller response with different cost func-
tion in area 1 is shown in Fig. 18. The numerical values of settling with different cost bar chart comparisons are
shown in Fig. 19.
By examining the response comparisons in Fig. 18 and bar chart comparisons in Fig. 19, ITSE cost function-
based ASIA FOPID controller provides better controller action over IAE, IAE and ITAE functions-based ASIA
FOPID controller. Also, the system performance is improved using ITSE cost function-based ASIA FOPID
controller by achieving minimal settling time during sudden load demand. Moreover, Table 12 validate the
Percentage of improvement of ITSE-based SCIA-PID controller over other cost functions.
Analysis of the proposed controllers’ robustness by changing system parameters and load pat-
tern. In this section, the robustness of the suggested optimization techniques and controllers are examined by
Vol:.(1234567890)
0.010
0.005
0.000
-0.005
defF1 in Hz
-0.010
-0.015
-0.020
SCIA-IAE - FOPID
-0.025 SCIA-ISE - FOPID
SCIA-ITAE- FOPID
-0.030 SCIA-ITSE- FOPID
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time in sec
Figure 14. Area 1 Frequency deviation comparisons of SCIA-tuned FOPID controller response with different
cost functions.
25.69
26
25.3
25.5 25.05
24.78
25
24.5
24
IAE ISE ITAE ITSE
Cost Funcon
Figure 15. Settling time comparisons for SCIA-tuned FOPID controller with different cost functions.

IAE 25.69 3.54
ITAE 25.3 2.06
ITSE 25.05 1.08
Table 10. Percentage of improvement of ISE-based SCIA-FOPID controller over other cost functions.
changing system parameters ± 25% and ± 50% from its nominal value and the load pattern change by 1%, 2%, 5%
and 10%. The details are given in the following two sub-sections.
1. System parameter change
In this section governor and turbine time constants are changed from their nominal value. The behavior
comparisons are given in Figs. 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, and 27.
Figures 20, 21, 22, and 23 show response comparisons of GA, GWO, ASIA and SCIA techniques tuned con-
troller performance when turbine time constant changes from its nominal value. It is effectively indicating that
the proposed optimization techniques are efficient under system parameter change scenarios.
Figures 24, 25, 26, and 27 show the response (are 1 frequency deviations) comparisons of GA, GWO, ASIA
and SCIA techniques tuned PID controller performance when governor time constant values change in the
analyzed power system.
The performance comparisons of ASIA and SCIA techniques tuned FOPID controller subjected to turbine
and governor time constant values change ± 25% and ± 50% from its nominal values are given in Fig. 28, 29, 30,
31, 32, 33, 34, and 35.
Based on the above robustness test analysis (Figs. 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34,
and 35), it is found that the analyzed optimization techniques (GA, GWO, ASIA and SCIA) and controller
Vol.:(0123456789)
0.010
0.005
0.000
defF1 in Hz
-0.005
-0.010
ASIA-IAE - PID
-0.015 ASIA-ISE - PID
ASIA-ITAE- PID
ASIA-ITSE- PID
-0.020
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time in sec
Figure 16. Area 1 Frequency deviation comparisons of ASIA-tuned PID controller response with different cost
functions.
65.1
80 64.1
60 42.8 30.31
40
20
0
IAE ISE ITAE ITSE
Cost Funcon
Figure 17. Settling time comparisons for ASIA-tuned PID controller with different cost functions.

IAE 65.1 53.44
ISE 64.1 52.71
ITAE 42.8 29.18
Table 11. Percentage of improvement of ISE-based GA-PID controller over other cost functions.
(PID and FOPID) provide better control action when system parameter changes occur from its nominal value
(± 25%, ± 50%). In this analysis turbine and governor time constants variations are considered for investigations.
2. Changing load pattern
The effectiveness of both proposed optimization techniques and controllers is examined by applying different
load patterns for both PID and FOPID controllers. The performance comparisons are depicted in Figures 36,
37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, and 43. The response of the system equipped with PID controller tuned by the suggested
optimization techniques subjected to different load patterns is elaborated in figures 36, 37, 38, and 39.
Figures 40, 41, 42, and 43 indicate the response comparisons of ASIA and SCIA techniques-based FOPID
controllers under different loading patterns (1%, 2%, 5% and 10%).
The main observation of the above robustness analysis (Figs. 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, and 43) originates that
the analyzed ASIA and SCIA optimization techniques based on FOPID controllers provide better control action
under different load patterns situations. In this analysis, the suggested well tunned FOPID controllers provide
and yield better controller action in the investigated system.
Vol:.(1234567890)
0.010
0.005
0.000
-0.005
defF1 in Hz
-0.010
-0.015
-0.020
ASIA-IAE - FOPID
-0.025 ASIA-ISE - FOPID
ASIA-ITAE- FOPID
-0.030 ASIA-ITSE- FOPID
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time in sec
Figure 18. Area 1 Frequency deviation comparisons of ASIA-tuned FOPID controller response with different
cost functions.
28.1
29 27.59
28 26.98
27
25.12
26
25
24
23
IAE ISE ITAE ITSE
Cost Funcon
Figure 19. Settling time comparisons for ASIA-tuned FOPID controller with different cost functions.

IAE 28.1 10.60
ISE 26.98 6.89
ITAE 27.59 8.95
Table 12. Percentage of improvement of ITSE-based ASIA-FOPID controller over other cost functions.
Conclusion
In this work, PID and FOPID controllers have been projected as secondary controllers for three area thermal-
hydro-wind interconnected power generating systems. The optimized gain values of PID controller are obtained
by implementing GA, GWO, SCIA and ASIA methods with four types of cost functions namely, IAE, ITAE, ISE
and ITSE.
Based on the simulation results, it is observed that ITSE cost function gives a fast settled response in GWO-
PID controller response and it improves the performance of the system by 46.01%, 37.37% and 71.64% over IAE,
ISE and ITAE cost functions based GWO-PID controllers, respectively.
Similarly, ISE-based GA-PID controller performance yields superior performance compared to other cost
functions tuned controllers by 25.93%, 12.49% and 14.11% over IAE, ITAE and ITSE-based GA-PID controller
performance, respectively.
The simulation results depict that ITSE cost function based ASIA optimized controller (PID) yields better
performance over the remaining cost functions employing better time domain parameters and also it improves
the response of the system by 53.44%, 52.71% and 29.18% over IAE, ISE and ITAE cost functions-based con-
trollers, respectively. Moreover, ITSE-based ASIA-FOPID controller provides superior response over other cost
functions (10.60%, 6.89% and 8.95% over IAE, ISE and ITAE).
Vol.:(0123456789)
0.01
0.00
delF1 in Hz
-0.01
GA tuned PID
GWO tuned PID
-0.02 ASIA tuned PID
SCIA tuned PID
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time in sec
Figure 20. Area 1 Frequency deviation comparisons of GA, GWO, ASIA, SCIA tuned PID controller response
with turbine time constant changes (− 25%) from its nominal value.
0.01
0.00
delF1 in Hz
-0.01
GA tuned PID
GWO tuned PID
SCIA tuned PID
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time in sec
with turbine time constant changes (− 50%) from its nominal value.
0.01
0.00
delF1 in Hz
-0.01
GA tuned PID
-0.02 GWO tuned PID
ASIA tuned PID
SCIA tuned PID
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time in sec
with turbine time constant changes (+ 25%) from its nominal value.
Vol:.(1234567890)
0.01
0.00
delF1 in Hz
-0.01
GA tuned PID
-0.02
GWO tuned PID
ASIA tuned PID
SCIA tuned PID
-0.03
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time in sec
with turbine time constant changes (+ 50%) from its nominal value.
0.01
0.00
delF1 in Hz
-0.01
GA tuned PID
-0.02 GWO tuned PID
ASIA tuned PID
SCIA tuned PID
-0.03
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time in sec
with governor time constant changes (− 25%) from its nominal value.
0.01
0.00
delF1 in Hz
-0.01
GA tuned PID
-0.02 GWO tuned PID
ASIA tuned PID
SCIA tuned PID
-0.03
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time in sec
with governor time constant changes (− 50%) from its nominal value.
Likewise, the different cost functions-based SCIA technique tuned PID controller behavior demonstrates
that ISE cost function-based SCIA-PID controller is superior to other cost functions based controllers (23.03%,
17.61% and 27.48% over IAE, ITAE and ITSE). Correspondingly, ISE cost function-based FOPID controller
tuned by SCIA provides better control action over the remaining cost functions-based controller response (3.54%,
2.06% and 1.08% over IAE, ITSE and ITAE).
This proposed article indicates that the proposed ISE cost function-based GA- PID, SCIA – PID and FOPID
controllers in addition to ITSE-based GWO-PID, ASIA-PID and FOPID controllers outperformed well than
other cost functions based controllers for multi-area interlinked power system with renewable power plant even
in the case of system parameters change and different loading conditions.
Vol.:(0123456789)
0.01
0.00
delF1 in Hz
-0.01
GA tuned PID
GWO tuned PID
-0.02
ASIA tuned PID
SCIA tuned PID
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time in sec
with governor time constant changes (+ 25%) from its nominal value.
0.01
0.00
delF1 in Hz
-0.01
GA tuned PID
-0.02
GWO tuned PID
ASIA tuned PID
SCIA tuned PID
-0.03
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time in sec
with governor time constant changes (+ 50%) from its nominal value.
0.00
-0.05
delF1 in Hz
-0.10
-0.15
ASIA tuned FOPID

SCIA tuned FOPID
-0.20
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time in sec
Figure 28. Area 1 Frequency deviation comparisons of ASIA, SCIA tuned FOPID controller response with
governor time constant changes (− 25%) from its nominal value.
Vol:.(1234567890)
0.00
-0.05
delF1 in Hz
-0.10
-0.15
ASIA tuned FOPID

SCIA tuned FOPID
-0.20
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time in sec
governor time constant changes (− 50%) from its nominal value.
0.00
-0.05
delF1 in Hz
-0.10
-0.15
ASIA tuned FOPID

SCIA tuned FOPID
-0.20
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time in sec
Figure 30. Area 1 Frequency deviation comparisons ASIA, SCIA tuned FOPID controller response with
governor time constant changes (+ 25%) from its nominal value.
0.00
-0.05
delF1 in Hz
-0.10
-0.15
ASIA tuned FOPID

SCIA tuned FOPID
-0.20
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time in sec
governor time constant changes (+ 50%) from its nominal value.
Vol.:(0123456789)
0.000
-0.005
delF1 in Hz
-0.010
ASIA tuned FOPID

-0.015
SCIA tuned FOPID
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time in sec
turbine time constant changes (− 25%) from its nominal value.
0.000
-0.005
delF1 in Hz
-0.010
ASIA tuned FOPID

-0.015
SCIA tuned FOPID
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time in sec
turbine time constant changes (− 50%) from its nominal value.
0.000
-0.005
delF1 in Hz
-0.010
-0.015
-0.020 ASIA tuned FOPID

SCIA tuned FOPID
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time in sec
Figure 34. Area 1 Frequency deviation comparisons ASIA, SCIA tuned FOPID controller response with
turbine time constant changes (+ 25%) from its nominal value.
Vol:.(1234567890)
0.00
-0.05
delF1 in Hz
-0.10
-0.15
ASIA tuned FOPID

SCIA tuned FOPID
-0.20
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time in sec
turbine time constant changes (+ 50%) from its nominal value.
0.02
0.01
0.00
delF1 in Hz
-0.01
GA tuned PID
-0.02 GWO tuned PID
ASIA tuned PID
SCIA tuned PID
-0.03
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time in sec
with 1% SLP.
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.00
delF1 in Hz
-0.01
-0.02
-0.03
GA tuned PID
-0.04 GWO tuned PID
ASIA tuned PID
-0.05 SCIA tuned PID
-0.06
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time in sec
with 2% SLP.
Vol.:(0123456789)
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00
delF1 in Hz
-0.02
-0.04
-0.06
-0.08 GA tuned PID

GWO tuned PID
SCIA tuned PID
-0.12
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time in sec
with 5% SLP.
0.12
0.08
0.04
0.00
delF1 in Hz
-0.04
-0.08
-0.12
-0.16 GA tuned PID

GWO tuned PID
SCIA tuned PID
-0.24
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time in sec
with 10% SLP.
0.005
0.000
-0.005
delF1 in Hz
-0.010
-0.015
ASIA tuned FOPID
SCIA tuned FOPID
-0.020
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time in sec
Figure 40. Area 1 Frequency deviation comparisons of ASIA, SCIA tuned FOPID controller response with 1%
SLP.
Vol:.(1234567890)
0.00
-0.01
delF1 in Hz
-0.02
-0.03
ASIA tuned FOPID
SCIA tuned FOPID
-0.04
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time in sec
SLP.
0.00
-0.02
delF1 in Hz
-0.04
-0.06
-0.08
ASIA tuned FOPID
SCIA tuned FOPID
-0.10
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time in sec
SLP.
0.00
-0.05
delF1 in Hz
-0.10
-0.15
ASIA tuned FOPID
SCIA tuned FOPID
-0.20
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time in sec
SLP.
Vol.:(0123456789)
Data availability
The authors would like to confirm that all data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this
published article.
Received: 26 September 2022; Accepted: 21 August 2023
References
1. Kundur, P. S. & Malik, O. P. Power System Stability and Control (McGraw-Hill Education, 2022).
2. Kothari, D. P. & Nagrath, I. J. Power System Engineering (Tata McGraw-Hill, 2008).
3. Jagatheesan, K., Anand, B., Dey, N., & Ebrahim, M.A., Design of proportional-integral-derivative controller using stochastic
particle swarm optimization technique for single-area AGC including SMES and RFB units. In Proceedings of the Second Inter-
national Conference on Computer and Communication Technologies: IC3T 2015, 299–309, Vol. 2 (Springer India, 2016).
4. Jagatheesan, K., Anand, B. & Ebrahim, M. A. Stochastic particle swarm optimization for tuning of PID controller in load fre-
quency control of single area reheat thermal power system. Int. J. Electr. Power Eng. 8(2), 33–40 (2014).
5. Ebrahim, M. A., Mostafa, H. E., Gawish, S. A., & Bendary, F. M. Design of decentralized load frequency based-PID controller
using stochastic particle swarm optimization technique. In 2009 International Conference on Electric Power and Energy Conver-
sion Systems (EPECS), 1–6 (IEEE, 2009).
6. Ebrahim, M. A., Ali, A. M. & Hassan, M. M. Frequency and voltage control of multi area power system via novel particle swarm
optimization techniques. Int. J. Comput. Res. 24(4), 427–474 (2017).
7. Omar, M., Ebrahim, M. A., Ghany, A. A. & Bendary, F. Tuning of PID controller for load frequency control problem via harmony
search algorithm. Indones. J. Electr. Eng. Comput. Sci. 1(2), 255–263 (2016).
8. Ebrahim, M. A., Ghany, A. A. & Bendary, F. B. F. Reduced size harmony search algorithm for optimization. J. Electr. Eng. 16(1),
8–8 (2016).
9. Omar, M., Ghany, A. M. A. & Bendary, F. Harmony search based PID for multi area load frequency control including boiler
dynamics and nonlinearities. WSEAS Trans. Circuits Syst 14, 407–414 (2015).
10. Shivaie, M., Kazemi, M. G. & Ameli, M. T. A modified harmony search algorithm for solving load-frequency control of non-
linear interconnected hydrothermal power systems. Sustain. Energy Technol. Assess. 10, 53–62 (2015).
11. Sathya, M. R. & Ansari, M. M. T. Load frequency control using Bat inspired algorithm based dual mode gain scheduling of PI
controllers for interconnected power system. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 64, 365–374 (2015).
12. Sahu, R. K., Panda, S. & Padhan, S. A hybrid firefly algorithm and pattern search technique for automatic generation control of
multi area power systems. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 64, 9–23 (2015).
13. Padhan, S., Sahu, R. K. & Panda, S. Application of firefly algorithm for load frequency control of multi-area interconnected
power system. Electric Power Compon. Syst. 42(13), 1419–1430 (2014).
14. Prakash, S. & Sinha, S. K. Simulation based neuro-fuzzy hybrid intelligent PI control approach in four-area load frequency
control of interconnected power system. Appl. Soft Comput. 23, 152–164 (2014).
15. Farhangi, R., Boroushaki, M. & Hosseini, S. H. Load–frequency control of interconnected power system using emotional
learning-based intelligent controller. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 36(1), 76–83 (2012).
16. Ali, A., Ebrahim, M. A. & Hassan, M. M. Control of single area power system based on evolutionary computation techniques.
Space 16, 19 (2015).
17. Elgerd, O. I. Electric energy systems theory: An introduction. (McGraw-Hill, New York, NY, USA, 1982).
18. Jagatheesan, K., Anand, B., Dey, N. & Ashour, A. S. Artificial intelligence in performance analysis of load frequency control in
thermal-wind-hydro power systems. Artif. Intell. 6(7), 203–212 (2015).
19. Kumari, N., & Jha, A. N. Particle swarm optimization and gradient descent methods for optimization of pi controller for AGC
of multi-area thermal-wind-hydro power plants. In 2013 UKSim 15th International Conference on Computer Modelling and
Simulation, 536–541 (IEEE, 2013).
20. Anand, B. & Jeyakumar, A. E. Fuzzy logic based load frequency control of hydrothermal system with non-linearities. Int. J. Electr.
Power Eng. 3(2), 112–118 (2009).
21. Farook, S. & Raju, P. S. AGC controllers to optimize LFC regulation in deregulated power system. Int. J. Adv. Eng. Technol. 1(5),
278 (2011).
22. Sahu, B. K., Pati, T. K., Nayak, J. R., Panda, S. & Kar, S. K. A novel hybrid LUS–TLBO optimized fuzzy-PID controller for load
frequency control of multi-source power system. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 74, 58–69 (2016).
23. Khooban, M. H. & Niknam, T. A new intelligent online fuzzy tuning approach for multi-area load frequency control: Self Adap-
tive Modified Bat Algorithm. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 71, 254–261 (2015).
24. Luo, Q., Zhang, S., Li, Z. & Zhou, Y. A novel complex-valued encoding grey wolf optimization algorithm. Algorithms 9(1), 4
(2015).
25. Sharma, Y. & Saikia, L. C. Automatic generation control of a multi-area ST–Thermal power system using Grey Wolf Optimizer
algorithm based classical controllers. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 73, 853–862 (2015).
26. Chown, G. A. & Hartman, R. C. Design and experience with a fuzzy logic controller for automatic generation control (AGC).
IEEE Trans. Power Syst. 13(3), 965–970 (1998).
27. Djukanovic, M., Novicevic, M., Sobajic, D. J. & Pao, Y. P. Conceptual development of optimal loas frequency control using
artificial neural networks and fuzzy set theory. Int. J. Eng. Intell. Syst. Electr. Eng. Commun. 3(2), 95–108 (1995).
28. Das, D. C., Roy, A. K. & Sinha, N. GA based frequency controller for solar thermal–diesel–wind hybrid energy generation/
energy storage system. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 43(1), 262–279 (2012).
29. Abido, M. A. Optimal design of power-system stabilizers using particle swarm optimization. IEEE Trans. Energy Convers. 17(3),
406–413 (2002).
30. Gozde, H., Taplamacioglu, M. C. & Kocaarslan, I. Comparative performance analysis of Artificial Bee Colony algorithm in
automatic generation control for interconnected reheat thermal power system. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 42(1), 167–178
(2012).
31. Saikia, L. C. & Sahu, S. K. Automatic generation control of a combined cycle gas turbine plant with classical controllers using
firefly algorithm. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 53, 27–33 (2013).
32. Dash, P., Saikia, L. C. & Sinha, N. Comparison of performances of several Cuckoo search algorithm based 2DOF controllers in
AGC of multi-area thermal system. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 55, 429–436 (2014).
33. Gheisarnejad, M. An effective hybrid harmony search and cuckoo optimization algorithm based fuzzy PID controller for load
frequency control. Appl. Soft Comput. 65, 121–138 (2018).
34. Yesil, E. Interval type-2 fuzzy PID load frequency controller using Big Bang-Big Crunch optimization. Appl. Soft Comput. 15,
100–112 (2014).
35. Sahu, R. K., Sekhar, G. C. & Panda, S. DE optimized fuzzy PID controller with derivative filter for LFC of multi source power
system in deregulated environment. Ain Shams Eng. J. 6(2), 511–530 (2015).
Vol:.(1234567890)
36. Guha, D., Roy, P. K. & Banerjee, S. Load frequency control of large scale power system using quasi-oppositional grey wolf
optimization algorithm. Eng. Sci. Technol. Int. J. 19(4), 1693–1713 (2016).
37. Gozde, H. & Taplamacioglu, M. C. Automatic generation control application with craziness based particle swarm optimization
in a thermal power system. Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 33(1), 8–16 (2011).
38. Magdy, G., Mohamed, E. A., Shabib, G., Elbaset, A. A. & Mitani, Y. SMES based a new PID controller for frequency stability of
a real hybrid power system considering high wind power penetration. IET Renew. Power Gener. 12(11), 1304–1313 (2018).
39. Topno, P. N. & Chanana, S. Load frequency control of a two-area multi-source power system using a tilt integral derivative
controller. J. Vib. Control 24(1), 110–125 (2018).
40. Aoki, M. Control of large-scale dynamic systems by aggregation. IEEE Trans. Autom. Control 13(3), 246–253 (1968).
41. Holdsworth, L., Ekanayake, J. B. & Jenkins, N. Power system frequency response from fixed speed and doubly fed induction
generator-based wind turbines. Wind Energy Int. J. Progress Appl. Wind Power Convers. Technol. 7(1), 21–35 (2004).
42. Feliachi, A. Optimal decentralized load frequency control. IEEE Trans. Power Syst. 2(2), 379–385 (1987).
43. Farahani, M., Ganjefar, S. & Alizadeh, M. PID controller adjustment using chaotic optimisation algorithm for multi-area load
frequency control. IET Control Theory Appl. 6(13), 1984–1992 (2012).
44. Rout, U. K., Sahu, R. K. & Panda, S. Design and analysis of differential evolution algorithm based automatic generation control
for interconnected power system. Ain Shams Eng. J. 4(3), 409–421 (2013).
45. Ali, E. S. & Abd-Elazim, S. M. BFOA based design of PID controller for two area load frequency control with nonlinearities.
Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 51, 224–231 (2013).
46. Abd-Elazim, S. M. & Ali, E. S. Load frequency controller design of a two-area system composing of PV grid and thermal genera-
tor via firefly algorithm. Neural Comput. Appl. 30, 607–616 (2018).
47. Xi, L., Wu, J., Xu, Y. & Sun, H. Automatic generation control based on multiple neural networks with actor-critic strategy. IEEE
Trans. Neural Netw. Learn. Syst. 32(6), 2483–2493 (2020).
48. Xi, L., Yu, L., Xu, Y., Wang, S. & Chen, X. A novel multi-agent DDQN-AD method-based distributed strategy for automatic
generation control of integrated energy systems. IEEE Trans. Sustain. Energy 11(4), 2417–2426 (2019).
49. Xi, L. et al. A deep reinforcement learning algorithm for the power order optimization allocation of AGC in interconnected
power grids. CSEE J. Power Energy Syst. 6(3), 712–723 (2020).
50. Xi, L. et al. A virtual generation ecosystem control strategy for automatic generation control of interconnected microgrids. IEEE
Access 8, 94165–94175 (2020).
51. Xi, L., Zhang, Z., Yang, B., Huang, L. & Yu, T. Wolf pack hunting strategy for automatic generation control of an islanding smart
distribution network. Energy Convers. Manag. 122, 10–24 (2016).
52. Xi, L. et al. Smart generation control based on multi-agent reinforcement learning with the idea of the time tunnel. Energy 153,
977–987 (2018).
53. Xi, L., Zhou, L., Xu, Y. & Chen, X. A multi-step unified reinforcement learning method for automatic generation control in
multi-area interconnected power grid. IEEE Trans. Sustain. Energy 12(2), 1406–1415 (2020).
54. Xi, L., Zhang, L., Xu, Y., Wang, S. & Yang, C. Automatic generation control based on multiple-step greedy attribute and multiple-
level allocation strategy. CSEE J. Power Energy Syst. 8(1), 281–292 (2020).
55. Bhatta, S. K., Mohapatra, S., Sahu, P. C., Swain, S. C., & Panda, S. Load frequency control of a diverse energy source integrated
hybrid power system with a novel hybridized harmony search-random search algorithm designed Fuzzy-3D controller. Energy
Sour. Part A Recovery Util. Environ. Effects 1–22 (2021).
56. Sahu, P. C., Prusty, R. C., & Panda, S. Active power management in wind/solar farm integrated hybrid power system with AI-
based 3DOF-FOPID approach. Energy Sour. Part A Recovery Util. Environ. Effects 1–21 (2021).
57. Sahu, P. C., Prusty, R. C. & Sahoo, B. K. Modified sine cosine algorithm-based fuzzy-aided PID controller for automatic genera-
tion control of multiarea power systems. Soft. Comput. 24(17), 12919–12936 (2020).
58. Sahu, P. C., Baliarsingh, R., Prusty, R. C., & Panda, S. Automatic generation control of diverse energy source-based multiarea
power system under deep Q-network-based fuzzy-T2 controller. Energy Sour. Part A Recovery Util. Environ. Effects, 1–22 (2020).
59. Sahu, P. C., Prusty, R. C. & Panda, S. Approaching hybridized GWO-SCA based type-II fuzzy controller in AGC of diverse
energy source multi-area power system. J. King Saud Univ. Eng. Sci. 32(3), 186–197 (2020).
60. Sahu, P. C., Mishra, S., Prusty, R. C. & Panda, S. Improved-salp swarm optimized type-II fuzzy controller in load frequency
control of multi-area islanded AC microgrid. Sustain. Energy Grids Netw. 16, 380–392 (2018).
61. Ebrahim, M. A., Ayoub, B. A. A., Nashed, M. N. F. & Osman, F. A. M. A novel hybrid-HHOPSO algorithm based optimal com-
pensators of four-layer cascaded control for a new structurally modified AC microgrid. IEEE Access 9, 4008–4037 (2020).
62. Ebrahim, M. A., Becherif, M. & Abdelaziz, A. Y. PID-/FOPID-based frequency control of zero-carbon multisources-based
interconnected power systems underderegulated scenarios. Int. Trans. Electr. Energy Syst. 31(2), e12712 (2021).
63. Mousa, M. E., Ebrahim, M. A., & Moustafa Hassan, M. A. Optimal fractional order proportional—integral—differential con-
troller for inverted pendulum with reduced order linear quadratic regulator. In Fractional Order Control and Synchronization
of Chaotic Systems, 225–252 (2017).
64. Maher, M., Ebrahim, M. A., Mohamed, E. A. & Mohamed, A. Ant-lion optimizer based optimal allocation of distributed genera-
tors in radial distribution networks. Int. J. Eng. Inf. Syst. 1(7), 225–238 (2017).
65. Ebrahim, M. A., Elyan, T., Wadie, F. & Abd-Allah, M. A. Optimal design of RC snubber circuit for mitigating transient overvolt-
age on VCB via hybrid FFT/Wavelet Genetic approach. Electr. Power Syst. Res. 143, 451–461 (2017).
66. Ebrahim, M. A., Ahmed, M. N., Ramadan, H. S., Becherif, M. & Zhao, J. Optimal metaheuristic-based sliding mode control of
VSC-HVDC transmission systems. Math. Comput. Simul. 179, 178–193 (2021).
67. Mohamed, M. A. E. et al. Optimal energy management solutions using artificial intelligence techniques for photovoltaic empow-
ered water desalination plants under cost function uncertainties. IEEE Access 10, 93646–93658 (2022).
68. Ahmed, M. F., Ebrahim, M. A., El-Hadidy, M. A., & Mansour, W. M. Torsional oscillations mitigation for interconnected power
system via novel fuzzy control based braking resistor model. In 47th International Council on Large Electric Systems (CIGRE),
1–9 (2018).
69. Ebrahim, M. A., Aziz, B. A., Nashed, M. N. & Osman, F. A. Optimal design of proportional-resonant controller and its harmonic
compensators for grid-integrated renewable energy sources based three-phase voltage source inverters. IET Gener. Transm.
Distrib. 15(8), 1371–1386 (2021).
70. Ebrahim, M. A., Wadie, F. & Abd-Allah, M. A. Integrated fault detection algorithm for transmission, distribution, and microgrid
networks. IET Energy Syst. Integr. 1(2), 104–113 (2019).
71. Ebrahim, M. A. Towards robust non-fragile control in wind energy engineering. Indones. J. Electr. Eng. Comput. Sci. 7(1), 29–42
(2017).
72. Ebrahim, M. A., Aziz, B. A., Nashed, M. N. & Osman, F. A. Optimal design of controllers and harmonic compensators for three-
level cascaded control in stationary reference frame for grid-supporting inverters-based AC microgrid. Energy Rep. 8, 860–877
(2022).
73. Ebrahim, M. A., Aziz, B. A., Osman, F. A., & Nashed, M. N. Optimal PI based secondary control for autonomous Micro-Grid
via Particle Swarm Optimization technique. In 2018 Twentieth International Middle East Power Systems Conference (MEPCON),
1148–1155. (IEEE, 2018).
Vol.:(0123456789)
74. Ahmed, M. F., Ebrahim, M. A., El-Hadidy, M. A. & Mansour, W. M. Torsional oscillations mitigation via novel fuzzy control
based braking resistor model. Int. Electr. Eng. J. 7(3), 2173–2181 (2016).
75. Mohamed, M. A. E., Bendary, F. M. A., El-Metwally, K. A. M., & Ibrahim, W. M. M. Fuzzy stabilizer design for renewable energy
based distribution networks. In 22nd International Conference and Exhibition on Electricity Distribution (CIRED 2013), 1–4 (IET,
2013).
76. Podlubny, I. Fractional-order systems and PI/sup/spl lambda//D/sup/spl mu//-controllers. IEEE Trans. Autom. Control 44(1),
208–214 (1999).
77. Podlubny, I., Dorcak, L., & Kostial, I. On fractional derivatives, fractional-order dynamic systems and PI/sup/spl lambda//D/
sup/spl mu//-controllers. In Proceedings of the 36th IEEE Conference on Decision and Control, 4985–4990, Vol. 5 (IEEE, 1997).
78. Moornani, K. A. & Haeri, M. Robustness in fractional proportional–integral–derivative-based closed-loop systems. IET Control
Theory Appl. 4(10), 1933–1944 (2010).
79. Ranjan, M. & Shankar, R. A literature survey on load frequency control considering renewable energy integration in power
system: Recent trends and future prospects. J. Energy Storage 45, 103717 (2022).
80. Soued, S., Ebrahim, M. A., Ramadan, H. S. & Becherif, M. Optimal blade pitch control for enhancing the dynamic performance
of wind power plants via metaheuristic optimisers. IET Electr. Power Appl. 11(8), 1432–1440 (2017).
81. Ebrahim, M. A., Becherif, M. & Abdelaziz, A. Y. Dynamic performance enhancement for wind energy conversion system using
Moth-Flame Optimization based blade pitch controller. Sustain. Energy Technol. Assess. 27, 206–212 (2018).
82. Ebrahim, M. A., El-Metwally, K. A., Bendary, F. M. & Mansour, W. M. Transient stability enhancement of a wind energy dis-
tributed generation system by using fuzzy logic stabilizers. Wind Eng. 36(6), 687–700 (2012).
83. Ebrahim, M. A., Ramadan, H. S. & Soliman, M. Robust non-fragile approach to resilient design of PID-based blade pitch control
for wind energy conversion system. Asian J. Control 21(4), 1952–1965 (2019).
84. Ebrahim, M. A., Fattah, R. M. A., Saied, E. M. M., Maksoud, S. M. A. & El Khashab, H. Real-time implementation of self-adaptive
salp swarm optimization-based microgrid droop control. IEEE Access 8, 185738–185751 (2020).
85. Aouchiche, N., Aitcheikh, M. S., Becherif, M. & Ebrahim, M. A. AI-based global MPPT for partial shaded grid connected PV
plant via MFO approach. Sol. Energy 171, 593–603 (2018).
86. Ebrahim, M. A., Osama, A., Kotb, K. M. & Bendary, F. Whale inspired algorithm based MPPT controllers for grid-connected
solar photovoltaic system. Energy Procedia 162, 77–86 (2019).
87. Ebrahim, M. A., AbdelHadi, H. A., Mahmoud, H. M., Saied, E. M. & Salama, M. M. Optimal design of MPPT controllers for
grid connected photovoltaic array system. Int. J. Emerg. Electr. Power Syst. 17(5), 511–517 (2016).
88. Mohamed, R. G., Ebrahim, M. A., Bendary, F. M. & Osman, S. A. A. Transient stability enhancement for 20 MW PV power plant
via incremental conductance controller. Int. J. Syst. Dyn. Appl. 6(4), 102–123 (2017).
89. Aouchiche, N., Cheikh, M. A., Becherif, M., Ebrahim, M. A., & Hadjarab, A. Fuzzy logic approach based MPPT for the dynamic
performance improvement for PV systems. In 2017 5th International Conference on Electrical Engineering-Boumerdes (ICEE-B),
1–7 (IEEE, 2017).
90. Betti, A. M., Ebrahim, M. A., & Hassan, M. M. Modeling and control of stand-alone PV system based on Fractional-Order PID
Controller. In 2018 Twentieth International Middle East Power Systems Conference (MEPCON), 377–382 (IEEE, 2018).
91. Ebrahim, M. A., & Mohamed, R. G. Comparative study and simulation of different maximum power point tracking (MPPT)
techniques using fractional control & grey wolf optimizer for grid connected PV system with battery. In Electric Power Conver-
sion (IntechOpen, 2019).
92. Osman, S. A., Mohamed, R. G., Ebrahim, M. A. & Bendary, F. A. Optimal tuning of fuzzy logic controller parameters for incre-
mental conductance MPPT controller based on grey wolf optimizer algorithm. J. Al-Azhar Univ. Eng. Sector 12(45), 1417–1426
(2017).
93. Helal, S. A., Ebrahim, M. A., Rady, N. M. & Salama, M. M. Whale optimization algorithm based optimal MPPT of PV power
plant (Real Case Study). J. Electr. Eng. 12(3), 42–55 (2019).
94. Mohamed, R. G., & Ebrahim, M. A. Modeling, analysis, and control of wide distributed large-scale PV power plant using recent
optimization techniques. In Handbook of Research on Modeling, Analysis, and Control of Complex Systems, 477–497 (IGI Global,
2021).
95. Ebrahim, M. A. et al. Improving the performance of photovoltaic by using artificial intelligence optimization techniques. Int. J.
Renew. Energy Res. 11, 46–53 (2021).
96. Benmouna, A., Becherif, M., Depernet, D. & Ebrahim, M. A. Novel energy management technique for hybrid electric vehicle
via interconnection and damping assignment passivity based control. Renew. Energy 119, 116–128 (2018).
97. Elsisi, M., Bazmohammadi, N., Guerrero, J. M. & Ebrahim, M. A. Energy management of controllable loads in multi-area power
systems with wind power penetration based on new supervisor fuzzy nonlinear sliding mode control. Energy 221, 119867 (2021).
98. Ebrahim, M. A., Talat, B. & Saied, E. M. Implementation of self-adaptive Harris Hawks Optimization-based energy management
scheme of fuel cell-based electric power system. Int. J. Hydrog. Energy 46(29), 15268–15287 (2021).
99. Ahmed, M., Ebrahim, M. A., Ramadan, H. S. & Becherif, M. Optimal genetic-sliding mode control of VSC-HVDC transmission
systems. Energy Procedia 74, 1048–1060 (2015).
100. Ali, A. M., Ebrahim, M. & Hassan, M. M. Automatic voltage generation control for two area power system based on particle
swarm optimization. Indones. J. Electr. Eng. Comput. Sci. 2(1), 132 (2016).
101. Mirjalili, S., Mirjalili, S. M. & Lewis, A. Grey wolf optimizer. Adv. Eng. Softw. 69, 46–61 (2014).
102. Sulaiman, M. H., Mustaffa, Z., Mohamed, M. R. & Aliman, O. Using the gray wolf optimizer for solving optimal reactive power
dispatch problem. Appl. Soft Comput. 32, 286–292 (2015).
103. Komaki, G. M. & Kayvanfar, V. Grey Wolf Optimizer algorithm for the two-stage assembly flow shop scheduling problem with
release time. J. Comput. Sci. 8, 109–120 (2015).
104. Mirjalili, S. SCA: a sine cosine algorithm for solving optimization problems. Knowl. Based Syst. 96, 120–133 (2016).
105. Zhao, W., Wang, L. & Zhang, Z. Atom search optimization and its application to solve a hydrogeologic parameter estimation
problem. Knowl. Based Syst. 163, 283–304 (2019).
106. Khokhar, B., Dahiya, S., & Parmar, K. S. Atom search optimization based study of frequency deviation response of a hybrid
power system. In 2020 IEEE 9th Power India International Conference (PIICON), 1–5 (IEEE, 2020).
107. Zeng, F. & Shu, H. Fast atom search algorithm for reactive power optimization of power grid with high-penetration wind and
solar energies. Math. Probl. Eng. 2020, 1–15 (2020).
108. Shiva, C. K., Vedik, B., Kumar, R., & Kumar, K. S. Frequency stability of interconnected power systems using atom search
optimization algorithm. In IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, 042067, Vol. 981, No. 4 (IOP Publishing,
2020).
Author contributions
All authors have participated in (a) conception and design, or analysis and interpretation of the data; (b) draft-
ing the article or revising it critically for important intellectual content; and (c) approval of the final version.
Vol:.(1234567890)
Funding
Open access funding provided by The Science, Technology & Innovation Funding Authority (STDF) in coopera-
tion with The Egyptian Knowledge Bank (EKB).
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Correspondence and requests for materials should be addressed to M.A.E.M.
Reprints and permissions information is available at www.nature.com/reprints.
Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and
institutional affiliations.
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International
License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or
format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the
Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this
article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the
material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not
permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from
the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.
© The Author(s) 2023
Vol.:(0123456789)

Modern PID/FOPID Controllers For Frequency Regulation of Interconnected Power System by Considering Different Cost Functions

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Modern PID/FOPID Controllers For Frequency Regulation of Interconnected Power System by Considering Different Cost Functions

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Modern PID/FOPID Controllers For Frequency Regulation of Interconnected Power System by Considering Different Cost Functions

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

www.nature.

OPEN Modern PID/FOPID controllers

This article presents frequency regulation of an interconnected three-area power system

Scientific Reports | (2023) 13:14084 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-41024-5 1

Scientific Reports | (2023) 13:14084 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-41024-5 2

Investigated power system model

Scientific Reports | (2023) 13:14084 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-41024-5 3

ACE1 = B1 f 1+ Ptie12 (1)

ACE2 = B2 f 2+ Ptie13 (2)

ACE3 = B3 f 3+ Ptie23 (3)

Design of controller and cost function

Figure 2. Arrangement of PID controller.

Scientific Reports | (2023) 13:14084 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-41024-5 4

Figure 3. Arrangement of FOPID controller.

Integral time squared error

Integral absolute error

Integral time absolute error

Meta‑heuristic optimization techniques (MOTs)

Scientific Reports | (2023) 13:14084 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-41024-5 5

Scientific Reports | (2023) 13:14084 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-41024-5 6

Step 5: All search agents’ fitness is calculated.

Figure 4. SCIA Searching sub-areas.

Scientific Reports | (2023) 13:14084 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-41024-5 7

Figure 5. SCIA Optimization Algorithm.

Velocity i d(t+1) = rand d Velocity i d(t+1) + Ai d(t) (23)

atomi d(t+1) = atomi d(t) + velocity i d(t+1) (24)

Scientific Reports | (2023) 13:14084 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-41024-5 8

Figure 6. The motion of the atom due to CF and IF.

Phase 6: Find K neighbors for each atom.

Simulation result and discussion

Scientific Reports | (2023) 13:14084 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-41024-5 9

Scientific Reports | (2023) 13:14084 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-41024-5 10

Scientific Reports | (2023) 13:14084 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-41024-5 11

Scientific Reports | (2023) 13:14084 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-41024-5 12

Cost function Relaxation time (s) Percentage of improvement (%)

Cost function Relaxation time (s) Percentage of improvement (%)

Table 8. Enhancement of ITSE-based GWO-PID controller over other cost functions.

Scientific Reports | (2023) 13:14084 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-41024-5 13

Cost function Relaxation time (s) Percentage of improvement (%)

Scientific Reports | (2023) 13:14084 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-41024-5 14

Cost function Relaxation time (s) Percentage of improvement (%)

Scientific Reports | (2023) 13:14084 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-41024-5 15

Cost function Relaxation time (s) Percentage of improvement (%)

Scientific Reports | (2023) 13:14084 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-41024-5 16

Cost function Relaxation time (s) Percentage of improvement (%)

Scientific Reports | (2023) 13:14084 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-41024-5 17

Scientific Reports | (2023) 13:14084 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-41024-5 18

Scientific Reports | (2023) 13:14084 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-41024-5 19

ASIA tuned FOPID

Scientific Reports | (2023) 13:14084 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-41024-5 20

ASIA tuned FOPID

ASIA tuned FOPID

ASIA tuned FOPID

Scientific Reports | (2023) 13:14084 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-41024-5 21

ASIA tuned FOPID

ASIA tuned FOPID

-0.020 ASIA tuned FOPID

Scientific Reports | (2023) 13:14084 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-41024-5 22

ASIA tuned FOPID

ACE1 = B1 f 1+ Ptie12 (1)

ACE2 = B2 f 2+ Ptie13 (2)

ACE3 = B3 f 3+ Ptie23 (3)