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Tan et al.: Marine micro-phytoplankton of Singapore
RAFFLES BULLETIN OF ZOOLOGY Supplement No. 34: 78–96

Date of publication: 29 June 2016
http://zoobank.org/urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:866484F0-5681-4E09-9789-CD5739335FF0
Marine micro-phytoplankton of Singapore, with a review of harmful

microalgae in the region
Toh Hii Tan1, Chui Pin Leaw2, Sandric Chee Yew Leong3, Lay Peng Lim3, Siew Moon Chew3, Sing
Tung Teng4, Po Teen Lim2*
Abstract. A survey of marine phytoplankton in the Singapore Strait was carried out between May and June
2013, as part of an effort to determine the diversity of phytoplankton in Singapore’s coastal waters. A total of 34
microalgal samples were collected using a 20 μm-mesh plankton net and from coastal sediments. Living samples
and preserved samples in Lugol’s solution were identified to species as far as possible under the microscope. A
checklist of marine micro-phytoplankton was updated to encompass 270 taxa, including 49 new records from
Singapore waters. Some 37 species from 15 families were dinoflagellates, and 233 species from 50 families were
diatoms. Harmful microalgae, categorized as biotoxin-producers and fish killers, were also found in this survey.
These were in the genera Alexandrium, Amphidinium, Ceratium, Cochlodinium, Coolia, Dinophysis, Gambierdiscus,
Karenia, Karlodinium, Ostreopsis, Prorocentrum, Nitzschia, and Pseudo-nitzschia.
Key words. Diatoms; dinoflagellates; harmful; phytoplankton; microalgae; Singapore
INTRODUCTION two valves. Their siliceous cell wall sets them apart
from dinoflagellates, which only have a membranous cell
Phytoplankton, or plant plankton, refers to a group of wall. Dinoflagellates possess two flagella that are used in
microscopic unicellular cells containing photosynthetic locomotion and feeding. The shapes and patterns of their
pigments that convert light energy into chemical energy thecal membranous cell walls are used in identification
for the organisms’ activity, although some species are (Steidinger & Tangen, 1997).
mixotrophic (feeding on organic or inorganic compounds
as a source of energy) or phagotrophic (feeding on other Singapore is a small country situated about 100 km north
organisms). These microscopic cells form the basis of all of the equator, with a typical equatorial climate, having
marine food webs by acting as a food source for organisms temperatures ranging from 23 to 34°C annually. Rainfall is
from higher trophic levels. They release oxygen into the water mostly uniform throughout the year and not affected by the
as a byproduct of photosynthetic activity but consume oxygen Northeast or Southwest Monsoons (National Environment
due to respiration. Micro-phytoplankton is most abundant Agency, Singapore) although some months may be drier
in coastal regions, as these organisms are dependent upon than others. As an island state located in the South China
nutrient run-off from the terrestrial environment. Diatoms Sea between the Indian Ocean and Pacific Oceans, it is
and dinoflagellates dominate the phytoplankton in the marine one of the busiest ports in the world. Despite its status as a
environment (Hasle & Syvertsen, 1997). developed country, phytoplankton diversity along the 200
km coastline of water body of this country has yet to be
The term ‘diatom’ originated from the genus name Diatoma documented. Wee (1994) compiled a marine and freshwater
De Candolle (1805). They reproduce vegetatively by phytoplankton checklist of 292 species of diatoms and two
binary fission, and most are heterovalvate, i.e., comprising species of dinoflagellates. Subsequently, Pham et al. (2011)
updated the list to 292 diatoms and 15 dinoflagellate species.
During the Singapore Strait Biodiversity Workshop hosted

by the National Parks Board and National University of
1
Institute of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation, Universiti Malaysia
Sarawak, 94300 Kota Samarahan, Sarawak, Malaysia Singapore, phytoplankton sampling was conducted around
2
Bachok Marine Research Station, Institute of Ocean and Earth Sciences, University of
the Singapore waters, focusing on the Singapore Strait.
Malaya, 16310 Bachok, Kelantan, Malaysia; Email: [email protected]; poteenlim@ Phytoplankton samples were collected from various locations
gmail.com (*corresponding author)
and sediment samples were collected from the mudflats, with
Tropical Marine Science Institute, National University of Singapore, S2S, 18 Kent
3
the aim to survey and update the marine micro-phytoplankton
Ridge Road, Singapore 119227
checklist of Singapore waters. Potential harmful species were
Faculty of Resource Science and Technology, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, 94300
4
Kota Samarahan, Sarawak, Malaysia also identified and discussed in this study.
© National University of Singapore

ISSN 2345-7600 (electronic) | ISSN 0217-2445 (print)
78
RAFFLES BULLETIN OF ZOOLOGY 2016
MATERIAL AND METHODS The outer morphology of several naked dinoflagellates is

similar and lack diagnostic characters; this made species
Marine plankton samples were collected throughout the identification difficult and confusing. Often, observation
Singapore Strait by a 20 µm-mesh plankton net haul during of cells in cross-section under the transmission electron
the Singapore Strait Biodiversity Workshop between 20th microscope (TEM) is essential in species discrimination
May and 7th June 2013. Sediment samples were collected of naked dinoflagellates (Wilcox et al., 1982, Iwataki et
from the mud flats of intertidal areas in the Southern Islands al., 2010).
of Singapore.
Several diatom species in the genera Pseudo-nitzschia and
Live samples were observed with an Olympus IX51 inverted Nitzschia could not be distinguished under light microscopy.
microscope. Living cells, particularly naked dinoflagellates, Detailed examination of the diatom frustule structure by
were observed under the microscope and were identified scanning and transmission electron microscopes (SEM and
based on their shape, size and movement pattern. Aliquots TEM) is crucial in precise identification to species level
of samples were fixed with Lugol’s solution and observed (Yang et al., 2013, Smida et al., 2014, Teng et al., 2014,
under an Olympus BX51 compound microscope and cells Lim et al., 2013).
were documented using an Olympus DP72 digital camera.
Harmful microalgae. In this survey, harmful microalgae
RESULTS known to produce biotoxins and cause fish kills were
identified and documented. They belong to the following
Checklist of marine micro-phytoplankton in Singapore. genera:
A total of 37 dinoflagellate species from 15 families (Table
1) and 233 diatoms species from 50 families (Table 2) were Alexandrium (Halim, 1960). The dinoflagellate genus
documented in this study, of which 49 are new records in Alexandrium consists of more than 40 species and a third
Singapore. Micrographs were taken from the aliquot of of them are toxic. In Southeast Asia, A. tamiyavanichii
preserved samples taken back to the laboratory and compiled (previously known as A. cohorticula, Kodama et al., 1988) is a
separately for dinoflagellates (Fig. 1), pennate diatoms (Fig. noteworthy species. The species was responsible for Paralytic
2) and centric diatoms (Fig. 3). A checklist was compiled as Shellfish Poisoning (PSP) in Thailand (Tamiyavanich et al.,
shown in Tables 1 and 2, based on this survey and previous 1985), Malaysia (Usup et al., 2002a, Lim et al., 2006, Hii
work (Holmes et al., 2002; Holmes & Teo, 2002; Tang et et al., 2012, Lim et al., 2012b) and the Philippines (Bajarias
al., 2007; Lee et al., 2009; Pham et al., 2011b). et al., 2003), although its presence in other Southeast Asian
countries has not been confirmed. This species produces a
DISCUSSION wide range of neurotoxins from the saxitoxin (STX) family
that are sodium channel blockers in the mammalian nervous
Algae including phytoplankton, blue-green algae and system. Proliferation of this toxin producer accumulates in
macroalgae from Singapore were first compiled by Wee filter feeding organisms such as clams or oysters, which can
(1994), with a total of 585 species reported. The checklist be vectors of human intoxication. The victims of poisoning
was further augmented by Pham (2011) to 1056 species could be fatal if no urgent medical support is given to
based on scientific literature and specimens in the herbaria prevent respiratory failure. No antidote is available for the
in the Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research, Department treatment of PSP and the most useful treatment is to provide
of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore respiratory support and to naturally remove the toxin via
(now Lee Kong Chian Natural History Museum), Singapore induced vomiting or through urination (Acres & Gray, 1978).
Botanic Gardens and Public Utilities Board of Singapore
(Pham et al., 2011). The present study focus solely on the Four Alexandrium species occur in Singapore waters,
marine micro-phytoplankton collected from the Singapore i.e., Alexandrium leei (Pham et al., 2011a), A. affine,
Strait. In this survey, observations were based extensively A. tamiyavanichii and A. tamutum (this study, Table 1).
on living as well as preserved specimens. Alexandrium leei produces a heat-stable ichthyotoxin that
kills seabass and seahorse fingerlings (Tang et al., 2007)
Microscope-based species identification is based on the while A. tamiyavanichii is an STX producer responsible for
outer morphological characteristics. However, some fragile PSP events (Usup et al., 2002b, Lim et al., 2006, 2012b).
plankton, particularly the naked dinoflagellates, is hard to
preserve in good condition. Common fixatives, e.g., Lugol’s Amphidinium (Claperède & Lachmann, 1859). This
solution and saline ethanol, did not preserve the specimens dinoflagellate genus comprises 95 species, which include
well. Aldehyde fixatives, i.e., paraformaldehyde and symbionts with cnidarians, turbellarians and molluscs. Some
glutaraldehyde, are often used to preserve these specimens members of this genus cause blooms and produce hemolytic
and observed immediately to prevent sample degradation. toxins that can lead to fish kills (Yasumoto, 1990). These
Pigment content is one of the visible characteristics used ichthyotoxins (Yasumoto et al., 1987) induces temporary
in identifying species of Amphidinium and Cocholodinium paralysis in mice which may lead to death (Yasumoto et al.,
(Iwataki et al., 2007), which are all naked dinoflagellates, but 1980). Of the three known harmful Amphidinium species,
only fresh samples should be used to observe such features. i.e., A. carterae, A. klebsii and A. operculatum, A. carterae
79
Fig. 1. Dinoflagellates from the Singapore Strait. (A, B) Alexandrium affine (C) Gonyaulax sp. (D) Prorocentrum emarginatum (E)
Prorocentrum lima (F) Gonyaulax sp. (G) Dinophysis caudata (H) Protoperidinium pallidum (I) Prorocentrum micans (J) Ceratium furca
(K) Pyrodinium bahamense var. compressum (squashed theca plates). Scale bar = 20 µm.
80
Fig. 2. Pennate diatoms from the Singapore Strait. (A) Cymbella sp. (B–E) Nitzschia sp. (F) Achnanthes sp. (G) Nitzschia sp. (H–K)
Pleurosigma sp. (L) Gyrosigma sp. (M) Rhizosolenia sp. 1. (N) Pseudo-nitzschia sp.; (O–R) Cylindrotheca sp. (S, T) Synedra sp. (U,
V) Thallasiothrix sp. (W) Bacillaria paxillifera; (X) Licmophora sp. (Y) Rhoicosphenia sp. (Z) Plagiotropis sp. (AA–AC) Nitzschia sp.
(AD, AE) Amphiprora sp 1. (AF) Achnanthes sp. (AG, AH) Navicula sp. (AI) Nitzschia sp. (AJ) Flagilariopsis sp. (AK) Nitzschia sp.
Scale bar = 20 µm.
was found in this study (Table 1). Species in the same genus reports for the first time the occurrence of C. polykrikoides
was also reported from a neighbouring country (Tan et al., in Singapore waters (Table 1).
2013b). However, no blooms or fish kill events associated
to this genus have been reported thus far. Coolia (Meunier, 1919). The five recognised species in
this genus were reported from French Polynesia, New
Ceratium (Schrank, 1793). In the dinoflagellate genus Zealand, western Mediterranean, Southwestern Indian Ocean,
Ceratium, 53 species are recognized today. Species from this Caribbean Sea, South China Sea, East China Sea, Japan
genus produce ichthyotoxins (Mijares et al., 1985) which can and Southwest Pacific Ocean (Fukuyo, 1981; Faust, 1995;
cause hypoxia and anoxia (Zingone & Enevoldsen, 2000; Rhodes & Thomas, 1997; Hage et al., 2000; Penna et al.,
GEOHAB, 2001) and are also responsible for blooms that 2005; Leaw et al., 2010). Coolia is associated with ciguatera
cause massive fish kills (Lim et al., 2012b). The occurrence fish poisoning. Its members also possess cooliatoxin that can
of this genus has been reported from China, Vietnam, and induce hypothermia by affecting sodium channel activity,
Malaysia (Gómez et al., 2010; Lim et al., 2012b; Tan et leading to respiratory failure in mice and enlargement of the
al., 2013a; Chu et al., 2014). In this study, we identified spleen (Holmes et al., 1995, Rhodes et al., 2000, Rhodes et
Ceratium furca from the Singapore Strait (Table 1; Fig. 1). al., 2014), as well as mortality in Artemia salina (Rhodes &
Thomas, 1997). Two species have previously been described
Cochlodinium (Schütt, 1896). The genus Cochlodinium and documented from Malaysia, namely Coolia tropicalis
consists of some 40 species distributed in the coastal waters and C. malayensis (Leaw et al., 2010; Mohammad-Noor et
of Southeast Asia, North America and Europe (Anton et al., 2013). However, only one species, C. malayensis, was
al., 2008, Gobler et al., 2008, Kudela & Gobler, 2012). identified in this study based on culture specimens collected
Species belonging to this genus produce ichthyotoxins as from the Singapore Strait.
well as hemolytic toxins, which can cause fish mortalities
in cage cultures (Kim et al., 1999, Gobler et al., 2008, Dinophysis (Ehrenberg, 1839). Among the 128 taxonomically
Dorantes-Aranda et al., 2009, Kudela & Gobler, 2012). The accepted species, seven species are associated with diarrhetic
same toxins also cause mortality in bivalves (Gobler et al., shellfish poisoning (DSP). Commercially important bivalves
2008), impact coral growth (Bauman et al., 2010), as well are easily exposed to and contaminated by these toxic
as affect other phytoplankton (Tang & Gobler, 2010) and species as they share similar habitats. Human consumption
zooplankton (Jiang et al., 2009; Jiang et al., 2010). Blooms of these bivalves will result in human intoxication. Patients
of Cochlodinium polykrikoides have caused sea surface intoxicated with Dinophysis toxins (DTXs) and okadaic
discoloration in Malaysia (Anton et al., 2008, Adam et acid (OA) experience gastrointestinal illness, diarrhea,
al., 2011, Lim et al., 2012b), Brunei and the Philippines nausea, vomiting, and both toxins are known to be tumor
during the Northeast monsoon (Azanza et al., 2008), with promoters (Suganuma, 1988, Vale & Sampayo, 1999, Vale
cell densities reaching up to 6 million cells L-1. This study & Sampayo, 2000). Between 1995 and 1997, six isomers of
81
Fig. 3. Centric diatoms from the Singapore Strait. (A, B) Thalassiosira sp. (C, D) Cyclotella sp. (E) Chaetoceros sp. (F–K) Coscinodiscus
sp. (L–N) Cocconeis sp. (O) Amphora sp. (P) Bacteriastrum sp. (Q) Cyclotella sp. (R) Diplomenora sp. (S) Diploneis sp. (T) Mastogloia
sp. Scale bar =20 µm
okadaic acid and five isomers of DTX were detected from (Lucas et al., 1997). Recovered patients may experience the
samples collected from Johor Straits (Holmes et al., 1999). reactivation of ciguatera toxin from time to time (Lehane &
Two species of Dinophysis were detected from Singapore Lewis, 2000). Gambierdiscus yasumotoi was described from
in this study. They were D. caudata and D. rotundata Pulau Hantu, Singapore (Holmes, 1998). In this study, high
(Table 1; Fig. 1), with the former species associated with cell abundance of this toxic species was discovered in the
DSP (Marasigan et al., 2001). Two other species (D. ovum sediment samples from Pulau Hantu (Table 1; Fig. 1). Two
and D. sacculus) were reported previously from Singapore other undetermined species were also observed from the
(Pham et al., 2011). Five species were previously reported Singapore Strait. Gambierdiscus yasumotoi and G. belizeanus
from Malaysia (Usup et al., 2002c, Tan et al., 2013a). were also recorded from Malaysia (Leaw et al., 2011).
Gambierdiscus (Adachi & Fukuyo, 1979). This genus Gonyaulax (Diesing, 1866). Gonyaulax is a genus with
consists of 12 species, of which seven produce ciguatoxins 71 taxonomically accepted dinoflagellate species. Some
(CTX) and maitotoxins (MTX) (Parsons et al., 2012). members of this genus are known to possess yessotoxin,
Gambierdiscus spp. are known to cause ciguatera fish which can contaminate shellfish (Draisci et al., 1999, Rhodes
poisoning (Yasumoto et al., 1979). Toxins are transferred et al., 2006) and lead to diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP).
to humans through consumption of contaminated reef fish Numerous studies have been conducted for G. spinifera, G.
(Holmes & Teo, 2002). Patients experience gastrointestinal polygramma and G. polyedra, all of which contain saxitoxin
uneasiness, cardiovascular and neurological signs and the (Bruno et al., 1990) and yessotoxin (Rhodes et al., 2006)
most profound symptom that differs from other forms of that can cause fish and shellfish mortality (Koizumi et al.,
seafood poisoning is the reversal of temperature sensation 1996, Draisci et al., 1999). Blooms of this species resulted
82
Table 1. A checklist of marine dinoflagellates found in Singapore waters. The list is arranged alphabetically based on the scientific binominal
name, with the species authority and family as in AlgaeBase (Guiry & Guiry, 2014). * New record in Singapore.
No Taxon name Family
1 Alexandrium affine (H.Inoue & Y.Fukuyo) Balech 1995* Goniodomataceae

2 Alexandrium leei Balech 1985 Goniodomataceae
3 Alexandrium tamiyavanichii Balech 1994* Goniodomataceae
4 Alexandrium tamutum M.Montresor, A.Beran & U.John 2004* Goniodomataceae
5 Amphidinium carterae Hulburt 1957* Gymnodiniaceae
6 Ceratium furca (Ehrenberg) F.Gomez, D.Moreira & P.Lopez-Garcia 2010* Ceratiaceae
7 Ceratium fusus (Ehrenberg) F.Gomez, D.Moreira & P.Lopez-Garcia 2010* Ceratiaceae
8 Ceratium hirundinella (O.F.Müller) Dujardin 1841 Ceratiaceae
9 Ceratium tripos (O.F.Müller) F.Gomez, D.Moreira & P.Lopez-Garcia 2010* Ceratiaceae
10 Cochlodinium polykrikoides Margalef 1961* Dinophyceae incerta sedis
11 Coolia malayensis Leaw, Lim & Usup 2010* Goniodomataceae
12 Dinophysis caudata Saville-Kent 1881 Dinophysaceae
13 Dinophysis ovum Schütt 1895 Dinophysaceae
14 Dinophysis rotundata Claparède & Lachmann 1859 Dinophysaceae
15 Dinophysis sacculus Stein, 1883 Dinophysaceae
16 Diplosalis sp. 1* Peridiniaceae
17 Gambierdiscus sp. 1* Goniodomataceae
18 Gambierdiscus sp. 2* Goniodomataceae
19 Gambierdiscus yasumotoi M.J.Holmes 1998 Goniodomataceae
20 Goniodoma sphaericum Murray & Whitting 1899 Goniodomataceae
21 Gonyaulax spinifera (Claparède & Lachmann) Diesing 1866* Gonyaulacaceae
22 Gymnodinium catenatum H.W.Graham 1943 Dinotrichaceae
23 Gymnodinium uberrimum (G.J.Allman) Kofoid & Swezy 1921 Dinotrichaceae
24 Gyrodinium spirale (Bergh) Kofoid & Swezy 1921* Gymnodiniaceae
25 Hemidinium nasutum F.Stein 1883 Glenodiniaceae
26 Heterocapsa sp. 1* Heterocapsaceae
27 Karenia sp. 1* Brachidiniaceae
28 Ostreopsis ovata Fukuyo 1981* Goniodomataceae
29 Prorocentrum concavum Fukuyo 1981* Prorocentraceae
30 Prorocentrum emarginatum Fukuyo 1981* Prorocentraceae
31 Prorocentrum gracile Schütt 1895* Prorocentraceae
32 Prorocentrum lima (Ehrenberg) F.Stein 1878 Prorocentraceae
33 Prorocentrum micans Ehrenberg 1834* Prorocentraceae
34 Protoperidinium sp. 1* Protoperidiniaceae
35 Pyrophacus stenii (Schiller) Wall & Dale 1971* Pyrophacaceae
36 Pyrodinium bahamense var. compressum (Böhm) Steidinger, Tester & F.J.R.Taylor 1980* Goniodomataceae
37 Scrippsiella trochoidea (Stein) Balech ex Loeblich III 1965* Calciodinelloideae
in red discoloration of the sea, and this has been reported in Karenia (Hansen & Moestrup, 2000). This genus is currently
Malaysia (Lim et al., 2014b). Gonyaulax spinifera (Claparède known to comprise 12 species. Toxins can be released into
& Lachmann) Diesing 1866 was observed in the Singapore the environment as aerosols upon lysis of causative cells,
Strait for the first time in this study. causing humans to suffer respiratory problems (Ishida et
al., 1996; Pierce et al., 2004). Recreational beaches have
Heterocapsa (Stein, 1883). This dinoflagellate genus been forced to close due to blooms caused by members of
comprises 19 species. Blooms of Heterocapsa circularisquama this genus (Yang & Hodgkiss, 2004). Mortalities of fish,
resulted in mass mortality of commercially important echinoderms, polychaetes and bivalves are also associated
bivalves in Japan, such as the Pacific oyster, short-necked with such blooms (Yang & Hodgkiss, 2004, Silke et al.,
clam and blue mussel, incurring huge aquaculture losses 2005). Consumption of bivalves contaminated with this
(Matsuyama et al., 1997). Blooms cause bivalves to close genus may also result in neurotoxic shellfish poisoning
their shells, contract their mantle and eventually leading to (NSP) where patients experience headache, aching muscles,
death (Horiguchi, 1995, Matsuyama et al., 1996, Nagai et nausea, diarrhea and visual defects (Ishida et al., 1996).
al., 1996). In the South China Sea region, Hong Kong has Blooms of Karenia have been reported from Japanese and
experienced blooms of this species (Iwataki et al., 2002). Hong Kong waters in the western Pacific region (Yang &
One species, tentatively identified to Heterocapsa sp. 1, was Hodgkiss, 2004). An undetermined species was observed
found in Singapore. from the Singapore Strait in this study.
83
Table 2. A checklist of marine diatoms found in Singapore waters. The list is arranged alphabetically based on scientific binominal name,
with species authority and family as in AlgaeBase (Guiry & Guiry, 2014). * new record in Singapore.
1 Achnanthes brevipes C.Agardh 1824 Achnanthaceae

2 Achnanthes longipes C.Agardh 1824 Achnanthaceae
3 Achnanthes temperei M.Peragallo in Témpere & Peragallo 1908 Achnanthaceae
4 Achnanthes tenuistauros A.Mann Achnanthaceae
5 Actinocyclus octonarius Ehrenberg 1837 Hemidiscaceae
6 Actinocyclus octonarius var. sparsus (Gregory) Hendey 1954 Hemidiscaceae
7 Actinocyclus platensis F.C.Müller Melchers Hemidiscaceae
8 Actinoptychus senarius (Ehrenberg) Ehrenberg 1843 Heliopeltaceae
9 Amphicocconeis disculoides (Hustedt) Stefano & Marino 2003 Achananthaceae
10 Amphiprora sp. 1* Amphipleuraceae
11 Amphora acutiuscula Kützing 1844 Catenulaceae
12 Amphora angusta var. eulensteinii (Grunow) Cleve Catenulaceae
13 Amphora angusta var. oblongella (Grunow) Cleve Catenulaceae
14 Amphora angusta var. ventricosa (W.Gregory) Cleve Catenulaceae
15 Amphora coffeiformis (C.Agardh) Kützing 1844 Catenulaceae
16 Amphora decipiens Grunow Catenulaceae
17 Amphora graeffei Cleve 1896 Catenulaceae
18 Amphora holsatica Hustedt 1925 Catenulaceae
19 Amphora javanica A.W.F.Schmidt Catenulaceae
20 Amphora normanii Rabenhorst 1864 Catenulaceae
21 Amphora ostrearia Brébisson 1849 Catenulaceae
22 Amphora proteus Gregory 1857 Catenulaceae
23 Amphora turgida Gregory 1857 Catenulaceae
24 Amphora wisei (M.M.Salah) R.Simonsen Catenulaceae
25 Asterionella japonica Cleve in Cleve & Möller 1882 Fragilariaceae
26 Auliscus reticulatus Greville Triceratiaceae
27 Azpeitia nodulifera (A.W.F.Schmidt) G.A.Fryxell & P.A.Sims 1986 Hemidiscaceae
28 Bacillaria paradoxa J.F.Gmelin in Linnaeus 1791 Bacillariaceae
29 Bacillaria paxillifera (O.F.Müller) T.Marsson 1901 Bacillariaceae
30 Bacteriastrum delicatulum Cleve 1897 Chaetocerotaceae
31 Bacteriastrum hyalinum Lauder 1864 Chaetocerotaceae
32 Biddulphia aurita (Lyngbye) Brébisson 1838 Biddulphiaceae
33 Biddulphia biddulphiana (J.E.Smith) Boyer 1900 Biddulphiaceae
34 Biddulphia petitiana (G.Leuduger-Fortmorel) A.Mann Biddulphiaceae
35 Biddulphia vesiculosa (Agardh) Kützing 1833 Biddulphiaceae
36 Caloneis liber (W.Smith) Cleve 1894 Naviculaceae
37 Caloneis ventricosa var. minuta (Grunow) F.W.Mills 1934 Naviculaceae
38 Campylodiscus fastuosus Ehrenberg 1845 Surirellaceae
39 Campylodiscus ralfsii W.Smith 1853 Surirellaceae
40 Chaetoceros affinis Lauder 1864* Chaetocerotaceae
41 Chaetoceros danicus Cleve 1889 Chaetocerotaceae
42 Chaetoceros decipiens Cleve 1873* Chaetocerotaceae
43 Chaetoceros lorenzianus Grunow 1863 Chaetocerotaceae
44 Chaetoceros peruvianus Brightwell 1856 Chaetocerotaceae
45 Chaetoceros tetrastichon Cleve 1897 Chaetocerotaceae
46 Chattonella subsalsa B.Biecheler 1936 Chattonellaceae
47 Climacosphenia moniligera Ehrenberg 1843 Climacospheniaceae
48 Cocconeis dirupta W.Gregory 1857 Cocconeidaceae
49 Cocconeis heteroidea Hantzsch Cocconeidaceae
50 Cocconeis pelta A.Schmidt 1874 Cocconeidaceae
51 Cocconeis placentula Ehrenberg 1838 Cocconeidaceae
52 Cocconeis pseudomarginata var. intermedia Grunow Cocconeidaceae
53 Cocconeis speciosa Gregory 1855 Cocconeidaceae
54 Cocconeis sublittoralis Hendey 1951 Cocconeidaceae
55 Coscinodiscus argus Ehrenberg 1839 Coscinodiscaceae
84
56 Coscinodiscus granii Gough 1905 Coscinodiscaceae

57 Coscinodiscus marginatus Ehrenberg 1844 Coscinodiscaceae
58 Coscinodiscus radiatus Ehrenberg 1840 Coscinodiscaceae
59 Coscinodiscus wailesii Gran & Angst 1931 Coscinodiscaceae
60 Craticula halophila (Grunow) D.G.Mann in Round, Crawford & Mann 1990 Stauroneidaceae
61 Cyclotella sp. 1* Stephanodiscaceae
62 Cylindrotheca closterium (Ehrenberg) Reimann & J.C.Lewin 1964 Bacillariaceae
63 Cymatosira lorenziana Grunow 1862 Cymatosiraceae
64 Cymbella norvegica Grunow in Schmidt 1875 Cymbellaceae
65 Delphineis surirella (Ehrenberg) G.W.Andrews 1981 Rhaphoneidaceae
66 Denticula subtilis Grunow 1862 Bacillariaceae
67 Diadesmis contenta (Grunow ex Van Heurck) D.G.Mann in Round, Crawford & Mann 1990 Diadesmidaceae
68 Dictylum sol Cleve 1900* Lithodesmiaceae
69 Diplomenora sp. 1* Rhaphoneidaceae
70 Diploneis bombiformis Cleve 1894 Diploneidaceae
71 Diploneis bombus (Ehrenberg) Ehrenberg 1853 Diploneidaceae
72 Diploneis bombus var. densestriata (A.Schmidt) Cleve 1894 Diploneidaceae
73 Diploneis coffaeiformis (Schmidt) Cleve 1894 Diploneidaceae
74 Diploneis crabro (Ehrenberg) Ehrenberg 1854 Diploneidaceae
75 Diploneis exemta var. digrediens Cleve Diploneidaceae
76 Diploneis gravelleana R.Hagelstein Diploneidaceae
77 Diploneis incurvata (Gregory) Cleve 1894 Diploneidaceae
78 Diploneis interrupta (Kützing) Cleve 1894 Diploneidaceae
79 Diploneis interrupta var. gorjanovicii (Pantocsek) Cleve Diploneidaceae
80 Diploneis littoralis (Donkin) Cleve 1894 Diploneidaceae
81 Diploneis oculata (Brébisson) Cleve 1894 Diploneidaceae
82 Diploneis puella (Schumann) Cleve 1894 Diploneidaceae
83 Diploneis smithii var. rhombica Mereschkowsky 1902 Diploneidaceae
84 Diploneis subovalis Cleve 1894 Diploneidaceae
85 Diploneis vetula (A.Schmidt) Cleve 1894 Diploneidaceae
86 Diploneis weissflogii (A.W.F.Schmidt) Cleve 1894 Diploneidaceae
87 Ditylum brightwellii (T.West) Grunow in Van Heurck 1885 Lithodesmiaceae
88 Eucampia sp. 1* Hemiaulaceae
89 Flagilariopsis sp. 1* Bacillariaceae
90 Fragilaria capucina var. vaucheriae (Kützing) Lange-Bertalot 1980 Fragilariaceae
91 Fragilaria schulzii C.Brockmann 1950 Fragilariaceae
92 Fragilariopsis cylindrus (Grunow) Krieger 1954 Bacillariaceae
93 Fragilariopsis oceanica (Cleve) Hasle 1965 Bacillariaceae
94 Frustulia sp. 1* Amphipleuraceae
95 Gomphonema angustatum (Kützing) Rabenhorst 1864 Gomphonemataceae
96 Gomphonema angustatum var. [producta] f. indica H.P.Gandhi Gomphonemataceae
97 Grammatophora marina (Lyngbye) Kützing Striatellaceae
98 Grammatophora oceanica Ehrenberg 1840 Striatellaceae
99 Guinardia sp. 1* Rhizosoleniaceae
100 Gyrosigma balticum (Ehrenberg) Rabenhorst 1853 Pleurosigmataceae
101 Gyrosigma distortum (W.Smith) Griffith & Henfrey 1856 Pleurosigmataceae
102 Gyrosigma fasciola var. sulcatum (Grunow) Cleve 1894 Pleurosigmataceae
103 Gyrosigma plagiostomum (Grunow) Cleve Pleurosigmataceae
104 Gyrosigma rectum (Donkin) Cleve 1894 Pleurosigmataceae
105 Gyrosigma simile (Grunow) Boyer 1916 Pleurosigmataceae
106 Hantzschia virgata (Roper) Cleve & Grunow 1880 Bacillariaceae
107 Haslea crucigera (W.Smith) Simonsen 1974 Naviculaceae
108 Helicotheca tamesis (Shrubsole) M.Ricard 1987* Lithodesmiaceae
109 Hemiaulus sp. 1* Hemiaulaceae
110 Hyalodiscus stelliger J.W.Bailey 1854 Hyalodiscaceae
111 Isthmia enervis Ehrenberg 1838 Biddulphiaceae
112 Lauderia annulata Cleve 1873* Lauderiaceae
113 Lemnicola hungarica (Grunow) F.E.Round & P.W.Basson 1997 Achnanthidiaceae
85
114 Licmophora ehrenbergii (Kützing) Grunow 1867 Licmophoraceae

115 Licmophora gracilis (Ehrenberg) Grunow 1867 Licmophoraceae
116 Licmophora lyngbyei (Kützing) Grunow ex Van Heurck 1867 Licmophoraceae
117 Lyrella clavata (Gregory) D.G.Mann in F.E. Round, R.M. Crawford & D.G. Mann 1990 Lyrellaceae
118 Lyrella lyra (Ehrenberg) Karajeva 1978 Lyrellaceae
119 Lyrella praetexta (Ehrenberg) D.G.Mann in F.E. Round, R.M. Crawford & D.G. Mann 1990 Lyrellaceae
120 Martyana martyi (Héribaud-Joseph) Round in Round, Crawford & Mann 1990 Fragilariaceae
121 Mastogloia fimbriata (T.Brightwell) Grunow 1863 Mastogloiaceae
122 Melosira nummuloides C.Agardh 1824 Melosiraceae
123 Meuniera membranacea (Cleve) P.C.Silva in Hasle & Syvertsen 1996* Naviculaceae
124 Navicula brasiliensis Grunow Naviculaceae
125 Navicula discernenda Pantocsek Naviculaceae
126 Navicula distans (W.Smith) Ralfs in Prichard 1861 Naviculaceae
127 Navicula elginensis (W.Gregory) Ralfs in Pritchard 1861 Naviculaceae
128 Navicula forcipata var. suborbicularis (Grunow) Grunow in van Heurck Naviculaceae
129 Navicula gracilis Ehrenberg 1832 Naviculaceae
130 Navicula gruendleri (Cleve & Grunow) Cleve Naviculaceae
131 Navicula menaiana Hendey 1956 Naviculaceae
132 Navicula monilifera var. constricta Heiden Naviculaceae
133 Navicula niceaensis H.Peragallo Naviculaceae
134 Navicula pennata A.Schmidt in Schmidt 1876 Naviculaceae
135 Navicula philippinarum A.Mann Naviculaceae
136 Navicula pi Cleve Naviculaceae
137 Navicula platessa Cleve Naviculaceae
138 Navicula platyventris Meister Naviculaceae
139 Navicula plicata Bodeanu 1976 Naviculaceae
140 Navicula ramosissima (C.Agardh) Cleve 1895 Naviculaceae
141 Navicula ramosissima f. caspia (Grunow) Cleve Naviculaceae
142 Navicula reichardtii (Grunow) Grunow in Cleve & Möller 1877 Naviculaceae
143 Navicula rhaphoneis (Ehrenberg) Ralfs Naviculaceae
144 Navicula rhynchocephala Kützing 1844 Naviculaceae
145 Navicula trituberculata Prowse Naviculaceae
146 Navicula veneta Kützing 1844 Naviculaceae
147 Navicula yarrensis Grunow in Schmidt 1876 Naviculaceae
148 Navicula zostereti Grunow Naviculaceae
149 Nitzschia bilobata var. minor Grunow 1881 Bacillariaceae
150 Nitzschia brebissonii var. borealis Cleve Bacillariaceae
151 Nitzschia closterium (Ehrenberg) W.Smith 1853 Bacillariaceae
152 Nitzschia commutata Grunow in Cleve & Grunow 1880 Bacillariaceae
153 Nitzschia constricta (Gregory) Grunow 1880 Bacillariaceae
154 Nitzschia hybridaeformis Hustedt Bacillariaceae
155 Nitzschia lanceolata W.Smith 1853 Bacillariaceae
156 Nitzschia longissima (Brébisson) Ralfs in Pritchard 1861 Bacillariaceae
157 Nitzschia punctata var. coarctata (Grunow) Hustedt 1921 Bacillariaceae
158 Nitzschia sigma (Kützing) W.Smith 1853 Bacillariaceae
159 Nitzschia sigma var. rigida Grunow ex Van Heurck 1880 Bacillariaceae
160 Nitzschia sigmoidea (Nitzsch) W.Smith 1853 Bacillariaceae
161 Nitzschia vermicularis (Kützing) Hantzsch in Rabenhorst 1860 Bacillariaceae
162 Odontella aurita (Lyngbye) C.Agardh 1832 Triceratiaceae
163 Odontella mobiliensis (J.W.Bailey) Grunow 1884 Triceratiaceae
164 Odontella obtusa Kützing 1844 Triceratiaceae
165 Opephora pacifica (Grunow) Petit 1888 Fragilariaceae
166 Opephora schwartzii (Grunow) Petit ex Pelletan 1889 Fragilariaceae
167 Paralia sulcata (Ehrenberg) Cleve 1873 Paraliaceae
168 Petroneis monilifera (Cleve) A.J.Stickle & D.G.Mann 1990 Lyrellaceae
169 Petroneis transfuga (Grunow ex Cleve) D.G.Mann 1990 Lyrellaceae
170 Pinnularia cruciformis (Donkin) Cleve 1895 Pinnulariaceae
171 Plagiogramma staurophorum (W.Gregory) Heiberg 1863 Plagiogrammaceae
86
172 Plagiotropis sp1* Plagiotropidaceae

173 Planktoniella blanda (A.Schmidt) E.E.Syvertsen & G.R.Hasle in Hasle & Syvertsen 1993* Thalassiosiraceae
174 Pleurosigma aestuarii (Brébisson ex Kützing) W.Smith 1853 Pleurosigmataceae
175 Pleurosigma delicatulum W.Smith 1852 Pleurosigmataceae
176 Pleurosigma elongatum W.Smith 1852 Pleurosigmataceae
177 Pleurosigma fasciola (Ehrenberg) W.Smith 1852 Pleurosigmataceae
178 Pleurosigma formosum W.Smith 1852 Pleurosigmataceae
179 Pleurosigma intermedium W.Smith 1853 Pleurosigmataceae
180 Pleurosigma majus (Grunow) Cleve 1894 Pleurosigmataceae
181 Pleurosigma marinum Donkin 1858 Pleurosigmataceae
182 Pleurosigma normanii Ralfs in Pritchard 1861 Pleurosigmataceae
183 Pleurosigma salinarum (Grunow) Grunow in Cleve & Grunow 1880 Pleurosigmataceae
184 Psammodictyon panduriforme (W.Gregory) D.G.Mann in Round, Crawford & Mann 1990 Surirellaceae
185 Psammodiscus nitidus (W.Gregory) Round & D.G.Mann 1980 Psammodiscaceae
186 Pseudo-nitzschia brasiliana N.Lundholm, G.R.Hasle & G.A.Fryxell 2002* Bacillariaceae
187 Pseudo-nitzschia cuspidata (Hasle) Hasle 1993* Bacillariaceae
188 Pseudo-nitzschia micropora K.Priisholm, Ø.Moestrup & N.Lundholm 2002* Bacillariaceae
189 Pseudo-nitzschia multistriata (Takano) Takano 1995* Bacillariaceae
190 Pseudo-nitzschia pungens (Grunow ex Cleve) G.R.Hasle 1993 Bacillariaceae
191 Pseudo-nitzschia seriata (Cleve) H.Peragallo in H.Peragallo & M.Peragallo 1899 Bacillariaceae
192 Pyxidicula africana B.J.Cholnoky Rhopalodiaceae
193 Rhabdonema adriaticum Kützing 1844 Rhabdonemataceae
194 Rhaphoneis amphiceros (Ehrenberg) Ehrenberg 1844 Rhaphoneidaceae
195 Rhizosolenia sp. 1* Rhizosoleniaceae
196 Rhoicosphenia abbreviata (C.Agardh) Lange-Bertalot 1980 Rhoicospheniaceae
197 Rhopalodia gibberula (Ehrenberg) Otto Müller 1895 Rhopalodiaceae
198 Rhopalodia gibberula var. producta (Grunow) Otto Müller 1900 Rhopalodiaceae
199 Rhopalodia gibberula var. vanheurckii Otto Müller 1900 Rhopalodiaceae
200 Rhopalodia musculus (Kützing) Otto Müller 1900 Rhopalodiaceae
201 Skeletonema sp. 1* Skeletonemataceae
202 Shionodiscus oestrupii (Ostenfeld) A.J.Alverson, S.H.Kang & E.C.Theriot 2006 Thalassiosiraceae
203 Skeletonema costatum (Greville) Cleve 1873 Skeletonemataceae
204 Stauroneis membranacea (Cleve) Hustedt 1959 Stauroneidaceae
205 Stephanodiscus rotula (Kützing) Hendey 1964 Stephanodiscaceae
206 Stephanopyxis turris var. polaris Grunow Stephanodiscaceae
207 Striatella unipunctata (Lyngbye) C.Agardh 1832 Striatellaceae
208 Surirella fastuosa (Ehrenberg) Ehrenberg 1843 Surirellaceae
209 Surirella fastuosa var. recedens (A.Schmidt) Cleve Surirellaceae
210 Synedra amphicephala Kützing 1844 Fragilariaceae
211 Synedra crystallina (C.Agardh) Kützing Fragilariaceae
212 Synedra formosa Hantzsch 1863 Fragilariaceae
213 Thalassionema nitzschioides (Grunow) Mereschkowsky 1902 Thalassionemataceae
214 Thalassionema sp. 1* Thalassionemataceae
215 Thalassiosira angulata (W.Gregory) Hasle 1978 Thalassiosiraceae
216 Thalassiosira condensata Cleve 1900 Thalassiosiraceae
217 Thalassiosira decipiens (Grunow) E.G.Jørgensen 1905 Thalassiosiraceae
218 Thalassiosira eccentrica (Ehrenberg) Cleve 1904 Thalassiosiraceae
219 Thalassiosira rotula Meunier 1910 Thalassiosiraceae
220 Thallasiothrix sp. 1* Thalassionemataceae
221 Toxarium hennedyanum (Gregory) Pelletan 1889 Toxariaceae
222 Trachyneis antillarum (Cleve & Grunow) Cleve Naviculaceae
223 Trachyneis aspera (Ehrenberg) Cleve 1894 Naviculaceae
224 Trachyneis aspera var. intermedia (Grunow) Cleve 1894 Naviculaceae
225 Trachyneis aspera var. pulchella (W.Smith) Cleve 1894 Naviculaceae
226 Triceratium broeckii G.Leuduger-Fortmorel Triceratiaceae
227 Triceratium dubium Brightwell 1859 Triceratiaceae
228 Trichocladia nostocoides Zanardini 1872 Chordariaceae
229 Tryblionella apiculata Gregory 1857 Bacillariaceae
87
230 Tryblionella cocconeiformis (Grunow) D.G.Mann in Round, Crawford & Mann 1990 Bacillariaceae
231 Tryblionella compressa (Bailey) M.Poulin in Poulin et al. 1990 Bacillariaceae
232 Tryblionella granulata (Grunow) D.G.Mann 1990 Bacillariaceae
233 Tryblioptychus cocconeiformis (Grunow) Hendey 1958 Surirellaceae
Karlodinium (Larsen, 2000). There are nine taxonomically also caused massive fish kills (P. minimum; Usup et al.,
accepted species in the genus Karlodinium (Daugbjerg et 2002c; Lim et al., 2012b).
al., 2000). They possess ichthyotoxins and karlotoxins (de
Salas et al., 2005, Adolf et al., 2009, Mooney et al., 2009, Nitzschia (Hassall, 1845). Nitzschia is a common genus of
Peng et al., 2010) that are known to cause massive fish kills diatoms in both freshwater and marine ecosystems. There
during blooms, significantly affecting aquaculture industries are some 423 valid species in this large genus. Species of
(Lim et al., 2014a). Karlodinium veneficum was first reported Nitzschia have not been responsible for any toxic blooms
from the Tebrau Strait in Malaysia (Tan et al., 2013a). In until 2000, when the first toxic Nitzschia, N. navis-varingica
February 2014, aquaculture finfishes amounting to some was reported to be responsible for a toxic bloom incident
50,000 individuals were killed. This was attributed to a in Vietnam (Lundholm & Moestrup, 2000). The toxin was
massive bloom of K. australe when cell densities reached confirmed as domoic acid (DA) which causes amnesic
1.25×106 cells L-1 in the Johor Strait, Malaysia (Lim et al., shellfish poisoning (ASP). Following that, a new toxigenic
2014a). In this survey, no cells resembling Karlodinium species, N. bizertensis was reported as a DA producer (Smida
spp. was detected. However, Karlodinium was found to be et al., 2014). There have been few studies of Nitzschia in
a common species in the Johor Straits (Lim et al., 2014a). the Southeast Asia region. Screening had been conducted by
Kotaki et al., 2006b in the region, and they reported toxic
Ostreopsis (Schmidt, 1901). There are nine taxonomically Nitzschia spp. in Thailand, Vietnam, Indonesia, Philippines
accepted species in this genus. Members of this benthic genus and Malaysia (Kotaki et al., 2006a, Romero et al., 2008,
possess palytoxins (PTX) and ovatoxins, which contaminate Romero et al., 2011, Romero et al., 2012, Thoha et al., 2012).
shellfish, crustaceans and several species of fish (Aligizaki At the same time there were some non-toxic strains isolated
et al., 2011). In 2005, around 200 people experienced from this region as well. In this study we identified some
respiratory symptoms when exposed to aerosols and 20 15 non-toxic species of Nitzschia from the Singapore Strait.
were hospitalized in Italy (Ciminiello et al., 2006; Tubaro
et al., 2011). Patients experience fever, sore throat, cough, Pseudo-nitzschia (Peragallo, 1900). Pseudo-nitzschia is a
nausea, vomiting and in some cases have caused fatalities cosmopolitan genus of diatoms, consisting of 45 valid species,
(Durando et al., 2007; Tubaro et al., 2011). When tested of which 16 are toxic. Recently, P. kodamae was shown to
on mice, these toxins cause blindness, numbness and death be the first toxic Pseudo-nitzschia species in Southeast Asia
(Aligizaki et al., 2011). Species from this genus have been (Teng et al., 2014). Dao et al. (2014) reported the presence
reported from Malaysia, Indonesia and Vietnam (Leaw et al., of toxic P. cf. caciantha from Vietnam. This species is
2001; Penna et al., 2012; Tan et al., 2013b). In this study, believed to be associated with domoic acid occurrences
one species (Ostreopsis ovata; see Table 1) was found in in the spiny oyster Spondylus versicolor in Vietnam (Dao
the Singapore Strait. et al., 2006; Dao et al., 2009; Ha et al., 2014). However,
no blooms of Pseudo-nitzschia associated with Amnesic
Prorocentrum (Ehrenberg, 1834). There are 82 taxonomically Shellfish Poisoning (ASP) were reported in Southeast Asia
accepted species in this dinoflagellate genus. Some species thus far. Some 30 Pseudo-nitzschia spp. are found in the
possess okadaic acid and pectentoxins (Murakami et al., region, with ten of them being potentially toxic (Priisholm
1982; Yasumoto et al., 1987; Lee et al., 1989; Zhou & Fritz, et al., 2002, Larsen and Nguyen-Ngoc, 2004, Bajarias et al.,
1994), which are associated with blooms (Pybus, 1990) that 2006, Yap-Dejeto et al., 2010, Lim et al., 2012a, Lim et al.,
may lead to ciguatera fish poisoning and diarrhetic shellfish 2013a, Teng et al., 2013, Teng et al., 2014). In this survey,
poisoning (DSP) (Faust, 1991; Jackson et al., 1993; Heredia- five Pseudo-nitzschia species were recorded in Singapore
Tapia et al., 2002). Some species can secrete diatom growth waters (Lim et al., 2013b).
inhibitory and other substances with ichthyotoxic as well
as hemolytic properties (Uchida, 1977; Yasumoto et al., CONCLUSIONS
1987). Four Prorocentrum species were observed in this
study (P. concavum, P. gracile, P. lima and P. micans) The biodiversity of marine phytoplankton is rich in
(Fig. 1; Table 1). One species, P. lima, is associated with Singapore waters. The risk of Singapore waters of having
DSP events (Bauder et al., 1996). Several species have been non-indigenous species is also high due to intense port
reported from Malaysia, including okadaic acid producers activities. The marine phytoplankton list should be updated
that affected shellfish industries (P. lima, P. rathymum; see frequently and monitoring agencies should be aware of the
Mohammad-Noor et al., 2007; Tan et al., 2012), and have bloom forming species as well as toxin producers, which
might affect public health and seafood industries.
88
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS due to Alexandrium minutum Halim in Northwestern Philippines,

The First Joint Seminar on Coastal Oceanography, Chiang Mai,
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Marine micro-phytoplankton of Singapore, with a review of harmful

Article · January 2016

TohHii Tan Chui Pin Leaw

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Sandric Leong Lay Peng LIM

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RAFFLES BULLETIN OF ZOOLOGY Supplement No. 34: 78–96

Marine micro-phytoplankton of Singapore, with a review of harmful

Key words. Diatoms; dinoflagellates; harmful; phytoplankton; microalgae; Singapore

During the Singapore Strait Biodiversity Workshop hosted

© National University of Singapore

MATERIAL AND METHODS The outer morphology of several naked dinoflagellates is

No Taxon name Family

1 Alexandrium affine (H.Inoue & Y.Fukuyo) Balech 1995* Goniodomataceae

No Taxon name Family

1 Achnanthes brevipes C.Agardh 1824 Achnanthaceae

No Taxon name Family

56 Coscinodiscus granii Gough 1905 Coscinodiscaceae

No Taxon name Family

114 Licmophora ehrenbergii (Kützing) Grunow 1867 Licmophoraceae

No Taxon name Family

172 Plagiotropis sp1* Plagiotropidaceae

No Taxon name Family

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS due to Alexandrium minutum Halim in Northwestern Philippines,

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