Transducer and Sensor

Transducer
• It is a device, usually electrical or
electronic, that converts one type of
energy to another. Most transducers are
either sensors or actuators.
• It is a device that can receive one type of
energy and convert it into another type of
energy
• Also known as Analog sensor, it provides
much more information about a process
than Digital sensor.
 Application of Transducer
• Used to measure continuous variables
– Temperature
– Liquid level
– Force
– Pressure
– Flow
– Position
– Etc.
 Transducer Properties
• Range – The maximum and the minimum
limits of measurement
• Accuracy – The similarity between the
actual and measured value.
• Resolution – The smallest difference the
transducer will respond to.
• Repeatability – The ability to give the
same reading for the same measurement
value.
 Types of Transducer
• Electrical Transducers
• Photoelectric Transducers
• Electromagnetic Transducers
• Electrostatic Transducers
• Temperature Transducers
• Mechanical transducers
• Pressure Transducers
• IC Transducer
 Electrical Transducer
• Devices that convert the value of a
controlled variable into an electrical signal.
 List of Electrical Transducer
• Hydrophone - converts changes in water
pressure into an electrical form
• Loudspeaker and earphone - converts
changes in electrical signals into acoustic
form
• Microphone - converts changes in air
pressure into an electrical signal
• Piezoelectric crystal - converts pressure
changes into electrical form
 Photoelectric Transducer
• Devices that convert the value of a
controlled variable (voltage/light) into a
light/resistance/electrical signal.
List of Photoelectric Transducer
• Laser diode and light-emitting diode -
convert electrical power into forms of light
• Photodiode, phototransistor, and
photomultiplier tube - converts changing
light levels into electrical form
• Solar cell - converts light energy into
electrical energy
• Photocell or light-dependent resistor (LDR)
- converts changes in light levels into
resistance changes
 Electromagnetic Transducer
• Devices that convert the value of a
controlled variable (EM) into a electrical
signal.
List of Electromagnetic Transducer
• Antenna (electronics) - converts airborne
RF signals into electrical form
• Magnetic cartridge - converts motion into
electrical form
• Tape head - converts changing magnetic
fields into electrical form
• Hall effect sensor - converts a magnetic
field level into electrical form
List of Electromagnetic Transducer
• Cathode ray tube (CRT) - converts
electrical signals into visual form
• Fluorescent lamp, light bulb - converts
electrical power into visible light
• Reed switch - converts a strong magnetic
field into a switch activation
 Electrostatic Transducer
• Devices that convert the value of a
controlled variable into a electrical signal.
 List of Electrostatic Transducer
• Liquid crystal display (LCD) - converts
electrical power into visual light
 Temperature Transducer
• A device in an automatic temperature-
control system that converts the
temperature into some other quantity such
as mechanical movement, pressure, or
electric voltage; this signal is processed in
a controller, and is applied to an actuator
which controls the heat of the system.
List of Temperature Transducer
• Thermocouples
• Resistance temperature device (RTD)
• Thermistor
• Semiconductor (Diodes, Transistors
Integrated circuit) temperature sensors
 Mechanical Transducer
• Devices that convert the value of a
controlled variable (voltage/torque) into a
mechanical/electrical signal.
 List of Mechanical Transducer
• Gear - is a toothed wheel designed to
transmit torque to another gear or toothed
component
 Pressure Transducer
• An instrument component that detects a
fluid pressure and produces an electrical
signal related to the pressure. Also known
as electrical pressure transducer.
 IC Transducer
• Special transducers made from
semiconductors.
• The output parameter is current in the
range of uA to mA that changes with
variations in temperature.
Industrial Analog Sensor
 INDUSTRIAL SENSORS
• Angular Displacement
• Linear Position
• Forces and Moments
• Liquids and Gases
• Temperature
• Light
• Chemical
 Angular Displacement
• Potentiometers
 Potentiometers
• The potentiometer is a resistor, normally
made with a thin film of resistive material.
• Potentiometers are popular because they
are inexpensive, and don’t require special
signal conditioners (limited accuracy,
normally in the range of 1%) and they are
subject to mechanical wear.
 Potentiometers
• It can measured the angular position of a
shaft.
• Potentiometers measure absolute position,
and they are calibrated by rotating them in
their mounting brackets, and then
tightening them in place.
• The range of rotation is normally limited to
less than 360 degrees or multiples of 360
degrees.
 Potentiometers Principle
• The potentiometer wiper can be moved
along the surface of the resistive film.
• As the wiper moves toward one end there
will be a change in resistance proportional
to the distance moved.
• If a voltage is applied across the resistor,
the voltage at the wiper interpolate the
voltages at the ends of the resistor.
 Potentiometers
• A potentiometer is shown below
 Potentiometers
• A potentiometer as a Voltage Divider is shown
below
 Linear Position
• Interferometer
• Potentiometers
• Linear Variable Differential Transformers
(LVDT)
• Moire Fringes
• Accelerometers
 Interferometer
• An interferometer uses single wavelength
light (like that from a laser) for optimum
quality.
 Interferometer Operations
• The light is passed through a precision
ground quartz disk called an optical flat. The
optical flat is tilted at some small angle, as
shown.
• Interacting light waves produce interference
patterns.
• Displacement is inferred from the interference
patterns produced by light reflecting off a
surface.
 Potentiometers
• Potentiometers are also available in
linear/sliding form.

• These are capable of measuring linear

displacement over long distances.

• Linear/sliding potentiometers have the same

general advantages and disadvantages of
rotating potentiometers.
 Potentiometers
• Potentiometer as a voltage divider as shown
below:
 Sample Problem
Given: A linear
potentiometer is
constructed using a
resistor with resistance R
= 10 kΩ and length L = 10
cm. The supply voltage is
5.00 VDC. When Vo =
2.25 V, calculate distance
x.
 Linear Variable Differential
Transformers (LVDT)
• Linear Variable Differential Transformers
(LVDTs) measure linear displacements
over a limited range. It works on the same
principle as electric motors,
electromagnets, etc., namely the link
between electricity and magnetism as
found by H. A. Lorentz.
 Linear Variable Differential
Transformers (LVDT)
• It consists of outer coils with an inner
moving magnetic core.

• High frequency alternating current (AC)

can be applied to the center coil, which will
generate a magnetic field that induces a
current in the two outside coils.
 Linear Variable Differential
Transformers (LVDT)
• An LVDT consists of a rod called the core
(a ferromagnetic material like iron), and
three electrical coils.

• The core slides inside a hollow cylindrical

tube called a bobbin.

• Coil A is the primary coil, wrapped around

the center of the bobbin.

• Coils B and C are the secondary coils,

also wrapped around the bobbin.
 Linear Variable Differential
Transformers (LVDT)
• Vs is the supply voltage, an AC supply –
alternating current.

• Vo is the output voltage. Note that one

lead to Vo comes from the outside of coil
B, but the other lead comes from the
inside of coil C.

• x is the displacement of the core from the

center of the bobbin Coil A .
 Linear Variable Differential
Transformers (LVDT)
• If the core is displaced
to the left, towards coil
B, the output voltage is
in phase with the input
voltage.
• If the core is displaced
to the right, towards coil
C, the output voltage is
180o out of phase with
the input voltage.
 Linear Variable Differential
Transformers (LVDT)
• When the core moves to pull the magnetic field
towards it, more current will be induced in the
left hand/right hand coil. The outside coils are
wound in opposite directions so that when the
core is in the center the induced currents cancel,
and the signal out is zero (0Vac).

• The magnitude of the signal out voltage on

either line indicates the position of the core.
Near the center of motion the change in voltage
is proportional to the displacement.

• But, further from the center the relationship

becomes nonlinear.
 Linear Variable Differential
Transformers (LVDT)
• LVDT device is shown below:
Linear Variable Differential
Transformers (LVDT)
 Moire Fringes
• Moire Fringes as shown below
 Moire Fringes
• High precision linear displacement
measurements can be made with Moire Fringe.
• Both of the strips are transparent (or reflective),
with black lines at measured intervals.
• The spacing of the lines determines the
accuracy of the position measurements.
• The stationary strip is offset at an angle so that
the strips interfere to give irregular patterns. As
the moving strip travels by a stationary strip the
patterns will move up, or down, depending upon
the speed and direction of motion.
 Accelerometers
• Accelerometers as shown below:
 Accelerometers
• Accelerometers measure acceleration using a
mass suspended on a force sensor.
• When the sensor accelerates, the inertial
resistance of the mass will cause the force
sensor to deflect.
• By measuring the deflection the acceleration can
be determined. In this case the mass is
cantilevered on the force sensor.
• A base and housing enclose the sensor and a
small mounting stud (a threaded shaft) is used to
mount the accelerometer.
 Accelerometers
• Accelerometers are dynamic sensors, typically
used for measuring vibrations between 10Hz to
10KHz.
• Standard accelerometers can be linear up to
100,000 m/s2: high shock designs can be used
up to 1,000,000 m/s2. There is often a trade-off
between a wide frequency range and device
sensitivity (note: higher sensitivity requires a
larger mass).
• A smaller resonant frequency limits the
maximum frequency for the reading. The smaller
frequency results in a smaller sensitivity. The
units for sensitivity is charge per m/s2.
 Forces and Moments
• Strain Gages
• Piezoelectric
 Stress
• Stress is the applied force per unit of
cross-sectional area.

F where: a = axial stress

σa =
A

• Note: the dimensions of stress are the

same as those of pressure – force per unit
area.
 Strain
• Strain is the ratio of increase in length to
original length.

δL
εa =
L
• Note: The dimensions of strain are unity –
strain is a nondimensional quantity and
proportional to stress.
 Hooke’s law

• States

σ a = Eε a
where E = Young’s modulus (modulus of
elasticity) and assumed to be constant for
a given material.
 Hooke’s law
• Hooke’s law applies only in
the elastic stress region
(loading is reversible),
beyond the elastic limit (or
proportional limit), the
material starts to behave
irreversibly in the plastic
deformation region, in
which the stress vs. strain
curve deviates from linear,
and Hooke’s law no longer
applicable.
 Wire Resistance
• The electrical resistance R of a wire of length L
and cross-sectional area A is given by R = ρL/A ,
where ρ is the resistivity of the wire material.
• The electrical resistance of the wire changes
with strain:
– As strain increases, the wire length L
increases, which increases R.
– As strain increases, the wire cross-sectional
area A decreases, which increases R.
– For most materials, as strain increases, the
wire resistivity ρ also increases, which further
increases R.
– At constant temperature, wire resistance
increases linearly with strain.
 Wire Resistance

• Mathematically, δR
= Sε a
R
, where S is the strain gage factor, defined as
.
δR R
S=
εa
• S is typically around 2.0 for commercially
available strain gages. S is dimensionless.
 Strain Gages
• Strain gages measure strain in materials using
the change in resistance of a wire.

• The wire is glued to the surface of a part, so that

it undergoes the same strain as the part (at the
mount point).

• Basically, the resistance of the wire is a function

of the resistivity, length, and cross sectional
area.
 Strain Gages
• Shows below the basic properties of the
undeformed wire.
 Strain Gages
• After the wire has been deformed it will take on
the new dimensions and resistance.

• If a force is applied, the wire will become longer,

as predicted by Young’s modulus.

• But, the cross sectional area will decrease, as

predicted by Poison’s ratio. The new length and
cross sectional area can then be used to find a
new resistance.
 Strain Gages
• The Electrical and Mechanical Properties of the
Deformed Wire
 Strain Gages
• A strain gage must be small for accurate
readings, so the wire is actually wound in a
uniaxial or rosette pattern.
• When using uniaxial gages the direction is
important, it must be placed in the direction of
the normal stress.
• Rosette gages are less sensitive to direction,
and if a shear force is present the gage will
measure the resulting normal force at 45O.
 Strain Gages
• Wire Arrangements in Strain Gages
 Sample Problem
Given: A Wheatstone bridge circuit is constructed
to measure strain in a component of an
automobile chassis.
– All resistors and strain gages are nominally 120
ohms.
– The strain gage factor is 2.05.
– The supply voltage to the bridge is 6.00 V.
– With no load, the bridge is balanced (Vo = 0).
– An axial strain of 350 µstrain is applied such that the
strain gage is in tension.
Calculate the output voltage in mV when resistor 2
is the strain gage.
Sample Problem
 Piezoelectric
• When a crystal undergoes strain it displaces a
small amount of charge.
• In other words, when the distance between
atoms in the crystal lattice changes some
electrons are forced out or drawn in.
• This also changes the capacitance of the crystal
and known as the Piezoelectric effect.
• The charge generated is a function of the force
applied, the strain in the material, and a constant
specific to the material. The change in
capacitance is proportional to the change in the
thickness.
 Piezoelectric
• Shows the relationships for a crystal undergoing
a linear deformation.
 Piezoelectric
Where:
C = capacitance change
a, b, c = geometry of material
ε = dielectric constant (quartz typ. 4.06x10-11
F/m)
i = current generated
F = force applied
g = constant for material (quartz typ. 50x10-3
Vm/N)
E = Youngs modulus (quartz typ. 8.6x1010 N/m2)
 Liquids and Gases
There are a number of factors to be
considered when examining liquids and
gasses.
• Flow velocity
• Density
• Viscosity
• Pressure
 Pressure
• Bourdon Tube
• Venturi Valves
• Coriolis Flow Meter
• Magnetic Flow Meter
• Ultrasonic Flow Meter
• Vortex Flow Meter
• Positive Displacement Meters
• Pitot Tubes
 Pressure
• Pressure is defined as the normal force
exerted by a fluid per unit area.
 Pressure Transducer
• Pressure transducers either convert the
pressure into mechanical movement or
into an electrical output.
• Mechanical pressure gages do not require
electricity – they work by purely
mechanical means. Complete gauges not
only sense the pressure but indicate them
on a dial or scale. Mechanical movement
is produced with the following elements.
 Bourdon Tube
• The Bourdon tube is a flattened hollow
with an elliptical cross section metal tube
that is coiled, bent, or twisted.

• In all cases, one end of the Bourdon tube

is open, fixed in position, and exposed to
the pressure that being measured.

• Commonly used and have typical

accuracies of 0.5%.
 Bourdon Tube
• The other end is sealed, but connected
(sometimes through complex linkages) to
the dial of a pressure gage.

• When the pressure inside is higher than

the surrounding air pressure (14.7psi
approx.) the tube will straighten out and
the end moves, the scale is set
(calibrated) to read zero, it uncoils,
unbends, or untwists, and the dial on the
pressure gage moves.
Bourdon Tube
Bourdon Tube
 Piston Type
• The pressure acts directly on
the piston and compresses
the spring.

• The position of the piston is

directly related to the
pressure.

• A window in the outer case

allows the pressure to be
indicated.
 Piston Type
• This type is usually used in hydraulics
where the ability to withstand shock,
vibration and sudden pressure changes is
needed (shock proof gauge).

• The piston movement may be connected

to a secondary device to convert
movement into an electrical signal
 Bellows
• A bellows is made of several capsules.
These are hollow flattened structures
made from thin metal plates, useful for
measuring small pressures.

• When pressurized the bellows expand and

produce mechanical movement. If the
bellows is encapsulated inside an outer
container, then the movement is
proportional to the difference between the
pressure on the inside and outside.
Bellows
 Diaphragms
• These are similar in principle to the
bellows but the diaphragm is usually very
thin and perhaps made of rubber. The
diaphragm expands when very small
pressures are applied. The movement is
transmitted to a pointer on a dial through a
fine mechanical linkage.
Diaphragms
 Venturi Valves
• When a flowing fluid or gas passes through a
narrow pipe section (neck) the pressure drops.
• If there is no flow the pressure before and after
the neck will be the same.
• The faster the fluid flow, the greater the pressure
difference before and after the neck. This is
known as a Venturi valve.
• The fluid flow rate will be proportional to the
pressure difference before and at the neck (or
after the neck) of the valve.
 Venturi Valves
• Shows a Venturi valve being used to measure a
fluid flow rate.
 Coriolis Flow Meter
• Fluid passes through thin tubes, causing them to
vibrate.
• As the fluid approaches the point of maximum
vibration it accelerates. When leaving the point it
decelerates.
• The result is a distributed force that causes a
bending moment, and hence twisting of the pipe.
• The amount of bending is proportional to the
velocity of the fluid flow.
 Coriolis Flow Meter
• These devices typically have a large constriction
on the flow, and result is significant loses.
• Some of the devices also use bent tubes to
increase the sensitivity, but this also increases
the flow resistance.
• The typical accuracy for a Coriolis flowmeter is
0.1%.
 Magnetic Flow Meter
• A magnetic sensor applies a magnetic field
perpendicular to the flow of a conductive fluid.
As the fluid moves, the electrons in the fluid
experience an electromotive force.
• The result is that a potential (voltage) can be
measured perpendicular to the direction of the
flow and the magnetic field. The higher the flow
rate, the greater the voltage. The typical
accuracy for these sensors is 0.5%.
• These flowmeters don’t oppose fluid flow, that
don’t result in pressure drops.
 Ultrasonic Flow Meter
• A transmitter emits a high frequency sound at
point on a tube.
• The signal must then pass through the fluid to a
detector where it is picked up.
• If the fluid is flowing in the same direction as the
sound it will arrive sooner.
• If the sound is against the flow it will take longer
to arrive.
• In a transit time flow meter two sounds are used,
one traveling forward, and the other in the
opposite direction. The difference in travel time
for the sounds is used to determine the flow
velocity.
 Ultrasonic Flow Meter
• A doppler flowmeter bounces a soundwave off
particle in a flow.
• If the particle is moving away from the emitter
and detector pair, then the detected frequency
will be lowered, if it is moving towards them the
frequency will be higher.
• The transmitter and receiver have a minimal
impact on the fluid flow, and therefore don’t
result in pressure drops.
 Vortex Flow Meter
• Fluid flowing past a large (typically flat)
obstacle will shed vortices.
• The frequency of the vortices will be
proportional to the flow rate.
• Measuring the frequency allows an
estimate of the flow rate.
• These sensors tend be low cost and are
popular for low accuracy applications.
 Positive Displacement Meters
• In some cases more precise readings of
flow rates and volumes may be required.
• These can be obtained by using a positive
displacement meter.
• In effect these meters are like pumps run
in reverse.
• As the fluid is pushed through the meter it
produces a measurable output, normally
on a rotating shaft.
 Pitot Tubes
• Gas flow rates can be measured using
Pitot tubes.

• These are small tubes that project into a

flow.

• The diameter of the tube is small (typically

less than 1/8") so that it doesn’t affect the
flow.
 Pitot Tubes
• Pitot tubes as shown below:
 Light
• Light Dependant Resistors (LDR)
 Light Dependant Resistors (LDRs)
• Light dependant resistors (LDRs) change
from high resistance (>Mohms) in bright
light to low resistance (<Kohms) in the
dark.
• The change in resistance is non-linear,
and is also relatively slow (ms).
 Chemical
• pH
• Conductivity
 pH
• The pH of an ionic fluid can be measured over
the range from a strong base (alkaline) with
pH=14, to a neutral value, pH=7, to a strong
acid, pH=0.

• These measurements are normally made with

electrodes that are in direct contact with the
fluids.
 Conductivity
• Conductivity of a material, often a liquid is often
used to detect impurities.

• This can be measured directly be applying a

voltage across two plates submerged in the
liquid and measuring the current.

• High frequency inductive fields is another

alternative.
 Temperature
• Mechanical (liquid-in-glass thermometers,
bimetallic strips, etc)
• Thermocouples
• Resistive Temperature Detectors (RTDs)
• Thermistors
• Radiative Pyrometry
 Temperature
Temperature measurements are very
common with control systems. The
temperature ranges are normally described
with the following classifications:
• very low temperatures <-60 deg C - e.g.
superconductors in MRI units
• low temperature measurement -60 to 0 deg
C - e.g. freezer controls
 Temperature
• fine temperature measurements 0 to 100
deg C - e.g. environmental controls
• high temperature measurements <3000
deg F - e.g. metal refining/processing
• very high temperatures > 2000 deg C - e.g.
plasma systems
 Liquid-in-glass thermometer
• The most common and well-
known thermometer is the
liquid-in-glass thermometer.
• As the temperature rises, the
liquid expands, moving up the
tube. The scale is calibrated to
read temperature directly.
• Usually, mercury or some kind
of alcohol is used for the liquid.
 Bimetallic Strip Thermometer
• Two dissimilar metals are
bonded together into what is
called a bimetallic strip.
• Suppose metal A has a
smaller coefficient of
thermal expansion than
metal B.
• As temperature increases,
metal B expands more than
does metal A, causing the
bimetallic strip to curl
upwards.
 Bimetallic Strip Thermometer
• Common application of bimetallic strips:
– Home thermostats - it makes contact with
electrical leads that turn the heat or air
conditioning on or off.
– Circuit breakers (the bimetallic strip is
labeled “5” in the photo to the right). High
temperature indicates over-current, which
shuts off the circuit.
– Oven, wood burner, or gas grill
thermometers. These thermometers
consist of a bimetallic strip wound up in a
spiral, attached to a dial that is calibrated
into a temperature scale.
Bimetallic Strip Thermometer
 Pressure Thermometer
• A pressure thermometer, while still
considered mechanical, operates by the
expansion of a gas instead of a liquid or
solid. (Note: There are also pressure
thermometers that use a liquid instead of a
gas.)
 Pressure Thermometer
• Suppose the gas inside the bulb and tube
can be considered an ideal gas. The ideal
gas law is PV = mRT, where P is the
pressure, V is the volume of the gas, m is
the mass of the gas, R is the gas constant
for the specific gas (not the universal gas
constant), and T is the absolute
temperature of the gas.
 Pressure Thermometer
• Specific gas constant R is a constant. The
bulb and tube are of constant volume, so
V is a constant. Also, the mass m of gas in
the sealed bulb and tube must be constant
(conservation of mass). Hence, the ideal
gas equation reduces to P = constant*T.
 Pressure Thermometer
• A pressure thermometer therefore
measures temperature indirectly by
measuring pressure.

• The gage is a pressure gage, but is

typically calibrated in units of temperature
instead.
 Pressure Thermometer
• A common application of this type of
thermometer is measurement of outside
temperature from the inside of a building.
The bulb is placed outside, with the tube
running through the wall into the inside.
The gage is on the inside. As T increases
outside, the bulb temperature causes a
corresponding increase in pressure, which
is read as a temperature increase on the
gage.
Pressure Thermometer
 Thermocouple
• Each metal has a natural potential level,
and when two different metals touch there
is a small potential difference, a voltage.
(Note: when designing assemblies,
dissimilar metals should not touch, this will
lead to corrosion.) Thermocouples use a
junction of dissimilar metals to generate a
voltage proportional to temperature. This
principle was discovered by T.J. Seebeck.
 Standard Thermocouple
• Thermocouple manufacturers have
standardized the use of certain pairs of
metals for thermocouples. Reference
books, manufacturer’s literature, and
websites list these so called standard
thermocouples, that are commercially
available.
 Standard Thermocouple
• Each standard thermocouple has been
assigned both a letter and a color.

– A type J thermocouple has the color

black, and uses iron and constantan
as its component metals. (Constantan is
an alloy of ≈45% nickel and ≈55%
copper.)
 Standard Thermocouple
– A type T thermocouple has the color
blue, and uses copper and constantan
as its component metals.
– A type K thermocouple has the color
yellow, and uses chromel and alumel
as its component metals. (Chromel is an
alloy of ≈10% chromium and ≈90%
nickel.) Type K thermocouples are the
most popular use today.
Note: Other thermocouples can be made,
even if the pair of metals is not one of the
standard varieties.
 Thermocouple
• The basic calculations for thermocouples
are shown in Figure 1. This calculation
provides the measured voltage using a
reference temperature and a constant
specific to the device. The equation can
also be rearranged to provide a
temperature given a voltage.
 Thermocouple

Figure 1. Thermocouple Calculations

Thermocouple
Thermocouple
Thermocouple
Thermocouple
 Thermocouple
• The list in Table 9.3 shows different
junction types, and the normal
temperature ranges. Both thermocouples,
and signal conditioners are commonly
available, and relatively inexpensive. For
example, most PLC vendors sell
thermocouple input cards that will allow
multiple inputs into the PLC.
 Thermocouple
Table 9.3 Thermocouple Types
 Thermocouple

Thermocouple Temperature Voltage

Relationships (Approximate)
 Thermocouple
• The junction where the thermocouple is
connected to the measurement instrument
is normally cooled to reduce the
thermocouple effects at those junctions.
 Thermocouple
• When using a thermocouple for precision
measurement, a second thermocouple can
be kept at a known temperature for
reference. A series of thermocouples
connected together in series produces a
higher voltage and is called a thermopile.
Readings can approach an accuracy of
0.5%.
 Thermocouple
Example:
A type K thermocouple is used to measure the
temperature in a freezer compartment. The
reference junction is connected properly to an ice
bath, and the voltage output from the
thermocouple circuit is −2.721 mV.
Calculate the temperature in the freezer
compartment. Give your answer in units of oC with
three significant digits. Note: Use the “brief”
thermocouple tables for consistency
 Peltier Effect.
• The Peltier effect ( French physicist Jean-
Charles Athanase Peltier -first inventor of
the refrigerator).
• The Peltier effect is a temperature
difference created by applying a voltage
between two electrodes connected to a
sample of semiconductor material. This
phenomenon can be useful when it is
necessary to transfer heat from one
medium to another on a small scale.
 Seebeck Effect.
• The Seebeck effect is named for its
discoverer, Thomas Johann Seebeck
which discovered the phenomenon in the
1800s.
• The Seebeck effect is a phenomenon in
which a temperature difference between
two dissimilar electrical conductors or
semiconductors produces a voltage
difference between the two substances.
 Thompson Effect.
• The Thompson effect is named from its
discoverer, James Prescott Joule and
William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin who
discovered it in 1852 following earlier work
by Joule on Joule expansion, in which a
gas undergoes free expansion in a
vacuum.
 Thompson Effect.
• In thermodynamics, the Joule–Thomson
effect or Joule–Kelvin effect or Kelvin–
Joule effect describes the temperature
change of a gas or liquid when it is forced
through a valve or porous plug while kept
insulated so that no heat is exchanged
with the environment. This procedure is
called a throttling process or Joule–
Thomson process.
 Thermojuntion Effect.
• A point of electrical contact between two
dissimilar metals across which a voltage
appears, the magnitude of which depends
on the temperature of the contact and the
nature of the metals
 Thermoelectric Effect.
• The thermoelectric effect is the direct
conversion of temperature differences to
electric voltage and vice versa.
 Thermoelectric Effect.
• A thermoelectric device creates a voltage
when there is a different temperature on
each side. Conversely (and,
thermodynamically speaking, reversibly)
when a voltage is applied to it, it creates a
temperature difference.
 Thermoelectric Effect.
• On the scale of atoms (specifically, charge
carriers), an applied temperature
difference causes charged carriers in the
material, whether they are electrons or
holes, to diffuse from the hot side to the
cold side, similar to a classical gas that
expands when heated; hence, the
thermally-induced current.
Three Laws of Thermocouples:
• Law of intermediate metals

• Law of intermediate temperatures

• Law of additive voltages

 Law of Intermediate Metals
• A third (intermediate) metal wire can be
inserted in series with one of the wires
without changing the voltage reading
(provided that the two new junctions are at
the same temperature).
 Law of Intermediate
Temperatures
• If identical thermocouples measure the
temperature difference between T1 and T2,
and the temperature difference between T2
and T3, then the sum of the corresponding
voltages V1–2 + V2–3 must equal the
voltage V1–3 generated by an identical
thermocouple measuring the temperature
difference between T1 and T3.
Law of Intermediate
Temperatures

V1-3 = V1-2 + V2-3

 Law of Intermediate
Temperatures
Example

Given: Three constant temperature baths

are prepared with T1 = 160oC, T2 = 100oC,
and T3 = 20oC. A type J thermocouple and
a digital multimeter are used to measure
voltages V1–2, V1–3, and V2–3. Predict the
measured voltages V1–2, V1–3, and V2–3.
 Law of Additive Voltages
• For a given set of 3 thermocouple wires,
A, B, and C, all measuring the same
temperature difference T1 − T2, the voltage
measured by wires A and C must equal
the sum of the voltage measured by wires
A and B and the voltage measured by
wires B and C.

•
Law of Additive Voltages

V1-2, A&C = V1-2, A&B + V1-2, B&C

 Thermopile
• A thermopile is several thermocouples
connected in series that increased
sensitivity. Thermopiles are often used to
control shut-off valves in furnaces and to
generate small amounts of power in
satellites (a radioisotope thermoelectric
generator, or RTG).
Thermopile
 Resistive Temperature Detectors
(RTDs)
• When a metal wire is heated the
resistance increases.
• Hence, a temperature can be measured
using the resistance of a wire.
• Resistive Temperature Detectors (RTDs)
normally use a wire or film of platinum,
nickel, copper or nickel-iron alloys.
• The metals are wound or wrapped over an
insulator, and covered for protection.
 Resistive Temperature Detectors
(RTDs)
• The resistances of these alloys are shown below

• A platinum RTD might have a resistance of 100

ohms at 0OC, that will increase by 0.4 ohms/°C.
 Resistive Temperature Detectors
Properties
• Have positive temperature coefficients that
cause resistance to increase linearly with
temperature.
• The total resistance of an RTD double over the
temperature range.
• A current must be passed through the RTD to
measure the resistance. The current through the
RTD should be kept to a minimum to prevent
self heating.
• More linear than thermocouples, and can have
accuracies of 0.05%.
• Expensive
 Thermistors
• Thermistors are non-linear devices, their
resistance will decrease with an increase in
temperature. (Note: this is because the extra
heat reduces electron mobility in the
semiconductor.)

• The resistance can change by more

than 1000 times.
 Thermistors
• The basic calculation is shown below
 Thermistors Characteristics
• Small, inexpensive devices that are often
made as beads, or metallized surfaces.

• Respond quickly to temperature changes,

and they have a higher resistance.

• Typical accuracies are 1%, but the devices

are not linear, have a limited
temperature/resistance range and can be
self heating.
 Sample Problem
Given: A thermistor has a resistance of
16330 Ω at 0.0OC, and it drops to 6247 Ω
at 20.0OC. This thermistor is used in a
simple voltage divider circuit, as sketched.
– Vs = supply voltage = 5.00 V DC.
– Rs = supply resistance = 10.00 kΩ.
Calculate the output voltage at T = 0.0oC.
Sample Problem
 Radiative Pyrometry

• Radiative properties of an object change

with temperature.

• Radiative properties are measured to infer

the temperature of the object.
 Radiative Pyrometry

• The advantages of radiative pyrometry

are:
1. There is no physical contact with the
object whose temperature is being
measured.
2. Very high temperatures can be
measured.
 Radiative Pyrometry

• Two types of radiative measuring devices

are:

1. Infrared pyrometers

2. Optical pyrometers.
 Infrared pyrometer
• An infrared pyrometer infers the temperature of
a hot surface by measuring the temperature of a
detector inside a detector chamber .
• The example of infrared pyrometry is the widely
used medical ear thermometer (typically quite
accurate, less than 1% overall error in
temperature).
 Optical pyrometer
• An optical pyrometer is useful for
measuring very high temperatures (even
flames).
 Optical Pyrometer Principles
• An optical pyrometer works by comparing
a glowing wire of known temperature to
the glow (optical radiation) from a hot
object.
• When the internal wire and the glow of the
object are the same color, the
temperatures are assumed to be equal.
• The temperature of the internal wire is
controlled and known, and thus the
temperature of the object can be inferred.
Industrial Sensor
 Sensor
• A device that measures or detects a real-
world condition, such as motion, heat or
light and converts the condition into an
analog or digital representation.
 Sensor
• Convert physical process parameters such
as temperature, pressure, liquid level or
the presence/absence of an object into
discrete or continuous voltage or current
values that may be interpreted by a
computer or PLC to control a process or
process sequence in a desired manner.
 Sensor Limitations
• Accuracy - This is the maximum difference
between the indicated and actual reading.

• Resolution - Used for systems that step

through readings. This is the smallest
increment that the sensor can detect, this
may also be incorporated into the
accuracy value.
 Sensor Provides:
• Feedback on task completion
• Information on the status of the process
• Inspection and measurement data
• Collect product or process data for quality
monitoring
 Sensor Types
• Contact sensor: there is a physical contact
between the sensor and the parameter it
measures
• Non-contact sensor: also called proximity
sensors. Proximity indicates that the object
is near, but contact is not required
– Do not operate mechanically and are
more reliable
– Less likely to fail than mechanical ones
– Much faster than mechanical devices
 Sensor Types
• Contact sensor

Limit switch
 Sensor Types
• Non-contact sensor

Proximity switch
 Sensor Types
• Digital Sensors:
– Have two states: on or off
– Presence/absence of object
– Counting such as used in rotary encoder
 Sensor Types
• Analog sensor:
– It sense continuous variables (temp,
pressure) and provides a continuous
(usually linear) voltage or current
according to an input/output transfer
function.
– More complex than digital and can
provide more information
 Digital Sensors
• Switches
• Optical (photoelectric) sensors
• Encoders
• Ultrasonic sensors
• Inductive sensors
• Capacitive sensors
 Switches
• Pushbuttons and manual switches
(manual operators)
• Limit switches
Pushbuttons and Manual Switches
• Start pushbutton (normally open)
Pushbuttons and Manual Switches
• Stop pushbutton (normally closed)
Pushbuttons and Manual Switches
• Selector switch
 Manual Operators
• Push Buttons
– Normally Open / Normally Closed
– Spring return versus maintained
 Manual Operators
• Selector Switches
– Specify number of positions - 2, 3, 4.
etc.
– Can be spring return or maintained
• SRTC - Spring return to center
• SRFL - spring return from left
• SRFR - spring return from right
Limit Switches
 Limit Switches
• Advantages:
– Robust - made for harsh environments
– Can directly drive a load (contacts
15A+)

• Disadvantages:
– Mechanics wear out
– Large size
– May require contact with product
– Operating force may be significant
 Other Mechanical Switches
• Level/Float Switch - mechanical switch
that is actuated by the level of a fluid.
 Other Mechanical Switches
• Pressure Switch - mechanical switch that
is actuated by the pressure in fluid system.
 Other Mechanical Switches
• Flow Switch - mechanical switch that is
actuated by the flow rate of a fluid
 Other Mechanical Switches
• Temperature Switch - mechanical switch
that is actuated above a set temperature
(usually incorporating a bimetallic element)
 Other Mechanical Switches
• Speed Switch - switch that is actuated
once a certain speed has been reached.
For example, a centrifugal switch in a
capacitor start/capacitor run motor.
Optical (Photoelectric) Sensors
• All optical sensors use light to sense
objects
• Operation method:
– Lasers, Incandescent bulbs, or Light
emitting diodes (LEDs) are used as light
source
– The light source is turned off and on
(modulation) at a high frequency (could
be as high as several kHz)
Optical (Photoelectric) Sensors
– A photodetector senses the pulsed light
– The light emitter and receiver are tuned
to the modulation frequency

• All optical sensors function in the same

basic manner
• The differences are in the way in which the
light source and receiver are packaged
 Optical (Photoelectric) Sensors

Example of sensor using LED as a light source

Optical (Photoelectric) Sensors
Optical sensors Packaging
 Light/dark sensing

• Light/dark sensing refers to the normal

state of the sensor and what its output is
(On or Off)
 Light/dark sensing

• Optical sensors are either:

– Light sensing (light-on)
– Light sensing: the output is energized
(on) when the sensor receives
modulated beam
 Light/dark sensing

• Dark sensing (dark-on)

– Dark sensing: the output is energized
(on) when the sensor does not receive
modulated beam
 Types of Optical Sensors
• Reflective Sensors
• Polarizing Photo Sensors
• Retroreflective Sensors
• Thru-Beam Sensors
• Convergent Photo Sensors
• Fiber-optic Sensors
• Color Mark Sensors
• Laser Sensors
 Reflective (Diffuse) Sensors
• Transmitter and
receiver are
combined into one
unit
• Relies on the
reflective surface of
the target to bounce
the light from the
transmitter to the
receiver
 Reflective (Diffuse) Sensors
• Target must be somewhat
perpendicular to the sensor axis
• Used when it is not feasible to
mount a reflector
• Less sensing range (rely on
reflected light)
 Polarizing Photo-sensors
• They sense only shiny objects using
special reflector
• The reflector vertically polarizes the light
from the sensor
 Polarizing Photo-sensors
• Reflections from shiny objects will be
ignored
• Only reflections from the polarizing
reflector will trigger this sensor
 Retroreflective Sensor
• Transmitter and receiver are combined
into one unit
• Makes use of a reflector to bounce the
light from the transmitter to the receiver
 Retroreflective Sensor
• Have more sensing distance than do
reflective sensors
• Have less sensing distance than that of
thru-beam sensors
 Thru-beam Sensors
• Has a separate transmitter and receiver
• Capable of sensing very small object by
narrowing the light beam
 Thru-beam Sensors
• Fiber optics can be used to position the
beam transmitter and receivers
• Targets can be opaque but not transparent
 Convergent Photo sensors
• Also called focal length sensor
• The sensor emits the light to a specific
focal point
• The light must be reflected from the focal
point to the sensed
• Only objects near the focal point are
detected
 Fiber Optic Sensors
• Same as the other types of photo sensors
except fiber is used to transmit and
receive the light
• Allows the sensor to be used in very small
tight areas
 Color Mark Sensors
• These sensors can
differentiate between
different colors
• Used to checked labels
and to sort packages
by color mark
• Charts are used for
proper selection
 Laser Sensors
• Optical sensors can use laser as their light
source
• Laser sensors can be used for precise
measurements (as small as few microns).
• Examples is a bar code reader.
• Outputs can be analog or digital
 Optical Sensors
• Advantages:
– Long maximum sensing range (100 m)
– High speed switching
– can detect extremely small objects

• Disadvantages:
– Can't use on light sensitive products
– Alignment problems occur- especially
with longer range sensing
 Choosing Optical Sensors
• Most costly optical sensor
– Thru beam because it needs mounting
and power to separate transmitter and
receiver
 Choosing Optical Sensors
• Most reliable/dependable optical sensor
– Thru beam - when beam breaks the
sensor switches
– Retro-reflective - can be fooled by shiny
objects and miss small objects
– Diffuse-reflective - relies on the object to
reflect the light, color can also fool this
device
 Encoder
• An Encoder is a device that senses a
physical parameter and converts it to a
digital value.
• It use rotating disks with optical windows
(optical disk with fine windows etched into
it).
 Encoders
• Light from emitters passes through the
openings in the disk to detectors.
• As the encoder shaft is rotated, the light
beams are broken and it converts the
voltage or current to a binary value
 Common Industrial Encoder:
Rotary Encoder
• Used for:
– Position Feedback
– Velocity feedback
• Two main types
– Incremental
– Absolute
• The resolution is determined by the
number of lines (bits) on the encoder disk
 Common Industrial Encoder:
Rotary Encoder
• The light from an LED
shines through the lines
and mask and is then
sensed by light receivers
 Encoders
• There are two fundamental types of
encoders:
1. Absolute
2. Incremental.
 Absolute Encoder
• An absolute encoder measure the position
of the shaft for a single rotation.

• The same shaft angle will always produce

the same reading.

• The output is normally a binary or grey

code number.
 Absolute Encoder
• An Absolute encoder provides a word of
output with a unique pattern that
represents each position. LED's and
receivers are aligned to read the disk
pattern

• The output is proportional to the angle of

the shaft
Absolute Encoder
 4 bit Absolute disk
• One revolution of the disk causes of
sixteen different binary patterns
• Each pattern covers an angular range of
360O/16 = 22.5O (angular resolution)
• Absolute angle of the encoder shaft equals
to the binary output times the resolution
 Absolute Encoder
Example

A 12 bit binary absolute encoder is has the

number 101100010111 at its output. What
is the resolution of the encoder?
 Incremental Encoder
• An incremental (or relative) encoder will
output two pulses that can be used to
determine displacement.
• Logic circuits or software is used to
determine the direction of rotation, and
count pulses to determine the
displacement.
• The velocity can be determined by
measuring the time between pulses.
 Incremental Encoders
• An incremental encoder creates a series
of square waves
• The resolution is determined by the
number of slits for light to pass through
 Incremental Encoders
• 500-count encoder produces 500 square
waves in one revolution
• Two main types of incremental encoders:
– Tachometer (single track). Time
between pulses is measured by a high
speed timer/counter.
– Quadrature (multi-rack). Time between
pulses is measured by a high speed
timer/counter. Second bit is used to
determine direction.
 Tachometer Encoders
• A tachometer encoder has only one output
and cannot detect the direction of travel
• Provide stream of pulses and frequency
corresponds to speed
 Tachometer Encoders
• Tachometers were used to measure the
velocity of a rotating shaft. A common
technique is to mount a magnet to a rotating
shaft.
• When the magnetic moves past a stationary
pick-up coil, current is induced. For each
rotation of the shaft there is a pulse in the
coil.
• When the time between the pulses is
measured the period for one rotation can be
found, and the frequency calculated.
 Two main categories of
Tachometers
• Contacting
• Noncontacting.
 Contacting Tachometer
• The instrument is physically attached to
the end of a spinning shaft, so that part of
the instrument rotates at the same rpm as
the shaft.

• Shaft rpm is measured directly and

internally by the instrument.
•
 Contacting Tachometer
• The actual measurement of rpm internally
in the instrument can be performed by a
number of methods including:
– Mechanical: The spinning shaft goes
through a gear box that rotates a spring-
loaded dial.
– Electric generator: A small DC motor is
used “backwards” as a generator.
Output voltage is proportional to rpm.
– Chronometer: An electronic clock
measures the time between rotations
and calculates rpm.
 Non-contacting Tachometer
• There is no direct physical contact
between the instrument and the rotating
shaft.

• The rpm of the rotating shaft is inferred by

timing pulses remotely, either from
magnetic or optical signals.
 Types of Noncontacting
Tachometers
• Magnetic Pickup Tachometer
• Stroboscopic tachometer
• Photoelectric tachometer
 Magnetic Pickup Tachometer
• This device is also called a variable
reluctance pickup tachometer, works on
the same principle as the LVDT, i.e.,
distortion of a magnetic field when
ferromagnetic material passes by.
 Magnetic Pickup Tachometers
• Tachometers measure the velocity of a rotating
shaft as shown below:
 Stroboscopic Tachometer
• A strobe light is used to flash illuminate the
spinning shaft, gear, or pulley at precisely
timed intervals. The strobe light frequency
is adjusted (by a knob) until the spinning
object appears to stop.
• A paint mark or a piece of reflective tape
on the surface of the spinning object is
applied in order to see it clearly.
• Most modern stroboscopic tachometers
have a digital readout directly in rpm.
Stroboscopic Tachometer
 Photoelectric Tachometer
• This instrument is somewhat similar in
principle to the stroboscopic tachometer,
except electronics remove the manual
component.

• A steady light source, rather than a

stroboscopic light source, is transmitted
from the device.
Photoelectric Tachometer
 Photoelectric Tachometer
• A photodetector (or photocell) produces
a pulse each time light is reflected from a
piece of reflective tape on the rotating
shaft.

• Most modern photoelectric tachometers

have a digital readout directly in rpm.
 Sample Problem
A “poor person’s” magnetic
pickup tachometer is made from
a standard hex nut on an
automobile turbocharger to
measure the rpm of the
turbocharger.
(a) If the observed pulse rate is
5,000 pulses per second,
calculate the rpm of the rotating
hex nut.
(b) Calculate the multiplaction
factor to convert from P to Nrpm.
 Quadrature Encoder
• Multi-tracks are used so that both speed
and direction can be determined.
• Channels A and B have an angular
separation of 90O
• Channel A and B can be compared to
determined the direction of rotation
• Pulses from A and B channels can be fed
to an up-down counter
Quadrature Encoder
 Quadrature Encoder
• A quadrature encoders shown below
 Quadrature Encoder
• A 2,880 pulse per revolution incremental
encoder is connected to a shaft. Its phase
A outputs 934 pulses when the shaft is
moved to a new position. What is the
change in the angle in degrees?
 Comparison of Encoder Disks used in
Quadrature and Absolute Encoder
• Encoder disks are shown below
 Comparison of Encoder Disks used in
Quadrature and Absolute Encoder
• The absolute encoder has two rings, the
outer ring is the most significant digit of the
encoder, the inner ring is the least
significant digit.

• To add accuracy to the absolute encoder

more rings must be added to the disk, and
more emitters and detectors.
 Comparison of Encoder Disks used in
Quadrature and Absolute Encoder
• The relative encoder has two rings, with one ring
rotated a few degrees ahead of the other, but
otherwise the same. Both rings detect position to
a quarter of the disk.

• To add accuracy to the relative encoder, add

more windows to the existing two rings. Typical
encoders will have from 2 to thousands of
windows per ring.
 Ultrasonic Sensors
• Works like radar-sends out
sound waves that reflect off
target and are received by
device
• Distance can be determined by
the amount of time required for
reflected sound waves to return
• Sensing using this method can
range from 40 cm to 6 cm
• Need a relatively large and flat
target
 Ultrasonic Sensors
There are two types of ultrasonic sensors:
1. Pulse-echo ultrasonic sensor
2. Through transmission ultrasonic sensor
 Pulse-echo ultrasonic sensor
• A pulse-echo
ultrasonic sensor has
the transmitter (t) and
receiver (r) on the same
side. The gray vertical
line represents some
hard surface off of
which the sound waves
reflect.
 Through transmission Ultrasonic
Sensor
• A through transmission
ultrasonic transducer
has the transmitter (t) and
receiver (r) on opposite
sides. No other surface is
needed, but access to
both sides of the object is
required, and this is not
always possible.
 Ultrasonic Sensors
• Advantages:
– Long maximum sensing range (6m)
– Not fooled by color
– Can detect objects of any material
• Disadvantages
– Fooled by other objects
– Objects must be large and flat
– Long minimum sensing range (40 cm)
because reflection too quick to
distinguish
– high Cost
 Proximity sensors
• These sensors sense objects by producing
an electric (capacitive proximity sensor) or
magnetic (inductive proximity sensor) field.
• They are better choice in dirty or wet
environments than photo sensors.
• Design to sense the presence of an object
without physical contact
• Sensing can range from 0.1mm to 20 mm
depending on the device
 Inductive Sensor
• The principle is that the inductance of a
coil and the power losses in the coil vary
as a metallic (or conductive) object is
passed near it.
• A coil and ferrite core are used to radiate
high frequency electromagnetic field in
front of the sensor
 Inductive Sensor
• When a ferrous target is placed in front of
the sensor, eddy currents are set up in the
metal causing the oscillator output to
decrease in magnitude.
• The resulting decrease in magnitude is
detected and used to close a transistor
(switch).
Large diameter = larger sensing range
 Inductive Sensor Hysteresis
• Means that the object must be closer to a
sensor to turn it on than to turn it off.
• This phenomenon keeps the sensor from
"chattering" when subjected to minor
vibration
• Applications
– Gear rotation speed information
– Access doors and panels of machines
– Replacement for mechanical limit
switches
 Inductive Sensor Application
Considerations
• There are 2 types of inductive proximity sensors,
unshielded, and shielded
• The shielded sensor uses a ferrite core to
concentrate the magnetic field at the sensor
face, causing objects near the face of the sensor
to be more readily detected
• The unshielded sensor has a ferrite core
towards the rear of the coil to prevent sensing
objects behind the sensor, but to sense objects
further away from the front of sensor
 Inductive Sensor Application
Considerations
• The type of metal will affect the distance the
proximity sensor is capable of detecting the
object.
Stainless Steel = Standard Sensing
Distance x 0.8
Brass = Standard Sensing Distance x 0.5
Aluminum = Standard Sensing Distance x
0.5
Copper = Standard Sensing Distance x 0.4
• Manufacturers, however, have sensors that
are " all metal sensing" that are capable of
sensing all metals at the same distance.
 Capacitive Sensors
• Used for metallic as well as non-metallic
objects such as liquids, powders, or
plastics

• Detection is based on the dielectric

constant of the material

• Works when materials involved have

unique dielectric constants.
 Capacitive Sensor Principle of
Operations
• Unlike the inductive sensor, the capacitive
sensor sets up an AC voltage at the plate
located on the front of the sensor. The
other capacitor "plate" is the target object.

• If the capacitance changes, so too does

the current through the AC oscillator. This
change in current (due to the
displacement) is used to detect the
presence of an object.
 Two ways to change the Capacitance
of Capacitive Sensor
• Normal displacement is when the plates
move perpendicularly away from each
other, i.e., d change linearly with x, but A
remains constant.
 Two ways to change the Capacitance
of Capacitive Sensor
• Parallel displacement is when the plates
move laterally away from each other, i.e.,
area A changes linearly with x, but d
remains constant. In this case, x is parallel
to the plates.
Capacitive Sensor Applications
• They can be used as a non-contact, liquid-
level sensor (milk, juice, or soda bottling
operations)

• They can be used as replacements for

pushbuttons and palm switches
 Capacitive Sensor
• Advantages:
– Long life-solid state
– No physical contact required
– High switching speeds
• Disadvantages:
– Limited sensing range
– Can be affected by strong EM fields
(e.g. welding, variable frequency drives)
– can't drive a load directly
 Sensor Limitations
• Repeatability - When a single sensor
condition is made and repeated, there will
be a small variation for that particular
reading.

• Linearity - In a linear sensor the input

phenomenon has a linear relationship with
the output signal
 Sensor Limitations
• Precision - This considers accuracy,
resolution and repeatability or one device
relative to another.

• Range - Natural limits for the sensor. For

example, a sensor for reading angular
rotation may only rotate 200 degrees.
 Sensor Limitations
• Dynamic Response - The frequency range
for regular operation of the sensor.

• Environmental - Sensors all have some

limitations over factors such as
temperature, humidity, dirt/oil, corrosives
and pressures.
 Sensor Limitations
• Calibration - When manufactured or
installed, many sensors will need some
calibration to determine or set the
relationship between the input
phenomena, and output.

• Cost - Generally more precision costs

more.
 Seatwork
1. A 2.8 cm × 5.0 cm rectangular rod is stretched from its
initial length of 0.4000 m to a length of 0.4005 m.
The modulus of elasticity of the rod material is 95.0
GPa (gigapascals).
Poisson’s ratio of the rod material is 0.333.
(a) Calculate the axial stress in units of MPa.
(b) Calculate the transverse strain in units of
microstrain.
(c) A strain gage with a strain gage factor of 2.10 is
glued to the rod before it is stretched, aligned with the
direction of stretching. A quarter bridge Wheatstone
bridge circuit is constructed, with the strain gage as
resistor R1. The strain gage is balanced before the rod
is stretched. The bridge supply voltage is 7.50 V.
Calculate the output voltage (in mV) of the bridge after
the rod is stretched.
Seatwork
 Seatwork
2. Given: A type K thermocouple was use to measure the
temperature in a freezer. The actual (true) temperature
in the freezer is T1 = -200 oC. The thermocouple
voltages are measured properly with an ice bath
reference. Unfortunately, the ice bath has too much
water, and its temperature is actually 1 oC instead of 0
oC. Calculate the temperature that was measured, and
the percentage error. Use the “brief” thermocouple
tables for consistency.
Seatwork
 Seatwork
3. A standard 100-Ωplatinum RTD is used to measure the
temperature of warm air in a tank. The resistance is
measured to be 125.9 Ω. Calculate the temperature of
the air in the tank.