10th Maths New Text Book 2024 Sem.1

MATHEMATICS
Class X (Semester - 1)
Text Book Development Committee
Sri Praveen Prakash IAS Sri. S. Suresh Kumar IAS

Principal Secretary to Government Commissioner of School Education , AP
Department of School Education, AP
Sri. B. Srinivasa Rao IAS Sri. K. Ravindranath Reddy MA., B.Ed.

State Project Director, Samagra Shiksha, AP Director, Government Textbook Press, AP
Dr. B. Pratap Reddy MA., B.Ed., Ph.D.

Director, SCERT, AP
Programme Co-ordinators
Dr. G. Kesava Reddy, MSc, MSc, MEd, MPhil, PhD
Prof. C&T, SCERT, AP
Subject Co-ordinators
Sri Malempati Somasekhara Brahmanandam, M.Sc., M.Ed.
Faculty, SCERT, AP
Technical Co-ordinator
Dr. Ch.V.S. Ramesh Kumar

Faculty, SCERT, AP
State Council of Educational Research & Training

Andhra Pradesh
Published by Samagra Shiksha, Government of Andhra Pradesh, Amaravati.
GSR INFO - www.gsrmaths.in

© Government of Andhra Pradesh, Amaravati
First Published - 2024
All rights reserved
No part of this publication may be

reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
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without the prior permission in writing of the
publisher, nor be otherwise circulated in any
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condition including this condition being
imposed on the subsequent purchaser.
The copy right holder of this book is the
Commissioner of School Education,
Amaravati, Andhra Pradesh.
This book has been printed on 70 G.S.M. SS Maplitho

Title Page 200 G.S.M. White Art Card
Free distribution by Samagra Shiksha, Government of Andhra Pradesh
Printed in India
at the A.P. Govt. Textbook Press
Amaravati
Andhra Pradesh
ii

Translators
Dr.Chennamsetti. Ramesh, S.A. Sri Gangalapudi Bhasker, S.A.

MPUPS, Mamillapalli, Guntur Dt. ZPHS, Vadlamopuru, Dakkili(M), TirupatiDt.
Sri. Kandula.Mallikarjuna Reddy, S.A. Smt. K.Vahini, S.A.

GSR MC HS, Vijayawada, NTR Dt. ZPHS,Kosuru,Movva(M),Krishna Dt.
Sri T. Samba Siva Rao, S.A. Sri G.V. Subrahmanya Sastry, S.A.
ZPHS,Nidubrolu,Ponnuru(M),Guntur Dt. ZPHS, Kommuvalasa,L.N.Peta (M)
Sri G.V. Krishna Mohan, S.A. Smt P. Anjani Kumari, PGT.

ZPHS, Karavadi, Prakasam Dt. APMS, Dechavaram, Palnadu Dt.
Sri. Md. Nazeer Hussain, S.A. Sri Y.L. Sreenivasulu, S.A.

Samagra Shiksha, A.P. GHS, Tangutur, Prakasam Dt.
Sri Kadiyala. Mallikarjuna, S.A. Sri. Donepudi.Venkateswara Rao, S.A.

ZPHS, Enumalapalli, Puttaparthi (M)S S S Dt. MPUPS, Kanimerla, Mylavaram (M), NTR Dt.
Sri Turpati. Lakshmu Naidu, S.A. Sri. P. Nagendra Naik, S.A.

ZPHS, Thimma raju peta, Anakapalli Dt. GHS, Yerragondapalem, Prakasam Dt.
Smt Majji. Sandhya Rani, CRT. Sri. Siyyadri Yellajiyamma, S.A.

KGBV, Gurla (M), Vizianagaram Dt. MPUPS, Gopalapatnam, Anakapalli Dt.
Smt. T. Vijaya Kumari, HM. Smt. Yasam. Jaya Bharati, S.A.

ZPHS, Lavanur, Kondapuram (M), Kadapa Dt. ZPGHS, Giddalur, Prakasam Dt.
Editors for Translation
Sri S.Satish, Sri Kesiraju Srinivas,

Faculty, SCERT, A.P Faculty, SCERT, A.P
Sri K.Satish Babu, MEO-2, Sri M. Somasekhar.B.,

Yarravari Palem, Tirupati Dt. Faculty, SCERT, A.P
Designing & Page Layout : Stock Assortment, Bapatla.
iii

FOREWORD
The National Curriculum Framework 2005, recommends that children’s life at school
must be linked to their life outside the school. This principle marks a departure from the
legacy of bookish learning which continues to shape our system and causes a gap between
the school, home and community. The syllabi and textbooks developed on the basis of
NCF signify an attempt to implement this basic idea. They also attempt to discourage
rote learning and the maintenance of sharp boundaries between different subject areas.
We hope these measures will take us significantly further in the direction of a child-
centred system of education outlined in the National Policy on Education (1986).
The success of this effort depends on the steps that school principals and teachers
will take to encourage children to reflect on their own learning and to pursue imaginative
activities and questions. We must recognise that, given space, time and freedom, children
generate new knowledge by engaging with the information passed on to them by adults.
Treating the prescribed textbook as the sole basis of examination is one of the key reasons
why other resources and sites of learning are ignored. Inculcating creativity and initiative
is possible if we perceive and treat children as participants in learning, not as receivers
of a fixed body of knowledge.
These aims imply considerable change in school routines and mode of functioning.
Flexibility in the daily time-table is as necessary as rigour in implementing the annual
calendar so that the required number of teaching days are actually devoted to teaching.
The methods used for teaching and evaluation will also determine how effective this
textbook proves for making children’s life at school a happy experience, rather than a
source of stress or boredom. Syllabus designers have tried to address the problem of
curricular burden by restructuring and reorienting knowledge at different stages with
greater consideration for child psychology and the time available for teaching. The
textbook attempts to enhance this endeavour by giving higher priority and space to
opportunities for contemplation and wondering, discussion in small groups, and activities
requiring hands-on experience.
The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) appreciates

the hard work done by the textbook development committee responsible for this book.
We wish to thank the Chairperson of the advisory group in Science and Mathematics,
Professor J.V. Narlikar and the Chief Advisors for this book, Professor P. Sinclair of
IGNOU, New Delhi and Professor G.P. Dikshit (Retd.) of Lucknow University, Lucknow
for guiding the work of this committee. Several teachers contributed to the development
of this textbook; we are grateful to their principals for making this possible. We are
iv

indebted to the institutions and organisations which have generously permitted us to
draw upon their resources, material and personnel. We are especially grateful to the
members of the National Monitoring Committee, appointed by the Department of
Secondary and Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development under the
Chairpersonship of Professor Mrinal Miri and Professor G.P. Deshpande, for their
valuable time and contribution. As an organisation committed to systemic reform and
continuous improvement in the quality of its products, NCERT welcomes comments
and suggestions which will enable us to undertake further revision and refinement.
Director
New Delhi National Council of Educational
15 November 2006 Research and Training

Foreword
The Government of Andhra Pradesh has unleashed a new era in school education by
introducing extensive curricular reforms from the academic year 2020-21. The Government has
taken up curricular reforms intending to enhance the learning outcomes of the children with focus
on building solid foundational learning and to build up an environment conducive for an effective
teaching-learning process. To achieve this objective, special care has been taken in designing the
textbooks to achieve global standards. As part of this the Government of Andhra Pradesh has
decided to introduce NCERT Textbooks from class VI onwards.
As a part of the curricularm reform, an effort was made to ensure quality transaction of
textbooks, bilingual method was used. The mathematical concepts in the text book are developed
based on themes like Number System, Arithmetic, Algebra, Mensuration, Geometry and Statistics.
In this text book, concepts are introduced through activities related to daily life situations and
conversations. To strengthen these concepts, individual activities, group activities and whole class
activities are designed. The textbook attempted to enhance this endeavor through incorporating QR
codes in each chapter to enable efficient learning outside the class room.
We are grateful to our Honourable Chief Minister, Sri Y.S. Jagan Mohan Reddy, Andhra
Pradesh for being our source of inspiration to carry out this extensive reform in the Education
Department. We extend our gratitude to Sri Botcha Satyanarayana, Honourable Minister of
Education , Govt. of Andhra Pradesh for striving towards qualitative education. Our special thanks
to Sri. Praveen Prakash, IAS, Principal Secretary, School Education, Sri. S. Suresh Kumar, IAS,
Commissioner of School Education, Sri. B. Srinivasa Rao, IAS, State Project Director, SS, Ms. Nidhi
Meena, IAS, Special Officer, English Medium Project for their constant motivation and guidance.
We convey our sincere thanks to the text book writers, who studied curriculum and best
practices across the globe to reach global standards. Our heartful thanks to Director NCERT in
designing the text book and for issuing copyrights to print the textbooks by the State Government.
We also thank our Coordinators, Editors, Subject Coordinators, Technical team members, Artists,
DTP and Layout designers for their contribution in the development of this text book. We invite
constructive feedback from the teachers, parents and Educationalists for the further refinement of
the text book.
Dr. B. Pratap Reddy

Director
SCERT – Andhra Pradesh
vi

RATIONALISATION OF CONTENT IN THE TEXTBOOKS
In view of the COVID-19 pandemic, it is imperative to reduce content load on students. The
National Education Policy 2020, also emphasises reducing the content load and providing
opportunities for experiential learning with creative mindset. In this background, the NCERT
has undertaken the exercise to rationalise the textbooks across all classes. Learning Outcomes
already developed by the NCERT across classes have been taken into consideration in this
exercise.
Contents of the textbooks have been rationalised in view of the following:
• Overlapping with similar content included in other subject areas in the same class
• Similar content included in the lower or higher class in the same subject
• Difficulty level
• Content, which is easily accessible to students without much interventions from teachers
and can be learned by children through self-learning or peer-learning
• Content, which is irrelevant in the present context
This present edition, is a reformatted version after carrying out the changes given above.
vii

TEXTBOOK DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE
Chairperson, Advisory Group in Science and Mathematics

J.V. Narlikar, Emeritus Professor, Inter-University Centre for Astronomy & Astrophysics
(IUCAA), Ganeshkhind, Pune University, Pune
CHIEF ADVISORS
P. Sinclair, Professor of Mathematics, IGNOU, New Delhi
G.P. Dikshit, Professor (Retd.), Lucknow University, Lucknow
CHIEF COORDINATOR
Hukum Singh, Professor and Head (Retd.), DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
MEMBERS
Anjali Lal, PGT, DAV Public School, Sector-14, Gurgaon
A.K. Wazalwar, Professor and Head, DESM, NCERT
B.S. Upadhyaya, Professor, RIE, Mysore
Jayanti Datta, PGT, Salwan Public School, Gurgaon
Mahendra Shanker, Lecturer (S.G.) (Retd.), NCERT
Manica Aggarwal, Green Park, New Delhi
N.D. Shukla, Professor (Retd.), Lucknow University, Lucknow
Ram Avtar, Professor (Retd.) & Consultant, DESM, NCERT
Rama Balaji, TGT, K.V., MEG & Centre, St. John’s Road, Bangalore
S. Jagdeeshan, Teacher and Member, Governing Council, Centre for Learning, Bangalore
S.K.S. Gautam, Professor (Retd.), DESM, NCERT
Vandita Kalra, Lecturer, Sarvodaya Kanya Vidyalaya, Vikaspuri District Centre, Delhi
V.A. Sujatha, TGT, Kendriya Vidyalaya No. 1, Vasco, Goa
V. Madhavi, TGT, Sanskriti School, Chankyapuri, New Delhi
MEMBER-COORDINATOR
R.P. Maurya, Professor, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
viii

Acknowledgements
The Council gratefully acknowledges the valuable contributions of the following
participants of the Textbook Review Workshop:
Mala Mani, TGT, Amity International School, Sector-44, Noida; Meera Mahadevan,
TGT, Atomic Energy Central School, No. 4, Anushakti Nagar, Mumbai; Rashmi Rana,
TGT, D.A.V. Public School, Pushpanjali Enclave, Pitampura, Delhi; Mohammad Qasim,
TGT, Anglo Arabic Senior Secondary School, Ajmeri Gate, Delhi; S.C. Rauto, TGT,
Central School for Tibetans, Happy Valley, Mussoorie; Rakesh Kaushik, TGT, Sainik
School, Kunjpura, Karnal; Ashok Kumar Gupta, TGT, Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya,
Dudhnoi, Distt. Goalpara; Sankar Misra, TGT, Demonstration Multipurpose School,
RIE, Bhubaneswar; Uaday Singh, Lecturer, Department of Mathematics, B.H.U., Varanasi;
B.R. Handa, Emeritus Professor, IIT, New Delhi; Monika Singh, Lecturer, Sri Ram
College (University of Delhi), Lajpat Nagar, New Delhi; G. Sri Hari Babu, TGT, Jawahar
Navodaya Vidyalaya, Sirpur, Kagaz Nagar, Adilabad; Ajay Kumar Singh, TGT, Ramjas Sr.
Secondary School No. 3, Chandni Chowk, Delhi; Mukesh Kumar Agrawal, TGT,
S.S.A.P.G.B.S.S. School, Sector-V, Dr Ambedkar Nagar, New Delhi.
Special thanks are due to Professor Hukum Singh, Head (Retd.), DESM, NCERT
for his support during the development of this book.
The Council acknowledges the efforts of Deepak Kapoor, Incharge, Computer
Station; Purnendu Kumar Barik, Copy Editor; Naresh Kumar and Nargis Islam, D.T.P.
Operators; Yogita Sharma, Proof Reader.
The Contribution of APC-Office, administration of DESM, Publication Department
and Secretariat of NCERT is also duly acknowledged.
ix

NATIONAL ANTHEM C²rjáT ^Ôá+
Jana gana mana adhinayaka jaya he Èq>·DeTq n~óHjáT¿£ ÈjáTV ²!
Bharata bhagya vidhata uó²sÁÔá uó²>·«$<óÔ!
Panjaba Sindhu Gujarata Maratha |+C², d¾+<óT, >·TÈsÔá, eTssÄ,
Dravida Utkala Banga ç<$&, ÔáØÞø, e+>±!
Vindhya Himachala Yamuna Ganga $+<ó«, V¾²eÖ#á\, jáTeTTH, >·+>±!
uchchala jaladhi taranga #áÌ\ È\~ó ÔásÁ+>±!
Tava Subha name jage, tave subha Ôáe XøuóHyûT C²¹>!
asisa mage,
Ôáe Xøuó ¥w eÖ"¹>
gahe tava jaya gatha.
>±V² Ôáe ÈjáT>±<¸!
Jana gana mangala dayaka jaya he
Èq>·D eT+>·Þø<jáT¿£ ÈjáTV²!
Bharata bhagya vidhata.
uó²sÁÔá uó²>·« $<óÔ!
Jaya he, Jaya he, Jaya he,
ÈjáTV²! ÈjáTV²! ÈjáTV²!
jaya jaya jaya jaya he.
ÈjáT ÈjáT ÈjáT ÈjáTV ²!!
-Rabindranath Tagore ` sÁM+ç<H <¸ sÄ>·ÖsY
PLEDGE ç|ÜÈã
India is my country. All Indians are my brothers and sisters.
I love my country and I am proud of its rich and varied heritage.
I shall always strive to be worthy of it.
I shall give my parents, teachers and all elders respect,
and treat everyone with courtesy. I shall be kind to animals.
To my country and my people, I pledge my devotion.
In their well-being and prosperity alone lies my happiness.
- Pydimarri Venkata Subba Rao
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Chapter 1 Real Numbers

n<ó«jáT+ 1 ydïe d+K«\T 2 - 19
Chapter 2 Polynomials
n<ó«jáT+ 2 VQ|<T \T 20 - 47
Chapter 3 Pair of Linear Equations in two variables
n<ó«jáT+ 3 Âs+&T #ásÁsXø\ýË s¹ FjáT dMT¿£sÁD²\ ÈÔá 48 - 75
Chapter 4 Quadratic Equations
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Chapter 5 Arithmetic Progressions
n<ó«jáT+ 5 n+¿£çXâ&óT\T 98- 145
Chapter 6 Triangles
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Chapter 7 Coordinate Geometry
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Appendix.1 Proofs in Mathematics
nqT+<ó+`1 >·DìÔá+ýË sÁÖ|D\T 226 - 267
Answers
ÈyT\T 268 - 281

2 REAL NUMBERS
REAL NUMBERS 1
1.1 Introduction
In Class IX, you began your exploration of the world of real numbers and encountered
irrational numbers. We continue our discussion on real numbers in this chapter. We begin
with two very important properties of positive integers in Sections 1.2 and 1.3, namely the
Euclid’s division algorithm and the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic.
Euclid’s division algorithm, as the name suggests, has to do with divisibility of integers.
Stated simply, it says any positive integer a can be divided by another positive integer b in such
a way that it leaves a remainder r that is smaller than b. Many of you probably recognise this as
the usual long division process. Although this result is quite easy to state and understand, it has
many applications related to the divisibility properties of integers. We touch upon a few of
them, and use it mainly to compute the HCF of two positive integers.
The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic, on the other hand, has to do something with
multiplication of positive integers. You already know that every composite number can be
expressed as a product of primes in a unique way — this important fact is the Fundamental
Theorem of Arithmetic. Again, while it is a result that is easy to state and understand, it has
some very deep and significant applications in the field of mathematics. We use the Fundamental
Theorem of Arithmetic for two main applications. First, we use it to prove the irrationality of
many of the numbers you studied in Class IX, such as 2 , 3 and 5 . Second, we apply this
p
theorem to explore when exactly the decimal expansion of a rational number, say q (q ¹ 0) , is
terminating and when it is non-terminating repeating. We do so by looking at the prime

factorisation of the denominator q of p . You will see that the prime factorisation of q will
q
completely reveal the nature of the decimal expansion of p .

q
So let us begin our exploration.

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4 REAL NUMBERS
1.2 The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic

In your earlier classes, you have seen that any natural number can be written as a product of its
prime factors. For instance, 2 = 2, 4 = 2 × 2, 253 = 11 × 23, and so on. Now, let us try and look
at natural numbers from the other direction. That is, can any natural number be obtained by
multiplying prime numbers? Let us see.
Take any collection of prime numbers, say 2, 3, 7, 11 and 23. If we multiply some or
all of these numbers, allowing them to repeat as many times as we wish, we can produce a
large collection of positive integers (In fact, infinitely many). Let us list a few :
7 × 11 × 23 = 1771 3 × 7 × 11 × 23 = 5313
2 × 3 × 7 × 11 × 23 = 10626 23 × 3 × 73 = 8232
22 × 3 × 7 × 11 × 23 = 21252
and so on.
Now, let us suppose your collection of primes includes all the possible primes. What is
your guess about the size of this collection? Does it contain only a finite number of integers,
or infinitely many? Infact, there are
infinitely many primes. So, if we
combine all these primes in all possible
ways, we will get an infinite collection
of numbers, all the primes and all
possible products of primes. The
question is – can we produce all the
composite numbers this way? What do
you think? Do you think that there may
be a composite number which is not the
product of powers of primes? Before
we answer this, let us factorise positive
integers, that is, do the opposite of what
we have done so far.
We are going to use the factor tree
with which you are all familiar. Let us
take some large number, say, 32760, and
factorise it as shown.

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|]o*+#á&¿ì ç|jTá Ü<Ý+. nq>± ç|<ó H+¿±\qT >·TDì+#á&+ <Çs dV² Èd+K«\qT bõ+<e#Ì? |]o*<Ý+.
¿= ç|<ó qd+K«\T 2, 3, 7, 11 eT]jáTT 23\qT rdTÅ£+<+. M{ìýË ¿=+{ì ýñ< n+{ì rdTÅ£
@ d+K« mkÍsÁT¢ nsTTqqÖ >·TDì+#á&+ <Çs eTq+ nÜ|<Ý <óq |PsÁd+K«\ deTÖVä ÔájáÖsÁT#ûjáTe#áTÌ.
y{ìýË ¿=+{ì C²_Ô:.
7 × 11 × 23 = 1771 3 × 7 × 11 × 23 = 5313
2 × 3 × 7 × 11 × 23 = 10626 23 × 3 × 73 = 8232
22 × 3 × 7 × 11 × 23 = 21252 yîTT<ýÕq
É $.
|ÚÎ&T, eTq+ rdTÅ£q ç|<óH+¿±\ýË kÍ<ó«eTjûT« n ç|<ó H+¿±\T HjáT nqTÅ£+<+.
n³Te+{ì deTÖVä |]eÖD² MTsÁT }V¾²+#á>\· s? deTÖV²+ýË >·\ |PsÁd+K«\ d+K« |]$TÔáeÖ? ýñ<
n|]$TÔáeÖ? C²¿ì, nq+ÔáyTî q® ç|<ó H+¿±\T +{²sTT. ¿±eÚq, ç|<ó H+¿±\+{ìú kÍ<ó« yîTq® $ n
$<ó\T>± >·TDìdÖ ï bþÔû n ç|<ó qd+K«\T eT]jáTT y{ì \u²Ý\ÔÃ Å£L&q nq+Ôá d+U²« deTÖVä bõ+<TÔeTT
$<ó+ >± n d+jáTT¿£ï d+K«\qT ÔájÖá sÁT
#ûjTá >·\eÖ? nHû ç|Xø ÔáÎq+ neÚÔáT+~.
MTsÁT @eTqTÅ£+³THsÁT? ç|<óqd+K«\
|ÖÔ\ \Ý+>± sjáTýñ d+jáTT¿£ï d+K«
@<îHÕ
ÿ¿£{ì +³T+< MTsÁT uó²$dTïHs? B¿ì
deÖ<óq+ ¿£qT>=Hû eTT+<T <óq |PsÁd + K«\qT
ç|<ó q ¿±sÁD²+¿±\ \Ý+>± s<Ý+. nq>±
+ÔáesÁÅ£ eTq+ #ûdq¾ <¿ì e«Ü¹s¿£ ç|ç¿ìjTá qT
#û<Ý+.
eTqÅ£ u²>± |]#ájTá + q ¿±sÁD²+¿±\ e¿£
|<ÆÜ |jÖî Ð+#áuËÔáTH+. ÿ¿£|<dÝ + K«,
<V²sÁDÅ£ 32760 rdT¿= ç|¿Ø£ q #áÖ|¾q
$<ó+ >± ç|<ó q ¿±sÁD+>± \Ý+>± s<Ý+.

6 REAL NUMBERS
So we have factorised 32760 as 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 5 × 7 × 13 as a product of primes,

i.e., 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 5 × 7 × 13 as a product of powers of primes. Let us try another number,
say, 123 456789. This can be written as 32 × 3803 × 3607. Of course, you have to check that
3803 and 3607 are primes! (Try it out for several other natural numbers yourself.) This
leads us to a conjecture that every composite number can be written as the product of powers
of primes. In fact, this statement is true, and is called the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic
because of its basic crucial importance to the study of integers. Let us now formally state this
theorem.
Theorem 1.1 (Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic) : Every composite number can
be expressed (factorised) as a product of primes, and this factorisation is unique, apart
An equivalent version of Theorem 1.2 was probably first

recorded as Proposition 14 of Book IX in Euclid’s
Elements, before it came to be known as the Fundamental
Theorem of Arithmetic. However, the first correct proof
was given by Carl Friedrich Gauss in his Disquisitiones
Arithmeticae.
Carl Friedrich Gauss is often referred to as the ‘Prince of
Mathematicians’ and is considered one of the three greatest
mathematicians of all time, along with Archimedes and Carl Friedrich Gauss
Newton. He has made fundamental contributions to both (1777 – 1855)
mathematics and science.
from the order in which the prime factors occur.

The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic says that every composite number can be
factorised as a product of primes. Actually it says more. It says that given any composite
number it can be factorised as a product of prime numbers in a ‘unique’ way, except for the
order in which the primes occur. That is, given any composite number there is one and only
one way to write it as a product of primes, as long as we are not particular about the order in
which the primes occur. So, for example, we regard 2 × 3 × 5 × 7 as the same as 3 × 5 × 7 ×
2, or any other possible order in which these primes are written. This fact is also stated in the
following form:

ydeï d+K«\T 7
¿±eÚq eTq+ 32760 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 5 × 7 × 13 >± ç|<ó q ¿±sÁD²+¿±\ \Ý+>±, nq>±, 32760

2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 5 × 7 × 13 eýñ ç|<óq ¿±sÁD²+¿±\ |ÖÔ\ \Ý+>± skÍ+. eTq+ eTs=¿£ d+K«,
123456789qT ç|jTá Ü<Ý+. B 32 × 3803 × 3607 >± sjáTe#áTÌ. nsTTÔû, MTsÁT 3803 eT]jáTT 3607\T
ç|<ó q d+K«\T n |]o*+#á e\d¾ +³T+~! (+¿± nHû¿£ ÔásÁ dV² Èd+K«\qT rdT¿= MTsÁT ç|jáTÜ+#á+&. ~
ç|Ü d+jáTT¿£dï + K«qT ç|<ó q ¿±sÁD²+¿±\ |Ö Ô\ \Ý+>± sjáTe#áTÌ nHû |]¿£\ÎqÅ£ <] rdT+ï ~. C²¿ì,
ç|e#áq+ dÔ«á + eT]jáTT |PsÁ d+K«\ n<ó« jáTH¿ì çbÍ<¸$ T¿£+>± <Å£q nÜ çbÍeTTK«Ôá ¿±sÁD+>± B n+¿£>D· Ôì á
çbÍ<¸$ T¿£ d¾<Æ+Ôá+ n n+{²sÁT. |ÚÎ&T eTq+ d¾<Æ+Ô kÍ~ó¿±]¿£+>± sÁÇº<Ý+,
d¾<Æ+Ôá+ 1:1 (n+¿£>D· Ôì á çbÍ<¸$ T¿£ d¾<Æ+Ôá+) ~ ç|Ü d+jáTT¿£dï + K«qT ç|<ó q¿±sÁD²+¿±\ |Ö Ô\ \Ý+>±
sjáTe#áTÌ. BýË ç|<óq d+K«\ ç¿£eT+ @<îÕq|Î{ì¿¡, ç|Ü d+jáTT¿£ï d+K«Å£ ç|<óq ¿±sÁD²+¿±\ \Ý+ @Â¿Õ¿£eTT>±
+³T+~. BÅ£q çbÍeTTK«Ôá ¿±sÁD+>± B n+¿£>D · Ôì á çbÍ<¸$ T¿£ d¾<Æ+Ôá+ n n+{²sÁT. |ÚÎ&T eTq+
n+¿£>D· ìÔá çbÍ<¸$ T¿£ d¾<Æ+Ôá+>± ~ eTqÅ£ |]#ájáT+ ne&¿ì eTT+<û

d¾<Æ+Ôá+ 1.2 jîTT¿£Ø deÖqyîT®q ç|e#áq+ jáTÖ¿ì¢& m*yîT+{Ùà ç>·+<¸+ jîTT¿£Ø
|Údï¿£+ýË ç|ÜbÍ<q 14>± qyîÖ<T #ûjáT&+&e#áTÌ nsTTq|Î{ì¿¡
yîTT³¼yTî T<{kì Í]>± dsÂ qÕ sÁÖ|DqT ¿±sY¢ ç|& ] #Y>±dt Ôáq &dØ¾ Çd¾wH à n]<¸î {ì¿¹ ýË
eÇ&+ È]Ð+~.
¿±sY¢ ç|& ] #Y>±dt ç|¾Hà |t yûT<¸ yîT{¡wj
¾ Tá Hà n |¾\TkÍïsTÁ . ]ØyîT&dt eT]jáTT
qÖ«³H\ÔÃ bÍ³T ç||+ #á+ýË nÔá«+Ôá eTT>·TsZ TÁ ç|eTTK >·DÔì Xá æçdE ï \ã ýË ÿ¿£]>± ¿±sY¢ ç|&]#Y >±dt
|]>·Dì+#á&¦sTÁ . ÔáqT >·DìÔá+ eT]jáTT $C²ãqXæçd+ï sÂ +&+{ì¿ì y] çbÍ<¸$ T¿£ (1777 – 1855)
de\qT n+~+#sÁT.
n+¿£>D· Ôì á çbÍ<¸$ T¿£ d¾<Æ+Ôá+, ç|Ü d+jáTT¿£ïd+K«qT ç|<óq¿±sÁD²+¿±\ \Ý+>± sjáTe#áÌ #îTÔáT+~.
C²¿ì ~ +¿± mÅ£Øyû Ôî*jáTCñdT +ï ~. ~ ç|Ü d+jáTT¿£dï + K«qT ç|<ó q ¿±sÁD²+¿±\ \Ý+>± sjáTe#áÌ y{ì
ç¿£eT+ @<îHÕ |Î{ì¿¡ ç|<ó q ¿±sÁD²+¿±\ \ÝeTT »»@Â¿¿Õ e£ Tµµ Ôî\T|ÚÔáT+~. nq>± ç|<ó q ¿±sÁD²+¿±\ ç¿£eÖ¿ì
çbÍ<óq«Ôá eÇq+Ôá esÁÅ£ @<îÕH d+jáTT¿£ïd+K«qT ç|<óq ¿±sÁD²+¿±\ \Ý+>± ÿ¹¿ ÿ¿£$<ó+>± sjáT>·\+.
<V²sÁDÅ£, 2×3×5×7 ýñ< 3×5×7×2 ýñ< ç|<óH+¿±\qT ne¿±Xø+ q yûs¹ ç¿£eT+ýË mý² sd¾q n~
deÖqyûT. dÔ« ç¿ì+~ $<ó+ >± Å£L& #î|Î e#áTÌ:

8 REAL NUMBERS
The prime factorisation of a natural number is unique, except for the order of its
factors.
In general, given a composite number x, we factorise it as x = p1 p2 ... pn, where p1, p2,...,
pn are primes and written in ascending order, i.e., p1 £ p2£ . . . £ pn. If we combine the same
primes, we will get powers of primes. For example,
32760 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 5 × 7 × 13 = 23 × 32 × 5 × 7 × 13
Once we have decided that the order will be ascending, then the way the number is
factorised, is unique.
The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic has many applications, both within mathematics
and in other fields. Let us look at some examples.
Example 1 : Consider the numbers 4n, where n is a natural number. Check whether there is any
value of n for which 4n ends with the digit zero.
Solution : If the number 4n, for any n, were to end with the digit zero, then it would be divisible
by 5. That is, the prime factorisation of 4n would contain the prime 5. This is not possible
because 4n = (2)2n; so the only prime in the factorisation of 4n is 2. So, the uniqueness of the
Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic guarantees that there are no other primes in the factorisation
of 4n. So, there is no natural number n for which 4n ends with the digit zero.
You have already learnt how to find the HCF and LCM of two positive integers using the
Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic in earlier classes, without realising it! This method is also
called the prime factorisation method. Let us recall this method through an example.
Example 2 : Find the LCM and HCF of 6 and 20 by the prime factorisation method.
Solution : We have : 6 = 21 × 31 and 20 = 2 × 2 × 5 = 22 × 51.
You can find HCF(6, 20) = 2 and LCM(6, 20) = 2 × 2 × 3 × 5 = 60, as done in your earlier
classes.
Note that HCF(6, 20) = 21 =Product of the smallest power of each common prime
factor in the numbers.
LCM (6, 20) = 22 × 31 × 51 =Product of the greatest power of each prime factor, involved
in the numbers.
From the example above, you might have noticed that HCF(6, 20) × LCM(6, 20) = 6 × 20.
In fact, we can verify that for any two positive integers a and b, HCF (a, b) × LCM (a, b) =
a × b. We can use this result to find the LCM of two positive integers, if we have
already found the HCF of the two positive integers.

ydeï d+K«\T 9
ç|<óq ¿±sÁD²+¿±\ ç¿£eÖ¿ì çbÍ<óq«Ôá ýñÅ£+& +fñ ÿ¿£ dV² Èd+K« jîTT¿£Ø ç|<ó q ¿±sÁD²+¿±\ \Ý+ @Â¿¿Õ +£ .
kÍ<ósÁD+>±, ÿ¿£ d+jáTT¿£ï d+K« x, ºÌq³¢sTTÔû, < x = p1 p2 ... pn, where p1, p2,..., pn ¿±sÁD²+¿±\
\Ý+>± sjáTe#áTÌ. ¿£Ø& p1 £ p2£ . . . £ pn.\T sÃV²D ç¿£eT+ýË sjáT&q ç|<ó q d+K«\T.nq>± 32760
= 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 5 × 7 × 13 = 23 × 32 × 5 × 7 × 13. d+<sÁÒ+Û ýË ÿ¹¿sÁ¿£yTî ®q ç|<óH+¿£eTT\T
y&q#Ã y{ì ç|<ó H+¿±\ |ÖÔ\T>± skÍï+. <V²sÁD¿ì, 32760.
ÿ¿£kÍ] eTq+ n$ sÃV²Dç¿£eT+ n sÁs TT+#áTÅ£+fñ n|ÚÎ&T d+K« jîTT¿£Ø ç|<ó q¿±sÁD²+¿±\ \Ý+
@Â¿¿Õ +£ .
n+¿£>D· Ôì á çbÍ<¸$T¿£d<¾ Æ+Ôá+ >·DìÔá+ýËqÖ eT]jáTT ÔásÁ sÁ+>±\ýËqÖ Å£L& nHû¿£ nqTesÁHï \qT ¿£*Ð
+~. ¿= <V²sÁD\T #áÖ<Ý+.
<V²sÁD 1 : dV² Èd+K«>± >·\ n rdT¿Ã+&. n jîTT¿£Ø @$\TyîÕq 4n dTHÔÃ n+ÔáeT>·THÃ, ýñ<Ã d]#áÖ&+&.
kÍ<óq : d+K« eÇ&q d+K« 4n, jîTT¿£Ø @ $\TeÂ¿qÕ dTHÔÃ n+ÔáeTyÇ* n+fñ, n~ 5ÔÃ uó²Ð+#á&*. nq>± 4n
d+K« jîTT¿£Ø ç|<ó q ¿±sÁD²+¿±\ \Ý+ýË 5 ÿ¿£ ç|<ó qd+K«>± +&*. 4n = (2)2n; n>·T³ e\q ~ kÍ<ó« +¿±<T.
4n jîTT¿£Ø ç|<ó q¿±sÁD²+¿±\ \Ý+ýË >·\ @Â¿Õ¿ ç£ |<ó qd+K« 2. n+¿£>D
· çì bÍ<¸$ T¿£ d¾<Æ+Ôá+ ç|¿±sÁ+ ç|<ó q¿±sÁD²+¿±\
\Ý+ @Â¿¿Õ +£ . ¿±eÚq, 4n ç|<ó q ¿±sÁD²+¿±\ \Ý+ýË ÔásÁ ç|<ó qd+K«\T ¿£ºÌÔá+>± +&eÚ. ¿±eÚq , 4n nHû d+K«
n jîTT¿£Ø @ $\TeÅ£ dTqÔÃ n+ÔáeTe<T.
n+¿£>·DÔì á çbÍ<¸$ T¿£ d¾<Æ+Ôá+ MTÅ£ Ôî*jáT¿£bþsTTq|Î{ì¿¡ < ~esÁ¹¿ |jîÖÐ+º Âs+&T <óq|PsÁ
d+K«\ >·.kÍ.uó². eT]jáTT ¿£.kÍ.>·T. mý² ¿£qT>=qe#ÃÌ eTT+<TÔásÁ>·ÔáT\ýË MTsÁT HûsÁTÌÅ£HsÁT! |<ÆÜ Hû ç|<ó q
¿±sÁD²+¿±\ \Ý|< ÜÆ n Å£L& n+{²sÁT. ÿ¿£ <V²sÁD <Çs B eTq+ >·TsÁTïÅ£ Ôî#Tá ÌÅ£+<+.
<V²sÁD 2: ç|<ó q¿±sÁD²+¿±\\Ý|< ÆÜ <Çs 6 eT]jáTT 20 jîTT¿£Ø¿£kÍ>·TeT]jáTT>·kÍuó²¿£qT>=q+&.
kÍ<óq : 6 = 21 × 31 eT]jáTT 20 = 2 × 2 × 5 = 22 × 51.
eTTqT|{ì Ôás>Á Ô· áT\ýË #ûdq¾ ³T¢>± eTq+ (6, 20) >·kÍuó² R 2 eT]jáTT (6, 20) ¿£kÍ>·T = 2 × 2 × 3 × 5 = 60 n
¿£qT>=qe#áTÌ.
(6, 20) >·kÍuó² R 21 R d+K«\ jîTT¿£Ø ç|Ü eT& ç|<óq ¿±sÁD²+¿±\ ¿£w¼ |Ö Ô\ \Ý+.
(6, 20) ¿£kÍ>·T 22 × 31 × 51 sÂ +&T d+K«\ýË >·\ ç|Ü ç|<óq ¿±sÁD²+¿£+ jîTT¿£Ø $T¿ìØ* |<Ý|Ö Ô\ \Ý+ n
>·eT+#á+&. |Õ <V²sÁD qT+&, MTsÁT (6, 20) >·kÍuó² I (6, 20) ¿£kÍ>·T R 6, 20 n >·eT+#û +{²sÁT. C²¿ì,
>·.kÍ.u² (6, 20) × ¿£.kÍ.>·T (6, 20) = 6 × 20 \T @yîÕH Âs+&T <óq |PsÁ d+K«\T nsTTÔû (a,b) >·kÍuó² I (a,b)
¿£kÍ>·T R ( a×b) n |]o*+#áe#áTÌ. |*Ô |jîÖÐ+º Âs+&T <óq|PsÁd+ K«\ >·kÍuó²qT eTT+<T eTq+
¿£qT>=q³¢sTTÔû <ÔÃ ¿£kÍ>·TqT ¿£qT>=qe#áTÌ.

10 REAL NUMBERS
Example 3: Find the HCF of 96 and 404 by the prime factorisation method. Hence, find their
LCM.
Solution : The prime factorisation of 96 and 404 gives :
96 = 25 × 3, 404 = 22 × 101
Therefore, the HCF of these two integers is 22 = 4.
96 ´ 404 96 ´ 404
Also, LCM (96, 404) = = = 9696
HCF(96, 404) 4
Example 4 : Find the HCF and LCM of 6, 72 and 120, using the prime factorisation method.
Solution : We have :
6 = 2 × 3, 72 = 23 × 32, 120 = 23 × 3 × 5
Here, 21 and 31 are the smallest powers of the common factors 2 and 3, respectively.
So, HCF (6, 72, 120) = 21 × 31 = 2 × 3 = 6
23, 32 and 51 are the greatest powers of the prime factors 2, 3 and 5 respectively involved in
the three numbers.
So, LCM (6, 72, 120) = 23 × 32 × 51 = 360
Remark : Notice, 6 × 72 × 120 ¹ HCF (6, 72, 120) × LCM (6, 72, 120). So, the product of
three numbers is not equal to the product of their HCF and LCM.
EXERCISE 1.1
1. Express each number as a product of its prime factors:
(i) 140 (ii) 156 (iii) 3825 (iv) 5005 (v) 7429
2. Find the LCM and HCF of the following pairs of integers and verify that LCM × HCF =
product of the two numbers.
(i) 26 and 91 (ii) 510 and 92 (iii) 336 and 54
3. Find the LCM and HCF of the following integers by applying the prime factorisation
method.
(i) 12, 15 and 21 (ii) 17, 23 and 29 (iii) 8, 9 and 25
4. Given that HCF (306, 657) = 9, find LCM (306, 657).
5. Check whether 6n can end with the digit 0 for any natural number n.
6. Explain why 7 × 11 × 13 + 13 and 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 + 5 are composite numbers.

ydeï d+K«\T 11
<V²sÁD 3: ¿±sÁD²+¿£ $uóÈ q <Çs 96 eT]jáTT 404\ >·.kÍ.uó². qT ¿£qT>=q+&. Ôá<Çs, y{ì ¿£.kÍ.>·T.qT
¿£qT>=q+&.
kÍ<óq : 96 eT]jáTT 404 jîTT¿£Ø ç|<ó q ¿±sÁD²+¿±\ \Ý+
96 = 25 × 3, 404 = 22 × 101
¿±{ì¼, Âs+&T |Ps+¿±\ >·kÍuó² 22 R 4.
+¿± ¿£.kÍ.>·T (96,404) = >·kÍuó96² ´ 404 =
96 ´ 404
= 9696
HCF(96, 404) 4
<V²sÁD 4: ç|<ó q ¿±sÁD²+¿±\ \Ý |<ÜÆ |jîÖÐ+º 6, 72 eT]jáTT 120 jîTT¿£Ø >·kÍuó² eT]jáTT ¿£kÍ>·T
\qT ¿£qT>=q+&.
kÍ<óq : 6 = 2 × 3, 72 = 23 × 32, 120 = 23 × 3 × 5 n Ôî\TdT
¿£Ø& 21eT]jáTT 31\T 2 eT]jáTT 3 jîTT¿£Ø ¿£w¼ |Ö Ô\T.
¿±eÚq ¿£.kÍ.>·T (6,72,120) >·kÍuó² R 2 1 I 31 R 2I3I6
eTÖ&T d+K«\ýË >·\ ç|<ó q ¿±sÁD²+¿±\T 2,3,5 jîTT¿£Ø >·]w¼ |ÖÔ\T esÁTd>± 23, 32 ,51.
¿±eÚq (6,72, 120) R 23 × 32 × 51 = 360
dÖ#áq: 6 × 72 × 120 (6, 72, 120) >·kÍuó² (6, 72, 120) × ¿£kÍ>·T. (6, 72, 120) ¿±{ì,¼ eTÖ&T
d+K«\ \Ý+ y{ì >·kÍuó² eT]jáTT ¿£kÍ>·T\ \u²Ý¿ì deÖq+ ¿±<T n >·eT+#á+&.
nuó²«d+ 1.1
1. ç|Ü d+K«qT < ç|<ó q ¿±sÁD²+¿±\ \Ý+>± sjáT+&.

(i) 140 (ii) 156 (iii) 3825 (iv) 5005 (v) 7429
2. ¿ì+~ |PsÁd +K«\ ÈÔá\ ¿£kÍ>·T, >·kÍuó²\qT ¿£qT>=, y{ì ¿£kÍ>·T I >·kÍuó² R sÂ +&T d+K«\ \Ý+
|]o*+#á+&.
(i) 26 eT]jáTT 91 (ii) 510 eT]jáTT 92 (iii) 336 eT]jáTT 54
3. ç|<ó q ¿±sÁD²+¿±\ \Ý |<ÜÆ |jÖî Ð+º ¿ì+~ |PsÁd + K«\ ¿£kÍ>·T, >·kÍuó² ¿£qT>=q+&.
(i) 12, 15 eT]jáTT 21 (ii) 17, 23 eT]jáTT 29 (iii) 8, 9 eT]jáTT 25
4. (306, 657) >·kÍuó² R9 nsTTÔû (306, 657) ¿£kÍ>·T ¿£qT>=q+&
5. @<îÕH dV² È d+K« 6n n d+K« dTqÔÃ n+ÔáeT>·THÃ ,ýñ<Ã d]#áÖ&+&.
6. 7 × 11 × 13 + 13 eT]jáTT 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 + 5 @$<ó+ >± d+jáTT¿£ï d+K«\T >·THÃ
$e]+#á+&.

12 REAL NUMBERS
7. There is a circular path around a sports field. Sonia takes 18 minutes to drive one round
of the field, while Ravi takes 12 minutes for the same. Suppose they both start at the
same point and at the same time, and go in the same direction. After how many minutes
will they meet again at the starting point?
1.3 Revisiting Irrational Numbers
In Class IX, you were introduced to irrational numbers and many of their properties. You
studied about their existence and how the rationals and the irrationals together made up the
real numbers. You even studied how to locate irrationals on the number line. However, we
did not prove that they were irrationals. In this section, we will prove that 2 , 3 , 5 and,
in general, p is irrational, where p is a prime. One of the theorems, we use in our proof, is
the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic.
p
Recall, a number ‘s’ is called irrational if it cannot be written in the form q , where p and
q are integers and q ¹ 0. Some examples of irrational numbers, with which you are already
familiar, are :
2,
2, 3 , 15 , p , - 0.10110111011110 . . . , etc.
3
Before we prove that 2 is irrational, we need the following theorem, whose proof is
based on the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic.
Theorem 1.2 : Let p be a prime number. If p divides a2, then p divides a, where a is a positive
integer.
*Proof : Let the prime factorisation of a be as follows :
a = p1p2 . . . pn, where p1,p2, . . ., pn are primes, not necessarily distinct.
Therefore, a2 = ( p1 p2 . . . pn)( p1 p2 . . . pn) = p21 p22 . . . p2n.
Now, we are given that p divides a2. Therefore, from the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic, it
follows that p is one of the prime factors of a2. However, using the uniqueness part of the
Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic, we realise that the only prime factors of a2 are p1, p2, . . .,
pn. So p is one of p1, p2, . . ., pn.
Now, since a = p1 p2 . . . pn , p divides a.
We are now ready to give a proof that 2 is irrational.
The proof is based on a technique called ‘proof by contradiction’. (This technique is discussed
in some detail in Appendix 1).
* Not from the examination point of view.

ydeï d+K«\T 13
7. ç¿¡& yîT<® q+ #áT³Ö¼ eÔï¿±sÁ eÖsÁ+Z +~. kþjáÖ <#áT³Ö¼ ÿ¿£kÍ] ÜsÁ>&· ¿ì 18 $TcÍ\T |&T ÔáT+~.
¿±ú n<û|¿ì sÁ$¿ì 12 $TcÍ\ deTjáT+ |&TÔáT+~. y]<ÝsÁÖ ÿ¹¿ d\+ e<Ý ÿ¹¿kÍ] eT]jáTT ÿ¹¿ _+<TeÚ
e<Ý çbÍsÁ+_ó+#sÁT nqTÅ£+<+. m $TcÍ\ ÔásTÁ yÔá ysÁT eT°ß çbÍsÁ+uó kÍq+ e<Ý ¿£\TkÍïsÁT?
1.3 ¿£sDÁ ¡jTá d+K«\ |Úq:|]o\q
9e ÔásÁ>·ÜýË MTÅ£ ¿£sÁD¡jáT d+K«\T, y{ì <ós \qT ¿= |]#ájáT+ #ûjáTT³ È]Ð+~. MTsÁT y{ì
¿ì >·T]+º eT]jáTT n¿£sDÁ j ¡ Tá , ¿£sÁDj
¡ Tá d+K«\T ¿£*d¾ ydeï d+K«\qT @$<ó+ >± @sÁÎsÁTkÍïjÖî Ôî\TdTÅ£HsÁT.
MTsÁT d+U²«¹sK|Õ ¿£sDÁ jì¡ Tá d+K«\qT >·T]ï+#áT³ Å£L&Ôî\TdTÅ£HsÁT. ¿± n$ ¿£sDÁ j ¡ Tá d+K«\T @$<ó+ >± neÚÔjîÖ
sÁÖ|¾+#áý<ñ T . $uó²>·+ýË eTq 2 , 3 , 5 eT]jáTT kÍ<ósÁD+>± p ç|<óqd+K« nsTTÔû p ¿£sÁD¡jáT
d+K« n>·TqT sÁÖ|¾kÍïeTT. sÁÖ|DýË eTq+ |jÖî Ð+#û d¾<Æ+Ô\ýË ÿ¿£{ì n+¿£>D· Ôì çá bÍ<¸$ T¿£ d¾<Æ+Ôá+.
ÿ¿£ d+K« s qT p/ q sÁÖ|+ýË sjáTýñ¿b£ þÔû < ¿£sD Á j¡ Tá d+K« n+{²sÁ >·TsÁTÅï £ Ôî#Tá Ì¿Ã+&.¿£Ø& p eT]jáTT
q |Ps+¿±\T eT]jáTT q ¹ o. MTÅ£ |]#ájTá + q ¿= ¿£sD Á j
¡ Tá d+K«\Å£ <V²sÁD\T
2,
2, 3 , 15 , p , - 0.10110111011110 . . . yîTT<ýÕq É $.
3
eTq 2 ¿£sÁD¡jáTd+K« sÁÖ|¾+#áT³Å£ eTT+<T eTqÅ£ n+¿£>·DìÔá çbÍ<¸$T¿£ d¾<Æ+Ôá+ <ósÁ+>±
sÁÖ|¾+#á&q ç¿ì+~ d¾<Æ+Ôá+ nedsÁ+.
d¾<Æ+Ôá+ 1.2: p nHû~ ÿ¿£ ç|<óq d+K« eT]jáTT a ÿ¿£ <óq |PsÁ d+K« nsTTÔû a2 Xâôw+>± uó²Ðdï
a Xâôw+>± uó²ÐdT+ï ~.
* sÁÖ|D: a jîTT¿£Ø ç|<óq ¿±sÁD²+¿±\ \Ý+ ç¿ì+~ $<ó+ >± +~ nqTÅ£+<+.
a = p1p2 . . . pn, where p1,p2, . . ., pn nHû$ ç|<ó qd+K«\T. n$ yûsÁTyûsÁT>± +&e\d¾q nedsÁ+ýñ<T
n+<T#û a2 = ( p1 p2 . . . pn)( p1 p2 . . . pn) = p21 p22 . . . p2n n>·TqT.
n+¿£>D· Ôì á çbÍ<¸$ T¿£ d¾<Æ+ÔáeTTqT nqTd]+º a2qT p Xâôw+>± uó²Ð+#áTq eÇ&q+<Tq a2
jîTT¿£Ø ç|<óq ¿±sÁD²+¿±\T p1, p2, . . ., pn n>·TqT.
n+¿£>D· Ôì á çbÍ<¸$T¿£ d¾<Æ+Ôá+ jîTT¿£Ø @¿£ÔáÇ uó²eqqT nqTd]+º p nHû~ p1, p2, . . ., pn.\ýË
ÿ¿£{ì>± +³T+~
a = p1 p2 . . . pn , ¿±eÚq a = p uó²ÐdT+ï ~
|ÚÎ&T eTq+ 2 ¿£sD Á j
¡ Tá d+K« n sÁÖ|¾+#áT³Å£ d¾<+Æ >± HeTT.
sÁÖ|D |sÃ¿£ |<ÜÆ ýË $sÁT<ÔÆ á <Çs sÁÖ|D nHû |<ÜÆ MT< <ósÁ|& +³T+~ (nqT+<ó+ 1 ýË B >·T]+º
¿=+Ôá $e]+#á&+ È]Ð+~).
* |¯¿£\
Å£ <ûÝ¥+#á&q~ ¿±<T.

14 REAL NUMBERS
Theorem 1.3 : 2 is irrational.

Proof : Let us assume, to the contrary, that 2 is rational.
r
So, we can find integers r and s (¹ 0) such that 2 = s.
Suppose r and s have a common factor other than 1. Then, we divide by the common factor
to get a , where a and b are coprime.
2=
b
So, b 2 = a.
Squaring on both sides and rearranging, we get 2b2 = a2. Therefore, 2 divides a2.
Now, by Theorem 1.3, it follows that 2 divides a.
So, we can write a = 2c for some integer c.
Substituting for a, we get 2b2 = 4c2, that is, b2 = 2c2.
This means that 2 divides b2, and so 2 divides b (again using Theorem 1.3 with p = 2).
Therefore, a and b have at least 2 as a common factor.
But this contradicts the fact that a and b have no common factors other than 1.
This contradiction has arisen because of our incorrect assumption that 2 is rational.
So, we conclude that 2 is irrational.

Example 5 : Prove that 3 is irrational.
Solution : Let us assume, to the contrary, that 3 is rational.
a
That is, we can find integers a and b (¹ 0) such that 3 = ×
b
Suppose a and b have a common factor other than 1, then we can divide by the common
factor, and assume that a and b are coprime.
So, b 3 = a ×
Squaring on both sides, and rearranging, we get 3b2 = a2.
Therefore, a2 is divisible by 3, and by Theorem 1.3, it follows that a is also divisible by
3.

ydeï d+K«\T 15
d¾<Æ+Ôá+ 1.3 2 ¿£sDÁ j

¡ Tá d+K«
r
sÁÖ|D: B¿ì $sÁT<+Æ >± 2 n¿£sD
Á j
¡ Tá d+K« nqTÅ£+<+. ¿£qT¿£ 2 = s njûT«$<ó+ >± eTq+ r eT]jáTT
s( ¹0) |PsÁd + K«\qT ¿£qT>=qe#áTÌqT. r eT]jáTT s\Å£ @<îÕH kÍeÖq« ¿±sÁD²+¿£+ +fñ kÍeÖq« ¿±sÁD+
#ûÔá uó²Ðdï eTqÅ£ a, >± edT+ï ~. +<TýË a eT]jáTT b\T |sÁdÎsÁ ç|<óH+¿±\T.
2=
b
BqT+& b 2 =a
sÁTyî|Õ Ú ý² esÁ+Z #ûd,¾ ç¿£eT+ýË neTsÁÌ>± eTqÅ£ 2b2 = a2 edT+ï ~. nq>± a2 2ÔÃ uó²ÐdTï+~.
|ÚÎ&T d¾<Æ+Ôá+ 1.3 qT+& a qT Å£L& 2 uó²ÐdT+ï ~.
n+<T#û eTq+ Ü]Ð a = 2c nHû~ ÿ¿ £|PsÁ d+K«>± sjáTe#áTÌ
+<TýË a $\TeqT Ü]Ð ç|Ü¿¹ | +¾ #á>± eTqÅ£ 2b2 = 4c2, n+fñ b2 = 2c2 edT+ï ~.
nq>± b2qT 2 uó²ÐdT+ï ~ eT]jáTT b 2 uó²ÐdTï+~ (p=2ÔÃ d¾<Æ+Ôá+ 1.3qT Ü]Ð |jÖî Ð+#*)
n+<Te\q a ,b\Å£ 2 ÿ¿£ kÍeÖq« ¿±sÁD²+¿£+ nsTTq~.
a,b \T |sdÁ ÎsÁ ç|<óH+¿±\T eT]jáTT 1 Ôá|Î M{ìýË m³Te+{ì eT& ¿±sÁD²+¿±\T ýñq+<Tq eTq+
ç|ÜbÍ~+ºq 2 nHû uó²eq $sÁT<ÔÆ Åá £ <] rdT+ï ~.
n+<T#û 2 nHû~ ¿£sDÁ j
¡ Tá d+K«>± sÁÖ|¾+#áe#áTÌqT.
<V²sÁD 5: 3 ¿£sDÁ j ¡ Tá d+K« n sÁÖ|¾+#á+&
sÁÖ|D: B¿ì $sÁT<+Æ >±, 3 n¿£sDÁ j¡ Tá d+K« n nqTÅ£+<+
a
3 =
b
× n>·Tq³T¢ a eT]jáTT b (¹ 0)\T e«edÓÔ eá TeÚÔsTT.
ÿ¿£yÞû ø a eT]jáTT b\Å£ @<îHÕ kÍeÖq« ¿±sÁD²+¿£+ +fñ kÍeÖq« ¿±sÁD²+¿£+ #ûÔá uó²ÐkÍïeTT. ¿±ú #áÌ³
a eT]jáTT b\T |sd
Á ÎsÁ ç|<óH+¿±\T nqTÅ£+<+.
BqT+& b 3 = a×
sÁTyî|Õ Ú ý² esÁ+Z #ûd ç¿£eT+ýË neTsÁÌ>± eTqÅ£ 3b2 = a2 edT+ï ~.

nq>± a2qT 3 uó²ÐdT+ï ~. |ÚÎ&T d¾<Æ+Ôá+ 1.3 qT+& a2qT 3 uó²Ð+#áT³ e\q aqT Å£L& 3 uó²ÐdT+ï ~.

16 REAL NUMBERS
So, we can write a = 3c for some integer c.

Substituting for a, we get 3b2 = 9c2, that is, b2 = 3c2.
This means that b2 is divisible by 3, and so b is also divisible by 3 (using Theorem 1.3
with p = 3).
Therefore, a and b have at least 3 as a common factor.
But this contradicts the fact that a and b are coprime.
This contradiction has arisen because of our incorrect assumption that 3 is rational. So, we
conclude that 3 is irrational.
In Class IX, we mentioned that :
l the sum or difference of a rational and an irrational number is irrational and
l the product and quotient of a non-zero rational and irrational number is irrational.
We prove some particular cases here.
Example 6 : Show that 5 – 3 is irrational.
Solution : Let us assume, to the contrary, that 5 – 3 is rational.
That is, we can find coprime a and b (b ¹ 0) such that 5 - 3 = a ×

b
Therefore, 5 - a = 3 ×
b
Rearranging this equation, we get 3 = 5 – a = 5b - a ×

b b
Since a and b are integers, we get 5 – a is rational, and so 3 is rational.

b
But this contradicts the fact that 3 is irrational.

This contradiction has arisen because of our incorrect assumption that 5 – 3 is rational.
So, we conclude that 5 - 3 is irrational.
Example 7 : Show that 3 2 is irrational.

Solution : Let us assume, to the contrary, that 3 2 is rational.
That is, we can find coprime a and b (b ¹ 0) such that 3 2 = a ×

b

ydeï d+K«\T 17
n+<T#û eTq+ Ü]Ð a = 3c, c nHû~ ÿ¿£ |PsÁd +K«>± sjáTe#áTÌ.

+<TýË a $\TeqT ç|Ü¿¹ | +¾ #á>± eTqÅ£ 3b2 = 9c2, n+fñ b2 = 3c2 edT+ï ~.
nq>± b2qT 3 uó²ÐdT+ï ~ eT]jáTT b 3 uó²ÐdT+ï ~ ( d¾<Æ+Ôá+ 1.3 ýË p = 3)
n+<Te\q a eT]jáTT b \Å£ 3 ÿ¿£ kÍeÖq« ¿±sÁD²+¿£+ nsTTq~.
a eT]jáTT b\T |sdÁ ÎsÁ ç|<óH+¿±\T eT]jáTT 1 Ôá|Î M{ì¿ì m³Te+{ì eT& ¿±sÁD²+¿±\T ýñq+<Tq eTq+
ç|ÜbÍ~+ºq 3 nHû~ n¿£sÁD¡jáT+ nHû uó²eq $sÁT<ÔÆ áÅ£ <] rdTï+~
n+<T¿¹ 3 nHû~ ¿£sÁDj
¡ áTd+K«>± sÁÖ|¾+#áe#áTÌqT.
9e ÔásÁ>·ÜýË ç¿ì+~ $wjáÖ\qT eTq+ Ôî\TdTÅ£HeTT:
l ÿ¿£ ¿£sDÁ j
¡ Tá d+K« n¿£sDÁ j
¡ Tá d+K«\ yîTTÔáï+ ýñ< uó<ñ + m\¢|ÚÎ&Ö ÿ¿ ¿£ s£ DÁ j
¡ Tá d+K«.
l ÿ¿£XøSHû«ÔásÁ n¿£sDÁ ¡jTá d+K«, ¿£sDÁ ¡jáT d+K«\ \Ý+ eT]jáTT uó²>·|\ + m\¢|Ú Î&Ö ÿ¿£ ¿£sDÁ j
¡ áTd+K«.
¿= ç|Ôû«¿£ d+<sÒÛ\qT |ÚÎ&T sÁÖ|¾kÍïeTT
<V²sÁD6:. 5 – 3 ÿ¿£ ¿£sD
Á j
¡ Tá d+K« n#áÖ|ÚeTT.
sÁÖ|D: B¿ì $sÁT<+Æ >± 5 – 3 ÿ¿£ n¿£sDÁ j
¡ Tá d+K« nqTÅ£+<+.
a
¿±eÚq 5- 3= × njûT«³³T¢ a eT]jáTT b (b ¹ 0)\T e«ed¾Ô eá TeÚÔsTT.
b
a
¿±eÚq 5 - = 3 ×
b
a 5b - a
ç¿£eT+ýË neTsÁÌ>± dMT¿£sÁD qT+& 3 =5– = × nedT+ï ~.
b b
a eT]jáTT b\T |PsÁd + K«\T ¿±eÚq 5 – a (b) ÿ¿£ n¿£sÁD¡jáT d+K« neÚÔáT+~. ¿±eÚq 3 Å£L&
b
n¿£sD
Á j
¡ Tá d+K«jûT n>·TqT. ¿±ú ~ 3 ÿ¿£ ¿£sD Á j
¡ Tá d+K« nHû dÔ«¿ì $sÁT<+Æ . uó²eq@sÁÎ&&¿ì eTq+
}V¾²+ºq ç|ÜbÍ<q 5 – 3 ÿ¿£ ¿£sÁD¡jáT d+K« nHû~ Ôá|ÚÎ. ~ ÿ¿£ $sÁT<ÆÔá .¿±eÚq 5 - 3 nHû~ ¿£sÁD¡jáT
d+K« n #î|Îe#áTÌqT.
<V²sÁD7:. 3 2 ÿ¿£ ¿£sD
Á j
¡ Tá d+K« n#áÖ|ÚeTT.
sÁÖ|D: B¿ì $sÁT<+Æ >± 3 2 ÿ¿£ n¿£sÁD¡jáT d+K« nqTÅ£+<+.
a
¿±eÚq 3 2= × njûT«³³T¢ a eT]jáTT b (b ¹ 0)\T e«ed¾Ô eá TeÚÔsTT.
b

18 REAL NUMBERS
Rearranging, we get 2 = a ×
3b
a
Since 3, a and b are integers, is rational, and so 2 is rational.
3b
But this contradicts the fact that 2 is irrational.
So, we conclude that 3 2 is irrational.
EXERCISE 1.2
1. Prove that 5 is irrational.
2. Prove that 3+2 5 is irrational.
3. Prove that the following are irrationals :
1
(i) (ii) 7 5 (iii) 6+ 2
2
1.4 Summary
In this chapter, you have studied the following points:
1. The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic :
Every composite number can be expressed (factorised) as a product of primes, and this
factorisation is unique, apart from the order in which the prime factors occur.
2. If p is a prime and p divides a2, then p divides a, where a is a positive integer.
3. To prove that 2, 3 are irrationals.
A NOTE TO THE READER

You have seen that :
HCF ( p, q, r) × LCM (p, q, r) ¹ p × q × r, where p, q, r are positive integers
(see Example 8). However, the following results hold good for three numbers
p, q and r :
p × q × r × HCF(p, q, r )
LCM (p, q, r) =
HCF( p, q ) × HCF(q, r ) × HCF( p, r )
p × q × r × LCM(p, q, r )
HCF (p, q, r) =
LCM( p, q) × LCM(q, r ) × LCM( p, r )

ydeï d+K«\T 19
ç¿£eT+ýË neTsÁÌ>± dMT¿£sDÁ +qT+& a nedT+ï ~.

2= ×
3b
a
+<TýË 3, a eT]jáTT b\T |PsÁd + K«\T ¿±eÚq 3b
ÿ¿£ n¿£sDÁ j
¡ Tá d+K« neÚÔáT+~.
¿±eÚq 2 Å£L&
n¿£sDÁ j¡ Tá d+K«jûT n>·TqT. ¿±ú ~ 2 ÿ¿£ ¿£sÁD¡jáT d+K« nHû dÔ«¿ì $sÁT<+Æ .
¿±eÚq 3 2 nHû~ ¿£sDÁ ¡jáT d+K« n #î|Îe#áTÌqT.
nuó²«d+ 1.2
1. 5 ¿£sDÁ j
¡ Tá d+K« n sÁÖ|¾+#áTeTT.
2. 3 + 2 5 ¿£sDÁ j
¡ Tá d+K« n sÁÖ|¾+#áTeTT
3. ç¿ì+~ y{ì ¿£sD Á j
¡ Tá d+K«\T n #áÖ|ÚeTT
1
(i) (ii) 7 5 (iii) 6+ 2
2
1.4.kÍs+Xø+:
n<ó«jáT+ýË MTsÁT ç¿ì+~ uó²eq\qT HûsTÁ ÌÅ£HsÁT.
1. n+¿£>·DìÔáçbÍ<¸$T¿£d¾<Æ+Ôá+:
ç|Ü d+jáTT¿£ï d+K«qT ç|<ó q ¿±sÁD²+¿±\ \Ý+>± e«¿£|ï s #Á eá #áTÌqT eT]jáTT y{ì ç¿£eT+ @<îqÕ |Î{ì¿¡
ç|<óq ¿±sÁD²+¿±\ \ÝeTT @Â¿¿Õ e£ TT.
2. p nHû~ ÿ¿£ ç|<ó q d+K« eT]jáTT a ÿ¿£ <óq|PsÁ d+ K« nsTTÔû a2 Xâôw+>± »pµ uó²Ðdï aqT Å£L&
»pµ Xâôw+>± uó²ÐdT+ï ~.
3. 2, 3 \T ¿£sÁD¡jáT d+K«\T n sÁÖ|¾+#áT³
bÍsÄÅÁ £ \¿ì ÿ¿£ >·eT¿£ :

MTsÁT B #áÖkÍsÁT :
p, q, r \T <óq |PsÁ d+K«\T nsTTÔû >·.kÍ.uó² (p, q, r) ¿£.kÍ.>·T. I (p, q, r) ¹ p × q × r
n>·T³ MTsÁT >·eT+#sÁT. nsTTq|Î{ì¿¡ eTÖ&T d+K«\T p, q, r $wjTá +ýË ç¿ì+~ |* Ôá+
m\¢|ð &Ö dÔá«+.
p q r I >·.kÍ.uó² (p, q, r)
¿£.kÍ.>·T(p, q, r) =
>·.kÍ.uó² (p, q) >·.kÍ.uó² (q, r) >·.kÍ.uó² (p, r)
p q r I ¿£.kÍ.>·T (p, q, r)
>·.kÍ.uó²(p, q, r) =
¿£.kÍ.>·T (p, q) ¿£.kÍ.>·T (q, r) ¿£.kÍ.>·T (p, r)

20 POLYNOMIALS
POLYNOMIALS 2
2.1 Introduction
In Class IX, you have studied polynomials in one variable and their degrees. Recall that if p(x)
is a polynomial in x, the highest power of x in p(x) is called the degree of the polynomial
p(x). For example, 4x + 2 is a polynomial in the variable x of degree 1, 2y2 – 3y + 4 is a
polynomial in the variable y of degree 2, 5x3 – 4x2 + x – 2 is a polynomial in the variable x of
3
degree 3 and 7u6 – u 4 + 4u 2 + u - 8 is a polynomial in the variable u of degree 6. Expressions
2
1 1
like , x + 2, 2
etc., are not polynomials.
x -1 x + 2x + 3
A polynomial of degree 1 is called a linear polynomial. For example, 2x – 3, 3 x + 5,

2 2
y+ 2 , x - , 3z + 4, u + 1 , etc., are all linear polynomials. Polynomials such as 2x + 5 – x2,
11 3
x3 + 1, etc., are not linear polynomials.
A polynomial of degree 2 is called a quadratic polynomial. The name ‘quadratic’ has
been derived from the word ‘quadrate’, which means ‘square’. 2 x2 + 3x - 2 , y2 – 2, 2 - x 2 + 3 x,
5
u 2 1
- 2u 2 + 5, 5v 2 - v, 4 z 2 + are some examples of quadratic polynomials (whose coefficients
3 3 7
are real numbers). More generally, any quadratic polynomial in x is of the form ax2 + bx + c,
where a, b, c are real numbers and a ¹ 0. A polynomial of degree 3 is called a cubic polynomial.

VQ|<T \T 21
VQ|<T\T 2
2.1 |]#ájáT+
MTsÁT 9e ÔásÁ>·ÜýË @¿£ #ásÁs¥ ¿£*Ðq VQ|<T\T >·Ö]Ì eT]jáTT y{ì |]eÖD²\qT >·Ö]Ì HûsÁTÌÅ£HsÁT.
x #ássÁ ¥>± >·\ VQ|~ p(x) ýË x jîTT¿£Ø >·]w÷ |Ö Ô VQ|~ P( x) jîTT¿£Ø |]eÖD+ n+{²sÁT n
>·TsÁTï Ôî#áTÌ¿Ã+&. <V²sÁDÅ£ x #ássÁ ¥>± >·\ VQ|~ 4x + 2 jîTT¿£Ø |]eÖD+1, y #ássÁ ¥>± >·\ VQ|~
2y2 – 3y + 4 jîTT¿£Ø |]eÖD+ 2, x #ásÁs¥>± >·\ VQ|~ 5x3 – 4x2 + x – 2 jîTT¿£Ø |]eÖD+
3 4 1 1
3, x #ássÁ ¥>± >·\ VQ|~ 7u6 – u + 4u 2 + u - 8 jîTT¿£Ø |]eÖD+ 6. , x + 2, 2
2 x -1 x + 2x + 3
yîTT<ýÉÕq$ deÖkÍ\T, VQ|<T\T ¿±eÚ.
|]eÖD+ 1 >± >·\ VQ|<T \qT s¹ FjáT VQ|<T \T n+{²sÁT. <V²sÁDÅ£ 2x – 3, 3 x + 5,
2 2
y+ 2 , x - , 3z + 4, u + 1 , yîTT<ýÉÕq$ ¹sFjáT VQ|<T\T. 2x + 5 – x2, x3 + 1 yîTT<ýÉÕq$ ¹sFjáT
11 3
VQ|<T\T ¿±eÚ.
|]eÖD+ 2 >± >·\ VQ|<T\qT esÁZ VQ|<T\T n+{²eTT. esÁeZ TT (¿±Çç&) nqT |<e TT »esÁeZ TTµ nHû
2, 2
nsÆ#ûÌ ¿±Çç&û{Ù nHû |<+ qT+& <Ò$Û +ºq~ . nq>± esÁeZ TT n nsÁe TT. 2 x 2 + 3x - y – 2, 2 - x 2 + 3 x,
5
u 2 1
- 2u 2 + 5, 5v 2 - v, 4 z 2 + nqTq$ ¿= esÁZ VQ|<T \Å£ <V²sÁD\T. (#ássÁ ¥ >·TD¿±\T ydeï
3 3 7
d+K«\T). kÍ<ósÁD+>±, x #ásÁs¥ >± ¿£*Ð, d¾sÁsdT\sTTq a,b,c \T ydeï d+K«\T n>·T#áÖ, ax2 + bx + c,
>± >·\ sÁÖbÍ esÁZ VQ|~ kÍ<ósÁD sÁÖ|+ n+{²eTT. |]eÖD+ 3 >± >·\ VQ|<T\qT |T q VQ|<T \T
n+{²eTT.

22 POLYNOMIALS
Some examples of a cubic polynomial are 2 – x3, x3, 2 x3 , 3 – x2 + x3, 3x3 – 2x2 + x – 1. In fact,
the most general form of a cubic polynomial is
ax3 + bx2 + cx + d,
where, a, b, c, d are real numbers and a ¹ 0.
Now consider the polynomial p(x) = x2 – 3x – 4. Then, putting x = 2 in the polynomial, we
get p(2) = 22 – 3 × 2 – 4 = – 6. The value ‘– 6’, obtained by replacing x by 2 in x2 – 3x – 4, is the
value of x2 – 3x – 4 at x = 2. Similarly, p(0) is the value of p(x) at x = 0, which is – 4.
If p(x) is a polynomial in x, and if k is any real number, then the value obtained by replacing
x by k in p(x), is called the value of p(x) at x = k, and is denoted by p(k).
What is the value of p(x) = x2 –3x – 4 at x = –1? We have :
p(–1) = (–1)2 –{3 × (–1)} – 4 = 0
Also, note that p(4) = 42 – (3 ´ 4) – 4 = 0.
As p(–1) = 0 and p(4) = 0, –1 and 4 are called the zeroes of the quadratic polynomial x2 –
3x – 4. More generally, a real number k is said to be a zero of a polynomial p(x), if p(k) = 0.
You have already studied in Class IX, how to find the zeroes of a linear polynomial.
For example, if k is a zero of p(x) = 2x + 3, then p(k) = 0 gives us
3
2k + 3 = 0, i.e., k = - ×
2
-b
In general, if k is a zero of p(x) = ax + b, then p(k) = ak + b = 0, i.e., k = × So, the zero
a
-b - (Constant term)
of the linear polynomial ax + b is = .
a Coefficient of x
Thus, the zero of a linear polynomial is related to its coefficients. Does this happen in the
case of other polynomials too? For example, are the zeroes of a quadratic polynomial also
related to its coefficients?
In this chapter, we will try to answer these questions. We will also study the division algorithm
for polynomials.
2.2 Geometrical Meaning of the Zeroes of a Polynomial
You know that a real number k is a zero of the polynomial p(x) if p(k) = 0. But why are the
zeroes of a polynomial so important? To answer this, first we will see the geometrical
representations of linear and quadratic polynomials and the geometrical meaning of their zeroes.

VQ|<T \T 23
2 – x3, x3, 2 x3 , 3 – x2 + x3, 3x3 – 2x2 + x – 1 nqTq$ ¿= |Tq VQ|<T\Å£ <V²sÁD\T. kÍ<ósÁD+>±
x #ásÁs¥ >± ¿£*Ð , d¾sÁsdT\sTTq a, b, c, d \T ydïe d+K«\T n>·T#áÖ,
ax3 + bx2 + cx + d,
(a ¹ 0) >± >·\ sÁÖbÍ |Tq VQ|~ kÍ<ósÁD sÁÖ|+ n+{²eTT.
|Úð&T p(x) = x2 – 3x – 4 VQ|~ rdTÅ£+<+. BýË x =2qT ç|Ü¿¹ | ¾ dï p(2) = 22 – 3 × 2 – 4 =
– 6. nq>± x =2 e<Ý x2 – 3x – 4 $\Te -6 neÚÔáT+~. n<û$<ó+>± x = 0qT p(x) ýË ç|Ü¿¹ | ¾ dï
p( 0) $\Te -4 neÚÔáT+~.
Á ¥>± >·\ VQ|~ P( x) ýË, k nqT ÿ¿£ ydïe d+K«qTµ xµ Å£ <T\T>± ç|Ü¹¿|¾dï e#ûÌ
x #áss
$\TeqT x = k e<Ý e#áTÌ P( x) $\Te n+{²eTT . B p ( k) n dÖºkÍïeTT.
x = -1 e<Ý VQ|~ p(x) = x2 –3x – 4 nsTTq x = –1 $\Te @$T n>·TqT?
p(–1) = (–1)2 –{3 × (–1)} – 4 = 0
ný²¹> p(4) = 42 – (3 ´ 4) – 4 = 0. n >·eT+#á+&.
p(–1) = 0 eT]jáTT p(4) = 0, –1 nsTTq+<Tq -1 eT]jáTT 4 \qT x2 – 3x – 4 nqT esÁZ VQ|~
XøSq« $\Te\T n n+{²eTT. kÍ<ósÁD+>±, k nqT ÿ¿£ ydeï $\TeÅ£ p( k) = 0 nsTTq k qT VQ|~
p( x) Å£ XøSq« $\Te n n+{²eTT.
ºÌq s¹ FjáT VQ|~¿ì » XøSq«eTT\T » mý² ¿£qT>=HýË MTsÁT +ÔáÅ£ eTT+<û 9e Ôás>Á Ü· ýË HûsTÁ ÌÅ£
HsÁT. <V²sÁDÅ£ K nqTq~ p( x) = 2 x +3 nqT VQ|~ XøSq« $\Te nsTTq p ( k) = 0 n eTqÅ£
3
Ôî\TdT. ¿±{ì¼ 2 k +3 = 0 nq>± k = - 2 ×
kÍ<ósÁD+>±, k nqTq~ p( x) =ax + b nqT VQ|~ XøSq« $\Te nsTTq p ( k ) = a k + b
-b `d¾s|Á < e TT
= 0 n+fñ k = × n>·TqT. ¿±{ì¼ ¹sFjáT VQ|~ ax + b XøSq« $\Te- abx =
a jîTT¿£Ø >·TDÅ£eTT
$<ó+>± ¹sFjáT VQ|~ jîTT¿£Ø XøSq« $\Te nHû~ n+<TýË #ásÁs¥ >·TD¿±\ÔÃ, d++<ó+ ¿£*Ð
+³T+~. ÔásÁ VQ|<T\ýË Å£L& ³Te+{ì d++<ó+ ¿£*Ð eÚ+³T+< ? <V²sÁDÅ£ esÁZ VQ|~ýË
Å£L& XøSq« $\Te nHû~ VQ|~ >·TD¿±\ÔÃ d++<+ ¿£*Ð +³T+<?
n<ó«jáT+ýË eTq+ ç|Xø \Å£ ÈyT\T Ôî\TdTÅ£+<+. VQ|<T \ uó²>±VäsÁ jáTeÖ >·T]+º
Å£L& eTq+ HûsÁTÌÅ£+{²eTT.
2.2 VQ|~ XøSH«\Å£ C²«$TrjáT uó²e+
p(x) ÿ¿£ VQ|~, k ÿ¿£ ydïe d+K« nsTTq p(x) = 0 nsTTÔû »»k »» qT VQ|~ p(x)¿ì XøSq« $\Te n MTÅ£
Ôî\TdTÅ£Hû VQ|~¿ì XøSq« $\Te\T m+<T¿£+Ôá eTTK«eTT ? B¿ì deÖ<óq+ ¿£qT>=Hû+<TÅ£ yîTT<³>± ¹sFjáT
eT]jáTT esÁZ VQ|<T \qT s¹ U² ºçÔ\ýË çbÍÜ<ó« |s#Á Tá ³ <Çs, jáÖ VQ|<T \ XøSH«\Å£ C²«$TrjáT
ns\qT Ôî\TdTÅ£+<eTT .

24 POLYNOMIALS
Consider first a linear polynomial ax + b, a ¹ 0. You have studied in Class IX that the graph of
y = ax + b is a straight line. For example, the graph of y = 2x + 3 is a straight line passing
through the points (– 2, –1) and (2, 7).
x –2 2
y = 2x + 3 –1 7
From Fig. 2.1, you can see that

the graph of y = 2x + 3 intersects the
x-axis mid-way between x = –1 and
x = – 2,
that is, at the point æç - 3 , 0 ö÷ .

è 2 ø
You also know that the zero of
2x + 3 is - 3 . Thus, the zero of the
2
polynomial 2x + 3 is the
x-coordinate of the point where the
graph of y = 2x + 3 intersects the x-
axis.
Fig. 2.1
In general, for a linear polynomial ax + b, a ¹ 0, the graph of y = ax + b is a straight line
which intersects the x-axis at exactly one point, namely, æç - b , 0 ö÷ . Therefore, the linear
è a ø
polynomial ax + b, a ¹ 0, has exactly one zero, namely, the x-coordinate of the point where the
graph of
y = ax + b intersects the x-axis.
Now, let us look for the geometrical meaning of a zero of a quadratic polynomial. Consider
the quadratic polynomial x2 – 3x – 4. Let us see what the graph* of y = x2 – 3x – 4 looks like. Let
us list a few values of y = x2 – 3x – 4 corresponding to a few values for x as given in Table 2.1.
* Plotting of graphs of quadratic or cubic polynomials is not meant to be done by the students, nor is to be
evaluated.

VQ|<T \T 25
ax + b, a ¹ 0 nqT ¹sFjáT VQ|~ |]o*+#á+&. y = a x + b nHû VQ|~ ¹sU² ºçÔáeTT ÿ¿£ dsÁÞø ¹sK
n MTsÁT 9e ÔásÁ>·ÜýË Ôî\TdTÅ£HsÁT. <V²sÁDÅ£ y = 2x + 3 nHû VQ|~ jîTT¿£Ø ¹sU² ºçÔá+ (-2 ,-1)
eT]jáTT (2,7) _+<TeÚ\ >·T+& bþeÚ ÿ¿£ dsÁÞø ¹sK.
x –2 2
y = 2x + 3 –1 7
|³+ 2.1 ¹sU²ºçÔ eTq+ |]o*dï y =
2x + 3 nHû VQ|~ jîTT¿£Ø ¹sK x -
n¿± x =-1 eT]jáTT x = -2 \ eT<ó«
qT+& K+&dÖï æ 3, ö _+<TeÚ >·T+&
ç - 0÷
è 2 ø
bþÔáTq~. 2x + 3 VQ|~ XøSq« $\Te
3 n MTÅ£ Ôî\TdT. n+fñ VQ|~
-
2
2x + 3jîTT¿£ØXøSq« $\Te y = 2x + 3
¹sU² ºçÔá+ýË x -- n¿± K+&+#û
_+<TeÚýË x sÁÖ|¿e£ TT nsTTq~ .
|³+. 2.1
kÍ<ósÁD+>±, ax + b, a ¹ 0, nHû s¹ FjáT VQ|~ rdTÅ£+fñ y = ax + b nHû ¹sU² ºçÔáeTT x-n¿£eTTqT
æ -b, ö
KºÌÔá+>± ÿ¹¿ ÿ¿£ _+<TeÚ ç 0÷ e<Ý K+&dT +ï ~.¿±eÚq ax + b, a ¹ 0, nHû ¹sFjáT VQ|~¿ì ÿ¹¿ ÿ¿£
è a ø
XøSq« $\Te +³T+~. $\Te ¹sU²ºçÔáeTT y = ax + b nqTq~ x n¿£eTTqT K+&+#û _+<TeÚ jîTT¿£Ø x
sÁÖ|¿£eTT neÚÔáT+~.
|ÚÎ&T eTq+ esÁZ VQ|~ jîTT¿£Ø XøSH«\Å£ d++~+ºq C²«$TrjáT ns Ôî\TdTÅ£+<eTT
ÿ¿£ esÁZ VQ|~ x2 – 3x – 4 rdTÅ£+<+. ¹sU² ºçÔá+ y = x2 – 3x – 4 jîTT¿£Ø ¹sU²ºçÔá+ @$<ó+>± +³T+<Ã
| ] o*<Ý + . B¿=sÁ Å £ y = x 2 – 3x – 4 q+< T x jî T T¿£ Ø $\TeÅ£ Ôá Ð q y $\TeqT | { ì ¼ ¿ £
2.1qT bõ+<T|sÁ#á&q $<ó+>± ¿£qT>=+<+.
* $<«sÁT\ esÁZ ,|Tq VQ|<T\ ¹sU² ºçÔ\qT ^jáTqedsÁ+ ýñ<T eT]jáTT M{ì eTÖý²«+¿£q+ #ûjáTqedsÁ+
ýñ<T.

26 POLYNOMIALS
Table 2.1
x –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
y = x2 – 3x – 4 6 0 –4 –6 –6 –4 0 6
If we locate the points listed above

on a graph paper and draw the graph, it
will actually look like the one given in
Fig. 2.2.
In fact, for any quadratic polynomial

ax + bx + c, a ¹ 0, the graph of the
2
corresponding equation y = ax2 + bx + c

has one of the two shapes either open
upwards like or open downwards like
depending on whether a > 0 or a < 0.
(These curves are called parabolas.)
You can see from Table 2.1 that –1

and 4 are zeroes of the quadratic
polynomial.Also note from Fig. 2.2 that
–1 and 4 are the x-coordinates of the
points where the graph of y = x2 – 3x – 4
intersects the x-axis. Thus, the zeroes of
the quadratic polynomial x2 – 3x – 4 are
x-coordinates of the points where the
graph of y = x2 – 3x – 4 intersects the
x-axis.
Fig. 2.2
This fact is true for any quadratic polynomial, i.e., the zeroes of a quadratic polynomial
ax2 + bx + c, a ¹ 0, are precisely the x-coordinates of the points where the parabola representing
y = ax2 + bx + c intersects the x-axis.
From our observation earlier about the shape of the graph of y = ax2 + bx + c, the following
three cases can happen:

VQ|<T \T 27
|{¿¼ì £ 2.1
x –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
y = x2 – 3x – 4 6 0 –4 –6 –6 –4 0 6
ç>±|t ¿±ÐÔáeTT q+<T |Õ |{ì¿¼ £ýË >·\

_+<TeÚ\qT >·T]ï+º , ç¿£eTeTT ýË ¿£*|¾ #áÖdï n~
d]>±Z |³eTT 2.2 eýñ @sÁÎ&TÔáT+~.
C²¿ì ax2 + bx + c, a ¹ 0, sÁÖ|+ýË
>·\ @ esÁZ VQ|~ jîTT¿£Ø < dMT¿£sÁD sÁÖ|+
y = ax2 + bx + c jîTT¿£Ø ¹sU² ºçÔá+.
¿±sÁ+ýË |Õ yîÕ|Ú Å£¿±ú, ¿±sÁ+ýË ç¿ì+~ yîÕ|Ú Å£
¿± e#áTÌ eç¿£eTT\T>± +&TqT. ¿±sÁ+ a
> 0 or a < 0 $\Te\|Õ <ó sÁ | &
+³T+~. ( eç¿±\qT eTq+ |<e\jáÖ\T n
|¾\TkÍïeTT)
|³eTT 2.1 qT+& eTq+ rdTÅ£q
VQ|~ XøSH«\T -1 eT]jáTT 4 >± MTsÁT
>·eT+#áe#áTÌ. eç¿£eTT s¹ U²ºçÔá+ x -- n¿±
K+&+ºq _+<TeÚ\ x - sÁÖ|¿±\T -1 eT]jáTT 4
>± m¿£Ø&îÕÔû y = x2 – 3x – 4 ç>±|t x n¿£+qT
K+&+ºq³T¼>± >·eT+#á e#áTÌ. B {ì¼ esÁZ
VQ|~ x2 – 3x – 4 jîTT¿£Ø XøSH«\T , esÁZ
VQ|~ jîTT¿£Ø ¹sU² ºçÔáeTT
y = x2 – 3x – 4, x - n¿£e TTqT K+&+ºq _+<TeÚ\
x - sÁÖ|¿±\T nsTTq$. |³+ 2.2
~ @ esÁZ VQ|<T\Å£ nsTTH dÔá«yûT. n+<Te\¢ , eTqeTT kÍ<ósÁD+>± ax2 + bx + c, a ¹ 0 nHû
esÁZ VQ|~ XøSH«\T , esÁZ VQ|~ dMT¿£sÁD+ y = ax2 + bx + c jîTT¿£Ø ¹sU² ºçÔáeTT x- n¿±
K+&+ºq|ÚÎ&T @sÁÎ&q _+<TeÚ\ x - sÁÖ|¿±\T neÚÔsTT.
eTq+ |]o*+ºq < {ì¼ y = ax2 + bx + c, ¹sU² ºçÔá ¿±s\T ç¿ì+~ eTÖ&T $<ó\T>±
+&e#áTÌ. n$

28 POLYNOMIALS
Case (i) : Here, the graph cuts x-axis at two distinct points A and A¢.
The x-coordinates of A and A¢ are the two zeroes of the quadratic polynomial ax2 + bx + c
in this case (see Fig. 2.3).
Fig. 2.3
Case (ii) : Here, the graph cuts the x-axis at exactly one point, i.e., at two coincident points. So,
the two points A and A¢ of Case (i) coincide here to become one point A (see Fig. 2.4).
Fig. 2.4
The x-coordinate of A is the only zero for the quadratic polynomial ax2 + bx + c in this
case.

VQ|<T \T 29
d+<sÁÒÛ+(i): ¿£Ø& ¹sU²ºçÔá+ x - n¿£eTTqT A eT]jáTT A1 nqT Âs+&T yû¹sÇsÁT _+<TeÚ\ e<Ý K+&+ºq~.
d+<sÒÁ eÛ TTýË A eT]jáTT A1 _+<TeÚ\ x - sÁÖ|¿±\T ax2 + bx + c Å£ Âs+&T XøSH«\T n>·TqT.|³+ 2.3
#áÖ&+&.
|³+. 2.3
d+<sÁÒÛ+ (ii): ¿ì+~ ¹sU²ºçÔ\ýË d+<sÁÒÛeTTýË ¹sU²ºçÔáeTT x - n¿£eTTqT ÿ¹¿ ÿ¿£ _+<TeÚ e<Ý ÔÅ£ÔÃ+~.
nq>± Âs+&T _+<TeÚ\T (XøSH«\T) @¿¡u$ó kÍïsTT. |Õ ºçÔ\ýË #áÖ|¾q³T¢ A eT]jáTT A1 _+<TeÚ\T sÂ +&Ö @¿¡u$ó +º
ÿ¹¿ _+<TeÚ A >± eÖsÁÔsTT. (|³+ 2..4 #áÖ&+&)
|³+ 2.4
d+<sÁÒÛeTTýË _+<TeÚ µAµ jîTT¿£Ø x - sÁÖ|¿£eTT esÁZVQ|~ ax2 + bx + c jîTT¿£Ø ÿ¹¿ ÿ¿£ XøSq«+ n>·TqT.

30 POLYNOMIALS
Case (iii) : Here, the graph is either completely above the x-axis or completely below the x-
axis. So, it does not cut the x-axis at any point (see Fig. 2.5).
Fig. 2.5
So, the quadratic polynomial ax2 + bx + c has no zero in this case.
So, you can see geometrically that a quadratic polynomial can have either two distinct
zeroes or two equal zeroes (i.e., one zero), or no zero. This also means that a polynomial of
degree 2 has atmost two zeroes.
Now, what do you expect the geometrical meaning of the zeroes of a cubic polynomial to
be? Let us find out. Consider the cubic polynomial x3 – 4x. To see what the graph of y = x3 – 4x
looks like, let us list a few values of y corresponding to a few values for x as shown in Table 2.2.
Table 2.2
x –2 –1 0 1 2
y = x3 – 4x 0 3 0 –3 0
Locating the points of the table on a graph paper and drawing the graph, we see that the
graph of y = x3 – 4x actually looks like the one given in Fig. 2.6.

VQ|<T \T 31
d+ <s ÁÒ Û+ (iii) : d+<sÁÒÛeTTýË ¹sU² ºçÔáeTT x- n¿±¿ì |P]ï>± |Õq ¿±ú ýñ< ç¿ì+<Å£ >± +&
x- n¿± @ _+<TeÚ e<q Ý Ö K+&+#áT³ ýñ<T . (|³+ 2.5 #áÖ&+&)
|³+. 2.5
¿±eÚq, d+<sÁÒÛeTTýË esÁZVQ|~ ax2 + bx + c Å£ XøSq«+ sÁÇº+#á&<T . (XøSq«+ ýñ<T )
¹sU² ºçÔ\ýË eTÖ&T d+<sÒÛ\qT |]o*+ºq MT<³ esÁZ VQ|~¿ì Âs+&T yûsÁT yûsÁT XøSH«\T ¿±ú
ýñ< sÂ +&T deÖq XøSH«\T ¿±ú (ÿ¹¿ ÿ¿£ XøSq«+ ), ýñ< XøSH«\T ýñ¿b£ þe#áÌ Ôî\TdT+ï ~. sÂ +&e |]eÖD
VQ|~¿ì (esÁZ VQ|~¿ì) nÔá«~ó¿£+>± Âs+&T XøSH«\T eÖçÔáyûT +{²jáT #î|Î e#áTÌ. |T q VQ|<T\ XøSH«\qT
C²«$TrjáT+>± nsÁ+ #ûdT ¿Ãe³+ýË MTsÁT @$T ¥kÍïsTÁ ?
~ @ $<ó+ >± kÍ<ó« yîÖ ¿£qT>=+<eTT. +<TÅ£ >±qT ÿ¿£ |T q VQ|~ x3 – 4x qT rdTÅ£+<eTT.
y = x3 – 4x s¹ U² ºçÔ |]o*<ÝeTT. |{¿¼ì £ 2.2 ýË ºÌq $<óe TT>± #ásÁ s¥ »x» Å£ ¿= $\Te\T ºÌ <¿ì
ÔáÐq y $\Te\T ¿£qT>=+<eTT.
|{ì¼¿£ 2.2
x –2 –1 0 1 2
y = x3 – 4x 0 3 0 –3 0
ç>±|t ¿±ÐÔáeTT q+<T |Õ |{ì¼¿£ 2.2 ýË >·\ _+<TeÚ\qT >·T]ï+º , ç¿£eTeTT ýË ¿£*|¾ #áÖ&+&. y = x3 – 4x
¹sU² ºçÔá+ @sÁÎ&TÔáT+~. (|³eTT 2.6)

32 POLYNOMIALS
We see from the table above that – 2, 0

and 2 are zeroes of the cubic polynomial
x3 – 4x. Observe that – 2, 0 and 2 are, in fact,
the x-coordinates of the only points where
the graph of y = x3 – 4x intersects the
x-axis. Since the curve meets the x-axis in
only these 3 points, their x-coordinates are
the only zeroes of the polynomial.
Let us take a few more examples.
Consider the cubic polynomials x3 and
x3 – x2. We draw the graphs of y = x3 and
y = x 3 – x 2 in Fig. 2.7 and Fig. 2.8
respectively.
Fig. 2.6
Fig. 2.7 Fig. 2.8

VQ|<T \T 33
|{¿¼ì £ 2.2 |]o*dï |T q VQ|~?

x3 – 4x jîTT¿£Ø XøSH«\T -2, 0 , 2 n Ôî\Tkþï+~.
¹sU² ºçÔáeTT y = x3 – 4x ^dï e#áTÌ eç¿£eTT x -
n¿± K+&+ºq _+<TeÚ\ x- sÁÖ|¿±\T -2, 0
eT]jáTT 2 >± ¿£\eÚ. eç¿£eTT x-n¿± eTÖ&T
_+<TeÚ\ e<Ý eÖçÔáyûT K+&dTïq~. ¿±eÚq |T q
VQ|~¿ì eTÖ&T XøSH«\T n #î|Î e#áTÌ.
eT] <V²sÁD\T rdT¿= |]o*<Ý+.
x3 , x3 – x2 nHû |T q u²VQ|<T \qT rdT¿=+<+.
y = x3 (|³+ 2.7), eT]jáTT y = x3 – x2 (|³+
2.8) ¹sU²ºçÔ\qT |]o*<Ý+.
|³+ 2.6
|³+ 2.7 |³+ 2.8

34 POLYNOMIALS
Note that 0 is the only zero of the polynomial x3. Also, from Fig. 2.7, you can see that 0 is
the x - coordinate of the only point where the graph of y = x 3 intersects the
x-axis. Similarly, since x3 – x2 = x2 (x – 1), 0 and 1 are the only zeroes of the polynomial x3 – x2.
Also, from Fig. 2.8, these values are the x-coordinates of the only points where the graph of
y = x3 – x2 intersects the x-axis.
From the examples above, we see that there are at most 3 zeroes for any cubic polynomial.
In other words, any polynomial of degree 3 can have at most three zeroes.
Remark : In general, given a polynomial p(x) of degree n, the graph of y = p(x) intersects the
x-axis at atmost n points. Therefore, a polynomial p(x) of degree n has at most n zeroes.
Example 1 : Look at the graphs in Fig. 2.9 given below. Each is the graph of y = p(x), where
p(x) is a polynomial. For each of the graphs, find the number of zeroes of p(x).
O O O
(i)
O O O
Fig. 2.9
Solution :
(i) The number of zeroes is 1 as the graph intersects the x-axis at one point only.
(ii) The number of zeroes is 2 as the graph intersects the x-axis at two points.
(iii) The number of zeroes is 3. (Why?)

VQ|<T \T 35
y = x3 (|³+ 2.7) |]o*dï, ~ x- n¿£eTTqT ÿ¹¿ ÿ¿£ _+<TeÚ e<Ý K+&kþï+~. _+<TeÚ x sÁÖ|¿£eTT »0µ
¿±{ì¼ y = x3Å£ ÿ¹¿ ÿ¿£ XøSq«+ ¿£\<T. n<û$<óe TT>± x3 – x2 = x2 (x – 1). VQ|~ x3 – x2 XøSq« $\Te\T
0,1 nsTTq$. y = x3 – x2 ¹sU²ºçÔ (|³+ 2.8)|]o*dï , ~ x- n¿£eTTqT Âs+&T _+<TeÚ\ e<Ý K+&dï y{ì
x sÁÖ|¿±\T 0 eT]jáTT 1 nsTTq$. d+<sÁÒÛeTTýË |Tq VQ|~¿ì Âs+&T XøSH«\T eºÌq$.
|Õq #áÖ|¾q <V²sÁD\qT eTqeTT |]o*dï ÿ¿£ |Tq VQ|~¿ì >·]w÷eTT>± eTÖ&T XøSH«\T eºÌq$.
B {ì¼ eTÖ&e |]eÖD+ >·\ VQ|~ (|T q VQ|~) ¿ì >·]we÷ TT>± eTÖ&T XøSH«\T +{²jáT #î|Î e#áTÌqT
.
dÖ#áq : »nµe |]eÖD+ ¿£*Ðq ÿ¿£ VQ|~ p(x) ¹sU²ºçÔáeTT y = p(x) x - n¿£eTTqT >·]we÷ TT>± n _+<TeÚ\
e<Ý K+&dTï+~. n+<T#û »nµ e |]eÖD+ ¿£*Ðq ÿ¿£ VQ |~ p(x)Å£ >·]w÷eTT>± »nµ XøSH«\T
+{²jáT #î|Î e#áTÌqT .
<V²sÁD -1 : ç¿ì+~ |³+ 2.9ýË ¹sU²ºçÔ\ >·eT+#á+&. ç|Ü ¹sU²ºçÔá+ y = p(x) q+<T p(x) nHû~
ÿ¿£ VQ|~. ç|Ü ¹sU²ºçÔá+ qT+& VQ|~ p(x) XøSH«\ d+K«qT ¿£qT>=q+& ?
O O O
(i)
O O O
|³+ 2.9
kÍ<óq :
(i) ¹sU²ºçÔá+ x - n¿£eTTqT ÿ¿£ _+<TeÚ e<Ý K+&+ºq~. ¿±eÚq XøSH«\ d+K« 1
(ii) ¹sU²ºçÔá+ x - n¿£eTTqT Âs+&T _+<TeÚ\ e<Ý K+&+ºq~. ¿±eÚq XøSH«\ d+K« 2
(iii) XøSH«\ d+K« 3 (m+<T¿£?)

36 POLYNOMIALS
(iv) The number of zeroes is 1. (Why?)

(v) The number of zeroes is 1. (Why?)
(vi) The number of zeroes is 4. (Why?)
EXERCISE 2.1
1. The graphs of y = p(x) are given in Fig. 2.10 below, for some polynomials p(x). Find the
number of zeroes of p(x), in each case.
Fig. 2.10
2.3 Relationship between Zeroes and Coefficients of a Polynomial
You have already seen that zero of a linear polynomial ax + b is - b . We will now try to answer
a
the question raised in Section 2.1 regarding the relationship between zeroes and coefficients
of a quadratic polynomial. For this, let us take a quadratic polynomial, say p(x) = 2x2 – 8x + 6.
In Class IX, you have learnt how to factorise quadratic polynomials by splitting the middle
term. So, here we need to split the middle term ‘– 8x’ as a sum of two terms, whose product is
6 × 2x2 = 12x2. So, we write
2x2 – 8x + 6 = 2x2 – 6x – 2x + 6 = 2x(x – 3) – 2(x – 3)
= (2x – 2)(x – 3) = 2(x – 1) (x – 3)

VQ|<T \T 37
(iv) XøSH«\ d+K« 1 ( m+<TÅ£?) / (@ $<óeTT>±?)

(v) XøSH«\ d+K« 1 ( m+<TÅ£?)
(vi) XøSH«\ d+K« 4 ( m+<TÅ£?)
nuó²«deTT 2.1
1. ¿=VQ|<T \ p(x) jîTT¿£Ø s¹ U²ºçÔ\ y = p(x) |{²\T ¿ì+< |³+ 2.10ýË eÇ&¦sTT. ç|Ü d+<ósÒÛ
|]o*+º p(x) jîTT¿£Ø XøSH«\ d+K«qT Ôî\|+&?
|³+ 2.10
2.3 VQ|~ >·TD¿±\Å£, XøSH«\Å£ eT<ó« d++<óeTT
a x +b, a # 0 nqT ¹sFjáT VQ|~ jîTT¿£Ø XøSq«eTT b n MTsÁT ~esÁ¿¹ Ôî\TdTÅ£HsÁT. |ÚÎ&T eTqeTT
-
a
$uó²>·eTT 2.1 ýË ç|kÍï$+ºq $wjáTeTT esÁZ VQ|~ jîTT¿£Ø >·TD¿±\Å£ , XøSH«\Å£ >·\ d++<ó
Ôî\TdTÅ£Hû ç|jáTÔá+ #û<ÝeTT . B ¿=sÁÅ£ eTqeTT ÿ¿£ esÁZ VQ|~ p(x) = 2x2 – 8x + 6 rdTÅ£+<eTT. eTq+
9e Ôás>Á Ü· ýË esÁZ VQ|~ < eT<ó« |< $&BjáTT³ <Çs ¿±sÁD²+¿£ $uóÈ q #ûjTá e#áÌq $wjTá +
HûsTÁ ÌÅ£HeTT. ¿±eÚq eTq+ ý² s<Æ+.
2x2 – 8x + 6 = 2x2 – 6x – 2x + 6 = 2x(x – 3) – 2(x – 3)
= (2x – 2)(x – 3) = 2(x – 1) (x – 3)

38 POLYNOMIALS
So, the value of p(x) = 2x2 – 8x + 6 is zero when x – 1 = 0 or x – 3 = 0, i.e., when x = 1 or

x = 3. So, the zeroes of 2x2 – 8x + 6 are 1 and 3. Observe that :
Sum of its zeroes = 1 + 3 = 4 = -(-8) = -(Coefficient of x)2

2 Coefficient of x
6 Constant term
Product of its zeroes = 1 ´ 3 = 3 = =
2 Coefficient of x 2
Let us take one more quadratic polynomial, say, p(x) = 3x2 + 5x – 2. By the method of
splitting the middle term,
3x2 + 5x – 2 = 3x2 + 6x – x – 2 = 3x(x + 2) –1(x + 2)
= (3x – 1)(x + 2)
Hence, the value of 3x2 + 5x – 2 is zero when either 3x – 1 = 0 or x + 2 = 0, i.e., when x =
1 1
or x = –2. So, the zeroes of 3x2 + 5x – 2 are and – 2. Observe that :
3 3
1 - 5 - (Coefficient of x)
Sum of its zeroes = + (- 2) = =
3 3 Coefficient of x 2
1 -2 Constant term
Product of its zeroes = ´ ( - 2) = =
In general, if a* and b* are the zeroes of the quadratic polynomial p(x) = ax2 + bx + c,
a ¹ 0, then you know that x – a and x – b are the factors of p(x). Therefore,
ax2 + bx + c = k(x – a) (x – b), where k is a constant
= k[x2 – (a + b)x + a b]
= kx2 – k(a + b)x + k a b
Comparing the coefficients of x2, x and constant terms on both the sides, we get
a = k, b = – k(a + b) and c = kab.
–b
This gives a+b = ,
a
c
ab =
a
* a,b are Greek letters pronounced as ‘alpha’ and ‘beta’ respectively. We will use later one more letter
‘g’ pronounced as ‘gamma’.

VQ|<T \T 39
p(x) = 2x2 – 8x + 6 Å£ XøSq«eTT\T ¿±y\+fñ x – 1 = 0 ýñ< x – 3 = 0, ¿±y*. n+fñ x = 1 ýñ<
x = 3. n>·TqT. n+<T#û 2x2 – 8x + 6 jîTT¿£Ø XøSH«\T 1 eT]jáTT 3 nsTTq$.
-(-8) -(Coefficient
(x jîTT¿£Ø >·TD¿£eofTT) x)
XøSH«\ yîTTÔáeï TT = 1+ 3 = 4 = =
(xCoefficient
2
jîTT¿£Ø >·TD¿£eofTT) x2
2
6 (d¾sÁ |<eterm
Constant TT)
XøSH«\ \ÝeTT = 1´ 3 = 3 = = 2
(x jîTT¿£Ø >·TD¿£ofeTT)x2
2 Coefficient
|ÚÎ&T eTq+ eTs=¿£ esÁZ VQ|~ rdT¿=+<eTT, p(x) = 3x2 + 5x – 2. eT<« |<e TTqT $&Bd¾ sjáT>±
3x2 + 5x – 2 = 3x2 + 6x – x – 2 = 3x(x + 2) –1(x + 2)
= (3x – 1)(x + 2)
1
3x2 + 5x – 2 XøSH«\T ¿±y\+fñ 3x – 1 = 0 ýñ< x + 2 = 0 ¿±y*. n+fñ x = 3 ýñ< x = –2 n>·TqT.
1
n+<T#û 3x2 + 5x – 2 jîTT¿£Ø XøSH«\T 3 eT]jáTT – 2. M{ì qT+& eTqeTT ~>·Te d++<óe TT |]o*<ÝeTT
1 - 5 - (Coefficient
(x jîTT¿£Ø >·TD¿£eofTT) x)
XøSH«\ yîTTÔáïeTT = + (- 2) = =
3 3 (x2 jîTT¿£Ø >·TD¿£
Coefficient ofeTT)x2
1 -2 (d¾sÁ |<eTT)
Constant term
XøSH«\ \ÝeTT = ´ ( - 2) = = 2
3 3 (x jîTT¿£Ø >·TD¿£
Coefficient ofeTT)
x2
kÍ<ósÁDeTT>± , ÿ¿£ esÁZ VQ|~ p(x) = ax2 + bx + c, a ¹ 0 jîTT¿£Ø XøSH«\T a* eT]jáTT b* \T

nsTTq#Ã x – a eT]jáTT x – b \T p(x) jîTT¿£Ø ¿±sÁD²+¿±\T n>·TqT. ¿±eÚq
ax2 + bx + c = k(x – a) (x – b), +<T ÿ¿£ d¾s +¿£+,
= k[x2 – (a + b)x + a b]
= kx2 – k(a + b)x + k a b
B esÁZ VQ|~ýË x2, x >·TD¿±\, d¾sÁ|<eTTÔÃ bþ\Ì>± , eTqÅ£
a = k, b = – k(a + b) eT]jáTT c = kab.
–b
B qT+& a+b = ,
a
c
ab =
a
* a,b nqTq$ ç^Å£ n¿£s \T. M{ì eTqeTT esÁTd>± »ý²ÎÛµ , »;{²µ n |\TÅ£ÔeTT. ÔásTÁ yÜ uó²eq\ýË
eTqeTT +¿=¿£ ç^Å£ n¿£sÁ+ ‘g’ |jÖî ÐkÍïeTT. B »>±eÖµ n |\TÅ£ÔeTT.

40 POLYNOMIALS
b - (Coefficient of x)
i.e., sum of zeroes = a + b = - = ,
a Coefficient of x2
c Constant term
product of zeroes = ab = = .
a Coefficient of x 2
Let us consider some examples.

Example 2 : Find the zeroes of the quadratic polynomial x2 + 7x + 10, and verify the relationship
between the zeroes and the coefficients.
Solution : We have
x2 + 7x + 10 = (x + 2)(x + 5)
So, the value of x2 + 7x + 10 is zero when x + 2 = 0 or x + 5 = 0, i.e., when x = – 2 or x = –5.
Therefore, the zeroes of x2 + 7x + 10 are – 2 and – 5. Now,
-(7) – (Coefficient of x) ,
sum of zeroes = – 2 + (– 5) = – (7) = =
10 Constant term
product of zeroes = (- 2) ´ (- 5) = 10 = = ×
Example 3 : Find the zeroes of the polynomial x2 – 3 and verify the relationship between the
zeroes and the coefficients.
Solution : Recall the identity a2 – b2 = (a – b)(a + b). Using it, we can write:
x2 – 3 = ( x - 3 )( x + 3 )
So, the value of x2 – 3 is zero when x = 3 or x = – 3×
Therefore, the zeroes of x2 – 3 are 3 and - 3 ×

Now,
- (Coefficient of x) ,
sum of zeroes = 3- 3= 0 =
Coefficient of x2
product of zeroes = ( 3 )( - 3 ) = – 3 = -13 = Coefficient

Constant term
of x 2
×

VQ|<T \T 41
- (Coefficient
(x jîTT¿£Ø >·TD¿£of
¿±eÚq XøSH«\ yîTTÔáeï TT = a + b = - b =
x2
eTT)x)
,
a Coefficient of exTT)2
( jîTT¿£Ø >·TD¿£
c (d¾
sÁ |<eTT)term
Constant
esÁZ VQ|~ XøSH«\ \ÝeTT = ab = = 2
(x jîTT¿£Ø >·TD¿£ofeTT)x2
.
a Coefficient
¿ì+< ¿= <V²sÁD\qT eTq+ |]o*<ÝeTT.

<V²sÁD 2 : x2 + 7x + 10, nqT esÁZ VQ|~ XøSH«\qT ¿£qT>= , XøSH«\Å£ VQ|~ >·TD¿±\Å£ eT<ó«
d++<ó d]#áÖ&+& .
kÍ<óq :
x2 + 7x + 10 = (x + 2)(x + 5) n>·TqT
¿±eÚq, x2 + 7x + 10 jîTT¿£Ø XøSH«\T ¿±y* n+fñ x + 2 = 0 ýñ< x + 5 = 0, n+fñ x = – 2 ýñ< x = –5
n>·TqT. ¿±eÚq x2 + 7x + 10 XøSH«\T – 2 eT]jáTT – 5. |Úð&T
-(7) – (Coefficient
(x jîTT¿£Ø >·TD¿£eofTT) x) ,
XøSH«\ yîTTÔáïeTT = – 2 + (– 5) = – (7) = =
1 (x2 jîTT¿£Ø >·TD¿£
10 (d¾sÁ |<eTT)
Constant term
XøSH«\ \¦eTT = (- 2) ´ (- 5) = 10 = = 2 ×
1 Coefficient
(x jîTT¿£Ø >·TD¿£ x2
ofeTT)
<V²sÁD 3 : x2 – 3 nqT esÁZ VQ|~ XøSH«\qT ¿£qT>= , XøSH«\Å£, VQ|~ >·TD¿±\Å£ eT<ó«
d++<ó d]#áÖ&+& .
kÍ<óq: dsÇÁ dMT¿£sDÁ + a2 – b2 = (a – b)(a + b). qT >·TsÁTï Ôî#Tá Ì¿Ã+&
B |jîÖÐ+º x2 – 3 = ( x - )(
3 x+ 3 ) n çyjáTe#áTÌ
x2 – 3 jîTT¿£Ø $\Te XøSq«+. ¿±{ì¼ x = 3 ýñ< x = – 3×
¿±eÚq, x2 – 3 jîTT¿£Ø XøSH«\T 3 eT]jáTT - 3×
|ÚÎ&T,
- (Coefficient
(x jîTT¿£Ø >·TD¿£eofTT) x) ,
XøSH«\ yîTTÔáïeTT = 3- 3= 0 =
(x2 jîTT¿£Ø >·TD¿£
( 3 )( - 3 ) = – 3 = -13 = Coefficient
Constant term(d¾sÁ |<eTT)
XøSH«\ \ÝeTT = × 2
(x jîTT¿£Ø >·TD¿£
2
of exTT)

42 POLYNOMIALS
Example 4 : Find a quadratic polynomial, the sum and product of whose zeroes are – 3 and 2,
respectively.
Solution : Let the quadratic polynomial be ax2 + bx + c, and its zeroes be a and b.
We have
-b ,
a+b= –3=
a
c.
and ab = 2 =
a
If a = 1, then b = 3 and c = 2.
So, one quadratic polynomial which fits the given conditions is x2 + 3x + 2.
You can check that any other quadratic polynomial that fits these conditions will be of the
form k(x2 + 3x + 2), where k is real.
Let us now look at cubic polynomials. Do you think a similar relation holds
between the zeroes of a cubic polynomial and its coefficients?
Let us consider p(x) = 2x3 – 5x2 – 14x + 8.
1
You can check that p(x) = 0 for x = 4, – 2, × Since p(x) can have atmost three zeroes,
2
these are the zeores of 2x3 – 5x2 – 14x + 8. Now,
1 5 - (-5) - (Coefficient of x 2 )
sum of the zeroes = 4 + ( -2) + = = = ,
2 2 2 Coefficient of x 3
1 -8 – Constant term
product of the zeroes = 4 ´ ( -2) ´ = -4 = = .
However, there is one more relationship here. Consider the sum of the products of the
zeroes taken two at a time. We have
{4 ´ (- 2)} + ìí(- 2) ´
1 ü ì1 ü
ý + í ´ 4ý
î 2þ î2 þ
-14 Coefficient of x
= – 8 -1+ 2 = -7 = = .
2 Coefficient of x3
In general, it can be proved that if a, b, g are the zeroes of the cubic polynomial
ax3 + bx2 + cx + d, then

VQ|<T \T 43
<V²sÁD 4 : ÿ¿£esÁZ VQ|~ XøSH«\ yîTTÔáïeTT eT]jáTT \ÝeTT esÁTd>± – 3 eT]jáTT 2, nsTTq esÁZ
VQ|~ ¿£qT>=q+&.
kÍ<óq : a eT]jáTT b.XøSH«\T>± ¿£*Ðq esÁZ VQ|~ ax2 + bx + c, nqT¿Ã+&.
-b ,
a+b= –3=
a
c.
eT]jáTT ab = 2 =
a
eTqeTT a = 1, rdTÅ£+fñ b = 3 eT]jáTT c = 2 n>·TqT

¿±eÚq ºÌq $\Te\Å£ ýË& @sÁÎ&û esÁZ VQ|~ x2 + 3x + 2 neÚÔáT+~.
k ÿ¿£ ydïe d+K« nsTT +&, k (x2 + 3x + 2)ý² ÔásÁ esÁZ VQ|<T \T Å£L& jáTeÖ¿ì ýË& @sÁÎ&û
esÁZVQ|<T \T neÚÔsTT
eTqeTT |ÚÎ&T |Tq VQ|<T \qT |]o*<ÝeTT. |Tq VQ|<T\ýË Å£L& y{ì XøSH«\Å£ , VQ|~ >·TD¿±\Å£
eT<ó« ³Te+{ì d++<óyûT +³T+< MTsÁT uó²$dTïHs ?
1
p(x) = 2x3 – 5x2 – 14x + 8 nqT |T q VQ|~ rdT¿Ã+&. x = 4, – 2, × $\Te\ e<Ý p(x) nsTTq<
2
>·eT+#á+&.
(x2 jîTT¿£Ø >·TD¿£ofeTT)x 2 )
1 5 - (-5) - (Coefficient
|ÚÎ&T, XøSH«\ yîTTÔáïeTT = 4 + ( -2) + = = =
(x3 jîTT¿£Ø >·TD¿£ ,
2 2 2 Coefficient x3
ofeTT)
1 -8 – Constant
(d¾sÁ |<eterm
TT)
XøSH«\ \ÝeTT = 4 ´ ( -2) ´ = -4 = =
(x jîTT¿£Ø >·Tof
3
D¿£exTT)3
.
2 2 Coefficient
M{ìÔÃu²³T , |Tq VQ|~ýË eTs=¿£ ç|Ôû«¿£ d++<óeTT ¿£*Ð +~. VQ|~ jîTT¿£Ø XøSH«\qT
sÂ +&ûd¾ rdTÅ£ y{ì \u²Æ\ yîTTÔáeï TTqT |]o*dï eTqÅ£ d++<óe TT Ôî\TdT+ï ~. n+fñ
{4 ´ (- 2)} + ìí(- 2) ´
1 ü ì1 ü
ý + í ´ 4ý
î 2þ î2 þ
-14 (x jîTT¿£Ø >·TD¿£of
Coefficient eTT)x
= – 8 -1+ 2 = -7 = = (x3 jîTT¿£Ø >·TD¿£eTT)3 .
2 Coefficient of x
B kÍ<ósÁD¡¿£]+#á>± ax3 + bx2 + cx + d nqT |T q VQ|~ XøSH«\T a, b, g nsTTq

44 POLYNOMIALS
–b
a+b+g= ,
a
c
ab + bg + ga = ,
a
–d
abg= .
a
Let us consider an example.
1
Example 5* : Verify that 3, –1, - are the zeroes of the cubic polynomial p(x) = 3x3 – 5x2 –
3
11x – 3, and then verify the relationship between the zeroes and the coefficients.
Solution : Comparing the given polynomial with ax3 + bx2 + cx + d, we get
a = 3, b = – 5, c = –11, d = – 3. Further
p(3) = 3 × 33 – (5 × 32) – (11 × 3) – 3 = 81 – 45 – 33 – 3 = 0,
p(–1) = 3 × (–1)3 – 5 × (–1)2 – 11 × (–1) – 3 = –3 – 5 + 11 – 3 = 0,
3 2
æ 1ö æ 1ö æ 1ö æ 1ö
p ç - ÷ = 3 ´ ç - ÷ - 5 ´ ç - ÷ - 11 ´ ç - ÷ - 3 ,
è 3ø è 3ø è 3ø è 3ø
1 5 11 2 2
=– - + -3=– + =0
9 9 3 3 3
1
Therefore, 3, –1 and - are the zeroes of 3x3 – 5x2 – 11
1x – 3.
3
1
So, we take a = 3, b = –1 and g = - ×
3
Now,
æ 1ö 1 5 -( -5) -b ,
a + b + g = 3 + ( -1) + ç - ÷ = 2 - = = =
è 3ø 3 3 3 a
æ 1ö æ 1ö 1 -11 c ,
ab+ bg + g a = 3 ´ (-1) + (-1) ´ ç - ÷ + ç - ÷ ´ 3 = - 3 + - 1 = =
è 3ø è 3ø 3 3 a
æ 1ö - (-3) - d .
abg = 3 ´ (-1) ´ ç - ÷ = 1 = =
è 3ø 3 a
* Not from the examination point of view.

VQ|<T \T 45
–b
a+b+g= ,
a
c
ab + bg + ga = ,
a
–d
abg= .
a
¿ì+~ <V²sÁDqT eTqeTT |]o*<ÝeTT
<V²sÁD 5* : |T q VQ|~ p(x) = 3x3 – 5x2 – 11x – 3 jîTT¿£Ø XøSH«\T 3, –1, - 13 n>·Tq #áÖ|+&.
VQ|~ >·TD¿±\Å£ XøSH«\Å£ eT<ó«>·\ d++<ó d]#áÖ&+&.
kÍ<óq :ºÌq |T q VQ|~ 3x3 – 5x2 – 11x – 3 ax3 + bx2 + cx + d, ÔÃ d]bþ*Ìq
a = 3, b = – 5, c = –11, d = – 3. n>·TqT. B qT+&
p(3) = 3 × 33 – (5 × 32) – (11 × 3) – 3 = 81 – 45 – 33 – 3 = 0,
p(–1) = 3 × (–1)3 – 5 × (–1)2 – 11 × (–1) – 3 = –3 – 5 + 11 – 3 = 0,
3 2
æ 1ö æ 1ö æ 1ö æ 1ö
p ç - ÷ = 3 ´ ç - ÷ - 5 ´ ç - ÷ - 11 ´ ç - ÷ - 3 ,
è 3ø è 3ø è 3ø è 3ø
1 5 11 2 2
=– - + -3=– + =0
9 9 3 3 3
1
¿±eÚq 33 – 5x2 – 11x – 3 jîTT¿£Ø XøSH«\T 3, –1 eT]jáTT - n #áÖ|&y Tî q® ~.
3
1
¿±{ì¼ a = 3, b = –1 eT]jáTT g = - × >± rdTÅ£+<eTT.
3
|Úð&T
æ 1ö 1 5 -( -5) -b ,
a + b + g = 3 + ( -1) + ç - ÷ = 2 - = = =
è 3ø 3 3 3 a
æ 1ö æ 1ö 1 -11 c ,
ab+ bg + g a = 3 ´ (-1) + (-1) ´ ç - ÷ + ç- ÷ ´ 3 = -3 + -1 = =
è 3ø è 3ø 3 3 a
æ 1ö - (-3) - d .
abg = 3 ´ (-1) ´ ç - ÷ = 1 = =
è 3ø 3 a
* |¯¿£\ Å£ ¹s¥Æ +#á&q~ ¿±<T.

46 POLYNOMIALS
EXERCISE 2.2
1. Find the zeroes of the following quadratic polynomials and verify the relationship between
the zeroes and the coefficients.
(i) x2 – 2x – 8 (ii) 4s2 – 4s + 1 (iii) 6x2 – 3 – 7x
(iv) 4u2 + 8u (v) t2 – 15 (vi) 3x2 – x – 4
2. Find a quadratic polynomial each with the given numbers as the sum and product of its
zeroes respectively.
1, 1
(i) -1 (ii) 2, (iii) 0, 5
4 3
1, 1
(iv) 1, 1 (v) - (vi) 4, 1
4 4
2.4 Summary
1. Polynomials of degrees 1, 2 and 3 are called linear, quadratic and cubic polynomials
respectively.
2. A quadratic polynomial in x with real coefficients is of the form ax2 + bx + c, where a, b, c
are real numbers with a ¹ 0.
3. The zeroes of a polynomial p(x) are precisely the x-coordinates of the points, where the
graph of y = p(x) intersects the x - axis.
4. A quadratic polynomial can have at most 2 zeroes and a cubic polynomial can have
at most 3 zeroes.
5. If a and b are the zeroes of the quadratic polynomial ax2 + bx + c, then
b c
a +b = - , ab = .
a a
6. If a, b, g are the zeroes of the cubic polynomial ax3 + bx2 + cx + d, then

-b ,
a +b + g =
a
c,
ab+ b g + g a =
a
-d .
and abg =
a

VQ|<T \T 47
nuó²«deTT 2.2
1. ç¿ì+~ eÇ&q esÁZ VQ|<T \ XøSH«\qT ¿£qT>= , VQ|~ XøSH«\Å£, >·TD¿±\Å£ eT<ó« >·\ d++<ó
d]#áÖ&+& ?
(i) x2 – 2x – 8 (ii) 4s2 – 4s + 1 (iii) 6x2 – 3 – 7x
(iv) 4u2 + 8u (v) t2 – 15 (vi) 3x2 – x – 4
2. ÿ¿£ esÁZ VQ|~ XøSH«\ yîTTÔáeï TT , XøSH«\ \ÝeTT\T eÇ&q$. M{ì qT+º esÁZ VQ|~
¿£qT>=qTeTT ?.
1, 1
(i) -1 (ii) 2, (iii) 0, 5
4 3
1, 1
(iv) 1, 1 (v) - (vi) 4, 1
4 4
2.4 kÍs+XøeTT:
n<ó«jáT+ýË, ç¿ì+~ $wjáÖ\qT HûsÁTÌÅ£H+ :
1. 1,2, eT]jáTT 3 |]eÖD+>± VQ|<T\qT esÁTd>± ¹sFjáT , esÁZ , |Tq VQ|<T\T n+{²eTT.
2. ydïe >·TD¿±\T ¿£*Ð +& , x #ásÁs¥>± >·*Ðq esÁZ VQ|~ kÍ<ósÁD sÁÖ|eTT ax2 + bx + c a ¹ 0
eT]jáTT a, b, c \T ydeï d+K«\T. .
3. VQ|~ XøSH«\T, VQ|~ dMT¿£sÁD+ p(x) jîTT¿£Ø ¹sU² ºçÔáeTT y = p(x) x - n¿± K+&+ºq|ÚÎ&T
@sÁÎ&q _+<TeÚ\ x - sÁÖ|¿±\T neÚÔsTT.
4. esÁZ VQ|~¿ì >·]w÷+>± 2 XøSH«\T , |Tq VQ|~¿ì >·]w÷+>± 3 XøSH«\T eÖçÔáyûT +{²sTT.
5. a, b nqTq$ ax2 + bx + c, nqT esÁZ VQ|~ XøSH«\T nsTTq
b c
a +b = - , ab = .
a a
6. a, b, g nqTq$ |Tq VQ|~ ax3 + bx2 + cx + d, nsTTq

-b ,
a +b + g =
a
c,
ab+ b g + g a =
a
eT]jáTT a b g = -ad .

48 PAIR OF LINER EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABILES
PAIR OF LINEAR EQUATIONS

IN TWO VARIABLES 3
3.1 Introduction
You must have come across situations like the one given below :
Akhila went to a fair in her village. She wanted to enjoy rides on the Giant Wheel and play
Hoopla (a game in which you throw a ring on the items kept in a stall, and if the ring covers any
object completely, you get it). The number of times she played Hoopla is half the number of
rides she had on the Giant Wheel. If each ride costs ` 3, and a game of Hoopla costs ` 4, how
would you find out the number of rides she had and how many times she played Hoopla, provided
she spent ` 20.
May be you will try it by considering different cases. If she has one ride, is it possible? Is
it possible to have two rides? And so on. Or you may use the knowledge of Class IX, to represent
such situations as linear equations in two variables.

Âs+&T #ásÁsXø\ýË s¹ FjáT dMT¿£sÁD²\ ÈÔá 49
Âs+&T #ássÁ Xø\ýË ¹sFjáT

dMT¿£sDÁ ²\ ÈÔá 3
3.1 |]#ájáT+
ç¿ì+< eÇ&q³Te+{ì |]d¾ÔáT\qT MTsÁT m<Ts=Ø +{²sÁT:
nÏ\ Ôáq ç>±eT+ýË C²ÔásÅÁ £ yî[ß+~. yîT CÉsTT+{Ù MýÙ |Õ dy¯\qT kÍÇ~+#\ eT]jáTT ¬bÍ¢
VQcÍsÁT>± &\ ¿ÃsÁTÅ£+~. (kÍ¼ýË¢ |{ìq¼ edTeï Ú\ |¿Õ ì ]+>·T yûdq¾ |ÚÎ&T, ]+>·T @ edTeï ÚqT ¿£esY #ûdT +ï <Ã,
edTeï ÚqT MTsÁT bõ+<TÔsÁT). yîT ¬bÍ¢ &q ³\ d+K« yîT CÉsTT+{Ù MýÙ |Õ #ûdq¾ dy¯\ d+K«ýË d>+·
+³T+~. ÿ¿=Ø¿£Ø dy¯ K¯<T sÁÖ.3 eT]jáTT ¬bÍ¢ ³ K¯<T sÁÖ.4. yîT sÁÖ.20 ¿¹ {²sTT+ºq yîT m
dy¯\T #ûdq¾ ~ eT]jáTT mkÍsÁT¢ ¬bÍ¢ &q~ úeÚ mý² ¿£qT>=q>·\eÚ.
yûs¹ ÇsÁT |]d¾Ô Tá \qT rdT¿Ãe&+ <Çs MTsÁT ç|jTá Ü+#áe#áTÌ. yîTÅ£ ÿ¿£ dy¯ +fñ ~ kÍ<ó« eÖ? sÂ +&T
dy¯\T +fñ #ûjáT&+ kÍ<ó«yûTH? $<ó+>± ýñ< |]d¾ÔáT\qT Âs+&T #ásÁsXø\ýË ¹sFjáT dMT¿£sÁD²\T>±
çbÍÜ<ó« + #ûjTá &¿ì MTsÁT 9e Ôás>Á Ü· ýË $<óH |jÖî Ð+#áe#áTÌqT.

Let us try this approach.

Denote the number of rides that Akhila had by x, and the number of times she played Hoopla
by y. Now the situation can be represented by the two equations:
1
y= x (1)
2
3x + 4y = 20 (2)
Can we find the solutions of this pair of equations? There are several ways of finding these,
which we will study in this chapter.
3.2 Graphical Method of Solution of a Pair of Linear Equations
A pair of linear equations which has no solution, is called an inconsistent pair of linear equations.
A pair of linear equations in two variables, which has a solution, is called a consistent pair of
linear equations. A pair of linear equations which are equivalent has infinitely many distinct
common solutions. Such a pair is called a dependent pair of linear equations in two variables.
Note that a dependent pair of linear equations is always consistent.
We can now summarise the behaviour of lines representing a pair of linear equations in
two variables and the existence of solutions as follows:
(i) the lines may intersect in a single point. In this case, the pair of equations has a unique
solution (consistent pair of equations).
(ii) the lines may be parallel. In this case, the equations have no solution (inconsistent
pair of equations).
(iii) the lines may be coincident. In this case, the equations have infinitely many solutions
[dependent (consistent) pair of equations].
Consider the following three pairs of equations.
(i) x – 2y = 0 and 3x + 4y – 20 = 0 (The lines intersect)
(ii) 2x + 3y – 9 = 0 and 4x + 6y – 18 = 0 (The lines coincide)
(iii) x + 2y – 4 = 0 and 2x + 4y – 12 = 0 (The lines are parallel)
a1 , b1 c
Let us now write down, and compare, the values of and 1 in all the three examples.
c2
a2 b2
Here, a1, b1, c1 and a2, b2, c2 denote the coefficents of equations given in the general form in
Section 3.2.

$<óH ç|jTá Ü<Ý+.

nÏ\ #ûdq¾ dy¯\ d+K«qT x ÔÃqÖ eT]jáTT yîT ¬bÍ¢ ³ &q d+K«qT y ÔÃqÖ #áÖ|¾<ÝeTT. |ÚÎ&T
|]d¾Ü Âs+&T dMT¿£sÁD²\ýË Ôî*jáTCñkÍïeTT:
1
y= x (1)
2
3x + 4y = 20 (2)
eTqeTT dMT¿£sD
Á ²\ ÈÔáÅ£ kÍ<óq \qT ¿£qT>=q>·\eÖ? M{ì ¿£qT>=Hû nHû¿£ $<óH\qT n<ó«jáT+ýË
HûsTÁ ÌÅ£+<+.
3.2 ç>±|t |<ÜÆ <Çs s¹ FjáT dMT¿£sDÁ ²\ ÈÔáÅ£ kÍ<óq qT ¿£qT>=qT³
ÿ¿£ ÈÔá s¹ FjáT dMT¿£sD Á \Å£ kÍ<óq ýñ¿b£ þÔû y{ì nd+>·Ôá ¹sFjáT dMT¿£sÁD²\T ÈÔá n+{²sÁT. Âs+&T #ásÁsXø\ýË
¹sFjáT dMT¿£sÁD²\ ÈÔáÅ£ kÍ<óq q³¢sTTÔû y{ì d+>·Ôá s¹ FjáT dMT¿£sDÁ ²\ ÈÔá n |¾\TkÍïsTÁ . ¹sFjáT dMT¿£sDÁ ²\
ÈÔá ÔáTý²«\T nsTTq y{ì¿ì nq+ÔáyTî q® $_óq kÍ<óq \T +{²sTT. ný²+{ì ÈÔá\qT sÂ +&T #ásÁsXø\ýË |sÁdÎ s<ó]Ôá
s¹ FjáT dMT¿£sDÁ ²\ ÈÔá n+{²sÁT. |sdÁ Î s<ó]Ôá s¹ FjáT dMT¿£sD Á ²\ ÈÔá »»m\¢|Ú Î&Ö d+>·Ôeá TTµµ n >·eT+#á>\· sÁT.
Âs+&T #ásÁsXø\ýË ¹sFjáT dMT¿£sÁD²\T dÖº+#û ¹sK\ dÇuó²eeTT eT]jáTT kÍ<ó«eTjûT« kÍ<óqýqT ~>·Teq
Ôî\TdTÅ£+<eTT:
(i) Âs+&T s¹ K\T ÿ¿£ _+<TeÚ e<ûÝ K+&+#áTÅ£+{²sTT. d+<sÁÒÛ+ýË ¹sFjáT dMT¿£sD Á ²\ ÈÔáÅ£ ÿ¹¿ ÿ¿£
kÍ<óq +³T+~. (d+>·Ôá dMT¿£sÁD²\ ÈÔá).
(ii) Âs+&T s¹ K\T deÖ+Ôás\T. d+<sÁÒÛ+ýË dMT¿£sÁD²\ ÈÔáÅ£ kÍ<óq ýñ<T. (nd+>·Ôá dMT¿£sÁD²\
ÈÔá).
(iii) ¹sK\T @¿¡u$ ó kÍïsTT. d+<sÒÁ Û+ýË dMT¿£sDÁ ²\Å£ nq+ÔáyTî q® kÍ<óq \T +{²sTT. [|sdÁ Î sÁ<]Ôá (d+>·Ô)á
dMT¿£sÁD²\ ÈÔá].
ç¿ì+< eTÖ&T dMT¿£sÁD²\ ÈÔá\qT |]>·Dì+#á+&..
(i) x – 2y = 0 eT]jáTT 3x + 4y – 20 = 0 ($ K+&q ¹sK\T)
(ii) 2x + 3y – 9 = 0 eT]jáTT 4x + 6y – 18 = 0 ($ @¿¡u$ ó +#û s¹ K\T)
(iii) x + 2y – 4 = 0 eT]jáTT 2x + 4y – 12 = 0 ($ deÖ+ÔásÁ ¹sK\T)
eTq+ |ÚÎ&T aa1 , b1 eT]jáTT

c1
c2
$\Te\qT eTÖ&T <V²sÁD\ýË çydTÅ£+<+ eT]jáTT bþ\TÌ<+.
2 b2
¿£Ø&, a1, b1, c1 eT]jáTT a2, b2, c2 \T $uó²>·+ 3.2 q+<T eÇ&q dMT¿£sDÁ ²\ kÍ<ósÁD sÁÖ|+ jîTT¿£Ø >·TD¿±\T.

Table 3.1
a1 b1 c1
Sl Pair of lines a2 b2 c2
Compare the Graphical Algebraic
No. ratios representation interpretation
1 -2 0 a1 b1
1. x – 2y = 0 ¹ Intersecting Exactly one
3 4 -20 a2 b2
3x + 4y – 20 = 0 lines solution
(unique)
2 3 -9 a1 b1 c1
2. 2x + 3y – 9 = 0 = = Coincident Infinitely
4 6 -18 a2 b2 c2
lines many solutions
4x + 6y – 18 = 0
1 2 -4 a1 b1 c1
3. x + 2y – 4 = 0 = ¹ Parallel lines No solution
2 4 -12 a2 b2 c2
2x + 4y – 12 = 0
From the table above, you can observe that if the lines represented by the equation
a1x + b1y + c1 = 0
and a2x + b2y + c2 = 0
a1 b1
are (i) intersecting, then ¹ ×
a2 b2
a1 b1 c1
(ii) coincident, then = = ×
a2 b2 c2
a1 b1 c1
(iii) parallel, then = ¹ ×
a2 b2 c2
In fact, the converse is also true for any pair of lines. You can verify them by considering
some more examples by yourself.
Let us now consider some more examples to illustrate it.
Example 1 : Check graphically whether the pair of equations
x + 3y = 6 (1)
and 2x – 3y = 12 (2)
is consistent. If so, solve them graphically.
Solution : Let us draw the graphs of the Equations (1) and (2). For this, we find two solutions
of each of the equations, which are given in Table 3.2

|{¿¼ì £ 3.1
a1 b1 c1
ç¿£. dsÞÁ s¹ø K\ ÈÔá\T a2 b2 c2
wÎÔáTï\ bþ*¿£ dÖº+#û ;È>·DìÔá
d+. ç>±|t $esÁD
1 -2 0 a1 b1
1. x – 2y = 0 ¹ K+&q ¹sK\T ÿ¹¿ ÿ¿£ kÍ<óq
3 4 -20 a2 b2
3x + 4y – 20 = 0 (@Â¿Õ¿£)
2 3 -9 a1 b1 c
2. 2x + 3y – 9 = 0 = = 1 @¿¡uó$+#û nq+ÔáyîT®q
4 6 -18 a2 b2 c2
4x + 6y – 18 = 0 ¹sK\T nHû¿£ kÍ<óq \T
1 2 -4 a1 b1 c1
3. x + 2y – 4 = 0 = ¹ deÖ+ÔásÁ s¹ K\T kÍ<óq ýñ<T
2 4 -12 a2 b2 c2
2x + 4y – 12 = 0
|Õ |{ì¼¿£ qT+&, MTsÁT >·eT+ºq ¹sFjáTdMT¿£sÁD²\T

a1x + b1y + c1 = 0
eT]jáTT a2x + b2y + c2 = 0
a1 b1
Á ²\#û #áÖd¾+#û s¹ K\T (i) K+&q s¹ K\T, nsTTq
dMT¿£sD ¹ ×
a2 b2
a1 b1 c1
(ii) @¿¡uó$+#û s¹ K\T, nsTTq = = ×
a2 b2 c2
a1 b1 c1
(iii) deÖ+Ôás\T, nsTTq = ¹ ×
a2 b2 c2
@ Âs+&T ÈÔá\ ¹sK\ ¿Â ÕH $|sÁ«jáTeTT Å£L& dÔá«yûT neÚÔáT+~. M{ì eT]¿= <V²sÁD\qT |]>·DqýË¿ì
rdT¿=qT³ <Çs Å£L& MTsÁT |]o*+#áe#áTÌqT.
eT]¿= <V²sÁD\T rdT¿= |]o*<Ý+. ydï$¿£Ôá sÆ]+#áTÅ£+<+.
<V²sÁD 1 : ç>±|t <Çs d]#áÖ&&+
x + 3y = 6 (1)
eT]jáTT 2x – 3y = 12 (2)
¹sFjáT dMT¿£sÁD²\ ÈÔá d+>·Ôá+ neÚHÃ ¿±<Ã d]#áÖ&+&. nsTTq#Ã ç>±|t <Çs kÍ~ó+#á+&.
kÍ<óq : 1) eT]jáTT (2) dMT¿£sÁD²\Å£ eTq+ ç>±|t ^<Ý+. B¿Ãd+ |{¼¿ì £ 3.2 ýË ºÌq $<ó+ >± ç|Ü dMT¿£sÁD²¿ì
Âs+&T kÍ<óq\qT ¿£qT>=+<+.

Table 3.2
x 0 6 x 0 3
6-x 2 x - 12
y= 2 0 y= –4 –2
3 3
Plot the points A(0, 2), B(6, 0), P(0, –

4) and Q(3, – 2) on graph paper, and join the
points to form the lines AB and PQ as shown
i n
Fig. 3.1.
We observe that there is a point B (6, 0)
common to both the lines AB and PQ. So,
the solution of the pair of linear equations is
x = 6 and y = 0, i.e., the given pair of
equations is consistent.
Fig. 3.1
Example 2 : Graphically, find whether the following pair of equations has no solution, unique
solution or infinitely many solutions:
5x – 8y + 1 = 0 (1)
24 3
3x – y + =0 (2)
5 5
5
Solution : Multiplying Equation (2) by , we get
3
5x – 8y + 1 = 0
But, this is the same as Equation (1). Hence the lines represented by Equations (1) and (2) are
coincident. Therefore, Equations (1) and (2) have infinitely many solutions.
Plot few points on the graph and verify it yourself.
Example 3 : Champa went to a ‘Sale’ to purchase some pants and skirts. When her friends
asked her how many of each she had bought, she answered, “The number of skirts is two less
than twice the number of pants purchased. Also, the number of skirts is four less than four times
the number of pants purchased”. Help her friends to find how many pants and skirts Champa
bought.

|{¿¼ì £ 3.2
x 0 6 x 0 3
6-x 2 x - 12
y= 2 0 y= –4 –2
3 3
ç>±|t ||sY |qÕ A(0, 2), B(6, 0), P(0, – 4)

eT]jáTT Q(3, – 2) _+<TeÚ\qT >·T]ï+#á+& eT]jáTT
|³e¼ TT 3.1 ýË dÖº+ºq³T¢>± AB eT]jáTT PQ nqT
¹sK\T @sÁÎ&Tq³T¢ _+<TeÚ\qT ¿£\|+&.
Âs+&T ¹sK\T AB eT]jáTT PQ \Å£ B (6, 0)
eT& _+<TeÚ>± q³T¢ eTq+ >·eT+#eTT. ¿±eÚq,
¹sFjáT dMT¿£sÁD²\ ÈÔáÅ£ x = 6 eT]jáTT y = 0,
kÍ<óq neÚÔáT+~. nq>± eÇ&q dMT¿£sD Á ²\ ÈÔá
d+>·Ô+á neÚÔsTT.
|³+. 3.1
<V²sÁD 2 : ç¿ì+~ dMT¿£sDÁ ²\ ÈÔá\Å£ kÍ<óq ýñ, @Â¿¿Õ £ kÍ<óq q, nq+ÔáyîTq® kÍ<óq \T m HjîÖ ç>±|t
<Çs ¿£qT>=q+&:
5x – 8y + 1 = 0 (1)
24 3
3x – y + =0 (2)
5 5
5,
kÍ<óq : dMT¿£sÁD+ (2) qT 3
#û >·TDì+#á>±
5x – 8y + 1 = 0 bõ+<TÔeTT.
nsTTÔû ~ dMT¿£sÁD+ (1)¿ì deÖq+>± q~. ¿±eÚq dMT¿£sÁD+ (1) eT]jáTT (2)\qT dÖº+#û ¹sK\T @¿¡uó$+#û
$<ó+>± q$. ¿±eÚq dMT¿£sÁD+ (1) eT]jáTT (2) \T dÖº+#û ¹sK\T nq+Ôá kÍ<óq\T ¿£*Ð +{²sTT.
ç>±|t |qÕ ¿= _+<óT eÚ\qT >·T]ï+º MT¹s dÇjáT+>± |]o*+#á+&.
<V²sÁD 3 : #á+bÍ ¿= bÍ«+³T\qT eT]jáTT dØsY\¼ qT ¿=q&¿ì <T¿±DeTTqÅ£ yî[ßq~. yîT $TçÔáTs\T
ÿ¿=Ø¿£Ø{ì m ¿=H\ n&>>· ± »»¿=q dØsY\¼ d+K«, bÍ«+³¢ d+K«Å£ sÂ {ì+¼ |Ú ¿£H sÂ +&T ÔáÅ£ Øe. ný²¹>, dØsY\¼ d+K«
bÍ«+³¢ d+K«Å£ H\T>·T sÂ ³¢ ¿£H H\T>·T ÔáÅ£ Øeµµ n #î|Î¾ +~. #á+bÍ m bÍ«+³T¢ eT]jáTT m dØsY¼ \T ¿=q<Ã
Ôî\TdT¿Ãe&¿ì yîT $TçÔáTs*¿ì dVä jáT+ #ûjTá +&.

Solution : Let us denote the number of pants by x and the number of skirts by y. Then the
equations formed are :
y = 2x – 2 (1)
and y = 4x – 4 (2)
Let us draw the graphs of Equations (1) and (2)

by finding two solutions for each of the equations.
They are given in Table 3.3.
Table 3.3
x 2 0
y = 2x – 2 2 –2
x 0 1
y = 4x – 4 – 4 0
Fig. 3.2
Plot the points and draw the lines passing through them to represent the equations, as
shown in Fig. 3.2.
The two lines intersect at the point (1, 0). So, x = 1, y = 0 is the required solution of the
pair of linear equations, i.e., the number of pants she purchased is 1 and she did not buy any
skirt.
Verify the answer by checking whether it satisfies the conditions of the given problem.
EXERCISE 3.1
1. Form the pair of linear equations in the following problems, and find their solutions
graphically.
(i) 10 students of Class X took part in a Mathematics quiz. If the number of girls is 4
more than the number of boys, find the number of boys and girls who took part in the
quiz.

kÍ<óq : bÍ«+{Ù\ d+K« x eT]jáTT dØsÁT¼\ d+K« y nqT¿=qTeTT. n|ð&T @sÁÎ&q dMT¿£sÁD²\T :
y = 2x – 2 (1)
eT]jáTT y = 4x – 4 (2)
dMT¿£sDÁ ²\T (1) eT]jáTT (2) \Å£, ç|Ü dMT¿£sDÁ ²¿ì

sÂ +&T kÍ<óq \T ¿£qT>=q&+ <Çs ç>±|qt T ^jáT+&. n$ |{¿¼ì £
3.3ýË eÇ&¦sTT.
|{¿¼ì £ 3.3
x 2 0
y = 2x – 2 2 –2
x 0 1
y = 4x – 4 – 4 0
|³+. 3.2
|³eTT 3.2 ýË dÖº+ºq $<ó+>± dMT¿£sÁD²\qT çbÍÜ<ó«eTT eV¾²+#û $<ó+>± _+<TeÚ\qT >·T]ï+º, y{ì
>·T+& bþeÚq³T¢ dMT¿£sÁD²\qT çbÍÜ<ó«+ #ûd ¹sK\qT ^jáT+&.
Âs+&T ¹sK\T (1, 0) _+<TeÚ e<Ý K+&+#áTÅ£+{²sTT. ¿±eÚq, x = 1, y = 0 nHû~ s¹ FjáT dMT¿£sD
Á ²\ ÈÔáÅ£
¿±e\d¾q kÍ<óq neÚÔáT+~. nq>± ¿=q bÍ«+³¢ d+K« 1 eT]jáTT yîT @ dØsÁT\¼ T ¿=qýñ<T .
deTd«ýË +<óq \qT Ôá|¾ï |sTÁ dT+ï <Ã ýñ<Ã d] #áÖ&&+ <Çs |* Ô <ó e|s#Á Tá ¿Ã+&.
nuó²«d+ 3.1
1. ~>·Te eÇ&q deTd«\Å£ ¹sFjáT dMT¿£sÁD²\ ÈÔá\qT ÔájáÖsÁT #ûjáT+& eT]jáTT ç>±|t |<ÆÜýË y{ì
kÍ<óq \qT ¿£qT>=q+&.
(i) 10 eT+~ |<e Ôás>Á ·Ü $<«sÁT\ T ÿ¿£ >·DÔì á ¿ìÇCÙ ýË bÍý¤ZHsÁT. <ýË bÍý¤Zq u²*¿£\ d+K« ¿£H
u²\TsÁ d+K« 4 mÅ£Øe. nsTTq ¿ìÇCÙ ýË bÍý¤Zq u²\TsÁT eT]jáTT u²*¿£\ d+K«qT ¿£qT>=qTeTT.

(ii) 5 pencils and 7 pens together cost ` 50, whereas 7 pencils and 5 pens together cost `
46. Find the cost of one pencil and that of one pen.
a1 , b1 c
2. On comparing the ratios and 1 , find out whether the lines representing the following
a2 b2 c2
pairs of linear equations intersect at a point, are parallel or coincident:
(i) 5x – 4y + 8 = 0 (ii) 9x + 3y + 12 = 0
7x + 6y – 9 = 0 18x + 6y + 24 = 0
(iii) 6x – 3y + 10 = 0
2x – y + 9 = 0
a1 , b1 c1
3. On comparing the ratios a2 b 2
and c2
, find out whether the following pair of linear
equations are consistent, or inconsistent.

(i) 3x + 2y = 5 ; 2x – 3y = 7 (ii) 2x – 3y = 8 ; 4x – 6y = 9
3 5
(iii) x + y = 7; 9x – 10y = 14 (iv) 5x – 3y = 11 ; – 10x + 6y = –22
2 3
4
(v) x + 2y = 8 ; 2x + 3y = 12
3
4. Which of the following pairs of linear equations are consistent/inconsistent? If consistent,

obtain the solution graphically:
(i) x + y = 5, 2x + 2y = 10
(ii) x – y = 8, 3x – 3y = 16
(iii) 2x + y – 6 = 0, 4x – 2y – 4 = 0
(iv) 2x – 2y – 2 = 0, 4x – 4y – 5 = 0
5. Half the perimeter of a rectangular garden, whose length is 4 m more than its width, is
36 m. Find the dimensions of the garden.
6. Given the linear equation 2x + 3y – 8 = 0, write another linear equation in two variables
such that the geometrical representation of the pair so formed is:
(i) intersecting lines (ii) parallel lines
(iii) coincident lines
7. Draw the graphs of the equations x – y + 1 = 0 and 3x + 2y – 12 = 0. Determine the
coordinates of the vertices of the triangle formed by these lines and the x-axis, and shade
the triangular region.

(ii) 5 |àÞøß eT]jáTT 7 ¿£\eTT\ yîTTÔáï+ $\Te ` 50. ný²¹> 7 |àÞøß eT]jáTT 5 ¿£\eTT\ yîTTÔá+ï $\Te
` 46. ÿ¿£ |àýÙ eT]jáTT ÿ¿£ ¿£\eTT $\Te\qT ¿£qT>=qTeTT.
a1 , b1 c
2. eT]jáTT 1 , wÎÔáT\
ï qT bþ*Ì ç¿ì+< ºÌq s¹ FjáT dMT¿£sDÁ ²\ ÈÔá\T ÿ¿£ _+<TeÚ e<Ý K+&+#áTÅ£+{²jîÖ,
a2 b2 c2
deÖ+Ôás\T neÚÔjîÖ ýñ< @¿¡uó$kÍïjÖî ¿£qT>=qTeTT:
(i) 5x – 4y + 8 = 0 (ii) 9x + 3y + 12 = 0
7x + 6y – 9 = 0 18x + 6y + 24 = 0
(iii) 6x – 3y + 10 = 0
2x – y + 9 = 0
a1 , b1 c
3. eT]jáTT 1 , wÎÔáTï\qT bþ*Ì, ç¿ì+< ºÌq ¹sFjáT dMT¿£sÁD²\ ÈÔá\T d+>·Ô\T ýñ< nd+>·ÔýË
a2 b2 c2
¿£qT>=qTeTT.
(i) 3x + 2y = 5 ; 2x – 3y = 7 (ii) 2x – 3y = 8 ; 4x – 6y = 9
3 5
(iii) x + y = 7; 9x – 10y = 14 (iv) 5x – 3y = 11 ; – 10x + 6y = –22
2 3
4
(v) x + 2y = 8 ; 2x + 3y = 12
3
4. ç¿ì+~ s¹ FjáT dMT¿£sD

Á ²\ ÈÔá\ýË @$ d+>·Ô\T/ @$ nd+>·Ô\T? d+>·ÔýÉqÕ #Ã y{ì kÍ<óq \qT ç>±|t
|<ÆÜ <Çs s³¼+&:
(i) x + y = 5, 2x + 2y = 10
(ii) x – y = 8, 3x – 3y = 16
(iii) 2x + y – 6 = 0, 4x – 2y – 4 = 0
(iv) 2x – 2y – 2 = 0, 4x – 4y – 5 = 0
5. yî&\TÎ ¿£H bõ&eÚ 4 MT³sÁT¢ mÅ£Øe ¿£*Ðq ÿ¿£ BsÁé #áÔáTsÁçkÍ¿±sÁ ÔÃ³ #áT³T¼¿=\ÔáýË d>·eTT 36 MT³sÁT¢
nsTTq, ÔÃ³ ¿=\Ôá\T ¿£qT>=qTeTT.
6. eÇ&q ¹sFjáT dMT¿£sÁDeTT 2x + 3y – 8 = 0, ÔÃ C²«$TrjáT+>± ç¿ì+~ wsÁÔáT\Å£ d]bþeÚ Âs+&e ÈÔá
s¹ FjáT dMT¿£sDÁ ²\ çyjáT+&.:
(i) K+&q ¹sK\T (ii) deÖ+ÔásÁ ¹sK\T
(iii) @¿¡uó$+#û s¹ K\T
7. x – y + 1 = 0 eT]jáTT 3x + 2y – 12 = 0. dMT¿£sÁD²\Å£ ç>±|ÚqT ^jáT+&. s¹ K\ÔÃ eT]jáTT x- n¿£+ÔÃ
@sÁÎ&q çÜuóTÈ osü\qT >·T]ï+#á+&. eT]jáTT çÜuóTC²¿±sÁ çbÍ+Ô w& #ûjáT+&.

3.3 Algebraic Methods of Solving a Pair of Linear Equations

In the previous section, we discussed how to solve a pair of linear equations graphically. The
graphical method is not convenient in cases when the point representing the solution of the
) , (–1.75, 3.3), æçè 13 , 19 ö÷ø , etc. There

4 1
linear equations has non-integral coordinates like ( 3, 2 7
is every possibility of making mistakes while reading such coordinates. Is there any alternative
method of finding the solution? There are several algebraic methods, which we shall now discuss.
3.3.1 Substitution Method : We shall explain the method of substitution by taking some
examples.
Example 4 : Solve the following pair of equations by substitution method:

7x – 15y = 2 (1)
x + 2y = 3 (2)
Solution :
Step 1 : We pick either of the equations and write one variable in terms of the other. Let us
consider the Equation (2) :
x + 2y = 3
and write it as x = 3 – 2y (3)
Step 2 : Substitute the value of x in Equation (1). We get
7(3 – 2y) – 15y = 2
i.e., 21 – 14y – 15y = 2
i.e., – 29y = –19
19
Therefore, y=
29
Step 3 : Substituting this value of y in Equation (3), we get
49
x = 3 – 2 æç ö÷ =
19
è 29 ø 29
49 19
Therefore, the solution is x = ,y= .
29 29

3.3 s¹ FjáT dMT¿£sDÁ ²\ ÈÔáÅ£ kÍ<óq ¿£qT>=q&¿ì ;È>·DÔì á |<ÔÆ áT\T

>·Ôá $uó²>·eTT q+<T ç>±|t |<ÆÜýË ¹sFjáT dMT¿£D²\qT kÍ~ó+#û $<óH #á]Ì+#áTÅ£HeTT. ¿±ú ¹sFjáT dMT¿£sÁD²\
kÍ<óq dÖº+#û _+<T sÁÖ|¿±\T ( 3 , 2 7 ) , (–1.75, 3.3), æçè 13 , 19 ö÷ø , ....... eýÉ |PsÁ d+K«\T ¿±q|ÚÎ&T ç>±|t
4 1
|<ÜÆ n+Ôá nqTÅ£L\yîTq® ~ ¿±<T. $<óy Tî q® _+<TeÚ\ sÁÖ|¿±\qT >·T]ï+#û³|ÚÎ&T Ôá|Ú Î È]¹> ne¿±Xæ\T #ý²
mÅ£Øe. eT] kÍ<óq ¿£qT>=q&¿ì @yîÕH ÔásÁ |<ÆÔáT\T HjáÖ? nHû¿£ ;È>·DìÔá |<ÆÔáT\T HsTT. y{ì
|ÚÎ&T #á]Ì+#áTÅ£+<+ :
3.3.1 ç|Ü¿¹ | D |<ÜÆ : ¿= <V²sÁD\qT rdT¿Ãe&+ <Çs ç|Ü¿¹ |D |<ÜÆ eTq+ |ÚÎ&T $e]+#áTÅ£+<+.
<V²sÁD 4 : ç¿ì+~ ¹sFjáT dMT¿£sÁD²\ ÈÔáqT ç|Ü¹¿|D |<ÆÜ <Çs kÍ~ó+#á+&:
7x – 15y = 2 (1)
x + 2y = 3 (2)
kÍ<óq :
kþbÍq+ 1 : @<îHÕ ÿ¿£ dMT¿£sDÁ ² rdT¿Ãy* eT]jáTT ÿ¿£ #ássÁ ¥ yûs=¿£ #ássÁ ¥ |<\ýË çyjáÖ*. (2)e
Á ² |]>·DýË¿ì rdTÅ£+<eTT:
dMT¿£sD
x + 2y = 3
eT]jáTT x = 3 – 2y >±
s<Ý+. (3)
kþbÍq+ 2 : x jîTT¿£Ø $\TeqT dMT¿£sÁD+ (1) ýË ç|Ü¹¿|¾+#*.
7(3 – 2y) – 15y = 2 bõ+<TÔeTT.
i.e., 21 – 14y – 15y = 2
i.e., – 29y = –19
19
n+<Te\q, y=
29
kþbÍq+ 3 : y $\TeqT dMT¿£sDÁ + (3) ýË ç|Ü¿¹ | +¾ #á>±,
49
x = 3 – 2 æç ö÷ =
19
29
bõ+<TÔeTT.
è 29 ø
49 19
n+<Te\q, ¿±e\d¾q kÍ<óq x = 29
,y=
29
.

49 19
Verification : Substituting x = and y = , you can verify that both the Equations (1) and
29 29
(2) are satisfied.
To understand the substitution method more clearly, let us consider it stepwise:
Step 1 : Find the value of one variable, say y in terms of the other variable, i.e., x from either
equation, whichever is convenient.
Step 2 : Substitute this value of y in the other equation, and reduce it to an equation in one
variable, i.e., in terms of x, which can be solved. Sometimes, as in Examples 9 and 10 below,
you can get statements with no variable. If this statement is true, you can conclude that the pair
of linear equations has infinitely many solutions. If the statement is false, then the pair of linear
equations is inconsistent.
Step 3 : Substitute the value of x (or y) obtained in Step 2 in the equation used in
Step 1 to obtain the value of the other variable.
Remark : We have substituted the value of one variable by expressing it in terms of the other
variable to solve the pair of linear equations. That is why the method is known as the substitution
method.
Example 5 : Solve the following question—Aftab tells his daughter, “Seven years ago, I was
seven times as old as you were then. Also, three years from now, I shall be three times as old as
you will be.” (Isn’t this interesting?) Represent this situation algebraically and graphically by
the method of substitution.
Solution : Let s and t be the ages (in years) of Aftab and his daughter, respectively. Then, the
pair of linear equations that represent the situation is
s – 7 = 7 (t – 7), i.e., s – 7t + 42 = 0 (1)
and s + 3 = 3 (t + 3), i.e., s – 3t = 6 (2)
Using Equation (2), we get s = 3t + 6.
Putting this value of s in Equation (1), we get
(3t + 6) – 7t + 42 = 0,
i.e., 4t = 48, which gives t = 12.
Putting this value of t in Equation (2), we get
s = 3 (12) + 6 = 42

49 19
d]#áÖ&&+ : x = 29
eT]já T T y=
29
, \qT Âs+&T dMT¿£sÁD²\T (1) eT]jáTT (2) \ýË ç|Ü¹¿|¾+º n$ d+Ôá|¾ï
|sTÁ kÍïjTá d] #áÖ&e#áTÌqT.
|<ÜÆ eT]+Ôá dÎw+¼ >± nsÁ+ #ûdT Å£Hû+<TÅ£, kþbÍH\y¯>± |]o*<Ý+:
ç|Ü¿¹ | D
kþbÍq+ 1 : @<Ã ÿ¿£ nqTÅ£L\yîTq® dMT¿£sDÁ eTTq+<T @<Ã ÿ¿£ #ássÁ ¥ $\TeqT yûs=¿£ #ássÁ ¥ |<\ýË
¿£qT>=qTeTT. #ássÁ ¥ y #ásÁs¥ x |<\ýË sjáÖ* nqTÅ£+<eTT.
kþbÍq+ 2 : #ássÁ ¥ y $\TeqT eTs=¿£ sÂ +&e dMT¿£sÁDeTTýË ç|Ü¿¹ | +¾ #*. eT]jáTT ÿ¿£ #ássÁ ¥ýË kÍ~ó+#û$<ó+ >±
dMT¿£sD Á ² dÖ¿¡ ¿£]+#*. nq>± x |<\ýË kÍ~ó+#û $<ó+>± ¿= ç¿ì+~ <V²sÁD\T 9, 10\ýË eýÉ
#ássÁ Xø\T ýñ ç|e#áH\T bõ+<TÔsÁT. ç|e#áq+ dÔ«á yîT®Ôû ¹sFjáT dMT¿£sÁD²\Å£ nq+Ôá kÍ<óq\T +{²jáT
MTsÁT |s=Øqe#áTÌqT. ç|e#áq+ ndÔ«á yîTÔ® û s¹ FjáT dMT¿£sDÁ ²\T nd+>·Ôeá TT.
kþbÍq+ 3 : Âs+&e #ásÁs¥ $\TeqT bõ+<&¿ì kþbÍq+ Âs+&TýË bõ+~q x ýñ< (y) $\TeqT kþbÍq+ (2) ýË
rdTÅ£q dMT¿£sÁDeTTýË ç|Ü¹¿|¾+#*.
>·eT¿£ : ¹sFjáT dMT¿£sÁD²\ ÈÔá\qT kÍ~ó+#û+<TÅ£ ÿ¿£ #ásÁs¥ $\TeqT eTs=¿£ #ásÁs¥ |<\ýË e«¿£ï|]º,
ç|Ü¿¹ | d¾ T Hï eTT. n+<Te\q |<ÜÆ ç|Ü¿¹ | D
|<ÜÆ n n+{²eTT.
<V²sÁD 5 : ~>·Te deTd«qT kÍ~ó+#á+&. nbÍïuÙ Ôáq Å£LÔáTsÁTÔÃ ý² #îbÍÎ&T: »»@&T d+eÔáàs\ ç¿ìÔá+ H
ejáTdTà n|Î{ì ú ejáTdTàÅ£ @&T Âs³T¢, ný²¹> |Î{ìqT+& eTÖ&T d+eÔáàs\ ÔásÇÔá H ejáTdTà ú ejáTdTàÅ£
eTÖ&T Âs³T¢ +³T+~µµ (~ d¿ìï¿£sÁ+>± ýñ<?) |]d¾ÔáT\qT ç|Ü¹¿|D |<ÆÜýË ;È>·DìÔá+ ç|¿±sÁ+ eT]jáTT
ç>±|¿¾ ý£ Ù>±qT e«¿£|ï s #Á +á &.
kÍ<óq : nbÍïuÙ eT]jáTT jáTq Å£LÔáTsÁT ejáTdT\qT s eT]jáTT t nqT¿=qTeTT. n|ÚÎ&T |Õ |]d¾ÔáT\qT e«¿£ï|]#û
dMT¿£sDÁ ²\T
s – 7 = 7 (t – 7), nq>±, s – 7t + 42 = 0 (1)
eT]jáTT s + 3 = 3 (t + 3), nq>±, s – 3t = 6 (2)
dMT¿£sÁDeTT (2) qT |jîÖÐ+º s = 3t + 6 bõ+<TÔ+.
dMT¿£sDÁ (1) ýË s $\TeqT ç|Ü¿¹ | +¾ #á>±
(3t + 6) – 7t + 42 = 0, bõ+<TÔ+. (edTï+~)
nq>±, 4t = 48, B qT+& t = 12 edT+ï ~.
t $\TeqT dMT¿£sD Á + (2) ýË ç|Ü¿¹ | +¾ #á>±
s = 3 (12) + 6 = 42 edT+ï ~.

So, Aftab and his daughter are 42 and 12 years old, respectively.
Verify this answer by checking if it satisfies the conditions of the given problems.
Example 6 : In a shop the cost of 2 pencils and 3 erasers is `9 and the cost of 4 pencils and 6
erasers is `18. Find the cost of each pencil and each eraser.
Solution : The pair of linear equations formed were:
2x + 3y = 9 (1)
4x + 6y = 18 (2)
We first express the value of x in terms of y from the equation 2x + 3y = 9, to get
9 - 3y
x= (3)
2
Now we substitute this value of x in Equation (2), to get
4(9 - 3 y )
+ 6y = 18
2
i.e., 18 – 6y + 6y = 18
i.e., 18 = 18
This statement is true for all values of y. However, we do not get a specific value of y
as a solution. Therefore, we cannot obtain a specific value of x. This situation has arisen
because both the given equations are the same. Therefore, Equations (1) and (2) have
infinitely many solutions. We cannot find a unique cost of a pencil and an eraser, because
there are many common solutions, to the given situation.
Example 7 : Two rails are represented by the equations
x + 2y – 4 = 0 and 2x + 4y – 12 = 0. Will the rails cross each other?
Solution : The pair of linear equations formed were:
x + 2y – 4 = 0 (1)
2x + 4y – 12 = 0 (2)
We express x in terms of y from Equation (1) to get
x = 4 – 2y
Now, we substitute this value of x in Equation (2) to get
2(4 – 2y) + 4y – 12 = 0

¿±{ì¼, nbÍïuÙ eT]jáTT nÔá Å£LÔáTsÁT ejáTdTà\T esÁTd>± 42 eT]jáTT 12 d+eÔáàs\T.

deTd«ýË eÇ&q +<óq \qT d+Ôá|¾ï |sTÁ dTHï jáÖ ýñ<Ã MTÅ£ eºÌq deÖ<óqeTTÔÃ d] #áÖ&+&.
<V²sÁD 6 : ÿ¿£ <T¿±D+ýË 2 |àÞøß eT]jáTT 3 sÁÒsÁ¢ $\Te `9 eT]jáTT 4 |àÞøß eT]jáTT 6 sÁÒsÁ¢ $\Te
`18. nsTTq ÿ¿=Ø¿£Ø |àýÙ eT]jáTT ÿ¿=Ø¿£Ø sÁÒsY $\TeqT ¿£qT>=qTeTT.
kÍ<óq : @sÁÎ&û ¹sFjáT dMT¿£sÁD²\ ÈÔá:
2x + 3y = 9 (1)
4x + 6y = 18 (2)
yîTT<³>± eTqeTT 2x + 3y = 9 dMT¿£sÁD+ qT+& x jîTT¿£Ø $\TeqT y |<\ýË e«¿£|ï s #Á >á ±,
9 - 3y
x= bõ+<TÔeTT. (3)
2
|ÚÎ&T x $\TeqT dMT¿£sÁD+ (2) ýË ç|Ü¹¿|¾+#áT<+

4(9 - 3 y )
+ 6y = 18
2
i.e., 18 – 6y + 6y = 18
i.e., 18 = 18
ç|¿£³q n y $\Te\Å£ dÔá«+ neÚÔáT+~. nsTTÔû kÍ<óq>± y ¿ì ÿ¿£ ]Ýwy¼ Tî q® $\TeqT bõ+<ýeñ TT.
n+<Te\q x ¿ì Å£L& ÿ¿£ ]Ýwy¼ Tî q® $\TeqT ¿£qT>=qýñeTT. sÂ +&T dMT¿£sD
Á ²\T ÿ¿£fñ ne&+ e\q |]d¾Ü
@sÁÎ&+~. n+<Te\q (1) eT]jáTT (2) dMT¿£sÁD²\Å£ nq+ÔáyTî q® kÍ<óq\T +{²sTT. ÿ¿£ |àýÙ eT]jáTT ÿ¿£ sÁÒsÁT
$\TeÅ£ @Â¿Õ¿£ $\TeqT ¿£qT>=qýñeTT. m+<T¿£q>± eÇ&q |]d¾ÔáT\Å£ nq+ÔáyîT®q eT& kÍ<óq\T ¿£\eÚ.
<V²sÁD 7 : Âs+&T |{²¼\T x + 2y – 4 = 0 eT]jáTT 2x + 4y – 12 = 0 \#û çbÍÜ<ó« + #ûjTá &¦sTT.
|{²¼\T ÿ¿£<¿=¿£{ì ¿£\TkÍïjÖá ?
kÍ<óq : @sÁÎ&û ¹sFjáT dMT¿£sÁD²\ ÈÔá:
x + 2y – 4 = 0 (1)
2x + 4y – 12 = 0 (2)
dMT¿£sÁD (1) qT+& x $\TeqT y ýË e«¿£|ï s #Á >á ±
x = 4 – 2y
|ÚÎ&T x $\TeqT dMT¿£sD
Á + (2) ýË ç|Ü¿¹ | +¾ #á>±
2(4 – 2y) + 4y – 12 = 0

i.e., 8 – 12 = 0
i.e., –4=0
which is a false statement.
Therefore, the equations do not have a common solution. So, the two rails will not cross each
other.
EXERCISE 3.2
1. Solve the following pair of linear equations by the substitution method.
(i) x + y = 14 (ii) s – t = 3
s t
x–y=4 + =6
3 2
(iii) 3x – y = 3 (iv) 0.2x + 0.3y = 1.3
9x – 3y = 9 0.4x + 0.5y = 2.3
3x 5 y
(v) 2 x+ 3 y= 0 (vi) - = -2
2 3
x y 13
3x - 8 y = 0 + =
3 2 6
2. Solve 2x + 3y = 11 and 2x – 4y = – 24 and hence find the value of ‘m’ for which
y = mx + 3.
3. Form the pair of linear equations for the following problems and find their solution by
substitution method.
(i) The difference between two numbers is 26 and one number is three times the other.
Find them.
(ii) The larger of two supplementary angles exceeds the smaller by 18 degrees. Find them.
(iii) The coach of a cricket team buys 7 bats and 6 balls for ` 3800. Later, she buys 3 bats
and 5 balls for ` 1750. Find the cost of each bat and each ball.
(iv) The taxi charges in a city consist of a fixed charge together with the charge for the
distance covered. For a distance of 10 km, the charge paid is ` 105 and for a journey
of 15 km, the charge paid is ` 155. What are the fixed charges and the charge per km?
How much does a person have to pay for travelling a distance of 25 km?
(v) A fraction becomes 9 , if 2 is added to both the numerator and the denominator. If,
11
3 is added to both the numerator and the denominator it becomes 5 . Find the fraction.
6

i.e., 8 – 12 = 0
i.e., –4=0
~ ndÔ«á |Ú ç|e#áq+
n+<Te\q, dMT¿£sD Á ²\Å£ eT& kÍ<óq ýñ<T . ¿±{ì,¼ sÂ +&T |{²¼\T ÿ¿£<¿=¿£{ì ¿£\eeÚ.
nuó²«d+ 3.2
1. ç¿ì+< ºÌq ¹sFjáT dMT¿£sÁD²\ ÈÔá\qT ç|Ü¹¿|D |<ÆÜ <Çs kÍ~ó+#á+&.
(i) x + y = 14 (ii) s – t = 3
s t
x–y=4 + =6
3 2
(iii) 3x – y = 3 (iv) 0.2x + 0.3y = 1.3
9x – 3y = 9 0.4x + 0.5y = 2.3
3x 5 y
(v) 2 x+ 3 y= 0 (vi) - = -2
2 3
x y 13
3x - 8 y = 0 + =
3 2 6
2. 2x + 3y = 11 eT]jáTT 2x – 4y = – 24 \qT kÍ~ó+#á+& eT]jáTT y = mx + 3 njûT« $<ó+ >± ‘m’ $\TeqT
¿£qT>=qTeTT.
3. ~>·Te eÇ&q deTd«\Å£ ¹sFjáT dMT¿£sÁD²\ ÈÔá\qT ÔájáÖsÁT #ûjáT+&. eT]jáTT y{ì kÍ<óq\qT ç|Ü¹¿|D
|<ÜÆ <Çs ¿£qT>=q+&.
(i) sÂ +&T d+K«\ eT<ó« uó< ñ e TT 26 eT]jáTT ÿ¿£ d+K« eTs=¿£ d+K«Å£ eTÖ&T sÂ ³T¢ nsTTq d+K«\qT
¿£qT>=qTeTT.
(ii) Âs+&T d+|PsÁ¿£ ¿ÃD²\ýË |<¿Ý ÃDeTT, ºq¿ÃDeTT ¿£H 18+ mÅ£Øe. nsTTq ¿ÃD²\qT ¿£qT>=q+&.
(iii) ç¿ìÂ¿{Ù {¡+ ¿Ã#Y (¥¿£Å£ s\T) 7 u²«³T¢ eT]jáTT 6 +ÔáT\qT ` 3,800Å£ ¿=q~. yîT ÔásTÁ yÔá 3 u²«³T¢
eT]jáTT 5 +ÔáT\qT ` 1,750 Å£ ¿=q~. ç|Ü u²«{Ù eT]jáTT ç|Ü +Ü yî\qT ¿£qT>=q+&.
(iv) ÿ¿£ q>·s+Á ýË {²¿¡à #¯¨\T d¾s Á #¯¨ÔÃ bÍ³T>± ç|jáÖD+ #ûdq ¾ <ÖsÁeTTqÅ£ #¯¨\T edÖ\T #ûkÍïsTÁ .
10 ¿ìýËMT³sÁ¢ <ÖsÁ+qÅ£ #î*¢+ºq #¯¨ `105 eT]jáTT 15 ¿ìýËMT³sÁ¢ <ÖsÁ+ esÁÅ£ #î*¢+ºq #¯¨
`155. d¾sÁ #¯¨ $\Te eT]jáTT ÿ¿£ ¿ìýËMT³sYÅ£ njûT« #¯¨ $\Te m+Ôá? ÿ¿£ e«¿ìï 25 ¿ìýËMT³sÁT¢
ç|jáÖDì+ºq nÔáqT #î*¢+#áe\d¾q yîTTÔáï+ m+Ôá?
9
(v) ÿ¿£ _óqeTTýË \eeTT eT]jáTT VäsÁeTT\T Âs+&+{ì¿ì 2qT ¿£*|¾q _óqeTT , neÚÔáT+~. \eeTT
11
5
eT]jáTT VäsÁeTT\Å£ 3qT ¿£*|¾q _óqeTT neÚÔáT+~. nsTTq _óH ¿£qT>=q+&.
6

(vi) Five years hence, the age of Jacob will be three times that of his son. Five years ago,
Jacob’s age was seven times that of his son. What are their present ages?
3.3.2 Elimination Method
Now let us consider another method of eliminating (i.e., removing) one variable. This is
sometimes more convenient than the substitution method. Let us see how this method works.
Example 8 : The ratio of incomes of two persons is 9 : 7 and the ratio of their expenditures is
4 : 3. If each of them manages to save ` 2000 per month, find their monthly incomes.
Solution : Let us denote the incomes of the two person by ` 9x and ` 7x and their expenditures
by ` 4y and ` 3y respectively. Then the equations formed in the situation is given by :
9x – 4y = 2000 (1)
and 7x – 3y = 2000 (2)
Step 1 : Multiply Equation (1) by 3 and Equation (2) by 4 to make the coefficients of y equal.
Then we get the equations:
27x – 12y = 6000 (3)
28x – 12y = 8000 (4)
Step 2 : Subtract Equation (3) from Equation (4) to eliminate y, because the coefficients of y
are the same. So, we get
(28x – 27x) – (12y – 12y) = 8000 – 6000
i.e., x = 2000
Step 3 : Substituting this value of x in (1), we get
9(2000) – 4y = 2000
i.e., y = 4000
So, the solution of the equations is x = 2000, y = 4000. Therefore, the monthly incomes of the
persons are ` 18,000 and ` 14,000, respectively.
Verification : 18000 : 14000 = 9 : 7. Also, the ratio of their expenditures = 18000 – 2000 :
14000 – 2000 = 16000 : 12000 = 4 : 3
Remarks :
1. The method used in solving the example above is called the elimination method,
because we eliminate one variable first, to get a linear equation in one variable.

(vi) |Î{ìqT+& ×<T d+eÔáàsÁeTT\ ÔásÇÔá C²¿£uÙ nÔá Å£eÖsÁT ejáTdTqÅ£ eTÖ&T sÂ ³T¢. ×<T d+eÔáàsÁeTT\
ç¿ìÔeá TT C²¿£uÙ ejáTdTà nÔá Å£eÖsÁT ejáTdTàqÅ£ 7 sÂ ³T¢ nsTTq y] ejáTdTà\T m+Ôî+Ôá?
3.3.2 #ássÁ ¥ Ô=\Ð+#áT |<ÜÆ
|ÚÎ&T eTqeTT ÿ¿£ #ássÁ ¥ Ô=\Ð+º eTs=¿£ #ássÁ ¥ bõ+<û |<ÜÆ |]o*<Ý+. ~ ¿= d+<sÒÛ\ýË ç|Ü¿¹ | D

|<ÆÜ ¿£+fñ eT]+Ôá kå¿£sÁ«e+ÔáyîT®q~ (|<ÆÜ). |<ÆÜ @ $<ó+>± |#ûdTï+<Ã #áÖ<Ý+:
<V²sÁD 8 : <sÝ TÁ e«Å£\ï <jáÖ\ wÎÜï 9:7 eT]jáTT y] KsÁTÌ\ wÎÜï 4 : 3. ysÁT ç|Ü ÿ¿£ØsÁÖ Hî\Å£
` 2000 kõeTT < #ûdq¾ y] Hî\y] <jáÖ\qT ¿£qT>=q+&.
kÍ<óq : <sÝ TÁ e«Å£\ï <jáÖ\qT esÁTd>± ` 9x eT]jáTT ` 7x nqT¿=qTeTT. y] e«jáÖ\ wÎÜï ` 4y
eT]jáTT ` 3y nqT¿=qTeTT. n|ÚÎ&T |Õ +<óq\ÔÃ @sÁÎ&û dMT¿£sÁD²\T :
9x – 4y = 2000 (1)
eT]jáTT 7x – 3y = 2000 (2)
kþbÍq+ 1 : y jîTT¿£Ø >·TD¿±\T deÖqeTT #ûjTá T³Å£ dMT¿£sDÁ (1) 3 #ûÔá eT]jáTT dMT¿£sDÁ + (2) 4 #ûÔá
>·TDì+#á+&. n|ÚÎ&T:
27x – 12y = 6000 (3)
28x – 12y = 8000 (4)
kþbÍq+ 2 : y >·TD¿±\T deÖq+ ¿£qT¿£ y qT Ô=\Ð+#áT³Å£ dMT¿£sÁD+ (4) qT+& dMT¿£sÁDeTT (3) qT rd¾yj
û áÖ*.
n|ð&T
(28x – 27x) – (12y – 12y) = 8000 – 6000
nq>±, x = 2000
kþbÍq+ 3 : x $\TeqT dMT¿£sDÁ + (1)ýË ç|Ü¿¹ | +¾ #á>±
9(2000) – 4y = 2000
nq>±, y = 4000
Á ²\ kÍ<óq x = 2000, y = 4000.
¿±eÚq dMT¿£sD
\ e«Å£\
ï Hî\y] <jáÖ\T esÁTd>± `18,000 eT]jáTT ` 14000.
d]#áÖ#áT³ : 18000 : 14000 = 9 : 7. ný²¹> y] e«jáÖ\ wÎÜï = 18000 – 2000 : 14000 – 2000 =
16000 : 12000 = 4 : 3
dÖ#áq\T :
1. |Õ <V²sÁDqT kÍ~ó+#áT³Å£ eTq+ |jîÖÐ+ºq |<ÜÆ »»#ásÁs¥ Ô=\Ð+#áT |<ÆÜµµ n+{²sÁT. m+<T¿£q>±
ÿ¿£ #ássÁ ¥ýË s¹ FjáT dMT¿£sD
Á ² bõ+<&¿ì eTqeTT yîTT<³ ÿ¿£ #ássÁ ¥ Ô=\ÐdTHï eTT.

In the example above, we eliminated y. We could also have eliminated x. Try doing it that
way.
2. You could also have used the substitution, or graphical method, to solve this problem. Try
doing so, and see which method is more convenient.
Let us now note down these steps in the elimination method :
Step 1 : First multiply both the equations by some suitable non-zero constants to make the
coefficients of one variable (either x or y) numerically equal.
Step 2 : Then add or subtract one equation from the other so that one variable gets eliminated.
If you get an equation in one variable, go to Step 3.
If in Step 2, we obtain a true statement involving no variable, then the original pair of
equations has infinitely many solutions.
If in Step 2, we obtain a false statement involving no variable, then the original pair of
equations has no solution, i.e., it is inconsistent.
Step 3 : Solve the equation in one variable (x or y) so obtained to get its value.
Step 4 : Substitute this value of x (or y) in either of the original equations to get the value of the
other variable.
Now to illustrate it, we shall solve few more examples.
Example 9 : Use elimination method to find all possible solutions of the following pair of
linear equations :
2x + 3y = 8 (1)
4x + 6y = 7 (2)
Solution :
Step 1 : Multiply Equation (1) by 2 and Equation (2) by 1 to make the
coefficients of x equal. Then we get the equations as :
4x + 6y = 16 (3)
4x + 6y = 7 (4)
Step 2 : Subtracting Equation (4) from Equation (3),
(4x – 4x) + (6y – 6y) = 16 – 7
i.e., 0 = 9, which is a false statement.
Therefore, the pair of equations has no solution.
Example 10 : The sum of a two-digit number and the number obtained by reversing the digits is
66. If the digits of the number differ by 2, find the number. How many such numbers are there?

|Õ <V²sÁD jáT+<T eTqeTT y Ô=\ÐdTïHeTT eTqeTT x Å£L& Ô=\Ð+#áe#áTÌ . MTsÁT $<ó+ >±
ç|jTá Ôá+ #ûjáT+&.
2. deTd«qT kÍ~ó+#áT³Å£ MTsÁT ç|Ü¿¹ | D
|<ÜÆ ýñ< ç>±|t |<ÜÆ Å£L& |jÖî Ð+#áe#áTÌqT $<ó+ >±
ç|jáTÜ+#á+& eT]jáTT @ |<ÆÜ mÅ£Øe nqTÅ£L\yîT®q~>± +³T+<Ã #áÖ&+&.
|ÚÎ&T Ô=\Ð+#áT |<ÜÆ ýË kþbÍH\qT >·eT<Ý+:
kþbÍq+ 1 : yîTT<³ sÂ +&T dMT¿£sDÁ ²\ýË ÿ¿£ #ássÁ ¥ x ýñ< y >·TD¿±\T d+U²«|s+Á >± deÖq+ n>·Tq³T¢
Âs+&T dMT¿£sÁD²\qT dÂsÕq XøSHû«ÔásÁ ydïe d+K«\ÔÃ >·TDì+#á+&.
kþbÍq+ 2 : |ÚÎ&T ÿ¿£ #ássÁ ¥ Ô=\Ð+#û $<ó+ >±, ÿ¿£ dMT¿£sDÁ ²¿ì eTs=¿£ dMT¿£sDÁ ² Å£L&&Á + ýñ<
rd¾yûjáT&+ <Çs #ûjáÖ*. ÿ¿£ #ásÁs¥ýË dMT¿£sÁD+ eºÌq m&\ kþbÍq+ 3 qÅ£ yîÞ²¢*.
kþbÍq+ 2 q+<T @ #ásÁs¥ ýñjîT&\, ÿ¿£ dÔá« y¿£«eTT eºÌqjîT&\, nd\T dMT¿£sÁD²\ ÈÔáÅ£ nq+ÔáyîT®q
kÍ<óq\T +{²sTT.
kþbÍq+ 2 q+<T @ #ásÁs¥ ýñ ndÔá« y¿£«eTT (ç|e#áq+) eºÌqjîT&\ nd\T dMT¿£sÁD²\ ÈÔáÅ£ kÍ<óq
+&<T. nq>±, n$ nd+>·ÔáeTT.
kþbÍq+ 3 : #ásÁs¥ (x ýñ< y ) $\TeqT bõ+<T³Å£ ÿ¿£ #ásÁs¥ dMT¿£sÁD²\qT kÍ~ó+#á+&.
kþbÍq+ 4 : eTqÅ£ eºÌq x (ýñ< y) $\TeqT ydeï dMT¿£sDÁ ²\ýË ç|Ü¿¹ | +¾ ºq eTs=¿£ #ássÁ ¥ $\TeqT
bõ+<TÔeTT.
|ÚÎ&T $esÁDqT sÁTEeÚ #ûjáTT³Å£ eTqeTT ¿= <V²sÁD\qT kÍ~ó<Ý+.
<V²sÁD 9 : ~>·Te ¹sFjáT dMT¿£sÁD²\ ÈÔá\Å£ kÍ<ó«eTjûT« n kÍ<óq\T ¿£qT>=qT³Å£, Ô=\Ð+#áT |<ÆÜ
|jÖî Ð+#á+&:
2x + 3y = 8 (1)
4x + 6y = 7 (2)
kÍ<óq :
kþbÍq+ 1 : x >·TD¿±\T deÖq+ n>·Tq³T¢ dMT¿£sDÁ + (1) 2 #û eT]jáTT dMT¿£sDÁ + (2) 1 #û >·TDì+#á+&.
n|Ú&T:
4x + 6y = 16 (3)
4x + 6y = 7 (4)
kþbÍq+ 2 : dMT¿£sÁD+ (4) qT dMT¿£sÁD+ (3) qT+& rd¾yûjáT>±,
(4x – 4x) + (6y – 6y) = 16 – 7
i.e., 0 = 9, ndÔ«á |Ú y¿£«+.
¿±eÚq dMT¿£sÁD²\ ÈÔáÅ£ kÍ<óq ýñ<T.
<V²sÁD 10 : ÿ¿£ sÂ +&T n+Â¿\ d+K« eT]jáTT <ýË kÍH\qT ÔsÁTeÖsÁT #ûjTá >± eºÌq d+K«\ yîTTÔáeï TT
66. d+K«ýË Âs+&T n+Â¿\ uóñ<eTT 2 nsTTq d+K«qT ¿£qT>=qTeTT. n³Te+{ì d+K«\T m +{²sTT?

Solution : Let the ten’s and the unit’s digits in the first number be x and y, respectively. So, the
first number may be written as 10 x + y in the expanded form (for example,
56 = 10(5) + 6).
When the digits are reversed, x becomes the unit’s digit and y becomes the ten’s digit. This
number, in the expanded notation is 10y + x (for example, when 56 is reversed, we get 65 =
10(6) + 5).
According to the given condition.
(10x + y) + (10y + x) = 66
i.e., 11(x + y) = 66
i.e., x+y= 6 (1)
We are also given that the digits differ by 2, therefore,
either x–y= 2 (2)
or y–x= 2 (3)
If x – y = 2, then solving (1) and (2) by elimination, we get x = 4 and y = 2.
In this case, we get the number 42.
If y – x = 2, then solving (1) and (3) by elimination, we get x = 2 and y = 4.
In this case, we get the number 24.
Thus, there are two such numbers 42 and 24.
Verification : Here 42 + 24 = 66 and 4 – 2 = 2. Also 24 + 42 = 66 and 4 – 2 = 2.
EXERCISE 3.3
1. Solve the following pair of linear equations by the elimination method and the substitution
method :
(i) x + y = 5 and 2x – 3y = 4 (ii) 3x + 4y = 10 and 2x – 2y = 2
x 2y y
(iii) 3x – 5y – 4 = 0 and 9x = 2y + 7(iv) + = - 1 and x - = 3
2 3 3
2. Form the pair of linear equations in the following problems, and find their solutions
(if they exist) by the elimination method :
(i) If we add 1 to the numerator and subtract 1 from the denominator, a fraction reduces to
1
1. It becomes if we only add 1 to the denominator. What is the fraction?
2
(ii) Five years ago, Nuri was thrice as old as Sonu. Ten years later, Nuri will be twice as
old as Sonu. How old are Nuri and Sonu?
(iii) The sum of the digits of a two-digit number is 9. Also, nine times this number is twice
the number obtained by reversing the order of the digits. Find the number.

kÍ<óq : yîTT<{ì d+K«ýË |<T\ kÍq+ eT]jáTT ÿ¿£³¢ kÍq+ýË n+Â¿\qT esÁTd>± x eT]jáTT y nqT¿=qTeTT.
¿±{ì¼ yîTT<{ì d+K«qT 10 x + y n $dïÔá sÁÖ|+ýË sjáTe#áTÌqT. (<V²sÁDÅ£ 56 = 10(5) + 6).
n+Â¿\qT ÔsÁTeÖsÁT #ûjTá >±, ÿ¿£³¢ kÍq+ýË x eT]jáTT |<T\ kÍq+ýË y ekÍïsTT. n|ÚÎ&T d+K« $dïÔá
sÁÖ|+ýË 10y + x edTï+~. (<V²sÁDÅ£ 56 ýË n+Â¿\qT ÔsÁTeÖsÁT #ûjáT>±, 65 = 10(6) + 5).
eÇ&q +<óq \ yûTsÁÅ£ jáTeTeTT yûTsÁÅ£
(10x + y) + (10y + x) = 66
i.e., 11(x + y) = 66
i.e., x+y= 6 (1)
eTqÅ£ sÂ +&T n+Â¿\ uó<ñ e TT 2 n eÇ&+~. ¿±eÚq,
x – y = 2 ¿±ú (2)
ýñ< y – x = 2 n>·TqT. (3)
x – y = 2, nsTTq (1) eT]jáTT (2) \qT Ô=\Ð+#áT |<ÆÜýË kÍ~ó+#á>± x = 4 eT]jáTT y = 2 neÚÔsTT.
d+<sÁÒÛ+ýË d+K« 42 neÚÔáT+~.
y – x = 2, nsTTq (1) eT]jáTT (3) \qT Ô=\Ð+#áT |<ÆÜýË kÍ~ó+#á>± x = 2 eT]jáTT y = 4 neÚÔsTT.
d+<sÁÒÛ+ýË d+K« 24 neÚÔáT+~.
$<ó+>± 42 eT]jáTT 24 nHû Âs+&T d+K«\T ¿£\eÚ.
d]#áÖ#áT³ : +<T 42 + 24 = 66 eT]jáTT 4 – 2 = 2. +¿± 24 + 42 = 66 eT]jáTT 4 – 2 = 2.
nuó²«d+ 3.3
1. ç¿ì+~ ¹sFjáT dMT¿£sÁD²\ ÈÔá\qT Ô=\Ð+#áT |<ÆÜ eT]jáTT ç|Ü¹¿|D |<ÆÜ <Çs kÍ~ó+#á+&:
(i) x + y = 5 eT]jáTT 2x – 3y = 4 (ii) 3x + 4y = 10 eT]jáTT 2x – 2y = 2
x 2y y
(iii) 3x – 5y – 4 = 0 eT]jáTT 9x = 2y + 7 (iv) + = - 1 eT]jáTT x - = 3
2 3 3
2. ç¿ì+~ deTd«\Å£ s¹ FjáT dMT¿£sÁD²\ ÈÔá\qT ÔájáÖsÁT #ûjáT+& eT]jáTT (kÍ<ó«yîT®q#Ã) Ô=\Ð+#áT |<ÜÆ <Çs
y{ì kÍ<óq\qT ¿£qT>=qTeTT :
(i) ÿ¿£ _óqeTTýË \eeTTqÅ£ 1 ¿£*|¾ eT]jáTT VäsÁeTT qT+& 1 rd¾yd û q¾ _óqeTT 1 neÚÔáT+~.
VäsÁeTTqÅ£ eÖçÔáyTû 1 ¿£*|¾q _óqeTT 12 neÚÔáT+~. nsTTq, _óqeTT @~?
(ii) ×<T d+eÔáàsÁeTT\ ç¿ìÔá+ qÖ] ejáTdTà kþqT ejáTdTàqÅ£ eTÖ&T Âs³T¢. |Î{ìqT+& 10 d+eÔáàsÁeTT\
ÔásÁTyÔá qÖ] ejáTdTà kþqT ejáTdTàqÅ£ Âs+&T Âs³T¢ +³T+~. qÖ] eT]jáTT kþqT\ ejáTdTà\T
m+Ôî+Ôá?
(iii) Âs+&+Â¿\ d+K«ýË n+Â¿\ yîTTÔáï+ 9, n<û $<ó+>± d+K«Å£ 9 Âs³T¢, d+K«ýË n+Â¿\qT
ÔsÁTeÖsÁT #ûjáT>± @sÁÎ&q d+K«Å£ Âs+&T Âs³T¢ +³T+~. nsTTq d+K«qT ¿£qT>=qTeTT.

(iv) Meena went to a bank to withdraw ` 2000. She asked the cashier to give her
` 50 and ` 100 notes only. Meena got 25 notes in all. Find how many notes of
` 50 and ` 100 she received.
(v) A lending library has a fixed charge for the first three days and an additional charge
for each day thereafter. Saritha paid ` 27 for a book kept for seven days, while Susy
paid ` 21 for the book she kept for five days. Find the fixed charge and the charge for
each extra day.
3.4 Summary
1. A pair of linear equations in two variables can be represented, and solved, by the:
(i) graphical method
(ii) algebraic method
2. Graphical Method :
The graph of a pair of linear equations in two variables is represented by two lines.
(i) If the lines intersect at a point, then that point gives the unique solution of the two
equations. In this case, the pair of equations is consistent.
(ii) If the lines coincide, then there are infinitely many solutions — each point on the
line being a solution. In this case, the pair of equations is dependent (consistent).
(iii) If the lines are parallel, then the pair of equations has no solution. In this case, the
pair of equations is inconsistent.
3. Algebraic Methods : We have discussed the following methods for finding the solution(s)
of a pair of linear equations :
(i) Substitution Method
(ii) Elimination Method
4. If a pair of linear equations is given by a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 and a2x + b2y + c2 = 0, then the
following situations can arise :
a1 b1
(i) ¹ : In this case, the pair of linear equations is consistent.
a2 b1
a1 b1 c1
(ii) = ¹ : In this case, the pair of linear equations is inconsistent.
a2 b2 c2
a1 b1 c1
(iii) = = : In this case, the pair of linear equations is dependent and consistent.
a2 b2 c2
5. There are several situations which can be mathematically represented by two equations
that are not linear to start with. But we alter them so that they are reduced to a pair of
linear equations.

(iv) MTH u²«+Å£ qT+& ` 2000 rdT¿=qT³Å£ yî[ßq~. yîT ¿±«w¾jáTsYqT ` 50, eT]jáTT ` 100 HÃ³T¢
eÖçÔáyTû eÇeT ¿Ã]q~. yîTTÔá+ï yîTÅ£ 25 HÃ³T¢ eºÌq$. yîT m ` 50 HÃ³T¢ eT]jáTT m ` 100
HÃ³T¢ rdT¿=q<Ã ¿£qT>=qTeTT.
(v) |Údï¿±\T n<îÝÅ£ #ûÌ ýÉH&+>´ ýÉÕç¯ yîTT<{ì eTÖ&T sÃE\Å£ d¾s Á#¯¨ eT]jáTT ÔásÁTyÔá ç|Ü sÃEÅ£
n<q|Ú #¯¨ edÖ\T #ûkÍïsÁT. d]Ôá ÿ¿£ |Údï¿±¿ì 7 sÃE\T +#áTÅ£q+<TÅ£ ` 27 #î*¢+ºq~. n<û
|Údï¿ ±¿ì ×<T sÃE\T +#áTÅ£q+<TÅ£ ` 21 #î*+¢ ºq~. nsTTq d¾s Á#]¨ eT]jáTT ÿ¿ÃØ sÃEÅ£ n<q|Ú
#¯¨ ¿£qT>=qTeTT.
3.4 kÍs+Xø+
n<ó«jáTeTT q+<T ç¿ì+~ $wjáÖ\T MTsÁT HûsÁTÌÅ£HsÁT:
1. Âs+&T #ásÁsXø\ýË ÿ¿£ ÈÔá ¹sFjáT dMT¿£sÁD²\qT:
(i) ç>±|t |<Ü Æ
(ii) ;óÈ>·DÔ ì á |<ÜÆ
2. ç>±|t |<ÜÆ :
Âs+&T #ásÁsXø\ýË Âs+&T ¹sK\qT çbÍÜ<ó« + #ûd ÿ¿£ ÈÔá ¹sFjáT dMT¿£sÁD²\ ç>±|t\T.
(i) Âs+&T dsÁÞsø¹ K\T ÿ¿£ _+<TeÚ e<Ý K+&+#áTÅ£+fñ y{ì¿ì ÿ¹¿ÿ¿£ kÍ<óq +³T+~. _+<TeÚ sÂ +&T
dMT¿£sÁD²\Å£ ÿ¹¿ ÿ¿£ kÍ<óqqT dTï+~. d+<sÁÒÛ+ýË, dMT¿£sÁD²\ ÈÔá d+>·ÔáeTT.
(ii) ¹sK\T @¿¡uó$dï, n|ÚÎ&T nq+ÔáyîT®q kÍ<óq\T +{²sTT. ¹sK |Õq q ç|Ü_+<TeÚ kÍ<óq\T
neÚÔsTT. d+<sÁÒÛ+ýË, dMT¿£sÁD²\ ÈÔá |sÁdÎs<ó]ÔáeTT (d+>·ÔáeTT).
(iii) Âs+&T ¹sK\T deÖ+Ôás\T nsTTq, dMT¿£sÁD²\ ÈÔáÅ£ kÍ<óq ýñ<T. d+<sÁÒÛ+ýË, dMT¿£sD
Á ²\ ÈÔá
nd+>·Ôeá TT.
3. ;C>·DìÔá |<ÆÜ : ¹sFjáT dMT¿£sÁD²\ ÈÔáÅ£ kÍ<óq\T ¿£qT>=q&¿ì, eTq+ ç¿ì+~ |<ÆÔáT\qT #á]Ì+#eTT. :
(i) ç|Ü¿¹ | D |<ÜÆ
(ii) Ô=\Ð+#áT |<Ü Æ
4. ÿ¿£ ÈÔá ¹sFjáT dMT¿£sÁD²\T a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 eT]jáTT a2x + b2y + c2 = 0, nsTTq ç¿ì+~ eÇ&q
|]d¾ÔTá \T ÔáýÉÔáTïÔsTT. :
a1 b1
(i) ¹ : nsTTq d+<sÁÒÛ+ýË, ¹sFjáT dMT¿£sÁD²\ ÈÔá d+>·ÔáeTT.
a2 b1
a1 b1 c1
(ii) = ¹ : nsTTq d+<sÁÒÛ+ýË, ¹sFjáT dMT¿£sÁD²\ ÈÔá nd+>·ÔáeTT.
a2 b2 c2
a1 b1 c1
(iii) = = : nsTTq d+<sÁÒ+Û ýË, s¹ FjáT dMT¿£sÁD²\ ÈÔá |sd
Á Î sÁ <ó]ÔáeTT eT]jáTT d+>·Ôeá TT.
a2 b2 c2
5. nHû¿£ d+<sÒÛ\ýË >·DìÔá >·TsÁTï\ÔÃ Âs+&T dMT¿£sÁD²\T sd¾q|ÚÎ&T, n$ çbÍsÁ+uó+ýË ¹sFjáT dMT¿£sÁD²\T>±
+&eÚ. ¿±, y{ì dÂsÕq ç|Ü¹¿|q #ûjáT&+ <Çs ¹sFjáT dMT¿£sÁD²\ ÈÔá\T>± eÖsÁÌe#áTÌqT.

76 QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
QUADRATIC EQUATIONS 4
4.1 Introduction
In Chapter 2, you have studied different types of polynomials. One type was the quadratic
polynomial of the form ax2 + bx + c, a ¹ 0. When we equate this polynomial to zero, we get a
quadratic equation. Quadratic equations come up when we deal with many real-life situations.
For instance, suppose a charity trust decides to build
a prayer hall having a carpet area of 300 square
metres with its length one metre more than twice
its breadth. What should be the length and breadth
of the hall? Suppose the breadth of the hall is x
metres. Then, its length should be (2x + 1) metres.
We can depict this information pictorially as shown Fig. 4.1
in Fig. 4.1.
Now, area of the hall = (2x + 1). x m2 = (2x2 + x) m2
So, 2x2 + x = 300 (Given)
Therefore, 2x2 + x – 300 = 0
So, the breadth of the hall should satisfy the equation 2x2 + x – 300 = 0 which is a quadratic
equation.
Many people believe that Babylonians were the first to solve quadratic equations. For
instance, they knew how to find two positive numbers with a given positive sum and a given
positive product, and this problem is equivalent to solving a quadratic equation of the form
x2 – px + q = 0. Greek mathematician Euclid developed a geometrical approach for finding out
lengths which, in our present day terminology, are solutions of quadratic equations. Solving of
quadratic equations, in general form, is often credited to ancient Indian mathematicians. In fact,
Brahmagupta (C.E.598–665) gave an explicit formula to solve a quadratic equation of the form
ax2 + bx = c. Later,

esÁZ dMT¿£sDÁ ²\T 77
esÁZ dMT¿£sÁD²\T 4
4.1 |]#ájTá +
Âs+&e n<ó«jáTeTTýË MTsÁT $$<ó sÁ¿±\ VQ|<T \ >·T]+º n<ó«jáTqeTT #ûXæsÁT.n+<TýË ÿ¿£ sÁ¿£+
ax2 + bx + c, a ¹ 0 sÁÖ|+ýË q esÁZ VQ|~. esÁZ VQ|~ dTHÅ£ deÖq+ #ûd¾q|ÚÎ&T eTq+ esÁZ
dMT¿£sDÁ +qT bõ+<TÔ+. Ôá« J$ÔáeTTýË nHû¿£ d+<sÒÛ\ýË esÁZ
dMT¿£sDÁ ²\T eTqÅ£ m<TsÁeÚÔsTT. <V²sÁDÅ£ ÿ¿£ dÇ#áÌ+Û < d+d
yî&\ TÎ jîTT¿£Ø Âs{ì+¼ |Ú ¿£H ÿ¿£ MT³sÁT n~ó¿e£ TT>± +&Tq³T¢ 300
#á<sÁ|Ú MT³sÁ¢ ¿±ÂsÎ{Ù yîÕXæ\«eTT >·\ ÿ¿£ çbÍsÁH eT+~s
]+#á<* º+~. eT+~sÁ+ jîTT¿£Ø bõ&eÚ eT]jáTT yî&\ TÎ\T m+Ôá
+&*? eT+~sÁeTT jîTT¿£Ø yî&\ TÎ I MT³sÁT¢ nqTÅ£+<+. n|Ú&T
|³+. 4.1
bõ&eÚ (2x + 1) MT³sÁT¢ neÚÔáT+~. deÖ#s |³+ 4.1 ýË #áÖ|¾+ºq $<óe TT>± |³sÁÖ|+ýË #áÖ|e#áTÌ.
|ÚÎ&T, eT+~sÁ+ yîXÕ æ\«+ R (2x + 1). x MT.2 = (2x2 + x) MT2
¿±eÚq, 2x2 + x = 300 (<Ôï+Xø+)
nq>±, 2x2 + x – 300 = 0
¿±{ì,¼ Vä\T yî&\ TÎ esÁZ dMT¿£sDÁ eTT 2x2 + x – 300 = 0 nHû dMT¿£sDÁ ² d+Ôá|¾ï |s#Á *..
esÁZ dMT¿£sDÁ ²\qT yîTT<³ kÍ~ó+ºq ysÁT u²_ýËjáTqT¢ n #ý²eT+~ qeTTÔsÁT. <V²sÁDÅ£, ºÌq
sÂ +&T d+K«\ <óH Ôá¿£ yîTTÔá+ï eT]jáTT <óH Ôá¿£ \ÝeTTqT |jÖî Ð+º <óq d+K«\qT mý² ¿£qT>=HýËy]¿ì
Ôî\TdT. eT]jáTT deTd« x2 – px + q = 0 sÁÖ|+ jîTT¿£Ø esÁZ dMT¿£sD Á ²\qT kÍ~ó+#á&¿ì deÖq+. ç^Å£
>·DÔì Xá æçdEï &ã T jáTÖ¿ì&¢ ç|dT Ôï +á esÁZ dMT¿£sD
Á kÍ<óq \T n+³Tq bõ&eÚ\qT ¿£qT>=q&¿ì s¹ U²>·DÔì á $<óH
n_óe~Æ#ûXæsÁT. kÍ<ósÁD sÁÖ|+ýË q esÁZ dMT¿£sÁD²\qT kÍ~ó+ºq |TqÔá eTq çbÍNq uó²sÁrjáT >·DìÔá XæçdïEã\¹¿
<Å£ ØÔáT+~. ydïy¿ì, çV²>·T|Ú&ï T (ç¿¡.Xø. 598`665) ax2 + bx = c sÁÖ|+ýË esÁZ dMT¿£sÁD² |]wØ]+#á&¿ì
dÎwy¼ Tî q® dÖçÔ #ÌsÁT.

Sridharacharya (C.E. 1025) derived a formula, now known as the quadratic formula, (as
quoted by Bhaskara II) for solving a quadratic equation by the method of completing the
square. An Arab mathematician Al-Khwarizmi (about C.E. 800) also studied quadratic
equations of different types. Abraham bar Hiyya Ha-Nasi, in his book
‘Liber embadorum’ published in Europe in C.E. 1145 gave complete solutions of different
quadratic equations.
In this chapter, you will study quadratic equations, and various ways of finding their roots.
You will also see some applications of quadratic equations in daily life situations.
4.2 Quadratic Equations
A quadratic equation in the variable x is an equation of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a, b, c are
real numbers, a ¹ 0. For example, 2x2 + x – 300 = 0 is a quadratic equation. Similarly, 2x2 – 3x +
1 = 0, 4x – 3x2 + 2 = 0 and 1 – x2 + 300 = 0 are also quadratic equations.
In fact, any equation of the form p(x) = 0, where p(x) is a polynomial of degree 2, is a
quadratic equation. But when we write the terms of p(x) in descending order of their degrees,
then we get the standard form of the equation. That is, ax2 + bx + c = 0, a ¹ 0 is called the
standard form of a quadratic equation.
Quadratic equations arise in several situations in the world around us and in different fields
of mathematics. Let us consider a few examples.
Example 1 : Represent the following situations mathematically:

(i) John and Jivanti together have 45 marbles. Both of them lost 5 marbles each, and the product
of the number of marbles they now have is 124. We would like to find out how many
marbles they had to start with.
(ii) A cottage industry produces a certain number of toys in a day. The cost of production of
each toy (in rupees) was found to be 55 minus the number of toys produced in a day. On a
particular day, the total cost of production was
` 750. We would like to find out the number of toys produced on that day.
Solution :
(i) Let the number of marbles John had be x.
Then the number of marbles Jivanti had = 45 – x (Why?).
The number of marbles left with John, when he lost 5 marbles = x – 5
The number of marbles left with Jivanti, when she lost 5 marbles = 45 – x – 5
= 40 – x

ço<ós #sÁT«\T (ç¿¡.Xø. 1025) esÁeZ TTqT |P]ï #ûd |<ÆÜ <Çs esÁZ dMT¿£sÁD² |]wØ]+#á&¿ì |ÚÎ&T esÁZ dMT¿£sDÁ
dÖçÔá+ n |¾\Te&û ÿ¿£ dÖçÔ (Âs+&e uó²dØsÁT&T <V² ]+ºq³T¢) #ÌsÁT.nsÁuÙ >·DÔì á XæçdïE&ã T nýÙ-U²Ç¯
(dTeÖsÁTç¿¡.Xø. 800) Å£L& $$<ó sÁ¿±\ esÁZ dMT¿£sDÁ ²\qT n<ó« jáTq+ #ûXæsÁT. ç¿¡.Xø. 1145ýË ×sÃbÍýË ç|#Tá ]ÔáyTî q®
nçVä+ u²sY V¾²jáÖ« V²-Hd¾ çyd¾q |Úd¿ï +£ »*sY m+u²&ÃsÁyT µýË $$<ó esÁZ dMT¿£sD Á ²\Å£ |P]ïï kÍ<óq #Ì&T.
n<ó«jáT+ýË, MTsÁT esÁZ dMT¿£sÁD²\T eT]jáTT y{ì eTÖý²\qT ¿£qT>=Hû $_óq eÖsZ\qT n<ó«jáTq+
#ûkÍïsTÁ . Ôá« J$Ôá |]d¾Ô Tá \ýË esÁZ dMT¿£sÁD²\ jîTT¿£Ø ¿= nqTesÁïH\qT Å£L& MTsÁT #áÖkÍïsTÁ .
4.2 esÁZd MT¿£sÁD ²\T
ï d+K«ýÉÕ a ¹ 0, nsTTq ax2 + bx + c = 0 #ássÁ ¥ x ýË esÁZ dMT¿£sÁDeTT n+{²sÁT. <V²sÁDÅ£
a, b, c \T yde
2x2 + x – 300 = 0 ÿ¿£ esÁZ dMT¿£sÁDeTT. n<û $<ó+ >± 2x2 – 3x + 1 = 0, x – 3x2 + 2 = 0 eT]jáTT 1 – x2 +
300 = 0 \T Å£L& esÁZ dMT¿£sÁD²ýñ.
ydïy¿ì p(x) ÿ¿£ ~Ç|]eÖD VQ|~ neÚÔáÖ p(x) = 0 sÁÖ|+ýË eÚq yq+{ì esÁZ dMT¿£sDÁ ²\T
n+{²+. nsTTÔû p(x) ýË |<\qT y |]eÖD²\ <ósÁ+>± nesÃV²D ç¿£eT+ýË sdï < esÁZ dMT¿£sDÁ +
jîTT¿£Ø çbÍeÖDì¿£ sÁÖ|+ n+{²+. nq>± ax2 + bx + c = 0qT esÁZ dMT¿£sDÁ + jîTT¿£Ø çbÍeÖDì¿£ sÁÖ|+ n+{²sÁT.
eTq #áT³Ö¼ q ç||+#á+ýË nHû¿£ d+<sÒÛ\ýË eT]jáTT $$<ó >·DìÔá $uó²>±\ýË esÁZ dMT¿£sÁD²\T
ÔáÎqeTòÔsTT. ¿= <V²sÁD\qT |]o*<Ý+.
<V²sÁD 1 : ç¿ì+~ y¿ì d]jáT>·T dMT¿£sDÁ ²\qT >·DÔì |á s +Á >± sjáTTeTT.
(i) C²H eT]jáTT Je+Ü <]Ý e<Ý ¿£\d¾ 45 >Ã°\T ¿£\eÚ. nsTTÔû <sÝ ÖÁ #î] 5 >Ã°\qT bþ>=³T¼Å£HsÁT. <]Ý e<Ý
$TÐ*q >Ã°\ d+K«\ jîTT¿£Ø \ÝeTT 124 nsTTq <]Ý e<Ý yîTT<³ eÚq >Ã°\ d+K«qT ¿£qT>=qT³Å£ nedseÁ TjûT«
dMT¿£sDÁ eTTqT ¿£qT>=qTeTT.
(ii) ÿ¿£ Å£{¡sÁ |]çXøeTýË ç|ÜsÃE ÿ¿£ ]w¼ d+K«ýË u¤eT\qT ÔájÖá sÁT #ûkÍïsÁT. ÿ¿£sÃE ÔájÖá sÂ qÕ ÿ¿=Ø¿£Ø edTeï Ú
K¯<T (sÁÖbÍjáT\ýË) sÃE ÔájÖá sÂ Õq u¤eT\ d+K« qT+& 55 rd¾yûjáT>± e#áTÌqT. sÃE ÔájáÖÂsÕq u¤£eT\
yîTTÔáï+ K¯<T 750 . sÃE ÔájáÖsÂ qÕ u¤eT\ d+K«qT eTq+ ¿£qT>=H*.
kÍ<óq :
(i) C²H e<Ý >·\ >Ã°\ d+K« »xµ nqT¿=+<+.
Je+Ü e<Ý >·\ >Ã°\ d+K« R 45 - x (m+<TÅ£?).
5 >Ã°\qT bõ>=³T¼Å£q ÔásÁTyÔá C²H e<Ý eÚ+&û >Ã°\ d+K« R x - 5
n<û$<ó+>±, 5 >Ã°\qT bõ>=³T¼Å£ q ÔásTÁ yÔá Je+Ü e<Ý eÚ+&û >Ã°\ d+K« R 45- x - 5
= 40 – x

Therefore, their product = (x – 5) (40 – x)

= 40x – x2 – 200 + 5x
= – x2 + 45x – 200
So, – x2 + 45x – 200 = 124 (Given that product = 124)
i.e.,– x2 + 45x – 324 = 0
i.e., x2 – 45x + 324 = 0
Therefore, the number of marbles John had, satisfies the quadratic equation
x2 – 45x + 324 = 0
which is the required representation of the problem mathematically.
(ii) Let the number of toys produced on that day be x.
Therefore, the cost of production (in rupees) of each toy that day = 55 – x
So, the total cost of production (in rupees) that day = x (55 – x)
Therefore, x (55 – x) = 750
i.e., 55x – x2 = 750
i.e., – x2 + 55x – 750 = 0
i.e., x2 – 55x + 750 = 0
Therefore, the number of toys produced that day satisfies the quadratic equation
x2 – 55x + 750 = 0
which is the required representation of the problem mathematically.
Example 2 : Check whether the following are quadratic equations:
(i) (x – 2)2 + 1 = 2x – 3 (ii) x(x + 1) + 8 = (x + 2) (x – 2)
(iii) x (2x + 3) = x2 + 1 (iv) (x + 2)3 = x3 – 4
Solution :
(i) LHS = (x – 2)2 + 1 = x2 – 4x + 4 + 1 = x2 – 4x + 5
Therefore, (x – 2)2 + 1 = 2x – 3 can be rewritten as
x2 – 4x + 5 = 2x – 3
i.e., x2 – 6x + 8 = 0
It is of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0.
Therefore, the given equation is a quadratic equation.

nq>±, $TÐ*q >Ã°\ d+K«\ \Ý+ = (x – 5) (40 – x)

= 40x – x2 – 200 + 5x
= – x2 + 45x – 200
¿±eÚq, – x2 + 45x – 200 = 124 (\ÝeTT = 124 >± #ÌsÁT)
nq>±., – x2 + 45x – 324 = 0
nq>±., x2 – 45x + 324 = 0
nq>± x2 – 45x + 324 = 0 dMT¿£sDÁ eTTqÅ£ Ôá|¾ï |s#Á û x $\TejûT C²H e<Ý yîTT<³ eÚq >Ã°\ d+K«qT
dT+ï ~.
x2 – 45x + 324 = 0 ¿±e\d¾q >·DìÔÔá¿£ esÁZ dMT¿£sÁD+ neÚÔáT+~.
(ii) sÃE ÔáÎÜï #ûjTá &q u¤eT\ d+K« x >± nqTÅ£+<+.
n+<Te\q, sÃE ÔájÖá sÁsTTq ç|Ü u¤£eT jîTT¿£Ø ÔáÎÜï K¯<T (sÁÖbÍjáT\ýË) R 55 - x
¿±{ì,¼ sÃE yîTTÔá+ï ÔáÎÜï K¯<T (sÁÖbÍjáT\ýË) R x (55 ` x)
¿±{ì,¼ x (55 – x) = 750
nq>±, 55x – x2 = 750
nq>±, – x2 + 55x – 750 = 0
nq>±, x2 – 55x + 750 = 0
n+<Te\q, sÃE ÔájáÖsÁsTTq ÔáÎÜï #ûjáT&q u¤eT\ d+K« x2 – 55x + 750 = 0 esÁZ dMT¿£sÁD²
d+Ôá|¾ï |sÁTdTï+~.
x2 – 55x + 750 = 0 ¿±e\d¾q esÁZ dMT¿£sD Á + neÚÔáT+~.
<V²sÁD 2 : ç¿ì+~ dMT¿£sÁD²\T esÁZ dMT¿£sÁD²\T neÚÔjûTyîÖ d]#áÖ&+&.:
(i) (x – 2)2 + 1 = 2x – 3 (ii) x(x + 1) + 8 = (x + 2) (x – 2)
(iii) x (2x + 3) = x2 + 1 (iv) (x + 2)3 = x3 – 4
kÍ<óq :
(i) ¿£.kÍ.>·T = (x – 2)2 + 1 = x2 – 4x + 4 + 1 = x2 – 4x + 5
¿±{ì,¼ (x – 2)2 + 1 = 2x – 3 >± sjáTe#áTÌ.
x2 – 4x + 5 = 2x – 3
nq>±., x2 – 6x + 8 = 0
~ ax2 + bx + c = 0 sÁÖ|+ýË +~.
n+<Te\q, eÇ&q dMT¿£sÁD+ ÿ¿£ esÁZ dMT¿£sÁD+.

(ii) Since x(x + 1) + 8 = x2 + x + 8 and (x + 2)(x – 2) = x2 – 4

Therefore, x2 + x + 8 = x2 – 4
i.e., x + 12 = 0
It is not of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0.
Therefore, the given equation is not a quadratic equation.
(iii) Here, LHS = x (2x + 3) = 2x2 + 3x
So, x (2x + 3) = x2 + 1 can be rewritten as
2x2 + 3x = x2 + 1
Therefore, we getx2 + 3x – 1 =0
So, the given equation is a quadratic equation.
(iv) Here, LHS = (x + 2)3 = x3 + 6x2 + 12x + 8
Therefore, (x + 2)3 = x3 – 4 can be rewritten as
x3 + 6x2 + 12x + 8 = x3 – 4
i.e., 6x2 + 12x + 12 = 0 or, x2 + 2x + 2 = 0
So, the given equation is a quadratic equation.
Remark : Be careful! In (ii) above, the given equation appears to be a quadratic equation, but
it is not a quadratic equation.
In (iv) above, the given equation appears to be a cubic equation (an equation of degree
3) and not a quadratic equation. But it turns out to be a quadratic equation. As you can see,
often we need to simplify the given equation before deciding whether it is quadratic or not.
EXERCISE 4.1
1. Check whether the following are quadratic equations :
(i) (x + 1)2 = 2(x – 3) (ii) x2 – 2x = (–2) (3 – x)
(iii) (x – 2)(x + 1) = (x – 1)(x + 3) (iv) (x – 3)(2x +1) = x(x + 5)
(v) (2x – 1)(x – 3) = (x + 5)(x – 1) (vi) x2 + 3x + 1 = (x – 2)2
(vii) (x + 2)3 = 2x (x2 – 1) (viii) x3 – 4x2 – x + 1 = (x – 2)3
2. Represent the following situations in the form of quadratic equations :
(i) The area of a rectangular plot is 528 m2. The length of the plot (in metres) is one
more than twice its breadth. We need to find the length and breadth of the plot.

(ii) x(x + 1) + 8 = x2 + x + 8 eT]jáTT (x + 2)(x – 2) = x2 – 4

¿±{ì,¼ , x2 + x + 8 = x2 – 4
nq>±,., x + 12 = 0
~ ax2 + bx + c = 0 sÁÖ|+ýË ýñ<T .
n+<Te\q, eÇ&q dMT¿£sÁD+ ÿ¿£ esÁZ dMT¿£sÁD+ ¿±<T.
(iii) ¿£Ø&, ¿£.kÍ.>·T = x (2x + 3) = 2x2 + 3x
¿±eÚq, x (2x + 3) = x2 + 1 qT
2x2 + 3x = x2 + 1 >± sjáTe#áTÌ.
n+<Te\q, x2 + 3x – 1 = 0 qT bõ+<TÔeTT.
~ ax2 + bx + c = 0 sÁÖ|+ýË +³T+~.
(iv) ¿£Ø&, ¿£.kÍ.>·T = (x + 2)3 = x3 + 6x2 + 12x + 8
¿±eÚq, (x + 2)3 = x3 – 4 qT
x3 + 6x2 + 12x + 8 = x3 – 4 >± sjáTe#áTÌ.
nq>±., 6x2 + 12x + 12 = 0 ýñ<, x2 + 2x + 2 = 0
~ ax2 + bx + c = 0 sÁÖ|+ýË +³T+~.
dÖ#áq : |Õ <V²sÁD (ii) ýË ºÌq dMT¿£sÁD+ #áÖ&>±Hû esÁZ dMT¿£sÁD+ý²>± ¿£q|&TÔáT+~. ¿± n~ esÁZ
dMT¿£sÁD+ ¿±<T.
n<û$<ó+>± <V²sÁD (iv) ýË ºÌq dMT¿£sDÁ + |T q dMT¿£sDÁ + (|]eÖD+ 3>± >·\ dMT¿£sDÁ +) ý²>±
¿£q|&TÔáT+~. ¿±ú ~ esÁZ dMT¿£sÁDyûT.|Õ <V²sÁD\ qT+º ºÌq dMT¿£sÁD+ esÁZ dMT¿£sÁD+ neÚHÃ ¿±<Ã
sÁs TT+#áT³Å£ eTT+<T < dÖ¿¡ ¿£]+#á³eTT eT+º< eTq+ >·eT+#*.
nuó²«deTT 4.1
1. ç¿ì+~ dMT¿£D²\T esÁZ dMT¿£sÁD²\T neÚHÃ, ¿±<Ã sÁsTT+#á+&.:
(i) (x + 1)2 = 2(x – 3) (ii) x2 – 2x = (–2) (3 – x)
(iii) (x – 2)(x + 1) = (x – 1)(x + 3) (iv) (x – 3)(2x +1) = x(x + 5)
(v) (2x – 1)(x – 3) = (x + 5)(x – 1) (vi) x2 + 3x + 1 = (x – 2)2
(vii) (x + 2)3 = 2x (x2 – 1) (viii) x3 – 4x2 – x + 1 = (x – 2)3
2. ç¿ì+~ d+<ós ÒÛ\Å£ d]jáT>·T esÁZ dMT¿£sDÁ ²\qT ¿£qT>=qTeTT?
(i) ÿ¿£ BsÁ# é Ôá Tá sÁçkÍ¿±sÁ d\ eTT jîTT¿£Ø yîXÕ æ\«eTT 528 #á.MT. B bõ&eÚ, yî&\ TÎ jîTT¿£Ø sÂ {ì+¼ |Ú ¿£+fñ ÿ¿£
MT³sÁT mÅ£Øe. nsTTq < bõ&eÚ, yî&\TÎ\qT ¿£qT>=qTeTT?

(ii) The product of two consecutive positive integers is 306. We need to find the
integers.
(iii) Rohan’s mother is 26 years older than him. The product of their ages (in years)
3 years from now will be 360. We would like to find Rohan’s present age.
(iv) A train travels a distance of 480 km at a uniform speed. If the speed had been
8 km/h less, then it would have taken 3 hours more to cover the same distance. We
need to find the speed of the train.
4.3 Solution of a Quadratic Equation by Factorisation
Consider the quadratic equation 2x 2 – 3x + 1 = 0. If we replace x by 1 on the
LHS of this equation, we get (2 × 1 2) – (3 × 1) + 1 = 0 = RHS of the equation.
We say that 1 is a root of the quadratic equation 2x2 – 3x + 1 = 0. This also means that 1 is a zero
of the quadratic polynomial 2x2 – 3x + 1.
In general, a real number a is called a root of the quadratic equation
ax + bx + c = 0, a ¹ 0 if a a2 + ba + c = 0. We also say that x = a is a solution of the
2
quadratic equation, or that a satisfies the quadratic equation. Note that the zeroes of the
quadratic polynomial ax2 + bx + c and the roots of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0
are the same.
You have observed, in Chapter 2, that a quadratic polynomial can have at most two zeroes.
So, any quadratic equation can have atmost two roots.
You have learnt in Class IX, how to factorise quadratic polynomials by splitting their middle
terms. We shall use this knowledge for finding the roots of a quadratic equation. Let us see
how.
Example 3 : Find the roots of the equation 2x2 – 5x + 3 = 0, by factorisation.
Solution : Let us first split the middle term – 5x as –2x –3x [because (–2x) × (–3x) = 6x2 =
(2x2) × 3].
So, 2x2 – 5x + 3 = 2x2 – 2x – 3x + 3 = 2x (x – 1) –3(x – 1) = (2x – 3)(x – 1)
Now, 2x2 – 5x + 3 = 0 can be rewritten as (2x – 3)(x – 1) = 0.
So, the values of x for which 2x2 – 5x + 3 = 0 are the same for which (2x – 3)(x – 1) = 0, i.e., either
2x – 3 = 0 or x – 1 = 0.
3
Now, 2x – 3 = 0 gives x = and x – 1 = 0 gives x = 1.
2
3
So, x = and x = 1 are the solutions of the equation.
2
3
In other words, 1 and are the roots of the equation 2x2 – 5x + 3 = 0.
2

(ii) Âs+&T esÁTd <óq |PsÁ d+K«\ \ÝeTT 306. nsTTq d+K«\qT ¿£qT>=qeýÉqT.
(iii) sÃV²H Ôá*¢, sÃV²H ¿£+fñ 26 d+öö\T |<~Ý . 3 d+öö\T ÔásTÁ yÔá y]<Ý] ejáTdTà\ \Ý+ 360.nsTTq
sÃV²H jîTT¿£Ø ç|dT Ôï á ejáTdTàqT ¿£qT>=qeýÉqT.
(iv) 480 ¿ì.MT. <ÖsÁeTTqT ÿ¿£ sÂ \ Õ T @¿£¯Ü yû>e· TTÔÃ ç|jÖá DìdT +ï ~. ÿ¿£yÞû ø <û sÂ \Õ T |Î{ì yû>+· ¿£+fñ 8
¿ì.MT ÔáÅ£Øe yû>e· TTÔÃ ç|jáÖDìdï >·eT«+ #ûsÁT³Å£ |fñ¼ ¿±\+ 3 >·+öö \T |sÁT>·TÔáT+~. nsTTq Âs\Õ T yû>·eTTqT
¿£qT>=qeýÉqT.
4.3 ¿±sÁD²+¿£ |<ÜÆ q esÁZ dMT¿£sDÁ eTTqT kÍ~ó+#áT³
2x2 – 3x + 1 = 0. esÁZ dMT¿£sD Á eTTqT rdTÅ£+<+. BýË x <T\T »»1µµ dMT¿£sD Á eTTýË m&eT#ûÜ yî|Õ Ú
ç|Ü¿¹ |+¾ ºq (2 × 1 ) – (3 × 1) + 1 = 0 = Å£&#ûÜ yî|Õ Ú dMT¿£sÁD+ edTï+~. x = 1Å£ dMT¿£sDÁ + d+Ôá|¾ï #î+~q~,
2
¿£qT¿£ x = 1qT 2x2 – 3x + 1= 0 Å£ eTÖ\eTT ýñ< kÍ<óq n+{²eTT. nq>± »1µ nqTq~ 2x2 – 3x + 1 esÁZ VQ|~
jîTT¿£Ø XøSq«$\Te Å£L& neÚÔáT+< nsÁ+ .
kÍ<ósÁD+>± a a2 + ba + c = 0 nsTTq esÁZ dMT¿£sDÁ + , ax2 + bx + c = 0, a ¹ 0 Å£ ydïe d+K« aqT
eTÖ\eTT n+{²sÁT. eT]jáTT x = aqT esÁZ dMT¿£sDÁ + jîTT¿£Ø kÍ<óq n Å£L& n+{²+. ýñ< »aµ esÁZ dMT¿£sDÁ eTTqT
Ôá|¾ï |sTÁ dT+ï ~ n+{²eTT. ax2 + bx + c esÁZ VQ|~ jîTT¿£Ø XøSq« $\Te\T, ax2 + bx + c = 0, esÁZ dMT¿£sDÁ +
jîTT¿£ØeTÖý²\T ÿ¿£Øfñ n >·T]ï+#á>\· sÁT.
2e n<ó«jáT+ýË ÿ¿£ esÁZ VQ|~¿ì >·]we¼ TT>± sÂ +&T XøSq« $\Te\T+{²jáT eTq+ >·eT+#+. ¿£qT¿£ esÁZ
dMT¿£sDÁ eTTqÅ£ Å£L& >·]we¼ TT>± sÂ +&T eTÖý²ýñ eÚ+{²sTT.
eTq+ 9e Ôás>Á Ü· ýË eT<ó« |<e TTqT sÂ +&+{ì>± $&>=³T¼³ <Çs ÿ¿£ esÁZ VQ|~ jîTT¿£Ø ¿±sÁD²+¿±\qT
mý² ¿£qT>=qe#ÃÌ HûsTÁ ÌÅ£HeTT. <û |<ÆÜ |jîÖÐ+º ÿ¿£ esÁZ dMT¿£sDÁ eTT jîTT¿£Ø eTÖý²\qT mý² ¿£qT>=qe#ÃÌ
#áÖ<Ý+.
<V²sÁD 3 : ¿±sÁD²+¿£ |<ÜÆ q 2x2 – 5x + 3 = 0 jîTT¿£Ø eTÖý²\qT ¿£qT>=qTeTT.
kÍ<óq : eTT+<T>± eT<«|<+ – 5x –2x –3x >± $&B<Ý+. [ m+<T¿£+fñ (–2x) × (–3x) = 6x2 = (2x2) × 3].
¿±eÚq, 2x2 – 5x + 3 = 2x2 – 2x – 3x + 3 = 2x (x – 1) –3(x – 1) = (2x – 3)(x – 1)
|Úð&T, 2x2 – 5x + 3 = 0 qT (2x – 3)(x – 1) = 0 >± sjáTe#áTÌ.
¿±eÚq, x $\Te\T 2x2 – 5x + 3 = 0 eT]jáTT (2x – 3)(x – 1) = 0, Å£ ÿ¹¿sÁ¿£+>± +{²sTT. nq>±
3
2x – 3 = 0 or x – 1 = 0. |Úð&T , 2x – 3 = 0 qT+& x = eT]jáTT x – 1 = 0 qT+& x = 1 edT+ï ~.
2
3
=
¿±eÚq,, 2 eT]jáTT x = 1 \T dMT¿£sDÁ kÍ<óq\T. nq>± 1 eT]jáTT 2x2 – 5x + 3 = 0 dMT¿£sÁD eTÖý²\T n
x
#î|Î e#áTÌ.
#áÌ³ 2x2 – 5x + 3 = 0 qT sÂ +&T ¹sFjáT ¿±sÁD²+¿±\ \Ý+>± sd¾ ç|r s¹ FjáT ¿±sÁD²+¿± dTHÅ£ deÖq+
#ûjáT³+ <Çs 2x2 – 5x + 3 = 0 jîTT¿£Ø eTÖý²\qT ¿£qT>=HeT >·eT+#á+&.

Verify that these are the roots of the given equation.

Note that we have found the roots of 2x2 – 5x + 3 = 0 by factorising 2x2 – 5x + 3 into
two linear factors and equating each factor to zero.
Example 4 : Find the roots of the quadratic equation 6x2 – x – 2 = 0.
Solution : We have
6x2 – x – 2 = 6x2 + 3x – 4x – 2
= 3x (2x + 1) – 2 (2x + 1)
= (3x – 2)(2x + 1)
The roots of 6x2 – x – 2 = 0 are the values of x for which (3x – 2)(2x + 1) = 0
Therefore, 3x – 2 = 0 or 2x + 1 = 0,
2 1
i.e., x= or x= -
3 2
2 1
Therefore, the roots of 6x – x – 2 = 0 are and – .
2
3 2
2 1
We verify the roots, by checking that and - satisfy 6x2 – x – 2 = 0.
3 2
Example 5 : Find the roots of the quadratic equation 3 x2 - 2 6 x + 2 = 0 .

Solution : 3 x2 - 2 6 x + 2 = 3x2 - 6x - 6 x + 2
= 3 x( 3 x - 2) - 2 ( 3 x - 2)
= ( 3x - 2 )( 3x - 2 )
So, the roots of the equation are the values of x for which
( 3 x - 2) ( 3x - 2 =0 )
2
Now, 3 x - 2 = 0 for x = .
3
So, this root is repeated twice, one for each repeated factor 3 x - 2 .

$ ºÌq dMT¿£sDÁ + jîTT¿£Ø eTÖý²\T n <M¿£]+#á+&.

yûTeTT 2x2 – 5x + 3 = 0 eTÖý²\qT 2x2 – 5x + 3 sÂ +&T dsÞÁ ø ¿±sÁ¿±\T>± eÖsÁÌ&+ <Çs eT]jáTT ç|r
¿±sÁ¿± dTH¿ì deÖq+ #ûjTá &+ <Çs ¿£qT>=HeT >·eT+#á+&.
<V²sÁD 4 : esÁZ dMT¿£sÁD+ 6x2 – x – 2 = 0 jîTT¿£Ø eTÖý²\qT ¿£qT>=qTeTT
kÍ<óq : We have
6x2 – x – 2 = 6x2 + 3x – 4x – 2
= 3x (2x + 1) – 2 (2x + 1)
= (3x – 2)(2x + 1)
6x2 – x – 2 = 0 jîTT¿£Ø eTÖý²\T (3x – 2)(2x + 1) = 0 jîTT¿£Ø x $\Te\T

¿±eÚq, 3x – 2 = 0 or 2x + 1 = 0,
2 1
nq>±., x= ýñ< x = -
3 2
2 1
¿±eÚq, 6x2 – x – 2 = 0 jîTT¿£Ø eTÖý²\T x = 3 ýñ< x = - 2
2 ýñ < 1
¿±eÚq 6x2 – x – 2 = 0 eTÖý²\T and - Ôá|¾|ï s #Á &á ¿ì d]#áÖ&e#áTÌ.
3 2
<V²sÁD 5 : esÁZ dMT¿£sDÁ + 3x 2
- 2 6x + 2 = 0 jîTT¿£Ø eTÖý²\qT ¿£qT>=qTeTT.
kÍ<óq : 3x2 - 2 6 x + 2 = 3 x2 - 6 x - 6 x + 2
= 3 x( 3 x - 2) - 2 ( 3 x - 2)
= ( 3x - 2 )( 3x - 2 )
¿±{ì¼ »xµ jîTT¿£Ø $\TeÔÃ dMT¿£sDÁ eTT jîTT¿£Ø eTÖý²\T
( 3 x - 2 )( 3 x - 2 ) = 0
2
|Úð&T, 3x - 2 = 0 esÁZ dMT¿£sDÁ + x=
3
¿±eÚq ç|r |ÚqseÔá ¿±sÁD²+¿£eTT 3 x - 2 . Å£ eTÖýeTT s
Â +&TkÍsÁT¢ |ÚqseÔáeT>·TqT.

2 2.
Therefore, the roots of 3 x2 - 2 6 x + 2 = 0 are ,
3 3
Example 6 : Find the dimensions of the prayer hall discussed in Section 4.1.
Solution : In Section 4.1, we found that if the breadth of the hall is x m, then x satisfies the
equation 2x2 + x – 300 = 0. Applying the factorisation method, we write this equation as
2x2 – 24x + 25x – 300 = 0
2x (x – 12) + 25 (x – 12) = 0
i.e., (x – 12)(2x + 25) = 0
So, the roots of the given equation are x = 12 or x = – 12.5. Since x is the breadth of the
hall, it cannot be negative.
Thus, the breadth of the hall is 12 m. Its length = 2x + 1 = 25 m.
EXERCISE 4.2
1. Find the roots of the following quadratic equations by factorisation:
(i) x2 – 3x – 10 = 0 (ii) 2x2 + x – 6 = 0
1
(iii) 2
2 x +7x +5 2 = 0 (iv) 2x2 – x + =0
8
(v) 100 x2 – 20x + 1 = 0
2. Solve the problems given in Example 1.
3. Find two numbers whose sum is 27 and product is 182.
4. Find two consecutive positive integers, sum of whose squares is 365.
5. The altitude of a right triangle is 7 cm less than its base. If the hypotenuse is 13 cm, find
the other two sides.
6. A cottage industry produces a certain number of pottery articles in a day. It was observed
on a particular day that the cost of production of each article (in rupees) was 3 more than
twice the number of articles produced on that day. If the total cost of production on that
day was ` 90, find the number of articles produced and the cost of each article.
4.4 Nature of Roots
The equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 are given by
– b ± b2 - 4ac
x=
2a

2 2.
¿±eÚq esÁZ dMT¿£sDÁ + 3 x2 - 2 6 x + 2 = 0 jîTT¿£Ø eTÖý²\T ,
3 3
<V²sÁD 6 : 4.1 q+<T #á]Ì+ºq deTd«ýË çbÍsÁq eT+~sÁ+ jîTT¿£Ø ¿=\Ôá\qT ¿£qT>=qTeTT.
kÍ<óq : $uó² >· + 4.1 q+< T eT+~sÁ+ jîT T¿£Ø yî& \TÎ x MT³sÁT ¢ nsTTq, x $\Te dMT¿£ s ÁDeTT
2x2 + x – 300 = 0qT Ôá|¾ï|sÁTdTï+~. ¿±sÁD²+¿£ |<ÆÜ
dMT¿£sÁDeTTqÅ£ nqTe]ï+|Cñdq¾ dMT¿£sÁDeTTqT ¿ì+~
$<óe TT>± sjáTe#áTÌ.
2x2 – 24x + 25x – 300 = 0
2x (x – 12) + 25 (x – 12) = 0
nq>±., (x – 12)(2x + 25) = 0
¿±eÚq, esÁZ dMT¿£sDÁ kÍ<óq\T x = 12 ýñ< x = – 12.5. x nHû~ eT+~sÁ+ yî&\ TÎ ¿±eÚq, m|ÚÎ&T sÁTD²Ôá¿£+
¿±<T. ¿±eÚq U²° d\+ yî&\ TÎ 12 MT. < bõ&eÚ = 2x + 1 = 25 MT.
nuó²«deTT 4.2
1. ¿ì+~ esÁZ dMT¿£sDÁ + jîTT¿£Ø eTÖý²\qT ¿±sÁD+¿£ |<ÜÆ ýË ¿£qT>=qTeTT :
(i) x2 – 3x – 10 = 0 (ii) 2x2 + x – 6 = 0
1
(iii) 2
2 x +7x +5 2 = 0 (iv) 2x2 – x + =0
8
(v) 100 x2 – 20x + 1 = 0
2. <V²sÁD 1 q+<T ºÌq deTd«\qT kÍ~ó+#áTeTT.
3. Âs+&T d+K«\ yîTTÔá+ï 27 y{ì \Ý+ 182 njûT« $<ó+>± sÂ +&T d+K«\qT ¿£qT>=qTeTT.
4.sÂ +&T esÁTd <óq |PsÁ d+K«\ esZ\ yîTTÔá+ï 365 nsTTq d+K«\qT ¿£qT>=qTeTT.
5. ÿ¿£ \+¿ÃD çÜuóTÈ+ jîTT¿£Ø mÔáTï < uóÖ $T ¿£+fñ 7 d+{¡MT³sÁT¢ ÔáÅ£ Øe ¿£s+Á bõ&eÚ 13 d+{¡MT³sÁT¢ nsTTq
$TÐ*q sÂ +&T uóTC²\qT ¿£qT>=qTeTT.
6. ÿ¿£ Å£{¡sÁ |]çXøeTýË ç|ÜsÃE ÿ¿£ ]w¼ d+K«ýË edTe ï Ú\qT ÔájÖá sÁT #ûkÍïsTÁ ÿ¿£sÃE ÔájáÖsÂ qÕ ÿ¿=Ø¿£Ø edTïeÚ
K¯<T (sÁÖbÍjáT\ýË) sÃE ÔájÖá ÂsqÕ edTeï Ú\ d+K«Å£ sÂ {ì¼+|Ú ¿£+fñ sÁTöö 3 mÅ£Øe. sÃE ÔájÖá ÂsÕq yîTTÔá+ï
edTeï Ú\ K¯<T sÁTöö 90 nsTTq, sÃE ÔájÖá sÂ qÕ yîTTÔá+ï edTeï Ú\ d+K« eT]jáTT ÿ¿=Ø¿£Ø edTeï Ú K¯<TqT
¿£qT>=qTeTT..
4.4 eTÖý²\ dÇuó²e+:
ax2 + bx + c = 0 jîTT¿£Ø eTÖý²\T
– b ± b2 - 4ac
x=
2a

b2 - 4ac b2 - 4ac
If b2 – 4ac > 0, we get two distinct real roots - b + and - b – .
2a 2a 2a 2a
bb bb b
If b2 – 4ac = 0, then x = -- ±±00, i.e.,
i.e., x == -- or – ×
or
22aa 22aa 2a
-b
So, the roots of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 are both ×
2a
Therefore, we say that the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 has two equal real roots in
this case.
If b2 – 4ac < 0, then there is no real number whose square is b2 – 4ac. Therefore, there are
no real roots for the given quadratic equation in this case.
Since b2 – 4ac determines whether the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 has real roots or
not, b2 – 4ac is called the discriminant of this quadratic equation.
So, a quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 has
(i) two distinct real roots, if b2 – 4ac > 0,
(ii) two equal real roots, if b2 – 4ac = 0,
(iii) no real roots, if b2 – 4ac < 0.
Example 7: Find the discriminant of the quadratic equation 2x2 – 4x + 3 = 0, and hence find the
nature of its roots.
Solution : The given equation is of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a = 2, b = – 4 and c = 3.
Therefore, the discriminant
b2 – 4ac = (– 4)2 – (4 × 2 × 3) = 16 – 24 = – 8 < 0
So, the given equation has no real roots.
Example 8 : A pole has to be erected at a point on the boundary of a circular park of diameter
13 metres in such a way that the differences of its distances from two diametrically opposite
fixed gates A and B on the boundary is 7 metres. Is it possible to do so? If yes, at what distances
from the two gates should the pole be erected?
Solution : Let us first draw the diagram
(see Fig. 4.2).
Let P be the required location of the pole. Let
Fig. 4.2

b b2 - 4ac b b2 - 4ac
b – 4ac > 0, nsTTq eTqeTT sÂ +&T $_óq eTÖý²\T
2
- + eT]jáTT - – .
2a 2a 2a 2a
\qT bõ+<TÔeTT.
b
b2 – 4ac = 0 dMT¿£sD
Á + ax2 + bx + c = 0 eTÖý²\T sÂ +&Ö - +n>·TqT.
2a 2a
b b b b b b
b2 – 4ac > 0 nsTTq x - ±-0 nq>±
± 0 i.e.,
i.e., = - x = or
- – or× – ×
2a 2a 2a 2a 2a 2a
-b
¿±eÚq ax2 + bx + c = 0 dMT¿£sDÁ + jîTT¿£Ø eTÖý²\T sÂ +&T ×
2a
n+<Te\¢, d+<sÁÒÛ+ýË esÁdZ M T¿£sDÁ + ax2 + bx + c = 0. sÂ +&T deÖq ydeï eTÖý²\qT ¿£*Ð
+< eTqeTT #î|Î >·\eTT.
b2 – 4ac < 0, nsTTq esÁe Z TT b2 – 4ac njûT«$<ó+>± @ ydïe d+U²« +&<T. n+<Te\¢ d+<sÁÒÛ+ýË
eÇ&q esÁZ dMT¿£sÁD²¿ì ydïe eTÖý²\T ýñeÚ.
ax2 + bx + c = 0 ydïe eTÖý²\qT ¿£*Ð q<? ýñ<? nqT < b2 – 4ac $\Te sÆ]+#áTqT. ¿±eÚq
b2 – 4ac esÁZ dMT¿£sD Á + jîTT¿£Ø $#á¿D £ ì n+{²+. nq>± ax2 + bx + c = 0 esÁZ dMT¿£sÁD+.
(i) b2 – 4ac > 0, nsTTq sÂ +&T yûsTÁ yûsTÁ ydïe eTÖý²\qT ¿£*Ð +³T+~.
(ii) b2 – 4ac = 0, nsTTq sÂ +&T deÖq yde ï eTÖý²\qT ¿£*Ð +³T+~.
(iii) b2 – 4ac < 0 nsTTq yde ï eTÖý²\qT ¿£*Ð +&<T .
¿= <V²sÁD\qT |]o*<Ý+.
<V²sÁD 7: 2x2 – 4x + 3 = 0, nHû esÁZ dMT¿£sDÁ + jîTT¿£Ø $#á¿D£ ì ¿£qT>=q+&. Ôá<Çs < eTÖý²\ dÇuó²y
¿£qT>=q+&.
kÍ<óq : eÇ&¦dMT¿£sDÁ + ax2 + bx + c = 0, sÁÖ|+ýË+³T+~, ¿£Ø& a = 2, b = – 4 eT]jáTT c = 3.
¿±eÚq $#á¿£Dì,
b2 – 4ac = (– 4)2 – (4 × 2 × 3) = 16 – 24 = – 8 < 0
¿±{ì,¼ eÇ&q dMT¿£sÁD²¿ì ydïe eTÖý²\T ýñeÚ.
<V²sÁD 8 : 3 d+.MT. y«d+ >·\ ÿ¿£ eÔï¿±sÁ bÍsÁTØ d]V²<TÝ MT< ÿ¿£ d+ï uóe TTqT @sÎ³T #ûjÖá \qTÅ£HsÁT.
bÍsÁTØ jîTT¿£Ø d]V²<TÝ MT< m<TÂs<TsÁT>± nq>± ÿ¿£ y«d+ jîTT¿£Ø ºe] _+<TeÚ\ e<Ý@sÎ³T #ûjáT&q A eT]jáTT
B nHû sÂ +&T ¹>³¢ qT+º d+ï uóe TT esÁÅL£ >·\ <Ös\ uñ<eó TT 7 MT. eÚ+&Tq³T¢ dï+uóeTTqT @sÎ³T #ûjáT>·\eÖ?
ÿ¿£yûÞø #ûjTá >·*ÐÔû sÂ +&T ¹>³¢ qT+º d+ï uó+ m+Ôá<ÖsÁ+ýË eÚ+³T+~?
kÍ<óq : eTT+<T>± ÔáÐq ºçÔ ^<Ý+.(|³+ 4.2)
d+ï uóe TTqT @sÎ³T #ûd _+<TeÚ P nqTÅ£+<+.(|³+ 4.2)
|³+ 4.2

the distance of the pole from the gate B be x m, i.e.,

BP = x m. Now the difference of the distances of the
pole from the two gates = AP – BP (or, BP – AP) =
7 m. Therefore, AP = (x + 7) m.
Now, AB = 13m, and since AB is a diameter,
ÐAPB = 90° (Why?)
Therefore, AP2 + PB2 = AB2 (By Pythagoras theorem)
i.e., (x + 7)2 + x2 = 132
i.e., x2 + 14x + 49 + x2 = 169
i.e., 2x2 + 14x – 120 = 0
So, the distance ‘x’ of the pole from gate B satisfies the equation
x2 + 7x – 60 = 0
So, it would be possible to place the pole if this equation has real roots. To see if this is so or
not, let us consider its discriminant. The discriminant is
b2 – 4ac = 72 – 4 × 1 × (– 60) = 289 > 0.
So, the given quadratic equation has two real roots, and it is possible to erect the pole on
the boundary of the park.
Solving the quadratic equation x2 + 7x – 60 = 0, by the quadratic formula, we get
-7 ± 289 -7 ± 17
x= =
2 2
Therefore, x = 5 or – 12.
Since x is the distance between the pole and the gate B, it must be positive. Therefore,
x = – 12 will have to be ignored. So, x = 5.
Thus, the pole has to be erected on the boundary of the park at a distance of 5m from the
gate B and 12m from the gate A.
1
Example 9 : Find the discriminant of the equation 3x2 – 2x + = 0 and hence find the nature of
3
its roots. Find them, if they are real.
1
Solution : Here a = 3, b = – 2 and c = .
3

B ¹>³T qT+º P esÁÅL
£ >·\ <ÖsÁeTTqT x nqTÅ£+<+.
nq>± BP = x MT. |ÚÎ&T, >¹ ³¢ qT+& sÂ +&T d+ u²\ jîTT¿£Ø
<Ös\ eT<ó« Ôû& = AP – BP (ýñ<, BP – AP) =7 MT. ¿£qT¿£,
AP = (x + 7) MT neÚÔTá +~.
|Úð&T AB = 13MT. eT]jáTT AB nHû~ ÿ¿£ y«d+ ¿£qT¿£,
ÐAPB = 90° (m+<TÅ£?)
¿±{ì,¼ , AP + PB = AB (|Õ<¸>·sÁ d¾<Æ+Ôá+ ç|¿±sÁ+..)
2 2 2
nq>±.,
(x + 7)2 + x2 = 132
nq>±., x2 + 14x + 49 + x2 = 169
nq>±., 2x2 + 14x – 120 = 0
¿±{ì,¼ ¹>³T B qT+º d+ï uó+ jîTT¿£Ø ‘x’ <ÖsÁ+ dMT¿£sÁD² d+Ôá|¾ï |sÁTdT+ï ~.
x2 + 7x – 60 = 0
¿±{ì,¼ dMT¿£sDÁ ²¿ì ydïe eTÖý²\T +fñ d+u² +#á&+ kÍ<ó« eTeÚÔáT+~. ~ ÈyîÖ ¿±<Ã Ôî\TdT¿Ãe&¿ì,
< $#á¿Dì ì |]o*<Ý+.
$#á¿Dì ì b2 – 4ac = 72 – 4 × 1 × (– 60) = 289 > 0.
¿±{ì,¼ eÇ&q esÁZ dMT¿£sDÁ + sÂ +&T ydeï eTÖý²\qT ¿£*Ð+~, eT]jáTT bÍsÁTØ jîTT¿£Ø d]V²<TýÝ Ë d+ï uó²
]+#á&+ kÍ<ó« eTeÚÔáT+~.
esÁZ dMT¿£sDÁ eTT x2 + 7x – 60 = 0, qT esÁZ dMT¿£sÁD dÖçÔá+ <Çs kÍ~ó+#á>±,
-7 ± 289 -7 ± 17
x= =
2 2
¿±eÚq, x = 5 ýñ< – 12.
x nHû~ d+ï uó+ eT]jáTT >¹ ³T B, eT<ó« <ÖsÁ+ ¿£qT¿£, n~ Ôá|Î d]>± <óH
Ôá¿£+>± +&*. n+<Te\¢,
x = – 12qT $d]+#*à +³T+~. ¿±{ì¼ , x = 5.
$<ó+>± bÍsÁTØ d]V²<TÝýË ¹>³T B qT+& 5 MT³sÁT,¢ ¹>³T A qT+& 12 MT³sÁ¢ <ÖsÁ+ýË d+ï uó² @sÎ³T
#ûjáÖ*.
1
<V²sÁD 9 : dMT¿£sÁD+ 3x2 – 2x + = 0 jîTT¿£Ø $#á¿D
3
£ ì ¿£qT>=qTeTT. Ôá<Çs eTÖý²\ dÇuó²y Ôî\T|ÚeTT.
ÿ¿£yÞû ø ydeï eTÖý²\T +fñ y{ì ¿£qT>=qTeTT.
kÍ<óq : ¿£Ø& a = 3, b = – 2 eT]jáTT c = 13 .

1
Therefore, discriminant b2 – 4ac = (– 2)2 – 4 × 3 × = 4 – 4 = 0.
3
Hence, the given quadratic equation has two equal real roots.
-b , -b , 2 2 1 1
The roots are i.e., , , i.e., , .
2a 2a 6 6 3 3
EXERCISE 4.3
1. Find the nature of the roots of the following quadratic equations. If the real roots exist,
find them:
(i) 2x2 – 3x + 5 = 0 (ii) 3x2 – 4 3 x + 4 = 0
(iii) 2x2 – 6x + 3 = 0
2. Find the values of k for each of the following quadratic equations, so that they have two
equal roots.
(i) 2x2 + kx + 3 = 0 (ii) kx (x – 2) + 6 = 0
3. Is it possible to design a rectangular mango grove whose length is twice its breadth, and
the area is 800 m2? If so, find its length and breadth.
4. Is the following situation possible? If so, determine their present ages.
The sum of the ages of two friends is 20 years. Four years ago, the product of their ages in
years was 48.
5. Is it possible to design a rectangular park of perimeter 80 m and area 400 m2? If so, find
its length and breadth.
4.5 Summary
1. A quadratic equation in the variable x is of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a, b, c are real
numbers and a ¹ 0.
2. A real number a is said to be a root of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, if
aa2 + ba + c = 0. The zeroes of the quadratic polynomial ax2 + bx + c and the roots of the
quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 are the same.
3. If we can factorise ax2 + bx + c, a ¹ 0, into a product of two linear factors, then the roots
of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 can be found by equating each factor to zero.
4. Quadratic formula: The roots of a quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 are given by
-b ± b 2 - 4ac provided b2 – 4ac ³ 0.
,
2a
5. A quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 has
(i) two distinct real roots, if b2 – 4ac > 0, (ii) two equal roots (i.e., coincident roots), if
b2 – 4ac = 0, and (iii)no real roots, if b2 – 4ac < 0.

1
¿±eÚq, $#á¿D£ ,ì b2 – 4ac = (– 2)2 – 4 × 3 × = 4 – 4 = 0.
3
n+<Te\¢, eÇ&¦ esÁZ dMT¿£sDÁ + sÂ +&T deÖq ydeï eTÖý²\qT ¿£*Ð +³T+~.
-b , -b , 2 2 1 1
¿±eÚq, $#á¿D£ ì i.e., , , i.e., , .
2a 2a 6 6 3 3
nuó²«deTT 4.3
1. ç¿ì+~ esÁZ dMT¿£sDÁ ²\ eTÖý²\ dÇuó²e+ ¿£qT>=qTeTT. ÿ¿£yÞû ø ydïe eTÖý²\T +fñ y{ì ¿£qT>=qTeTT.
(i) 2x2 – 3x + 5 = 0 (ii) 3x2 – 4 3x +4=0
(iii) 2x2 – 6x + 3 = 0
2. Á ²\ýË sÂ +&T deÖq ydeï eTÖý²\T +fñ k $\TeqT ¿£qT>=qTeTT.
ç¿ì+~ esÁZ dMT¿£sD
(i) 2x2 + kx + 3 = 0 (ii) kx (x – 2) + 6 = 0
3. eÖ$T& ÔÃ³ 800 #á<s|Á Ú MT³sÁ¢ yîÕXæ\«+ +³Ö bõ&eÚ, yî&\TÎ ¿£+fñ Âs+&T Âs³T¢ +&û $<ó+ >± ÿ¿£ BsÁé
#áÔTá sÁçkÍ¿±sÁ ÔÃ³qT @sÎ³T #ûjáT>·\eÖ? #ûjTá >·*ÐÔû < bõ&eÚ yî&\ TÎ\qT ¿£qT>=qTeTT.
4. ç¿ì+~ d+<sÒÁ eÛ TT kÍ<ó«eTeÚÔáT+<? ÿ¿£yûÞø kÍ<ó«yîT®Ôû y] ejáTdTà\qT ¿£qT>=qTeTT. <Ý] $TçÔáT\ ejáTdTý
yîTTÔáï+ 20 d+eÔáàs\T.4 d+eÔáàs\ ç¿ìÔ+á y] ejáTdT\ \Ý+ 48.
5. #áT³T¼¿=\Ôá 80 MT³sÁT¢ yîÕXæ\«+ 400m2 #á<sÁ|Ú MT³sÁT¢ +&Tq³T¢ ÿ¿£ BsÁé#áÔáTsÁçkÍ¿±sÁ|Ú bÍsÁTØqT ÔájÖ á sÁT
#ûjTá >·\eÖ? #ûjTá >·*ÐÔû < bõ&eÚ, yî&\ TÎ\qT ¿£qT>=qTeTT.
4.5 kÍs+Xø+:
n<ó«jáT+ýË, MTsÁT ç¿ì+~n+Xæ\qTn<ó«jáTq+#ûXæsÁT:
1. #á\s¥ x ýË esÁZ dMT¿£sD Á + jîTT¿£Ø çbÍeÖDì¿£ sÁÖ|+ ax2 + bx + c = 0, ¿£Ø& a, b, c \T ydeï d+K«\T
eT]jáTT a ¹ 0.
2. kÍ<ósÁD+>± aa2 + ba + c = 0 nsTTq esÁZ dMT¿£sD Á + ax2 + bx + c = 0 Å£ ydïe d+K« aqT eTÖ\eTT
n+{²sÁT. ax2 + bx + c esÁZ VQ|~ jîTT¿£Ø XøSq«$\Te\T, ax2 + bx + c = 0 esÁZ dMT¿£sDÁ + jîTT¿£ØeTÖý²\T
ÿ¿£Øfñ n >·T]ï+#á>\· sÁT.
3. ax2 + bx + c, a ¹ 0 qT sÂ +&T ¹sFjáT ¿±sÁD²+¿±\ \Ý+>± sd¾ ç|Ü < 0 Å£ deÖq+ #ûjáT&+ <Çs
ax2 + bx + c = 0 jîTT¿£Ø eTÖý²\qT ¿£qT>=q >·\T>·TÔeTT.
4. esÁZ dMT¿£sÁD dÖçÔá+: esÁZ dMT¿£sÁDeTT ax2 + bx + c = 0 jîTT¿£Ø eTÖý²\T b2 – 4ac ³ 0 nsTTq|Ú&T
-b ± b 2 - 4ac neÚÔsTT.
,
2a
5. esÁZ dMT¿£sDÁ eTT ax2 + bx + c = 0 q+<T
(i) b2 – 4ac > 0, nsTTq, sÂ +&T yûsTÁ yûsTÁ yde
ï TÖý²\T ¿£*Ð +³T+~. (ii) b2 – 4ac = 0, nsTTq, sÂ +&T
deÖq ydï eTÖý²\qT ¿£*Ð +³T+~, eT]jáTT (iii) b2 – 4ac < 0 nsTTq, ydeï eTÖý²\qT ¿£*Ð
+&<T .

NOTE

HÃ{Ù

98 ARITHMETIC PROGRESSIONS
ARITHMETIC PROGRESSIONS 5
5.1 Introduction
You must have observed that in nature, many things follow a certain pattern, such as the petals of
a sunflower, the holes of a honeycomb, the grains on a maize cob, the spirals on a pineapple and
on a pine cone, etc.
We now look for some patterns which occur in our day-to-day life. Some such examples
are :
(i) Reena applied for a job and got selected. She has
been offered a job with a starting monthly salary of
` 8000, with an annual increment of
` 500 in her salary. Her salary (in `) for the 1st,
2nd, 3rd, . . . years will be, respectively
8000, 8500, 9000, . . . .
(ii) The lengths of the rungs of a ladder decrease
uniformly by 2 cm from bottom to top
(see Fig. 5.1). The bottom rung is 45 cm in length.
The lengths (in cm) of the 1st, 2nd,
3rd, . . ., 8th rung from the bottom to the top are,
respectively
45, 43, 41, 39, 37, 35, 33, 31 Fig. 5.1
5
(iii) In a savings scheme, the amount becomes times of itself after every 3 years. The maturity
4
amount (in `) of an investment of ` 8000 after 3, 6, 9 and 12 years will be, respectively :
10000, 12500, 15625, 19531.25

n+¿£çXâ&óT\T 99
n+¿£Xç &â Tó \T 5

5.1 |]#ájáT+
ç|¿£ÜýË #ý² edTïeÚ\T ÿ¿£ ç|Ôû«¿£yîT®q neT]¿£\qT bÍ{ì+#á&+ eTq+ >·eT+#û +{²eTT. <V²sÁDÅ£ çbõ<TÝ
ÜsÁT>·T&T |ÚeÚÇýË |P\Âs¿£Ø\T, ÔûHÔî Tá fÉý¼ Ë sÁ+ç<ó\T, yîTT¿£ØC¤q ¿£+¿ìýË $ÔáHï \T, nHd eT]jáTT <ûe<sÁT
|+&M¢ T< d]Îý²¿±s\T yîTT<ýÕqÉ $.
|ð&T eTqeTT Ôá«J$Ôá+ýË m<TsÁjûT« ³Te+{ì eT]¿= neT]¿£\qT |]o*<Ý+. n³Te+{ì ¿=
<V²sÁD\T:
(i) ¯H ÿ¿£ <Ã«>±¿ì <sU Á ²dTï #ûjTá >± m+|¾¿£ ¿±&q~. yîT
Hî\Å£ ` 8000 /` #=|ðq eT]jáTT d+eÔáàs¿ì ` 500 |+#û
$<ó+ >± q <Ã«>·+ýË jáT$TÔáTsýÉ+Õ ~. nsTTq yîT JÔá+
(` \ýË) yîTT<{,ì Âs+&e, eTÖ&e esÁTd d+eÔáàs\ýË Hî\Å£
8000, 8500, 9000, . . . .
(ii) ÿ¿£ #îÌq yîT³¢ jîTT¿£Ø bõ&eÚ ç¿ì+~ qT+º |¿Õ ì ç¿£eT+>± 2
d+.MT. Ôá>T· ZÔáÖ +~. (|³+ 5.1 #áÖ&+&.) ç¿ì+< qT+º
yîTT<{ì yîT³T¼ jîTT¿£Ø bõ&eÚ 45d+.MT. nsTTq ç¿ì+< qT+º |¿Õ ì
ç¿£eT+>± yîTT<{,ì sÂ +&e, eTÖ&e ... m$T<e yîT³¢ bõ&eÚ\T
esÁTd>±
45, 43, 41, 39, 37, 35, 33, 31
|³+ 5.1
5
(iii) ÿ¿£ d$+>´ dÓØeTTýË kõeTT eTÖ&T d+eÔáàs\Å£ ÿ¿£kÍ] <MT< sÂ ³T¢ |sÁT>·TÔáT+~. dÓØeTTýË
4
` 8000qT |³T¼&>± |{ìq
¼ 3, 6, 9 eT]jáTT 12 d+öö ÔásÁTyÔá e#ûÌ yîTTÔá+ï kõeTT (`\ýË) esÁTd>±:
10000, 12500, 15625, 19531.25

(iv) The number of unit squares in squares with side 1, 2, 3, . . . units (see Fig. 5.2) are, respectively
12, 22, 32, . . . .
Fig. 5.2
(v) Shakila puts ` 100 into her daughter’s money box when she was one year old and increased
the amount by ` 50 every year. The amounts of money (in `) in the box on the 1st, 2nd, 3rd,
4th, . . . birthday were
100, 150, 200, 250, . . ., respectively.
(vi) A pair of rabbits are too young to produce in their first month. In the second, and every
subsequent month, they produce a new pair. Each new pair of rabbits produce a new pair in
their second month and in every subsequent month (see Fig. 5.3). Assuming no rabbit dies,
the number of pairs of rabbits at the start of the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, . . ., 6th month, respectively
are :
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8
Fig. 5.3

(iv) 1, 2, 3 jáTÖ³T¢ uóT C²\T>± >·\ #áÔáTsÁçkÍ\ýË jáTÖ{Ù #áÔáTsÁçkÍ\ d+K« esÁTd>±
12, 22, 32, . . . . (|³+ 5.2 #áÖ&+&)
|³+ 5.2
(v) w¿ý¡ ² Ôáq Å£LÔáTsÁT yîTT<{ì |Ú{ìq¼ sÃEq `100 \qT Ôáq Å£LÔáTsÁT jîTT¿£Ø &TÒ\ |fÉý¼ Ë <º+~. ç|Ü d+eÔáàsÁeTT
$<ó+ >± <#û kõeTT `50 |+#áTÔáÖ bþsTTq yîTT<{ì, sÂ +&e, eTÖ&e. H\Ze .... |Ú{ì¼q sÃEq |fÉý¼ Ë eÚ+#û
kõeTT esÁTd>±
100, 150, 200, 250, . . .
(vi) ÿ¿£ Å£+<ûÞßø È+³ yîTT<{ì Hî\ýË ºq$>± q+<Tq @+ ÔáÎÜï ýñ<T ¿±ú, sÂ +&e Hî\ qT+º ç|Ü Hî\ ÿ¿£ Å£+<ûÞßø
È+³qT ÔáÎÜï #ûdT +ï <qT¿=qTeTT. ý² ÔáÎÜï nsTTq Å£+<ûÞßø È+³ Å£L& Ü]Ð sÂ +&e Hî\ qT+º ç|Ü Hî\
+¿=¿£ Å£+<ûÞøß È+³qT ÔáÎÜï #ûdT ï+<qT¿=qTeTT. (|³+ 5.3 #áÖ&+&) @ Å£+<ûÞøß È+³ #ábþýñ< uó²$dï
1, 2, 3, ......, 6e Hî\ýË eÚ+&û Å£+<ûÞøß È+³\ d+K« esÁTd>± :
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8
|³+ 5.3

In the examples above, we observe some patterns. In some, we find that the succeeding
terms are obtained by adding a fixed number, in other by multiplying with a fixed number,
in another we find that they are squares of consecutive numbers, and so on.
In this chapter, we shall discuss one of these patterns in which succeeding terms are obtained
by adding a fixed number to the preceding terms. We shall also see how to find their nth terms
and the sum of n consecutive terms, and use this knowledge in solving some daily life problems.
5.2 Arithmetic Progressions
Consider the following lists of numbers :
(i) 1, 2, 3, 4, . . .
(ii) 100, 70, 40, 10, . . .
(iii) –3, –2, –1, 0, . . .
(iv) 3, 3, 3, 3, . . .
(v) –1.0, –1.5, –2.0, –2.5, . . .
Each of the numbers in the list is called a term.
Given a term, can you write the next term in each of the lists above? If so, how will you
write it? Perhaps by following a pattern or rule. Let us observe and write the rule.
In (i), each term is 1 more than the term preceding it.
In (ii), each term is 30 less than the term preceding it.
In (iii), each term is obtained by adding 1 to the term preceding it.
In (iv), all the terms in the list are 3 , i.e., each term is obtained by adding
(or subtracting) 0 to the term preceding it.
In (v), each term is obtained by adding – 0.5 to (i.e., subtracting 0.5 from) the term preceding
it.
In all the lists above, we see that successive terms are obtained by adding a fixed number to
the preceding terms. Such list of numbers is said to form an Arithmetic Progression ( AP ).
So, an arithmetic progression is a list of numbers in which each term is obtained
by adding a fixed number to the preceding term except the first term.
This fixed number is called the common difference of the AP. Remember that it can be
positive, negative or zero.

|Õ <V²sÁDýË eTq+ ¿= neT]¿£\qT >·eT+#á>\· eTT. ¿=+{ìýË, ç|Ü |<e TT < eTT+<Tq |<¿ì ÿ¿£
d¾sÆ Á |< ¿£\|³+ e\¢ \_ókÍïsTT. ¿=+{ìýË ç|Ü |<e TTqT ÿ¿£ d¾sÆ Á |<+ #û >·TDì+#á³+ e\¢ ÔásTÁ yÔá |<\qT
bõ+<>·\eTT. eT]¿=+{ìýË esÁTd d+K«\ esZ\qT >·eT+#á>\· eTT eT]jáTT yîTT<ýÕqÉ $.
n<ó«jáT+ýË, ç|Ü |<eTT < eTT+<Tq |<¿ì ÿ¿£ d¾sÁ |< ¿£\|³+ e\¢ ÔásÁTyÔá \_ó+#û neT]¿£\
>·Ö]Ì #á]ÌkÍï+. y jîTT¿£Ø ne |<\qT eT]jáTT n esÁTd |<\ yîTTÔï\qT ¿£qT>=qT³ >·T]+º #á]ÌkÍï+. ~ ¿=
Ôá«J$Ôá deTd«\ kÍ<óq Å£ |jÖî >·|& T qT.
5.2 n+¿£çXâ&Tó \T
ç¿ì+~ d+K«\ C²_Ô\qT |]o*+#á+&:
(i) 1, 2, 3, 4, . . .
(ii) 100, 70, 40, 10, . . .
(iii) –3, –2, –1, 0, . . .
(iv) 3, 3, 3, 3, . . .
(v) –1.0, –1.5, –2.0, –2.5, . . .
C²_ÔýË ç|Ü d+K«qT ÿ¿£ |<+ n+{²eTT.
ºÌq |<\ <ósÁ+>± ç|Ü C²_ÔýË ÔásTÁ yÔá |<eTTqT sjáT>·\s? sjáT>·*ÐÔû mý² sjáT>·\sÁT? VQXæ
neT]¿£ýË jáTeT+ <ósÁ+>± sjáT>·\sÁT. |Õ y{ì¿ì jáTeT+ @$T{Ë eTq+ |]o*+ºs<Ý+.
(i) ýË ç|Ü |<e TT < eTT+<Tq |<¿£+fñ »1µ mÅ£Øe.
(ii) ýË ç|Ü |<e TT < eTT+<Tq |<e TT ¿£+fñ 30 ÔáÅ£ Øe
(iii) ýË ç|Ü |<e TT < eTT+<Tq |<¿ì »1µ ¿£\|³+ e\¢ edT+ï ~.
(iv) ýË n |<\T 3jûT. nq>± ç|Ü |<e TT < eTT+<Tq |<¿ì dTq (»0µ) ¿£\|³+ ýñ< rd¾yûjáT³+
e\¢ edTï+~.
(v) ýË ç|Ü |<e TT < eTT+<Tq |<¿ì – 0.5 qT ¿£\|³+ e\¢ (nq>± 0.5qT rd¾yj û Tá &+ e\¢) edT+ï ~.
|Õ n C²_Ô\ýË ç|Ü C²_Ô ýË ç|Ü |<e TT < eTT+<Tq |<¿ì ÿ¿£ d¾s Á d+K«qT ¿£\|³+ e\¢
edTHï sTT. ý²+{ì d+K«\ C²_ÔqT n+¿£çXâ&ó ( AP ) n+{²eTT.
¿±eÚq »ÿ¿£ d+K«\ C²_ÔýË yîTT<{ì |<+ Ôá|Î $TÐ*q n |<\T < eTT+<Tq |<¿ì ÿ¿£ d¾s dÁ + K«qT
¿£\|³+ e\¢ edÖï +fñ C²_ÔqT »n+¿£çXâ&µó n+{²eTT.
¿£*| d¾sÆ Á d+K«qT »kÍeÖq« uó<ñ e TTµ ýñ< »|<+ÔáseÁ TTµ n+{²eTT. ~ »<óH Ôá¿£eTTµ ýñ< »TTD²Ôá¿£eTTµ ýñ< dTq
¿±e#áTÌ n >·TsÁT+ï #áT¿Ã+&.

Let us denote the first term of an AP by a1, second term by a2, . . ., nth term by an and the
common difference by d. Then the AP becomes a1, a2, a3, . . ., an.
So, a2 – a1 = a3 – a2 = . . . = an – an – 1 = d.
Some more examples of AP are:
(a) The heights ( in cm ) of some students of a school standing in a queue in the morning
assembly are 147 , 148, 149, . . ., 157.
(b) The minimum temperatures ( in degree celsius ) recorded for a week in the month of
January in a city, arranged in ascending order are
– 3.1, – 3.0, – 2.9, – 2.8, – 2.7, – 2.6, – 2.5
(c) The balance money ( in ` ) after paying 5 % of the total loan of ` 1000 every month is 950,
900, 850, 800, . . ., 50.
(d) The cash prizes ( in ` ) given by a school to the toppers of Classes I to XII are, respectively,
200, 250, 300, 350, . . ., 750.
(e) The total savings (in `) after every month for 10 months when ` 50 are saved each month
are 50, 100, 150, 200, 250, 300, 350, 400, 450, 500.
It is left as an exercise for you to explain why each of the lists above is an AP.
You can see that
a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d, . . .
represents an arithmetic progression where a is the first term and d the common difference.
This is called the general form of an AP.
Note that in examples (a) to (e) above, there are only a finite number of terms. Such an AP
is called a finite AP. Also note that each of these Arithmetic Progressions (APs) has a last
term. The APs in examples (i) to (v) in this section, are not finite APs and so they are called
infinite Arithmetic Progressions. Such APs do not have a last term.
Now, to know about an AP, what is the minimum information that you need? Is it enough to
know the first term? Or, is it enough to know only the common difference? You will find that
you will need to know both – the first term a and the common difference d.
For instance if the first term a is 6 and the common difference d is 3, then the AP is
6, 9,12, 15, . . .
and if a is 6 and d is – 3, then the AP is
6, 3, 0, –3, . . .

ÿ¿£ n+¿£çXâ&ýó Ë yîTT<{ì |<e TTqT a1, Âs+&e |<e TTqT a2, . . ., ne |<e TTqT an eT]jáTT kÍeÖq« uó<ñ e TT d
nqT¿=q n+¿£çXâ&ó a1, a2, a3, . . ., an neÚÔáT+~.
¿±eÚq, a2 – a1 = a3 – a2 = . . . = an – an – 1 = d.
eT] n+¿£çXâ&Tó <V²sÁD\qT |]o*<Ý+:
(a) ÿ¿£ bÍsÄX
Á æ\ýË <jTá + çbÍsÁH deTjáT+ýË esÁTd>± \&q $<«sÁT\ mÔáT\ï T (d+.MT.\ýË)147 , 148,
149, . . ., 157.
(b) ÿ¿£ |³D
¼ eTTýË Èqe] eÖd+ýË ÿ¿£ ysÁ+ýË qyîÖ<îqÕ ¿£w÷ cþç>·Ô\á (&ç^ d*àjáTdt\ýË) sÃV²D ç¿£eTeTT.
– 3.1, – 3.0, – 2.9, – 2.8, – 2.7, – 2.6, – 2.5
(c) `1000\ n|ðýË yîTTÔá+ï |q
Õ 5% #=|ÚÎq ç|ÜHî\ #î*d¢ T qï , ç|ÜHî\ ºesÁ +¿£qÖ #î*+¢ #áe\d¾q kõeTT 950,
900, 850, 800, . . ., 50.
(d) ÿ¿£ bÍsÄXÁ æ\ýË I qT+º XIIe ÔásÁ>Ü· esÁÅL£ ç|Ü Ôás>Á Ü· ýË nÔá«~ó¿£ eÖsÁTØ\T kÍ~ó+ºq y]¿ì #ûÌ VQeTÔáT\
$\Te esÁTd>± 200, 250, 300, 350, . . ., 750.
(e) 10 Hî\ýË¢ ç|Ü Hî\ýË ` 50 \T #=|ðq bõ<T|Ú #ûdq ¾ ç|Ü Hî\ ºesÁýË eÚ+&û yîTTÔá+ï kõeTT ( `\ýË) esÁTd>±
50, 100, 150, 200, 250, 300, 350, 400, 450, 500.
m>·Te C²_Ô\ýË ç|Ü ÿ¿£Ø{ì n+¿£çXâ&ýó Ë m+<TÅ£ ¿£\yÃ n $e]+#áT³ MTÅ£ ÿ¿£ nuó²«d+>± e~*yûjTá &q~.
a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d, . . .
nqTq~ n+¿£çXâ&ó dÖº+#áTqT. +<TýË »aµ yîTT<{ì |<e TT eT]jáTT »dµ kÍeÖq« uó<ñ + ýñ< |<+ÔásÁeTT. ~
n+¿£çXâ&ó kÍeÖq«sÁÖ|eTT.
<V²sÁD\T (a) qT+º (e) esÁÅ£L |qÕ eÇ&q C²_Ô\ú Å£L& |]$TÔá d+K«ýË |<\qT ¿£*Ð HeT
>·eT+#á+&. ³Te+{ì n+¿£çXâ&Tó \qT |]$TÔá n+ç¿£çXâ&Tó \T n+{²sÁT. MýË ºe] |<eTT +³T+~. nsTTÔû |Õ
o]ü¿ý£ Ë <öö (i) qT+º (v) esÁÅL£ eÇ&q C²_Ô\ýË |<\ d+K« n|]$TÔáeTT. ³Te+{ì n+¿£ çXâ&Tó \qT
nq+Ôá n+¿£çXâ&Tó \T n+{²eTT. BýË ºesÁ |<e TT +&<T .
ÿ¿£ n+¿£çXâ&ó >·T]+º Ôî*jáÖ\+fñ eTqÅ£ @yûT$T nedseÁ TT! çXâ&ó jîTT¿£Ø yîTT<{ì |<e TT Ôî*dï d]bþÔáT+<
ýñ< kÍeÖq« uó<ñ + Ôî*dï d]bþÔáT+<? nsTTÔû ÿ¿£ n+¿£çXâ&ó >·T]+º Ôî*jáÖ\+fñ ýñ< < |P]ï #ûjáÖ\+fñ eTqÅ£
sÂ +&Ö ` nq>± < yîTT<{ì |<e TT a eT]jáTT kÍeÖq« uó<ñ e TT d nedseÁ T eTq+ >·eT+#á>\· eTT.
<V²sÁDÅ£ yîTT<{ì |<e TT a $\Te 6 eT]jáTT kÍeÖq« uó<ñ + d $\Te 3 nsTTq n+¿£çXâ&.ó
6, 9,12, 15, . . .
eT]jáTT yîTT<{ì |<+ a $\Te 6 eT]jáTT kÍeÖq« uó<ñ + d $\Te – 3 nsTTq n+¿£çXâ&ó
6, 3, 0, –3, . . .

Similarly, when
a = – 7, d = – 2, the AP is – 7, – 9, – 11, – 13, . . .
a = 1.0, d = 0.1, the AP is 1.0, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, . . .
1 1 1
a = 0, d = 1 , the AP is 0, 1 , 3, 4 , 6, . . .
2 2 2
a = 2, d = 0, the AP is 2, 2, 2, 2, . . .
So, if you know what a and d are, you can list the AP. What about the other way round? That
is, if you are given a list of numbers can you say that it is an AP and then find a and d? Since a is
the first term, it can easily be written. We know that in an AP, every succeeding term is obtained
by adding d to the preceding term. So, d found by subtracting any term from its succeeding
term, i.e., the term which immediately follows it should be same for an AP.
For example, for the list of numbers :
6, 9, 12, 15, . . . ,
We have a2 – a1 = 9 – 6 = 3,
a3 – a2 = 12 – 9 = 3,
a4 – a3 = 15 – 12 = 3
Here the difference of any two consecutive terms in each case is 3. So, the given list is an
AP whose first term a is 6 and common difference d is 3.
For the list of numbers : 6, 3, 0, – 3, . . .,
a2 – a1 = 3 – 6 = – 3
a3 – a2 = 0 – 3 = – 3
a4 – a3 = –3 – 0 = –3
Similarly this is also an AP whose first term is 6 and the common difference is –3.
In general, for an AP a1, a2, . . ., an, we have
d = ak + 1 – ak
where ak + 1 and ak are the (k + 1)th and the kth terms respectively.
To obtain d in a given AP, we need not find all of a2 – a1, a3 – a2, a4 – a3, . . . . It is enough to
find only one of them.
Consider the list of numbers 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, . . . . By looking at it, you can tell that the
difference between any two consecutive terms is not the same. So, this is not an AP.

n<û $<ó+ >±,

a = – 7, d = – 2, nsTTq n+¿£çXâ&ó – 7, – 9, – 11, – 13, . . .
a = 1.0, d = 0.1, nsTTq n+¿£çXâ&ó 1.0, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, . . .
1 1 1
a = 0, d=1 , nsTTq n+¿£çXâ&ó 0, 1 2 , 3, 4 2 , 6, . . .
2
a = 2, d = 0, nsTTq n+¿£çXâ&ó 2, 2, 2, 2, . . .
¿±eÚq, a, d \ $\Te\T Ôî*d¾q n+¿£çXâ&ó sjáT>·\+. yûs=¿£ |<ÜÆ >·Ö]Ì #áÖ<Ý+. ÿ¿£ yûÞø MTÅ£ d+K«\ C²_Ô
dï n~ AP ýË +< #î|Î¾ a eT]jáTT d \ $\Te\qT ¿£qT>=q>·\s? a nqTq~ yîTT<{ì |<e TT ¿±eÚq <
dT\uó+ >± sjáTe#áTÌ. n+¿£çXâ&ýó Ë ç|Ü |<e TT < eTT+<T |<e TTqÅ£ d qT ¿£\T|Ú³ e\q e#áTÌq eTqÅ£ Ôî\TdT.
¿±eÚq @<îHÕ |<eTTqT < ÔásÇÔá |<eTT qT+& rd¾yj û Tá T³ <Çs d qT bõ+<e#áTÌqT. nq>± ÔásÁTyÔá e#ûÌ |<e TT
n+¿£çXâ&ýó ËHû +&*.
<V²sÁDÅ£, ç¿ì+~ d+K«\ C²_ÔýË :
6, 9, 12, 15, . . . ,
n<û $<ó+>± a2 – a1 = 9 – 6 = 3,
a3 – a2 = 12 – 9 = 3,
a4 – a3 = 15 – 12 = 3
ºÌq @ sÂ +&T esÁTd d+K«\ uó<ñ + @ d+<sÒÁ +Û ýËHîHÕ »3µ>±Hû +~. n+<Te\¢ ºÌq d+K«\ C²_Ô ÿ¿£
n+¿£çXâ&ó neÚÔáT+~. BýË yîTT<{ì |<e TT a = 6 eT]jáTT kÍeÖq« uó<ñ + d = 3.
6, 3, 0, – 3, . . . nqT yûs=¿£ d+K«\ C²_ÔýË
a2 – a1 = 3 – 6 = – 3
a3 – a2 = 0 – 3 = – 3
a4 – a3 = –3 – 0 = –3
nq>± ~ Å£L& ÿ¿£ n+¿£çXâ&ójûT. BýË yîTT<{ì |<eTT a = 6 eT]jáTT kÍeÖq« uó<ñ + d = –3.
kÍ<ósÁD+>± a1, a2, . . ., an ÿ¿£ n+¿£çXâ&ó nsTTq
d = ak + 1 – ak
#áÌ³ ak + 1, ak \T esÁTd>± (k + 1) e eT]jáTT k e |<\T
ÿ¿£ n+¿£çXâ&ýó Ë d ¿£qT>=qT³Å£ a2 – a1, a3 – a2, a4 – a3, . . . . \qT n+{ì ¿£qT>=qe\d¾q neds+Á ýñ<T .
yýË @<îHÕ ÿ¿£ < $\TeqT ¿£qT>=+fñ d]bþÔáT+~.
1, 1, 2, 3, 5 ...... d+K«\ C²_ÔqT |]o*+#á+&. BýË Âs+&T esÁTd |<\ eT<ó« uó<ñ + d¾s Á+>± (ÿ¹¿ $<ó+ >±)
ýñ<T . n+<Te\¢ ~ n+¿£çXâ&ó ¿±<T.

Note that to find d in the AP : 6, 3, 0, – 3, . . ., we have subtracted 6 from 3 and not 3

from 6, i.e., we should subtract the kth term from the (k + 1) th term even if the (k + 1) th
term is smaller.
Let us make the concept more clear through some examples.
Example 1 : For the AP : 3 , 1 , – 1 , – 3 , . . ., write the first term a and the common
2 2 2 2
difference d.
3 1 3
Solution : Here,a = , d = – = – 1.
2 2 2
Remember that we can find d using any two consecutive terms, once we know that the numbers
are in AP.
Example 2 : Which of the following list of numbers form an AP? If they form an AP, write the
next two terms :
(i) 4, 10, 16, 22, . . . (ii) 1, – 1, – 3, – 5, . . .
(iii) – 2, 2, – 2, 2, – 2, . . . (iv) 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, . . .
Solution :(i) We have a2 – a1 = 10 – 4 = 6
a3 – a2 = 16 – 10 = 6
a4 – a3 = 22 – 16 = 6
i.e., ak + 1 – ak is the same every time.
So, the given list of numbers forms an AP with the common difference d = 6.
The next two terms are: 22 + 6 = 28 and 28 + 6 = 34.
(ii) a2 – a1 = – 1 – 1 = – 2
a3 – a2 = – 3 – ( –1 ) = – 3 + 1 = – 2
a4 – a3 = – 5 – ( –3 ) = – 5 + 3 = – 2
i.e., ak + 1 – ak is the same every time.
So, the given list of numbers forms an AP with the common difference d = – 2.
The next two terms are:
– 5 + (– 2 ) = – 7 and – 7 + (– 2 ) = – 9
(iii) a2 – a1 = 2 – (– 2) = 2 + 2 = 4
a3 – a2 = – 2 – 2 = – 4
As a2 – a1 ¹ a3 – a2 , the given list of numbers does not form an AP..

n+¿£çXâ&ó 6, 3, 0, – 3 .....ýË d ¿£qT>=qT³Å£ eTqeTT 3 qT+& 6qT rd¾ykû ÍeT >·eT+#áeýÉqT. n+Ôû¿±
6 qT+º 3qT ¿±<T. nq>± (k + 1) e |<eTT ºq<îqÕ |Î{ì¿¡ B qT+& ke |<e TTqT rd¾yj û Öá *.
eT]¿= <V²sÁD\ <Çs n+¿£çXâ&ó uó²eqqT eT]+Ôá dÎw+¼ >± Ôî\TdTÅ£+<+.
3 1
<V²sÁD 1 : , , – 1,– 3 , .. . nqT n+¿£çXâ&ýó Ë yîTT<{ì |<eTT a eT]jáTT kÍeÖq«uó<ñ e TT d \qT
2 2 2 2
¿£qT>=qTeTT.
3 1 3
kÍ<óq : #áÌ³, a=
2
, d = – = – 1.
2 2
ºÌq~ n+¿£çXâ&ó n Ôî\TdT ¿£qT¿£ d ¿£qT>=qT³Å£ sÂ +&T esÁTd |<\qT |jÖî Ð+#eTT.
<V²sÁD 2 : ç¿ì+~ yýË @$ n+¿£çXâ&Tó \qT @sÁÎsÁ#Tá qT. ÿ¿£ yûÞø n+¿£çXâ&ó nsTTÔû ÔásÁTyÔá e#ûÌ sÂ +&T |<\T
Ôî\|+&:
(i) 4, 10, 16, 22, . . . (ii) 1, – 1, – 3, – 5, . . .
(iii) – 2, 2, – 2, 2, – 2, . . . (iv) 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, . . .
kÍ<óq : (i) #áÌ³ a2 – a1 = 10 – 4 = 6
a3 – a2 = 16 – 10 = 6
a4 – a3 = 22 – 16 = 6
i.e., ak + 1 – ak $\Te ç|ÜkÍ] d¾s eÁ TT.
¿±eÚq, ºÌq C²_Ô ÿ¿£ n+¿£çXâ&ó n>·TqT. B kÍeÖq«uó<ñ + d = 6.
ÔásTÁ yÔá e#ûÌ Âs+&T |<\T: 22 + 6 = 28 eT]jáTT 28 + 6 = 34.
(ii) a2 – a1 = – 1 – 1 = – 2
a3 – a2 = – 3 – ( –1 ) = – 3 + 1 = – 2
a4 – a3 = – 5 – ( –3 ) = – 5 + 3 = – 2
i.e., ak + 1 – ak $\Te ç|ÜkÍ] d¾s eÁ TT.
¿±eÚq, ºÌq C²_Ô ÿ¿£ n+¿£çXâ&ó neÚÔáT+~. B kÍeÖq«uó<ñ + d = – 2.
ÔásÁTyÔá e#ûÌ Âs+&T |<\T:
– 5 + (– 2 ) = – 7 eT]jáTT – 7 + (– 2 ) = – 9
(iii) a2 – a1 = 2 – (– 2) = 2 + 2 = 4
a3 – a2 = – 2 – 2 = – 4
#áÌ³ a2 – a1 ¹ a3 – a2 , nq>± ºÌq d+K«\ C²_Ô n+¿£çXâ&ó @sÁÎsÁ#<á T .

(iv) a2 – a1 = 1 – 1 = 0
a3 – a2 = 1 – 1 = 0
a4 – a3 = 2 – 1 = 1
Here, a2 – a1 = a3 – a2 ¹ a4 – a3.
So, the given list of numbers does not form an AP.
EXERCISE 5.1
1. In which of the following situations, does the list of numbers involved make an arithmetic
progression, and why?
(i) The taxi fare after each km when the fare is ` 15 for the first km and ` 8 for each
additional km.
1
(ii) The amount of air present in a cylinder when a vacuum pump removes of the air
4
remaining in the cylinder at a time.
(iii) The cost of digging a well after every metre of digging, when it costs ` 150 for the
first metre and rises by ` 50 for each subsequent metre.
(iv) The amount of money in the account every year, when ` 10000 is deposited at
compound interest at 8 % per annum.
2. Write first four terms of the AP, when the first term a and the common difference d are
given as follows:
(i) a = 10, d = 10 (ii) a = –2, d=0
1
(iii) a = 4, d = – 3 (iv) a = – 1, d=
2
(v) a = – 1.25, d = – 0.25
3. For the following APs, write the first term and the common difference:
(i) 3, 1, – 1, – 3, . . . (ii) – 5, – 1, 3, 7, . . .
1 , 5 , 9 , 13 ,
(iii) 3 3 3 3
... (iv) 0.6, 1.7, 2.8, 3.9, . . .
4. Which of the following are APs ? If they form an AP, find the common difference d and
write three more terms.
(i) 2, 4, 8, 16, . . . (ii) 2, 5 , 3, 7 , ...

2 2
(iii) – 1.2, – 3.2, – 5.2, – 7.2, . . . (iv) – 10, – 6, – 2, 2, . . .
(v) 3, 3+ 2 , 3 + 2 2 , 3 + 3 2, . . . (vi) 0.2, 0.22, 0.222, 0.2222, . . .
1 1 1 1
(vii) 0, – 4, – 8, –12, . . . (viii) – , – , – , – , . . .
2 2 2 2

(iv) a2 – a1 = 1 – 1 = 0
a3 – a2 = 1 – 1 = 0
a4 – a3 = 2 – 1 = 1
#á³ a2 – a1 = a3 – a2 ¹ a4 – a3.
¿±eÚq, ºÌq d+K«\ C²_Ô n+¿£çXâ&ó @sÁÎsÁ#<á T .
nuó²«d+ 5.1
1. ¿ì+~ d+|T³q\ýË @ d+|T³qýË @sÁÎ&û d+K«\ C²_Ô n+¿£çXâ&ó neÚÔáT+~? m+<TÅ£?
á D²¿ì ` 15 #=|ðq ÔásÁTyÔá ç|Ü ¿ìýËMT³sÁTÅ£ ` 8 #=|ðq
(i) ÿ¿£ {²¿¡à¿ì yîTT<{ì ¿ìýËMT³sÁT ç|jÖ
#î*¢+#áe\d¾ q ç|Ü ¿ìýËMT³sÁT ÔásÁTyÔá #î*¢+#áe\d¾q kõeTT.
(ii) ÿ¿£ yÅ£L«yT |+|Ú d¾ý+É &sÁTýË eÚ+&û >±* qT+º 14 e e+ÔáT rd¾yj
û Tá TqT. nsTTq ç|ÜkÍ¯ d¾ýÉ+&sTÁ ýË
$TÐ* +&û >±* |]eÖDeTT.
(iii) ÿ¿£ u²$ ÔáeÇ&¿ì yîTT<³ MT³sÁTÅ£ ` 150 e+ÔáTq |Õ ç|Ü MT³sÁTÅ£ ` 50 e+ÔáTq #î*¢+#*.
nsTTq ç|Ü MT³sÁT ÔásTÁ yÔá #î*+¢ #áe\d¾q kõeTT.
(iv) ÿ¿£ u²«+Å£ýË ` 10000 \qT d+eÔáàs¿ì 8 % #áç¿£e&¦ ç|¿±sÁ+ bõ<T|Ú #ûdq¾ ç|Ü d+eÔáàsÁeTT ºesÁýË
U²ÔýË eÚ+&û kõeTT.
2. n+¿£çXâ&Tó \ jîTT¿£Ø yîTT<{ì |<eTT a eT]jáTT kÍeÖq«uó<
ñ + d $\Te\T ç¿ì+< eÇ&q$. nsTTq çXâ&ýó Ë
yîTT<{ì H\T>·T |<\qT ¿£qT>=qTeTT:
(i) a = 10, d = 10 (ii) a = –2, d=0
1
(iii) a = 4, d = – 3 (iv) a = – 1, d=
2
(v) a = – 1.25, d = – 0.25
3. ç¿ì+< eÇ&q n+¿£çXâ&Tó \Å£ yîTT<{ì |<e TTqT, kÍeÖq« uó<ñ + qT ¿£qT>=qTeTT:
(i) 3, 1, – 1, – 3, . . . (ii) – 5, – 1, 3, 7, . . .
1 , 5 , 9 , 13 ,
(iii) 3 3 3 3
... (iv) 0.6, 1.7, 2.8, 3.9, . . .
4. ç¿ì+~ C²_Ô\ýË @$ n+¿£çXâ&Tó \T? ÿ¿£ yûÞø n+¿£çXâ&ó nsTTq kÍeÖq«uóñ<+ d qT, ÔásTÁ yÔá e#ûÌ eTÖ&T |<\qT
¿£qT>=qTeTT.
(i) 2, 4, 8, 16, . . . (ii) 2, 5 , 3, 7 , ...
2 2
(iii) – 1.2, – 3.2, – 5.2, – 7.2, . . . (iv) – 10, – 6, – 2, 2, . . .
(v) 3, 3 + 2 , 3 + 2 2 , 3 + 3 2 , . . . (vi) 0.2, 0.22, 0.222, 0.2222, . . .
1 1 1 1
(vii) 0, – 4, – 8, –12, . . . (viii) – , – , – , – , . . .
2 2 2 2

(ix) 1, 3, 9, 27, . . . (x) a, 2a, 3a, 4a, . . .

(xi) a, a2, a3, a4, . . . (xii) 2, 8, 18 , 32, ...
(xiii) 3, 6, 9 , 12 , ... (xiv) 12, 32, 52, 72, . . .
(xv) 12, 52, 72, 73, . . .
5.3 nth Term of an AP
Let us consider the situation again, given in Section 5.1 in which Reena applied for a job and got
selected. She has been offered the job with a starting monthly salary of ` 8000, with an annual
increment of ` 500. What would be her monthly salary for the fifth year?
To answer this, let us first see what her monthly salary for the second year would be.
It would be ` (8000 + 500) = ` 8500. In the same way, we can find the monthly salary for
the 3rd, 4th and 5th year by adding ` 500 to the salary of the previous year. So, the salary for the
3rd year = ` (8500 + 500)
= ` (8000 + 500 + 500)
= ` (8000 + 2 × 500)
= ` [8000 + (3 – 1) × 500] (for the 3rd year)
= ` 9000
Salary for the 4th year = ` (9000 + 500)
= ` (8000 + 500 + 500 + 500)
= ` (8000 + 3 × 500)
= ` [8000 + (4 – 1) × 500] (for the 4th year)
= ` 9500
Salary for the 5th year = ` (9500 + 500)
= ` (8000+500+500+500 + 500)
= ` (8000 + 4 × 500)
= ` [8000 + (5 – 1) × 500] (for the 5th year)
= ` 10000
Observe that we are getting a list of numbers
8000, 8500, 9000, 9500, 10000, . . .
These numbers are in AP. (Why?)

(ix) 1, 3, 9, 27, . . . (x) a, 2a, 3a, 4a, . . .

(xi) a, a2, a3, a4, . . . (xii) 2, 8, 18 , 32, ...
(xiii) 3, 6, 9 , 12 , ... (xiv) 12, 32, 52, 72, . . .
(xv) 12, 52, 72, 73, . . .
5.3 n+¿£çXâ&ó jîTT¿£Ø ne |<e TT
$uó²>·+ 5.1ýË #á]Ì+ºq »»¯Hµµ <Ã«>·+ ¿Ãd+ <sUÁ ²dTï #ûd¾ <Ã«>·+ bõ+~q $wjáÖ eTs=¿£kÍ] |]o*<Ý+.
yîTÅ£ Hî\Å£ ` 8000 #=|ðq eT]jáTT d+eÔáàsÁeTTqÅ£ ` 500 #=|ðq |+#û $<ó+ >± eÚq <Ã«>·+ýË jáT$T+#á³+
È]Ð+~. nsTTÔû <Ã«>·+ýË #û]q ÔásÁTyÔá 5e d+eÔáàsÁeTTýË yîT JÔá+ m+Ôá +&e#áTÌ?
B¿ì deÖ<óq+ ¿£qT>=H\+fñ eTT+<T <Ã«>·+ýË #û]q ÔásTÁ yÔá sÂ +&e d+eÔáàsÁeTTýË yîT JÔáeTTqT ¿£qT>=H*.
n~ ` (8000 + 500) = ` 8500 <û $<ó+ >±, 3e, 4e, 5e d+eÔáàsÁeTT\ýË yîT JÔáeTTqT eTT+<T
d+eÔáàsÁeTTýË q JÔ¿ì ` 500 ¿£\|³+ <Çs ¿£qT>=qe#áTÌ.
¿±eÚq, 3e d+ööýË yîT JÔá+ = ` (8500 + 500)
= ` (8000 + 500 + 500)
= ` (8000 + 2 × 500)
= ` [8000 + (3 – 1) × 500] (3e d+eÔáàsÁeTT)
= ` 9000
4e d+ööýË yîT JÔá+ = ` (9000 + 500)
= ` (8000 + 500 + 500 + 500)
= ` (8000 + 3 × 500)
= ` [8000 + (4 – 1) × 500] (4e d+eÔáàsÁeTT)
= ` 9500
5e d+ööýË yîT JÔá+ = ` (9500 + 500)
= ` (8000+500+500+500 + 500)
= ` (8000 + 4 × 500)
= ` [8000 + (5 – 1) × 500] (5e d+eÔáàsÁeTT)
= ` 10000
|Õ y qT+º ÿ¿£ d+K«\ C²_Ô @sÁÎ&³+ eTq+ >·eT+#áe#áTÌqT. n~ ç¿ì+~ $<ó+ >± +³T+~.
8000, 8500, 9000, 9500, 10000, . . .
~ ÿ¿£ n+¿£çXâ&.ó (m+<TÅ£?)

Now, looking at the pattern formed above, can you find her monthly salary for the 6th year?
The 15th year? And, assuming that she will still be working in the job, what about the monthly
salary for the 25th year? You would calculate this by adding ` 500 each time to the salary of the
previous year to give the answer. Can we make this process shorter? Let us see. You may have
already got some idea from the way we have obtained the salaries above.
Salary for the 15th year
= Salary for the 14th year + ` 500
é 500 + 500 + 500 + .... + 500 ù
= ` ê8000 ú + ` 500
ë 13 times û
= ` [8000 + 14 × 500]
= ` [8000 + (15 – 1) × 500] = ` 15000
i.e., First salary + (15 – 1) × Annual increment.
In the same way, her monthly salary for the 25th year would be
` [8000 + (25 – 1) × 500] = ` 20000
= First salary + (25 – 1) × Annual increment
This example would have given you some idea about how to write the 15th term, or the
25th term, and more generally, the nth term of the AP.
Let a1, a2, a3, . . . be an AP whose first term a1 is a and the common difference is d.
Then,
the second terma2 = a + d = a + (2 – 1) d
the third term a3 = a2 + d = (a + d) + d = a + 2d = a + (3 – 1) d
the fourth terma4 = a3 + d = (a + 2d) + d = a + 3d = a + (4 – 1) d
........
........
Looking at the pattern, we can say that the nth term an = a + (n – 1) d.
So, the nth term an of the AP with first term a and common difference d is given by
an = a + (n – 1) d.
an is also called the general term of the AP. If there are m terms in the AP, then am

|Õ neT]¿£ <ósÁ+>± 6e, 15e d+eÔáàsÁeTTýË yîT jîTT¿£Ø JÔáeTTqT ¿£qT>=q>·\eÖ? yîT ÿ¿£yÞû ø |Î{ì¿¡ n<û
<Ã«>·+ýË ¿=qkÍÐÔû 25e d+ÔáàsÁeTTýË yîT JÔáeTTqT m+Ôá +&e#áTÌqT? ç|Ü d+eÔáàsÁeTT yîT JÔáeTTqT eTT+<Tq
d+eÔáàsÁeTTýË yîT JÔ¿ì ` 500 ¿£\|³+ <Çs ¿£qT>=qe#áTÌ. nsTTÔû B MýÉÕq+Ôá ÔáÅ£ Øe deTjáT+ýË MýÉqÕ +Ôá
dT\uó+ >± ¿£qT>=q>·\eÖ? |Õ ç|ç¿ìjTá \ýË JÔáeTTqT ¿£qT>=Hû $<óq+ eTqÅ£ ¿=+Ôá ne>±V²q nsTTq~ ¿£qT¿£ <
|jîÖÐ<Ý+.
15e d+ÔáàsÁeTTýË JÔáeTT
= 14e d+ÔáàsÁeTTýË JÔáeTT + ` 500
é 500 + 500 + 500 + .... + 500 ù
= ` ê8000 ú + ` 500
ë 13 times
kÍsÁT¢ û
= ` [8000 + 14 × 500]
= ` [8000 + (15 – 1) × 500] = ` 15000
nq>±, yîTT<{ì JÔá+ + (15 – 1) × y]ü¿£ |sÁT>·T<\
n<û $<ó+ >± 25e d+eÔáàsÁeTTýË yîT JÔá+
` [8000 + (25 – 1) × 500] = ` 20000
= yîTT<{ì JÔá+ + (25 – 1) × y]ü¿£ |sÁT>·T<\
<V²sÁD ÿ¿£ n+¿£çXâ&ýó Ë 15e |<eTTqT, 25e |<eTTqT sjáTT³Å£ ¿±e\d¾q ÿ¿£ dT\TeÚ |<ÜÆ ºÌ+~.
<û |<ÜÆ |jÖî Ð+º ÿ¿£ n+¿£çXâ&ó jîTT¿£Ø ne |<e TTqT ¿£qT>=+<+.
a1, a2, a3, . . . nHû ÿ¿£ n+¿£çXâ& ó rdTÅ£+<+. BýË yîTT<{ì |<+ a1 = a eT]jáTT kÍeÖq« uó<ñ +
d nqTÅ£+<+.
n|ÚÎ&T,
Âs+&e |<+ a2 = a + d = a + (2 – 1) d
eTÖ&e |<+ a3 = a2 + d = (a + d) + d = a + 2d = a + (3 – 1) d
H\Ze |<+ a4 = a3 + d = (a + 2d) + d = a + 3d = a + (4 – 1) d
........
........
|Õ neT]¿£ <ósÁ+>± ne |<+ an = a + (n – 1) d n #î|Îe#áTÌ.
¿±eÚq, yîTT<{ì |<+ a, kÍeÖq« uó<ñ + d >± +fñ n+¿£çXâ&ó jîTT¿£Ø ne |<e TT an = a + (n – 1) d.

represents the last term which is sometimes also denoted by l.

Example 3 : Find the 10th term of the AP : 2, 7, 12, . . .
Solution : Here, a = 2, d = 7 – 2 = 5 and n = 10.
We have an = a + (n – 1) d
So, a10 = 2 + (10 – 1) × 5 = 2 + 45 = 47
Therefore, the 10th term of the given AP is 47.
Example 4 : Which term of the AP : 21, 18, 15, . . . is – 81? Also, is any term 0? Give reason
for your answer.
Solution : Here, a = 21, d = 18 – 21 = – 3 and an = – 81, and we have to find n.
As an = a + ( n – 1) d,
we have – 81 = 21 + (n – 1)(– 3)
– 81 = 24 – 3n
– 105 = – 3n
So, n = 35
Therefore, the 35th term of the given AP is – 81.
Next, we want to know if there is any n for which an = 0. If such an n is there, then
21 + (n – 1) (–3) = 0,
i.e., 3(n – 1) = 21
i.e., n=8
So, the eighth term is 0.
Example 5 : Determine the AP whose 3rd term is 5 and the 7th term is 9.
Solution : We have
a3 = a + (3 – 1) d = a + 2d = 5 (1)
and a7 = a + (7 – 1) d = a + 6d = 9 (2)
Solving the pair of linear equations (1) and (2), we get
a = 3, d = 1
Hence, the required AP is 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, . . .

an qT n+¿£çXâ&ó jîTT¿£Ø kÍ<ósÁD |<e

TT n Å£L& n+{²+. ÿ¿£ n+¿£çXâ&ýó Ë m |<\Tq am |<+ ºe] |<+
neÚÔáT+~. B ¿=kÍsÁT¢ l ÔÃ Å£L& dÖºkÍïsTÁ .
¿= <V²sÁD\qT |]o*<Ý+.
<V²sÁD 3 : 2, 7, 12 .... n+¿£çXâ&ýó Ë 10e |<e TTqT ¿£qT>=qTeTT.
kÍ<óq : #áÌ³, a = 2, d = 7 – 2 = 5 eT]jáTT n = 10.
an = a + (n – 1) d qT+º
¿±eÚq, a10 = 2 + (10 – 1) × 5 = 2 + 45 = 47
n+<Te\q n+¿£çXâ&ýó Ë 10e |<eTT 47.
<V²sÁD 4 : 21, 18, 15, . . . n+¿£çXâ&ýó Ë mqe|<e TT – 81n>·TqT? @<îHÕ ÿ¿£ |<e TT »0µ neÚÔáT+<?
ú deÖ<óqeTTqÅ£ ¿±sÁD²*eTT?
kÍ<óq : #áÌ³, a = 21, d = 18 – 21 = – 3 eT]jáTT an = – 81, eTqeTT n $\Te ¿£qT>=H*.
an = a + ( n – 1) d n eTqÅ£ Ôî\TdT
– 81 = 21 + (n – 1)(– 3)
– 81 = 24 – 3n
– 105 = – 3n
¿±eÚq, n = 35
nq>± |Õ n+¿£çXâ&ýó Ë 35e |<e TT – 81 neÚÔTá +~.
ÔásTÁ yÔá an = 0 njûT«$<ó+ >± n qT ¿£qT>=H*
21 + (n – 1) (–3) = 0,
i.e., 3(n – 1) = 21
i.e., n=8
¿±eÚq, n+¿£çXâ&ó 8e |<e TT 0 neÚÔáT+~.
<V²sÁD 5 : 3e |<eTT 5, 7e |<e TT 9>± +&Tq³T¢ ÿ¿£ n+¿£çXâ&ó ¿£qT>=qTeTT.
kÍ<óq : ýÉ¿Ø£ ç|¿±sÁ+
a3 = a + (3 – 1) d = a + 2d = 5 (1)
eT]jáTT a7 = a + (7 – 1) d = a + 6d = 9 (2)
dMT¿£sDÁ ²\T kÍ<óq #ûjáT>±, (1) eT]jáTT (2) \ qT+&
a = 3, d = 1
¿±{ì,¼ ¿±e\d¾q n+¿£çXâ&ó : 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, . . .

Example 6 : Check whether 301 is a term of the list of numbers 5, 11, 17, 23, . . .
Solution : We have :
a2 – a1 = 11 – 5 = 6, a3 – a2 = 17 – 11 = 6, a4 – a3 = 23 – 17 = 6
As ak + 1 – ak is the same for k = 1, 2, 3, etc., the given list of numbers is an AP.
Now, a = 5 and d = 6.
Let 301 be a term, say, the nth term of this AP.
We know that
an = a + (n – 1) d
So, 301 = 5 + (n – 1) × 6
i.e., 301 = 6n – 1
302 151
So, n= =
6 3
But n should be a positive integer (Why?). So, 301 is not a term of the given list of numbers.
Example 7 : How many two-digit numbers are divisible by 3?
Solution : The list of two-digit numbers divisible by 3 is :
12, 15, 18, . . . , 99
Is this an AP? Yes it is. Here, a = 12, d = 3, an = 99.
As an = a + (n – 1) d,
we have 99 = 12 + (n – 1) × 3
i.e., 87 = (n – 1) × 3
87
i.e., n–1= = 29
3
i.e., n = 29 + 1 = 30
So, there are 30 two-digit numbers divisible by 3.
Example 8 : Find the 11th term from the last term (towards the first term) of the
AP : 10, 7, 4, . . ., – 62.
Solution : Here, a = 10, d = 7 – 10 = – 3, l = – 62,
where l = a + (n – 1) d

<V²sÁD 6 : 5, 11, 17, 23, . . . C²_ÔýË 301 +³T+<Ã ýñ<Ã ¿£qT>=qTeTT?

kÍ<óq : ¿£Ø& :
a2 – a1 = 11 – 5 = 6, a3 – a2 = 17 – 11 = 6, a4 – a3 = 23 – 17 = 6
nq>± k = 1, 2, 3 .... \Å£ ak + 1 – ak d¾s eÁ TT>± +fñ, eÇ&q d+K«\ C²_Ô ÿ¿£ n+¿£çXâ&ó neÚÔáT+~.
n+¿£çXâ&ýó Ë a = 5 eT]jáTT d = 6.
301e |<eTTqT n+¿£çXâ&ýó Ë n e |<e TT nqTÅ£+<+. nq>± an = 301 nsTTÔû
an = a + (n – 1) d n eTqÅ£ Ôî\TdT
¿±eÚq, 301 = 5 + (n – 1) × 6
i.e., 301 = 6n – 1
302 151
¿±eÚq, n= =
6 3
nsTTÔû n ÿ¿£ <óq|PsÁ d+K« ¿±eýÉqT (m+<TÅ£?) ¿±eÚq 301 ºÌq d+K«\ C²_ÔýË +&<T .
<V²sÁD 7 : 3#û uó²Ð+|&û sÂ +&+Â¿\ d+K«\T m?
kÍ<óq : 3#û uó²Ð+|&û Âs+&+Â¿\ d+K«\ C²_Ô:
12, 15, 18, . . . , 99
ó Tû H? neÚqT. ¿£Ø&,
~ ÿ¿£ n+¿£çXâ&j a = 12, d = 3, an = 99.
an = a + (n – 1) d, n eTqÅ£ Ôî\TdT
99 = 12 + (n – 1) × 3
i.e., 87 = (n – 1) × 3
87
i.e., n–1= = 29
3
i.e., n = 29 + 1 = 30
nq>± 3 #û uó²Ð+|&û Âs+&+Â¿\ d+K«\T 30 >·\eÚ.
<V²sÁD 8 : 10, 7, 4, . . ., – 62 n+¿£çXâ&ýó Ë ºe] qT+& 11e |<eTTqT (yîTT<{ì |<+ yîÕ|ÚÅ£ ) ¿£qT>=qTeTT?
kÍ<óq : ¿£Ø&, a = 10, d = 7 – 10 = – 3, l = – 62,
nsTTÔû l = a + (n – 1) d n eTqÅ£ Ôî\TdT.

To find the 11th term from the last term, we will find the total number of terms in the AP.
So, – 62 = 10 + (n – 1)(–3)
i.e., – 72 = (n – 1)(–3)
i.e., n – 1 = 24
or n = 25
So, there are 25 terms in the given AP.
The 11th term from the last term will be the 15th term. (Note that it will not be the 14th
term. Why?)
So, a15 = 10 + (15 – 1)(–3) = 10 – 42 = – 32
i.e., the 11th term from the last term is – 32.
Alternative Solution :
If we write the given AP in the reverse order, then a = – 62 and d = 3 (Why?)
So, the question now becomes finding the 11th term with these a and d.
So, a11 = – 62 + (11 – 1) × 3 = – 62 + 30 = – 32
So, the 11th term, which is now the required term, is – 32.
Example 9 : A sum of ` 1000 is invested at 8% simple interest per year. Calculate the interest
at the end of each year. Do these interests form an AP? If so, find the interest at the end of 30
years making use of this fact.
Solution : We know that the formula to calculate simple interest is given by
P×R ×T
Simple Interest =
100
1000 × 8 ×1
So, the interest at the end of the1st year = ` = ` 80
100
1000 × 8 × 2
The interest at the end of the2nd year = ` = ` 160
100
1000 × 8 × 3
The interest at the end of the3rd year = ` = ` 240
100
Similarly, we can obtain the interest at the end of the 4th year, 5th year, and so on.
So, the interest (in `) at the end of the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, . . . years, respectively are
80, 160, 240, . . .

ºe] qT+& 11e |<e TTqT ¿£qT>=qeýÉqq eTT+<T>± çXâ&ýó Ë m |<\T qyÃ ¿£qT>=qeýÉqT.
¿±eÚq, – 62 = 10 + (n – 1)(–3)
i.e., – 72 = (n – 1)(–3)
i.e., n – 1 = 24
ýñ< n = 25
nq>± eÇ&q n+¿£çXâ&ýó Ë 25 |<\T +{²sTT.
n+fñ ºe] qT+º 11e |<e TT yîTT<{ì qT+º 15e |<+ neÚÔáT+~. (14e |<+ ¿±<T m+<TÅ£?)
¿±eÚq, a15 = 10 + (15 – 1)(–3) = 10 – 42 = – 32
nq>±, ºe] qT+º 11e |<e TT – 32.
ç|Ô«eÖjáT kÍ<óq :
ºÌq n+¿£çXâ&ó yîqT¿£ qT+& çyjáT>± n|Ú&T a = – 62 eT]jáTT d = 3 (m+<TÅ£?)
|Ú&T a eT]jáTT d \qT |jîÖÐ+º 11e |<eTTqT ¿£qT>=qT³ eTq deTd« n>·TqT.
¿±eÚq, a11 = – 62 + (11 – 1) × 3 = – 62 + 30 = – 32
¿±eÚq, |Ú&T eTqÅ£ ¿±e*àq 11e |<e TT – 32.
<V²sÁD 9 : ` 1000 \Å£ d+eÔáàs¿ì 8% u²sÁTe&¦ ç|¿±sÁeTT ç|Ü d+eÔáàs+Ô¿ì njûT« e&¦ ¿£qT>=qTeTT?
e&\¦ C²_Ô ÿ¿£ n+¿£çXâ&ó neÚÔáT+<? ÿ¿£yÞû ø n+¿£çXâ&ó nsTTÔû 30e d+eÔáàsÁeTT ºesÁ njûT« e&¦ ¿£qT>=qTeTT?
kÍ<óq : u²sÁTe&¦ ¿£qT>=qT³Å£ dÖçÔáeTT
P×R ×T
u²sÁTe&¦ = 100
n eTqÅ£ Ôî\TdT
1000 × 8 ×1
¿±eÚq, 1e d+ÔáàsÁeTT ºesÁ njûT« e&¦ = ` = ` 80
100
1000 × 8 × 2
2e d+ÔáàsÁeTT ºesÁ njûT« e&¦ = ` = ` 160
100
1000 × 8 × 3
3e d+ÔáàsÁeTT ºesÁ njûT« e&¦ = ` = ` 240
100
$<ó+>± 4e, 5e .... d+eÔáàs\ ºesÁ njûT« e&\¦ qT ¿£qT>=qe#áTÌ.
nq>± 1e, 2e, 3e .... d+eÔáàs\ ºesÁ njûT« e&¦\ $\Te (` \ýË) esÁTd>±,
80, 160, 240, . . .

It is an AP as the difference between the consecutive terms in the list is 80, i.e.,
d = 80. Also, a = 80.
So, to find the interest at the end of 30 years, we shall find a30.
Now, a30 = a + (30 – 1) d = 80 + 29 × 80 = 2400
So, the interest at the end of 30 years will be ` 2400.
Example 10 : In a flower bed, there are 23 rose plants in the first row, 21 in the second, 19 in
the third, and so on. There are 5 rose plants in the last row. How many rows are there in the
flower bed?
Solution : The number of rose plants in the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, . . ., rows are :
23, 21, 19, . . ., 5
It forms an AP (Why?). Let the number of rows in the flower bed be n.
Then a = 23, d = 21 – 23 = – 2, an = 5
As, an = a + (n – 1) d
We have, 5 = 23 + (n – 1)(– 2)
i.e., – 18 = (n – 1)(– 2)
i.e., n = 10
So, there are 10 rows in the flower bed.
EXERCISE 5.2
1. Fill in the blanks in the following table, given that a is the first term, d the common
difference and an the nth term of the AP:
a d n an
(i) 7 3 8 ...
(ii) – 18 ... 10 0
(iii) ... –3 18 –5
(iv) – 18.9 2.5 ... 3.6
(v) 3.5 0 10 5 ...

|Õ C²_ÔýË Âs+&T esÁTd |<\ uóñ<eTT 80 d¾seÁ TT ¿£qT¿£ ~ ÿ¿£ n+¿£çXâ&ó neÚÔáT+~.
#áÌ³ a = 80, d = 80.
nq>± 30d+eÔáàs\ ºesÁ njûT« e&¦ ¿£qT>=qeýÉqq eTqeTT a30 ¿£qT>=qeýÉqT.
\ a30 = a + (30 – 1) d = 80 + 29 × 80 = 2400
\ 30 d+eÔáàsÁeTT\ ºesÁ njûT« e&¦ ` 2400.
<V²sÁD 10 : ÿ¿£ |P\ÔÃ³ýË yîTT<{ì esÁTdýË 23 >·Tý²; #î³T¢, sÂ +&e esÁTdýË 21, eTÖ&e esÁTdýË 19 ....
HsTT. ºe] esÁTdýË 5 #î³T¢ q, |P\ ÔÃ³ýË m esÁTd\T ¿£\eÚ?
kÍ<óq : 1e, 2e, 3e .... ºe] esÁTdýË #î³¢ d+K« esÁTd>± :
23, 21, 19, . . ., 5
~ ÿ¿£ n+¿£çXâ&ó (m+<TÅ£?) |P\ ÔÃ³ýË esÁTdý d+K« n nqT¿=q
|ÚÎ&T a = 23, d = 21 – 23 = – 2, an = 5
an = a + (n – 1) d n eTqÅ£ Ôî\TdT
5 = 23 + (n – 1)(– 2)
i.e., – 18 = (n – 1)(– 2)
i.e., n = 10
¿±eÚq, |P\ ÔÃ³ýË esÁTd\ d+K« 10
nuó²«d+ 5.2
1. n+¿£çXâ&ýó Ë yîTT<{ì |<e TT a, kÍeÖq« uñ<eó TT d, n e |<e TT an nsTTq ç¿ì+~ |{¿ì¼ ý£ Ë U²°\qT |P]+|ÚeTT:
a d n an
(i) 7 3 8 ...
(ii) – 18 ... 10 0
(iii) ... –3 18 –5
(iv) – 18.9 2.5 ... 3.6
(v) 3.5 0 10 5 ...

2. Choose the correct choice in the following and justify :

(i) 30th term of the AP: 10, 7, 4, . . . , is
(A) 97 (B) 7 7 (C) –7 7 (D) – 87
1
(ii) 11th term of the AP: – 3, - , 2, . . ., is
2
1
(A) 28 (B) 2 2 (C) –38 (D) – 48
2
3. In the following APs, find the missing terms in the boxes :
(i) 2, , 26
(ii) , 13, , 3
1
(iii) 5, , , 9
2
(iv) – 4, , , , , 6
(v) , 38, , , , – 22
4. Which term of the AP : 3, 8, 13, 18, . . . ,is 78?
5. Find the number of terms in each of the following APs :
1
(i) 7, 13, 19, . . . , 205 (ii) 18, 15 , 13, . . . , – 47
2
6. Check whether – 150 is a term of the AP : 11, 8, 5, 2 . . .
7. Find the 31st term of an AP whose 11th term is 38 and the 16th term is 73.
8. An AP consists of 50 terms of which 3rd term is 12 and the last term is 106. Find the 29th
term.
9. If the 3rd and the 9th terms of an AP are 4 and – 8 respectively, which term of this AP is
zero?
10. The 17th term of an AP exceeds its 10th term by 7. Find the common difference.
11. Which term of the AP : 3, 15, 27, 39, . . . will be 132 more than its 54th term?
12. Two APs have the same common difference. The difference between their 100th terms is
100, what is the difference between their 1000th terms?
13. How many three-digit numbers are divisible by 7?
14. How many multiples of 4 lie between 10 and 250?
15. For what value of n, are the nth terms of two APs: 63, 65, 67, . . . and 3, 10, 17, . . . equal?
16. Determine the AP whose third term is 16 and the 7th term exceeds the 5th term by 12.

2. ç¿ì+~ yýË dsÂ qÕ deÖ<óqeTTqT mqT¿=qTeTT eT]jáTT d]#áÖ&+& :

(i) 10, 7, 4 ...... n+¿£çXâ&ý
ó Ë 30e |<eTT
(A) 97 (B) 7 7 (C) –7 7 (D) – 87
1
(ii) – 3, - , 2, . . . n+¿£çXâ&ý
ó Ë 11e |<eTT
2
1
(A) 28 (B) 2 2 (C) –38 (D) – 48
2
3. ç¿ì+< eÇ&q n+¿£çXâ&Tó ýË¢ u²Å£àýË¢ ýË|¾+ºq |<\qT ¿£qT>=qTeTT :
(i) 2, , 26
(ii) , 13, , 3
1
(iii) 5, , , 9
2
(iv) – 4, , , , , 6
(v) , 38, , , , – 22
4. 3, 8, 13, 18 .... n+¿£çXâ&ýó Ë mqe |<e TT 78 neÚÔTá +~?
5. ç¿ì+< eÇ&q n+¿£çXâ&Tó \ýË |<\ d+K«qT ¿£qT>=qTeTT?
1
(i) 7, 13, 19, . . . , 205 (ii) 18, 15 , 13, . . . , – 47
2
6. 11, 8, 5, 2 ..... n+¿£çXâ&ýó Ë – 150 ÿ¿£ |<+ >± +³T+<Ã ýñ<Ã |]o*+#áTeTT.
7. ÿ¿£ n+¿£çXâ&ýó Ë 11e |<e TT 38 eT]jáTT 16e |<e TT 73 nsTTq 31e |<e TT ¿£qT>=qTeTT?
8. 50 |<\T ¿£*Ðq ÿ¿£ n+¿£çXâ&ýó Ë 3e |<e TT 12 eT]jáTT ºe] |<eTT 106. nsTTH 29e |<
¿£qT>=qTeTT.
9. ÿ¿£ n+¿£çXâ&ýó Ë 3e, 9e |<\T esÁTd>± 4, – 8 nsTTq n+¿£çXâ&ýó Ë mqe |<+ »0µ (dTq) neÚÔáT+~?
10. ÿ¿£ n+¿£çXâ&ýó Ë 17e |<e TT 10e |<eTT ¿£+fñ 7 mÅ£Øe nsTTq kÍeÖq« uóñ<+ ¿£qT>=q+&.
11. 3, 15, 27, 39 .... n+¿£çXâ&ýó Ë mqe |<eTT 54e |<e TT ¿£+fñ 132 mÅ£Øe>± +³T+~?
12. Âs+&T n+¿£çXâ&Tó \ kÍeÖq« uñ<+ó deÖqeTT. y 100e |<\ eT<ó« uóñ<+ 100 nsTTq y 1000e |<\
eT<ó« uó<ñ + m+Ôá?
13. 7#û uó²Ð+|&û eTÖ&+¿Â \ d+K«\T m ¿£\eÚ?
14. 10 eT]jáTT 250 \ eT<ó« >·\ 4 jîTT¿£Ø >·TDìC²\ d+K«qT ¿£qT>=qTeTT?
15. 63, 65, 67 .... eT]jáTT 3, 10, 17 ..... n+¿£çXâ&Tó \ ne |<\T deÖqeTT nsTTq n $\TeqT ¿£qT>=qTeTT.
16. 3e |<e TT 16>±, 7e |<e TT 5e |<e TT ¿£+fñ 12 mÅ£Øe +&Tq³T¢>± ÿ¿£ n+¿£çXâ&ó ¿£qT>=qTeTT.

17. Find the 20th term from the last term of the AP : 3, 8, 13, . . ., 253.
18. The sum of the 4th and 8th terms of an AP is 24 and the sum of the 6th and 10th terms is
44. Find the first three terms of the AP.
19. Subba Rao started work in 1995 at an annual salary of ` 5000 and received an increment of
` 200 each year. In which year did his income reach ` 7000?
20. Ramkali saved ` 5 in the first week of a year and then increased her weekly savings by
` 1.75. If in the nth week, her weekly savings become ` 20.75, find n.
5.4 Sum of First n Terms of an AP
Let us consider the situation again given in
Section 5.1 in which Shakila put ` 100 into
her daughter’s money box when she was one
year old, ` 150 on her second birthday,
` 200 on her third birthday and will continue
in the same way. How much money will be
collected in the money box by the time her
daughter is 21 years old?
Here, the amount of money (in `) put in the money box on her first, second, third, fourth .
. . birthday were respectively 100, 150, 200, 250, . . . till her 21st birthday. To find the total
amount in the money box on her 21st birthday, we will have to write each of the 21 numbers in
the list above and then add them up. Don’t you think it would be a tedious and time consuming
process? Can we make the process shorter? This would be possible if we can find a method for
getting this sum. Let us see.
We consider the problem given to Gauss (about whom you read in
Chapter 1), to solve when he was just 10 years old. He was asked to find the sum of the positive
integers from 1 to 100. He immediately replied that the sum is 5050. Can you guess how did he
do? He wrote :
S = 1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + 99 + 100
And then, reversed the numbers to write
S = 100 + 99 + . . . + 3 + 2 + 1
Adding these two, he got
2S = (100 + 1) + (99 + 2) + . . . + (3 + 98) + (2 + 99) + (1 + 100)
= 101 + 101 + . . . + 101 + 101 (100 times)
100 ´ 101
So, S= = 5050 , i.e., the sum = 5050.
2

17. 3, 8, 13 ....... 253 n+¿£çXâ&ó jîTT¿£Ø ºe] qT+º 20e |<e TTqT ¿£qT>=qTeTT.
18. ÿ¿£ n+¿£çXâ&ýó Ë 4e eT]jáTT 8e |<\ yîTTÔáeï TT 24 eT]jáTT 6e, 10e |<\ yîTTÔáeï TT 44 nsTTq,n+¿£çXâ&ýó Ë
yîTT<{ì eTÖ&T |<\qT ¿£qT>=qTeTT.
19. dTu²ÒseÚ 1995e d+eÔáàsÁ+ýË ` 5000 y]ü¿£ JÔá+ÔÃ <Ã«>·+ýË #ûs&T. nÔá JÔáeTT d+eÔáàsÁeTTqÅ£
` 200 |]Ðq, nÔá JÔáeTT @ d+eÔáàsÁeTTýË ` 7000 neÚÔTá +~?
20. seT¿±[ d+eÔáàsÁ|Ú yîTT<{ì ysÁ+ýË ` 5 \qT < #ûdqT. eT]jáTT ÔásTÁ yÔá yîT bõ<T|ÚqT ` 1.75 #=|ðq
ç|Ü ysÁ+ |+ºq~. n e ysÁeTTýË yîT ysÁ|Ú bõ<T|Ú ` 20.75 nsTTq n $\Te ¿£qT>=qTeTT.
5.4 ÿ¿£ n+¿£çXâ&ýó Ë yîTT<{ì n |<\ yîTTÔá+ï
$uó²>·+ 5.1ýË #á]Ì+ºq w¿ý¡ ² $wjÖá eTs=¿£kÍ]
|]o*<Ý+. yîT Ôáq Å£LÔáTsÁT yîTT<{ì |Ú{ìq¼ sÃEq
` 100 Âs+&e |Ú{ì¼q sÃEq ` 150 eTÖ&e |Ú{q ¼ì
sÃEq ` 200 ...... ÿ¿£ &TÒ\ |fÉý¼ Ë <#áTÔáÖ
bþsTT+~. nsTTÔû yîT Å£LÔáTsÁT jîTT¿£Ø 21e |Ú{ìq¼ sÃE
nq+ÔáseÁ TT &TÒ\ |fÉ¼ýË kõeTT yîTTÔáï+ m+Ôá
+³T+~?
#áÌ³ yîTT<{,ì sÂ +&e, eTÖ&e .... |Ú{ìq¼ sÃEq |fÉý¼ Ë +ºq kõeTT $\Te\T (` \ýË) esÁTd>± 100, 150,
200.... ý² 21e |Ú{q¼ì sÃE esÁÅL£ ¿=qkÍÐ+#á&q~. 21e |Ú{ìq¼ sÃE nq+Ôás+Á |fÉý¼ Ë yîTTÔá+ï kõeTTqT
¿£qT>=qeýÉqq |Õ C²_ÔýË 21 |<\qT esÁTd>± sd¾ y yîTTÔáeï TTqT ¿£qT>=qe\d¾ +³T+~. $<ó+ >± #ûjTá ³+
deTjáT+ e<ó #ûjTû &yTû ¿±Å£+& ¿£w¼y Tî q® ~>± MTsÁT uó²$+#á³+ ýñ<? B ÔáÅ£ Øe deTjáT+ýË dT\uó+ >± #ûjTá ýñeÖ?
yîTTÔï ¿£qT>=qT³Å£ ÿ¿£ dÖçÔ ¿£qT>=q³¢sTTÔû, ~ dT\uó kÍ<óq eTTÔáT+~.
>dt (1e n<ó«jáT+ýË MTsÁT #á~$q e«¿ì)ï 10 d+eÔáàs\ ejáTdTàýË kÍ~ó+ºq ÿ¿£ deTd«qT |ð&T eTqeTT
|]o*<Ý+. 1 qT+º 100 esÁÅL£ >·\ n d+K«\ yîTTÔá+ï m+Ôá? n Ôá ç|¥+#á&+ È]Ð+~. ÔáqT <¿ì
deÖ<óq+>± 5050 n #î|Î¾ H&T. nÔáqT @ $<ó+ >± deÖ<óq+ #îbÍÎ&Ã }V¾²+#á>\· s? nÔáqT < ç¿ì+~
$<ó+ >± skÍ&T:
S = 1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + 99 + 100
Ü]Ð nÔáqT BHû Ü]Ð ç¿ì+< $<ó+ >± skÍ&T
S = 100 + 99 + . . . + 3 + 2 + 1
nÔáqT Âs+&+{ì Å£L& dÖ¿¡¿£]+º |* ÔáeTTqT ç¿ì+~ $<ó+ >± ¿£qT>=H&T
2S = (100 + 1) + (99 + 2) + . . . + (3 + 98) + (2 + 99) + (1 + 100)
= 101 + 101 + . . . + 101 + 101 (100 kÍsÁT)¢
100 ´ 101
¿±eÚq, S= = 5050 , nq>± yîTTÔáe
ï TT = 5050.
2

We will now use the same technique to find the sum of the first n terms of an AP :
a, a + d, a + 2d, . . .
The nth term of this AP is a + (n – 1) d. Let S denote the sum of the first n terms of the AP.
We have
S = a + (a + d ) + (a + 2d ) + . . . + [a + (n – 1) d ] (1)
Rewriting the terms in reverse order, we have
S = [a + (n – 1) d ] + [a + (n – 2) d ] + . . . + (a + d ) + a (2)
On adding (1) and (2), term-wise. we get
[2a + (n - 1)d ] + [2a + (n - 1)d ] + ... + [2a + (n - 1)d ] + [2a + (n - 1)d ]
2S =
n times
or, 2S = n [2a + (n – 1) d ] (Since, there are n terms)
n
or, S= [2a + (n – 1) d ]
2
So, the sum of the first n terms of an AP is given by
n
S= [2a + (n – 1) d ]
2
n
We can also write this as S= [a + a + (n – 1) d ]
2
n
i.e., S= (a + an ) (3)
2
Now, if there are only n terms in an AP, then an = l, the last term.
From (3), we see that
n
S= (a + l ) (4)
2
This form of the result is useful when the first and the last terms of an AP are given and the
common difference is not given.
Now we return to the question that was posed to us in the beginning. The amount of money
(in Rs) in the money box of Shakila’s daughter on 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th birthday, . . ., were 100, 150,
200, 250, . . ., respectively.
This is an AP. We have to find the total money collected on her 21st birthday, i.e., the sum
of the first 21 terms of this AP.

eTq+ Å£L& a, a + d, a + 2d, . . . çXâ&ýó Ë n |<\ yîTTÔï ¿£qT>=qT³Å£ |Õ |<ÜÆ Hû bÍ{ì<Ý+.
|Õ çXâ&ó jîTT¿£Ø n e |<e TT a + (n – 1) d. n>·TqT. |Õ n+¿£çXâ&ýó Ë n |<\ yîTTÔáeï TT S nqT¿=q
S = a + (a + d ) + (a + 2d ) + . . . + [a + (n – 1) d ] (1)
eTsÁý² |<\qT yîqT¿£qT+& esÁTdç¿£eT+ýËeT çyjáT>±
S = [a + (n – 1) d ] + [a + (n – 2) d ] + . . . + (a + d ) + a (2)
(1) eT]jáTT (2) \qT ¿£\T|>±,
[2a + (n - 1)d ] + [2a + (n - 1)d ] + ...+ [2a + (n - 1)d ] + [2a + (n - 1)d ]
2S =
n kÍsTÁ¢
ýñ<, 2S = n [2a + (n – 1) d ] (n |<\T ¿£\eÚ ¿±eÚq)

n
ýñ<, S = 2
[2a + (n – 1) d ]
ÿ¿£ n+¿£çXâ&ýó Ë yîTT<{ì n |<\ yîTTÔáïeTT

n
S= [2a + (n – 1) d ]
2
n
S= [a + a + (n – 1) d ] >± Å£L& sjáTe#áTÌ
2
n
i.e., S= (a + an ) (3)
2
ÿ¿£ n+¿£çXâ&ýó Ë ¿¹ e\+ n |<\T eÖçÔáyTû q n|Ú&T an = l, (ºe] |<e TT) n>·TqT
(3) qT+&, eTq+ #áÖ&e#áTÌ
n
S= (a + l ) (4)
2
ÿ¿£ n+¿£çXâ&ýó Ë yîTT<{ì |<eTT, ºe] |<eTT\T eÖçÔáyûT Ôî*d¾ kÍeÖq« uñ<ó+ Ôî*jáTq|Ú&T dÖçÔá+
|jÖî >·|& T qT.
Ü]Ð eTq+ yîTT<{Ë¢ yûdT Å£q ç|Xø qT |]o*<Ý+. w¿ý¡ ² Å£LÔáTsÁT jîTT¿£Ø 1e, 2e, 3e, 4e .... |Ú{ìq¼ sÃEq
|fÉ¼ýË +#û kõeTT esÁTd>± 100, 150, 200, 250 .......
~ ÿ¿£ n+¿£çXâ&.ó eTqeTT w¿ý¡ ² Å£LÔáTsÁT jîTT¿£Ø 21e |Ú{ìq¼ sÃE nq+ÔáseÁ TT |fÉý¼ Ë yîTTÔá+ï kõeTTqT
¿£qT>=H*. nq>± n+¿£çXâDýì Ë yîTT<{ì 21 |<\ yîTTÔï ¿£qT>=H*.

Here, a = 100, d = 50 and n = 21. Using the formula :

n
S= [ 2a + (n - 1) d ] ,
2
21 21
we have S= [ 2 ´ 100 + (21 - 1) ´ 50] = [ 200 + 1000]
2 2
21
= ´ 1200 = 12600
2
So, the amount of money collected on her 21st birthday is ` 12600.
Hasn’t the use of the formula made it much easier to solve the problem?
We also use Sn in place of S to denote the sum of first n terms of the AP. We write S20 to
denote the sum of the first 20 terms of an AP. The formula for the sum of the first n terms
involves four quantities S, a, d and n. If we know any three of them, we can find the fourth.
Remark : The nth term of an AP is the difference of the sum to first n terms and the sum to
first (n – 1) terms of it, i.e., an = Sn – Sn – 1.
Example 11 : Find the sum of the first 22 terms of the AP : 8, 3, –2, . . .

Solution : Here, a = 8, d = 3 – 8 = –5, n = 22.
We know that
n
S= [ 2a + (n - 1) d ]
2
22
Therefore, S= [16 + 21 (-5)] = 11(16 – 105) = 11(–89) = – 979
2
So, the sum of the first 22 terms of the AP is – 979.
Example 12 : If the sum of the first 14 terms of an AP is 1050 and its first term is 10, find the
20th term.
Solution : Here, S14 = 1050, n = 14, a = 10.
n
As Sn = [ 2a + (n - 1)d ] ,
2
14
so, 1050 = [ 20 + 13d ] = 140 + 91d
2

#áÌ³, a = 100, d = 50 eT]jáTT n = 21.

n
S= [ 2a + (n - 1) d ] dÖçÔ |jÖî Ð+º
2
21 21
S= [ 2 ´ 100 + (21 - 1) ´ 50] = [ 200 + 1000]
2 2
21
= ´ 1200 = 12600
2
21e |Ú{ìq¼ sÃE nq+ÔáseÁ TT |fÉý¼ Ë kõeTT ` 12600.
dÖçÔ |jÖî Ð+º deTd«qT |]wØ]+#á³+ #ý² dT\uóÔ sá +Á . ¿±<?
S <T\T>± Sn qT y&T<+. Be\¢ m |<\ yîTTÔá+ï eTq+ ¿£qT>=+³THyîÖ Ôî\TdT+ï ~. yîTT<{ì 20 |<\
yîTTÔáï+ ¿£qT>=qT³Å£ eTq+ S20 y&Ô+. eTq+ n+¿£çXâ&ýó Ë yîTT<{ì n |<\ yîTTÔï ¿£qT>=qT³Å£ |jîÖÐ+#û
dÖçÔáeTTýË H\T>·T sXø\T ¿£\eÚ. n$ S, a, d eT]jáTT n. BýË @yîÕH eTÖ&T sXø\ $\Te\T Ôî*d¾q H\T>·e
s¥ ¿£qT>=q>·\+.
dÖ#áq : ÿ¿£ n+¿£çXâ&ýó Ë yîTT<{ì n |<\ yîTTÔá+ï qT+º yîTT<{ì (n – 1) |<\ yîTTÔï rd¾ydû q¾ çXâ&ó jîTT¿£Ø n e
|<e TT edTï+~. nq>±, an = Sn – Sn – 1.
eTq+ ¿= <V²sÁD\qT |]o*<Ý+.
<V²sÁD 11 : 8, 3, – 2 ..... n+¿£çXâ&ýó Ë yîTT<{ì 22 |<\ yîTTÔáïeTTqT ¿£qT>=qTeTT.
kÍ<óq : ¿£Ø&, a = 8, d = 3 – 8 = –5, n = 22.
n
S= [ 2a + (n - 1) d ] n eTqÅ£ Ôî\TdT
2
22
\ S= [16 + 21 (-5)] = 11(16 – 105) = 11(–89) = – 979
2
¿±eÚq n+¿£çXâ&óýË yîTT<{ì 22 |<\ yîTTÔáeï TT – 979.
<V²sÁD 12 : ÿ¿£ n+¿£çXâ&ýó Ë yîTT<{ì |<+ 10 eT]jáTT yîTT<{ì 14 |<\ yîTTÔáeï TT 1050 eT]jáTT yîTT<{ì |<+
10 nsTTq 20 e |<e TTqT ¿£qT>=qTeTT.
kÍ<óq : ¿£Ø& S14 = 1050, n = 14, a = 10.
n
Sn = [ 2a + (n - 1)d ] ,
2
14
¿±eÚq, 1050 = [ 20 + 13d ] = 140 + 91d
2

i.e., 910 = 91d

or, d = 10
Therefore, a20 = 10 + (20 – 1) × 10 = 200, i.e. 20th term is 200.
Example 13 : How many terms of the AP : 24, 21, 18, . . . must be taken so that their sum is 78?
Solution : Here, a = 24, d = 21 – 24 = –3, Sn = 78. We need to find n.
n
We know that Sn = [ 2a + (n - 1)d ]
2
n n
So, 78 = [ 48 + (n - 1)(-3)] = [51 - 3n]
2 2
or 3n2 – 51n + 156 = 0

or n2 – 17n + 52 = 0
or (n – 4)(n – 13) = 0
or n = 4 or 13
Both values of n are admissible. So, the number of terms is either 4 or 13.
Remarks :
1. In this case, the sum of the first 4 terms = the sum of the first 13 terms = 78.
2. Two answers are possible because the sum of the terms from 5th to 13th will be zero. This
is because a is positive and d is negative, so that some terms will be positive and some
others negative, and will cancel out each other.
Example 14 : Find the sum of :

(i) the first 1000 positive integers (ii) the first n positive integers
Solution :
(i) Let S = 1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + 1000
n
Using the formula Sn = (a + l ) for the sum of the first n terms of an AP, we have
10002
S1000 = (1 + 1000) = 500 × 1001 = 500500
2
So, the sum of the first 1000 positive integers is 500500.
(ii) Let Sn = 1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + n
Here a = 1 and the last term l is n.

nq>±, 910 = 91d

\ d = 10
\ a20 = 10 + (20 – 1) × 10 = 200, nq>± 20e |<e
TT 200.
<V²sÁD 13 : 24, 21, 18 .... n+¿£çXâ&ýó Ë m |<\qT rdTÅ£q y yîTTÔá+ï 78 neÚÔTá +~?
kÍ<óq : #áÌ³, a = 24, d = 21 – 24 = –3, Sn = 78. n jîTT¿£Ø $\TeqT eTq+ ¿£qT>=H*.
n
Sn = [ 2a + (n - 1)d ] n eTqÅ£ Ôî\TdT
2
n n
¿±eÚq, 78 = [ 48 + (n - 1)(-3)] = [51 - 3n]
2 2
3n2 – 51n + 156 = 0

n2 – 17n + 52 = 0
(n – 4)(n – 13) = 0
n= 4
ýñ< 13
n jîTT¿£Ø Âs+&T $\Te\qT |]>·DýË¿ì rdT¿Ãe#áTÌ. nq>± |<\ d+K« 4 ýñ< 13.
dÖ#áq\T:
1. #áÌ³ yîTT<{ì 4 |<\ yîTTÔáeï TT = yîTT<{ì 13 |<\ yîTTÔáeï TT = 78.
2. çXâ&óýË 5e |<+ qT+º 13e |<+ esÁÅ£L >·\ |<\ yîTTÔáï+ dTH. m+<T¿£q>± #áÌ³ »aµ <óH Ôá¿£+ eT]jáTT
»d µ kÍeÖq«uñ<eó TT jîTT¿£Ø $\Te TTD²Ôá¿£eTT. B e\¢ ¿= |<\T <óH ¿£Ôá ¿£eTT, eT]¿= |<\T TTD²Ôá¿£+
neÚÔáÖ |*Ôá+ XøSq«+ ¿±e#áTÌ.
<V²sÁD 14 : ç¿ì+~ y yîTTÔï\qT ¿£qT>=qTeTT:
(i) yîTT<{ì 1000 <óq|PsÁ d+K«\T (ii) yîTT<{ì n <óq |PsÁ d+K«\T
kÍ<óq :
(i) S = 1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + 1000 nqT¿=qTeTT.
n
n+¿£çXâ&ýó Ë yîTT<{ì »nµ |<\ yîTTÔï ¿£qT>=qT³Å£ >·\ dÖçÔáeTT Sn = (a + l ) qT |jîÖÐ+ºq
1000 2
S1000 = (1 + 1000) = 500 × 1001 = 500500
2
yîTT<{ì 1000 <óq|PsÁ d+K«\ yîTTÔáï+ 500500.
(ii) Sn = 1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + n nqT¿=qTeTT.
#áÌ³ a = 1 eT]jáTT ºe] |<+ l = n.

n (1 + n) n (n + 1)
Therefore, Sn = or Sn =
2 2
So, the sum of first n positive integers is given by
n( n + 1)
Sn =
2
Example 15 : Find the sum of first 24 terms of the list of numbers whose nth term is given by
an = 3 + 2n
Solution :
As an = 3 + 2n,
so, a1 = 3 + 2 = 5
a2 = 3 + 2 × 2 = 7
a3 = 3 + 2 × 3 = 9
M
List of numbers becomes 5, 7, 9, 11, . . .
Here, 7 – 5 = 9 – 7 = 11 – 9 = 2 and so on.
So, it forms an AP with common difference d = 2.
To find S24, we have n = 24, a = 5, d = 2.
24
Therefore, S24 = [ 2 ´ 5 + (24 - 1) ´ 2] = 12 [10 + 46] = 672
2
So, sum of first 24 terms of the list of numbers is 672.
Example 16 : A manufacturer of TV sets produced 600 sets in the third year and 700 sets in the
seventh year. Assuming that the production increases uniformly by a fixed number every year,
find :
(i) the production in the 1st year (ii) the production in the 10th year
(iii) the total production in first 7 years
Solution : (i) Since the production increases uniformly by a fixed number every year, the
number of TV sets manufactured in 1st, 2nd, 3rd, . . ., years will form an AP.
Let us denote the number of TV sets manufactured in the nth year by an.
Then, a3 = 600 and a7 = 700

n (1 + n) n (n + 1)
n+<Te\q Sn = ýñ< Sn =
2 2
¿±eÚq yîTT<{ì n <óq|PsÁ d+K«\ yîTTÔá+ï
n( n + 1)
Sn =
2
<V²sÁD 15 : an = 3 + 2n qT n e |<+ >± ¿£*Ðq çXâ&ó jîTT¿£Ø yîTT<{ì 24 |<\ yîTTÔï ¿£qT>=qTeTT.
kÍ<óq :
an = 3 + 2n,
¿£qT¿£, a1 = 3+2=5
a2 = 3+2×2=7
a3 = 3+2×3=9
M
d+K«\ C²_Ô 5, 7, 9, 11, . . .
#áÌ³, 7 – 5 = 9 – 7 = 11 – 9 = 2 ...........
nq>± C²_Ô ÿ¿£ n+¿£çXâ&.ó B kÍeÖq« uñ<eó TT d = 2.
S24 ¿£qT>=qT³Å£ n = 24, a = 5, d = 2 n eTqÅ£ Ôî\TdT.
24
\ S24 = [ 2 ´ 5 + (24 - 1) ´ 2] = 12 [10 + 46] = 672
2
ºÌq çXâ&ýó Ë 24 |<\ yîTTÔáeï TT 672.
<V²sÁD 16 : ÿ¿£ fÉ*$ÈH ÔájÖá ¯ ¿£+|ú 3e d+eÔáàsÁ+ýË 600 fÉ*$Èq¢qT 7e d+eÔáàsÁeTTýË 700 d³¢qT
ÔájÖá sÁT #ûd¾+~. ~ ÔájáÖ¯ #ûd fÉ*$Èq¢ d+K« ç|r d+eÔáàsÁeTT d¾s+Á >± |sÁT>·TÔáÖ +fñ:
(i) 1e d+ööýË n~ ÔájáÖsÁT #ûdq ¾ fÉ*$Èq¢ d+K« (ii) 10e d+öö\ýË n~ ÔájáÖsÁT #ûd¾q fÉ*$Èq¢ d+K«
(iii) yîTT<{ì 7 d+öö\ýË n~ ÔájÖá sÁT #ûdq ¾ yîTTÔá+ï d³¢ d+K«qT ¿£qT>=qTeTT.
kÍ<óq : (i) ç|Ü d+eÔáàsÁeTT ÔájáÖsÁT #ûd fÉ*$Èq¢ d³¢ d+K« ÿ¿£ d¾s Á $\TeÔÃ |sÁT>·TÔáÖ +fñ 1e, 2e, 3e ....
d+öö\ýË ÔájÖá sÁjTû « fÉ*$Èq¢ d³¢ d+K«\ C²_Ô ÿ¿£ n+¿£çXâ&ó @sÁÎsÁTdT+ï ~.
n e d+eÔáàsÁeTTýË ÔájÖá sÁT #ûd fÉ*$ÈH d³¢ d+K« an nqT¿=q
a3 = 600 eT]jáTT a7 = 700 >± eÇ&q~.

or, a + 2d = 600
and a + 6d = 700
Solving these equations, we get d = 25 and a = 550.
Therefore, production of TV sets in the first year is 550.
(ii) Now a10 = a + 9d = 550 + 9 × 25 = 775
So, production of TV sets in the 10th year is 775.
7
(iii) Also, S7 = [ 2 ´ 550 + (7 - 1) ´ 25]
2
7
= [1100 + 150] = 4375
2
Thus, the total production of TV sets in first 7 years is 4375.
EXERCISE 5.3
1. Find the sum of the following APs:
(i) 2, 7, 12, . . ., to 10 terms. (ii) –37, –33, –29, . . ., to 12 terms.
1, 1, 1
(iii) 0.6, 1.7, 2.8, . . ., to 100 terms. (iv) , . . ., to 11 terms.
15 12 10
2. Find the sums given below :
1
(i) 7 + 10 + 14 + . . . + 84 (ii) 34 + 32 + 30 + . . . + 10
2
(iii) –5 + (–8) + (–11) + . . . + (–230)
3. In an AP:
(i) given a = 5, d = 3, an = 50, find n and Sn.
(ii) given a = 7, a13 = 35, find d and S13.
(iii) given a12 = 37, d = 3, find a and S12.
(iv) given a3 = 15, S10 = 125, find d and a10.
(v) given d = 5, S9 = 75, find a and a9.
(vi) given a = 2, d = 8, Sn = 90, find n and an.
(vii) given a = 8, an = 62, Sn = 210, find n and d.
(viii) given an = 4, d = 2, Sn = –14, find n and a.
(ix) given a = 3, n = 8, S = 192, find d.
(x) given l = 28, S = 144, and there are total 9 terms. Find a.

ýñ<, a + 2d = 600
eT]jáTT a + 6d = 700
|Õ dMT¿£sDÁ ²\qT kÍ~ó+ºq d = 25 eT]jáTT a = 550 e#áTÌqT.
\ yîTT<{ì d+eÔáàsÁeTTýË ÔájÖ
á sÂ qÕ fÉ*$ÈH d³¢ d+K« 550.
(ii) |ÚÎ&T a10 = a + 9d = 550 + 9 × 25 = 775
nq>± 10e d+eÔáàsÁeTTýË ÔájÖá sÁT #ûdq¾ fÉ*$Èq¢ d+K« 775.
7
(iii) eT]jáTT, S7 = [ 2 ´ 550 + (7 - 1) ´ 25]
2
7
= [1100 + 150] = 4375
2
yîTT<{ì 7 d+öö\ýË ÔájáÖÂsÕq yîTTÔáï+ fÉ*$CÉq¢ d+K« 4375.
nuó²«d+ 5.3
1. ¿ì+~ n+¿£çXâ&Tó \ýË |s=Øq |<\ yîTTÔï\qT ¿£qT>=qTeTT:
(i) 2, 7, 12, . . . 10 |<\T (ii) –37, –33, –29, . . .12 |<\T
(iii) 0.6, 1.7, 2.8, . . . 100 |<\T (iv) 1 , 1 , 1 , . . . 11 |<\T
15 12 10
2. ç¿ì+~ y yîTTÔï\qT ¿£qT>=qTeTT :
1
(i) 7 + 10 + 14 + . . . + 84 (ii) 34 + 32 + 30 + . . . + 10
2
(iii) –5 + (–8) + (–11) + . . . + (–230)
3. ÿ¿£ n+¿£çXâ&ýó Ë:
(i) a = 5, d = 3, an = 50 nsTTq n eT]jáTT Sn \qT ¿£qT>=qTeTT.
(ii) a = 7, a13 = 35 nsTTq d eT]jáTT S13 \qT ¿£qT>=qTeTT.
(iii) a12 = 37, d = 3 nsTTq a eT]jáTT S12 \qT ¿£qT>=qTeTT.
(iv) a3 = 15, S10 = 125 nsTTq d eT]jáTT a10 \qT ¿£qT>=qTeTT.
(v) d = 5, S9 = 75, nsTTq a eT]jáTT a9 \qT ¿£qT>=qTeTT.
(vi) a = 2, d = 8, Sn = 90 nsTTq n eT]jáTT an \qT ¿£qT>=qTeTT.
(vii) a = 8, an = 62, Sn = 210 nsTTq n eT]jáTT d \qT ¿£qT>=qTeTT.
(viii) an = 4, d = 2, Sn = –14 nsTTq n eT]jáTT a \qT ¿£qT>=qTeTT.
(ix) a = 3, n = 8, S = 192 nsTTq d qT ¿£qT>=qTeTT.
(x) l = 28, S = 144 eT]jáTT |<\ d+K« 9 nsTTq a qT ¿£qT>=qTeTT.

4. How many terms of the AP : 9, 17, 25, . . . must be taken to give a sum of 636?
5. The first term of an AP is 5, the last term is 45 and the sum is 400. Find the number of
terms and the common difference.
6. The first and the last terms of an AP are 17 and 350 respectively. If the common difference
is 9, how many terms are there and what is their sum?
7. Find the sum of first 22 terms of an AP in which d = 7 and 22nd term is 149.
8. Find the sum of first 51 terms of an AP whose second and third terms are 14 and 18
respectively.
9. If the sum of first 7 terms of an AP is 49 and that of 17 terms is 289, find the sum of
first n terms.
10. Show that a1, a2, . . ., an, . . . form an AP where an is defined as below :
(i) an = 3 + 4n (ii) an = 9 – 5n
Also find the sum of the first 15 terms in each case.
11. If the sum of the first n terms of an AP is 4n – n2, what is the first term (that is S1)? What
is the sum of first two terms? What is the second term? Similarly, find the 3rd, the 10th
and the nth terms.
12. Find the sum of the first 40 positive integers divisible by 6.
13. Find the sum of the first 15 multiples of 8.
14. Find the sum of the odd numbers between 0 and 50.
15. A contract on construction job specifies a penalty for delay of completion beyond a certain
date as follows: ` 200 for the first day, ` 250 for the second day, ` 300 for the third day,
etc., the penalty for each succeeding day being ` 50 more than for the preceding day. How
much money the contractor has to pay as penalty, if he has delayed the work by 30 days?
16. A sum of ` 700 is to be used to give seven cash prizes to students of a school for their
overall academic performance. If each prize is ` 20 less than its preceding prize, find the
value of each of the prizes.
17. In a school, students thought of planting trees in and around the school to reduce air
pollution. It was decided that the number of trees, that each section of each class will
plant, will be the same as the class, in which they are studying, e.g., a section of Class I
will plant 1 tree, a section of Class II will plant 2 trees and so on till Class XII. There are
three sections of each class. How many trees will be planted by the students?
18. A spiral is made up of successive semicircles, with centres alternately at A and B,
starting with centre at A, of radii 0.5 cm, 1.0 cm, 1.5 cm, 2.0 cm, . . . as shown in
Fig. 5.4. What is the total length of such a spiral made up of thirteen consecutive
22
semicircles? (Take p = 7
)

4. 9, 17, 25 ..... n+¿£çXâ&ýó Ë m |<\qT rdT¿=+fñ y yîTTÔáïeTT 636 n>·TqT?
5. ÿ¿£ n+¿£çXâ&ýó Ë yîTT<{ì |<e TT 5, ºe] |<e TT 45 eT]jáTT |<\ yîTTÔáeï TT 400 nsTTq |<\ d+K«qT eT]jáTT
kÍeÖq« uñ<eó TTqT ¿£qT>=qTeTT.
6. ÿ¿£ n+¿£çXâ&ýó Ë yîTT<{ì, ºe] |<\T esÁTd>± 17 eT]jáTT 350. kÍeÖq« uñ<ó+ 9 nsTTq çXâ&ýó Ë |<\
d+K«qT |<\ yîTTÔáeï TTqT ¿£qT>=qTeTT?
7. kÍeÖq« uñ<eó TT d = 7 eT]jáTT 22e |<eTT 149>± >·\ n+¿£çXâ&ýó Ë yîTT<{ì 22 |<\ yîTTÔáeï TTqT ¿£qT>=qTeTT.
8. ÿ¿£ n+¿£çXâ&ýó Ë 2e, 3e |<\T esÁTd>± 14 eT]jáTT 18 nsTTq çXâ&ýó Ë yîTT<{ì 51 |<\ yîTTÔáeï TTqT
¿£qT>=qTeTT.
9. ÿ¿£ n+¿£çXâ&ýó Ë yîTT<{ì 7 |<\ yîTTÔáeï TT 49 eT]jáTT 17 |<\ yîTTÔáeï TT 289 nsTTq yîTT<{ì n |<\ yîTTÔáeï TT
¿£qT>=qTeTT.
10. an ç¿ì+~ $<ó+ >± sÁÇº+#á&Ôû a1, a2, . . ., an n+¿£çXâ& ó @sÁÎsÁTdT+ï < #áÖ|+& eT]jáTT ç|Ü d+<sÒÁ +ýË
yîTT<{ì 15 |<\ yîTTÔáeï TTqT ¿£qT>=q+&:
(i) an = 3 + 4n (ii) an = 9 – 5n
11. ÿ¿£ n+¿£çXâ&ýó Ë yîTT<{ì n |<\ yîTTÔáeï TT 4n – n2 nsTTq yîTT<{ì |<+ m+Ôá? (nq>± S1)? yîTT<{ì sÂ +&T |<\
yîTTÔá+ï m+Ôá? 2e |<e TT m+Ôá? n<û $<ó+ >± 3e |<e TTqT, 10e |<e TTqT eT]jáTT n e |<e TTqT ¿£qT>=qTeTT.
12. 6#û uó²Ð+|&û yîTT<{ì 40 <óq|PsÁ d+K«\ yîTTÔáïeTTqT ¿£qT>=qTeTT.
13. 8 jîTT¿£Ø yîTT<{ì 15 >·TDìC²\ yîTTÔáeï TTqT ¿£qT>=qTeTT.
14. 0 eT]jáTT 50 eT<ó« >·\ uñd¾ d+K«\ yîTTÔáeï TTqT ¿£qT>=qTeTT.
15. sD |qT\|Õ $<óy Tî q® ÿ|Î+<+ ¿£\<T. ¿£³&¼ \T / sD²\T ¹s¥Æ +ºq deTjáÖ¿ì |P]ï #ûjTá ³+ýË
\d«+ È]Ðq ç¿ì+~ Ôî*Îq $<ó+ >± È]eÖHqT #î*+¢ #*. yîTT<{ì sÃEÅ£ ` 200, 2e sÃEÅ£ ` 250,
3e sÃEÅ£ ` 300....... yîTT<\>·T $<ó+ >±, ç|ÜsÃE È]eÖH < eTT+<T sÃE È]eÖH ¿£+fñ ` 50
n<q+. ÿ¿£ yûÞø ¿±+ç{²¿£s¼ ÁT | 30 sÃE\T \d«+ #ûd¾q m+Ôá kõeTT È]eÖH>± #î*+¢ #*?
16. ÿ¿£ bÍsÄÁXæ\ýË $<«$wjáT¿£ d++~óÔá $wjáÖ\ýË nÔáT«qÔá ç|Üuó ¿£q|]ºq y]¿ì yîTTÔáï+ ` 700Å£
7 VQeTÔáT\T yÇ\ uó²$+#sÁT. ç|Ü VQeTÜ $\Te < eTT+<Tq < ¿£+fñ ` 20 ÔáÅ£ Øe nsTTq ç|Ü
VQeTÜ $\TeqT ¿£qT>=qTeTT?
17. ÿ¿£ bÍsÄXÁ æ\ esÁDýË |s«esÁD |]sÁ¿D£ Å£ $<«sÁT\ T #î³T¢ H{²\ uó²$+#sÁT. ç|Ü d¿£q T $<«sÁT\ T ysÁT
#á<T eÚÔáTq Ôás>Á Ü· d+K«Å£ deÖqyîT®q #î³¢qT nq>± 1e ÔásÁ>·Ü #á<T eÚ#áTq ÿ¿£ d¿£qT $<«sÁT\T 1 #î³T¼qT,
2e ÔásÁ>·Ü #á<TeÚ#áTq ÿ¿£ d¿£qT $<«sÁT\T 2 #î³q¢ T H{²\, $<ó+ >± 12e ÔásÁ>·Ü esÁÅ£L #ûjáÖ\
sÁs TT+#áTÅ£HsÁT. nsTTÔû ç|Ü Ôás>Á Ü· ýË eTÖ&T d¿£qT¢ eÚq yîTTÔá+ï H{ìq #î³T¢ m?
18. nsÁ eÔï\#û ÿ¿£ d]Îý²¿±sÁeTT ÔájáÖsÁT #ûjáT&+~. |³+ýË #áÖ|¾q $<ó+ >± nsÁeÔï\ ¹¿+ç<\T A e<Ý
çbÍsÁ+_ó+#á& A, B \ eT<ó« eÖsÁTÔáÖ HsTT. nq>± yîTT<{ì nsÁeÔáï ¹¿+ç<+ A, 2e nsÁe Ôáï ¹¿+ç<+ B,
eTÖ&e nsÁeÔáï ¹¿+ç<eTT A ..... eT]jáTT nsÁeÔï\ y«kÍs\T esÁTd>± 0.5 d+.MT, 0.1 d+.MT, 1.5
d+.MT., 2.0 d+.MT. .... $<ó+ >± yîTTÔá+ï 13. nsÁeÔï\T q d]Î\+ yîTTÔá+ï bõ&eÚ m+Ôá?
22
(p = 7
>± rdT¿=qTeTT)

Fig. 5.4
[Hint : Length of successive semicircles is l1, l2, l3, l4, . . . with centres at A, B, A, B, . . .,
respectively.]
19. 200 logs are stacked in the following manner: 20 logs in the bottom row, 19 in the next
row, 18 in the row next to it and so on (see Fig. 5.5). In how many rows are the 200 logs
placed and how many logs are in the top row?
Fig. 5.5
20. In a potato race, a bucket is placed at the starting point, which is 5 m from the first potato,
and the other potatoes are placed 3 m apart in a straight line. There are ten potatoes in the
line (see Fig. 5.6).
5m 3m 3m
Fig. 5.6
A competitor starts from the bucket, picks up the nearest potato, runs back with it, drops
it in the bucket, runs back to pick up the next potato, runs to the bucket to drop it in, and
she continues in the same way until all the potatoes are in the bucket. What is the total
distance the competitor has to run?
[Hint : To pick up the first potato and the second potato, the total distance (in metres)
run by a competitor is 2 × 5 + 2 × (5 + 3)]

|³+. 5.4
[dÖ#áq : esÁTd nsÁe Ôï\ bõ&eÚ\T l1, l2, l3, l4, . . . eT]jáTT M ¿¹ +ç<\T esÁd> ± A, B, A, B, . . ........ ]
19. 200 #î¿£Ø yîTT<T\ Ý qT ç¿ì+~ |³eTTýË #áÖ|¾q $<ó+ >± neTsÌsÁT. n+{ì ¿£+fñ ç¿ì+< q esÁTdýË 20 #î¿£Ø
yîTT<T\Ý qT, < |Õ 19 yîTT<T\Ý qT, <|qÕ 18 yîTT<T\Ý qT .... neT]Ìq yîTTÔá+ï 200 yîTT<T\Ý qT neTsÁTÌ³Å£ m
esÁTd\T ¿±y*? n+{ì ¿£+fñ |qÕ q esÁTdýË m #î¿Ø£ yîTT<T\Ý T ¿£\eÚ?
|³+ 5.5
20. +>±Þ² <T+|\T Ôî#Ìû bþ{¡ýË (potato race) çbÍsÁ+uó+ýË ÿ¿£ Â¿{Ù +º < qT+º 5MT. <ÖsÁ+ýË ÿ¿£
+>±Þø<T +| eÚ+#á&q~. yîTTÔá+ï 10 +>±Þø <T+|\T ÿ¿£<¿=¿£{ì 3MT. <ÖsÁ+ýË ÿ¹¿ dsÞÁ s¹ø K |Õ neTsÁÌ&q$.
(|³+ 5.6 #áÖ&+&).
5m 3m 3m
|³+ 5.6
³ýË bÍý¤ZHû e«¿ìï yîTT<{ì Â¿{Ù e<Ý qT+º jáT\T<û] yîTT<{ì +>±Þø<T +| e<ÅÝ £ bþsTT < rdTÅ£
yîqT¿£Å£ eºÌ Â¿{ÙýË yûjáÖ*. ÔásTÁ yÔá Ü]Ð Â¿{Ù qT+º jáT\T<û] 2e +>±Þø<T +| e<ÅÝ £ bþsTT <
rdTÅ£eºÌ Â¿{ÙýË yûjÖá *. $<ó+>± n <T+|\qT Â¿{ÙýË yûjTá eýÉqq e«¿ìï |]Â>Ôáeï \d¾q yîTTÔáï+
<ÖsÁ+ m+Ôá?
[dÖ#áq : yîTT<{,ì 2e <T+|\qT rdTÅ£ se{²¿ì ³ &û e«¿ìï |sTÁ > Â Ôáeï \d¾q <ÖsÁeTT esÁTd>±
(MTöö\ýË) 2 × 5 + 2 × (5 + 3)]

EXERCISE 5.4 (Optional)*

1. Which term of the AP : 121, 117, 113, . . ., is
its first negative term?
[Hint : Find n for an < 0]
2. The sum of the third and the seventh terms of
an AP is 6 and their product is 8. Find the sum
of first sixteen terms of the AP.
3. A ladder has rungs 25 cm apart.
(see Fig. 5.7). The rungs decrease uniformly
in length from 45 cm at the bottom to 25 cm
at the top. If the top and the bottom rungs are
1
2 m apart, what is the length of the wood
2
required for the rungs?
250
[Hint : Number of rungs = + 1]
Fig. 5.7
25
4. The houses of a row are numbered consecutively from 1 to 49. Show that there is a value
of x such that the sum of the numbers of the houses preceding the house numbered x is
equal to the sum of the numbers of the houses following it. Find this value of x.
[Hint : Sx – 1 = S49 – Sx]
5. A small terrace at a football ground comprises of 15 steps each of which is 50 m long and
built of solid concrete.
1 1
Each step has a rise of m and a tread of m. (see Fig. 5.8). Calculate the total volume
4 2
of concrete required to build the terrace.
1 1
[Hint : Volume of concrete required to build the first step = ´ ´ 50 m3 ]
4 2
Fig. 5.8
* These exercises are not from the examination point of view.

nuó²«d+ 5.4 (×ºÌÛ¿+£ )*

1. 121, 117, 113, . . . n+¿£çXâ&ý
ó Ë mqe |<e TT yîTT<{ì
TTD |<eTT neÚÔTá +~.
[dÖ#áq : an < 0 njûT« $<ó+ >± n $\Te ¿£qT>=qTeTT.] d+.MT.
2. ÿ¿£ n+¿£çXâ&ó 3e, 7e |<\ yîTTÔáïeTT 6 eT]jáTT y

\ÝeTT 8 nsTTq çXâ&ýó Ë yîTT<{ì 16 |<\ yîTTÔáeï TT
¿£qT>=qTeTT?
3. ÿ¿£ #îÌqÅ£ 25 yîT³T¢ ¿£\eÚ. (|³+ 5.7 #áÖ&+&) yîT³¢ MT.
jîTT¿£Ø bõ&eÚ ç¿ì+< qT+{ì |¿Õ ì @¿£¯Ü Ôá>·TZÔáÖ eÚ+º,
ç¿ì+< qT+º yîTT<{ì yîT³T¼ bõ&eÚ 45 d+.MT. eT]jáTT |Õ
qT+º yîTT<{ì yîT³T¼ bõ&eÚ 25d+.MT. sÂ +&+{ì eT<ó«
MT.
<ÖsÁeTT 2 12 MT. nsTTq n yîT³¢ ÔájáÖ¯¿ì ¿±e*àq
d+.MT.
#î¿Ø£ bõ&eÚ m+Ôá?
250 |³+ 5.7
[dÖ#áq : yîT³¢ d+K« = + 1]
25
4. ¿= +&T¢ ÿ¿£ esÁTdýË ¿£\eÚ. M¿ì 1 qT+º 49 esÁÅL£ d+K«\qT ¿¹ {²sTT+#á&+ È]Ð+~. @<îÕH ÿ¿£ +{ì¿ì
¹¿{²sTT+ºq d+K«qT x nqTÅ£+fñ +{ì¿ì eTT+<T q +&¢ d+K«\ yîTTÔáeï TT, ÔásTÁ yÔá q +&ó¢ d+K«\
yîTTÔáïeTT deÖq+ njûT«$<ó+ >± +{ì d+K« x e«ed¾Ô eá T #áÖ|+&? eT]jáTT x $\TeqT ¿£qT>=qTeTT.
[dÖ#áq : Sn – 1 = S49 – Sn]
5. ç¿ì+~ |³eTTýË #áÖ|¾q $<ó+>± ÿ¿£ |Ú{Ùu²ýÙ ç>+&ýË 15 yîT³T¢ >·\ ÿ¿£ yîT³¢ kþbÍqeTT ¿£\<T, BýË ç|Ü
yîT³T¼ bõ&eÚ 50 MT. eT]jáTT yî&\ TÎ 12 MT. yîTT<{ì yîT³T¼ uóÖ $T qT+º 14 MT. mÔáTïýË eT]jáTT ç|Ü yîT³T¼ <
eTT+<Tq yîT³T¼Å£ 14 MT. mÔáTýï Ë q yîT³¢ kþbÍH ]+#á&¿ì ¿±e\d¾q ¿±+ç¿¡³T jîTT¿£Ø |T q|]eÖDeTTqT
¿£qT>=qTeTT?:
1 1
[dÖ#áq : yîTT<{ì kþbÍq+ ]+#áT³Å£ ¿±e*àq ¿±+ç¿¡³T |T q|]eÖD+ = ´ ´ 50 MT3 ]
4 2
MT.
MT.
MT.
|³+ 5.8
* ~ |¯¿£\ ¿=sÁÅ£ <ûÝ¥+ºq~ ¿±<T.

5.5 Summary
In this chapter, you have studied the following points :
1. An arithmetic progression (AP) is a list of numbers in which each term is obtained by
adding a fixed number d to the preceding term, except the first term. The fixed number d is
called the common difference.
The general form of an AP is a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d, . . .
2. A given list of numbers a1, a2, a3, . . . is an AP, if the differences a2 – a1, a3 – a2,
a4 – a3, . . ., give the same value, i.e., if ak + 1 – ak is the same for different values of k.
3. In an AP with first term a and common difference d, the nth term (or the general term) is
given by an = a + (n – 1) d.
4. The sum of the first n terms of an AP is given by :
n
S= [ 2a + (n - 1) d ]
2
5. If l is the last term of the finite AP, say the nth term, then the sum of all terms of the AP is
given by :
n
S= (a + l )
2
a+c
If a, b, c are in AP, then b = and b is called the
2
arithmetic mean of a and c.

5.5 kÍs+XøeTT
n<ó«jáT+ýË eTqeTT #á]Ì+ºq n+Xæ\T:
1. ÿ¿£ d+K«\ C²_ÔýË yîTT<{ì |<e TT Ôá|Î $TÐ*q |<\T nú y{ì eTT+<Tq |<\Å£ ÿ¿£ d¾s Á d+K«qT
¿£\|³+ e\¢ @sÁÎ&TÔáÖ eÚ+fñ C²_ÔqT n+¿£çXâ&ó n+{²sÁT. ¿£*| d¾s Á d+K«qT kÍeÖq« uñ<eó TT n+{²sÁT.
n+¿£çXâ&ó kÍ<ósÁD sÁÖ|+ a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d, . . .
2. a1, a2, a3, . . . d+K«\ C²_ÔýË a2 – a1, a3 – a2, a4 – a3, . . ., $\Te\T deÖqyîT®q nq>± ak + 1 – ak
$\Te d¾s yÁ Tî q® C²_Ô n+¿£çXâ&ó n>·TqT.
3. yîTT<{ì |<eTT a >±, |<+ÔáseÁ TT d >± >·\ ÿ¿£ n+¿£çXâ&ýó Ë ne |<e TT (ýñ< kÍ<ósÁD |<+ ) an = a + (n
– 1) d n>·TqT.
4. n+¿£çXâ&ýó Ë yîTT<{ì n |<\ yîTTÔáïeTT

n
S= [ 2a + (n - 1) d ]
2
n
5. ÿ¿£ |]$T{Ù n+¿£çXâ&ýó Ë ºe] |<e TT l nsTTq |<\ yîTTÔáï+ S = (a + l ) . #áÌ³ n |<\ d+K«
2
bÍsÄÅÁ £ \Å£ >·eT¿£

a+c
a, b, c nqTq$ n+¿£çXâ&ýó Ë q b = n>·TqT. eT]jáTT bqT a, c \
2
jîTT¿£Ø n+¿£eT<ó« eTeTT n+{²sÁT.

146 TRIANGLES
TRIANGLES 6
6.1 Introduction
You are familiar with triangles and many of their properties from your earlier classes. In Class
IX, you have studied congruence of triangles in detail. Recall that two figures are said to be
congruent, if they have the same shape and the same size. In this chapter, we shall study about
those figures which have the same shape but not necessarily the same size. Two figures having
the same shape (and not necessarily the same size) are called similar figures. In particular, we
shall discuss the similarity of triangles and apply this knowledge in giving a simple proof of
Pythagoras Theorem learnt earlier.
Can you guess how heights of mountains (say Mount Everest) or distances of
some long distant objects (say moon) have been found out? Do you think these have

çÜuóT C²\T 147
çÜuóT C²\T 6
6.1 |]#ájáT+
çÜuóT C²\T eT]jáTT M{ì nHû¿£ <ós \ >·T]+º ç¿ì+~ Ôás>Á Ü· ýË MTÅ£ u²>·T>± Ôî\TdT. 9e Ôás>Á Ü· ýË MTsÁT çÜuóT C²\
jîTT¿£Ø dsÇÁ deÖqÔáÇeTTqT $|Ú\+>± n<ó« jáTq+ #ûXæsÁT. ÿ¹¿ ¿±sÁeTT eT]jáTT ÿ¹¿ |]eÖDeTT ¿£*Ðq sÂ +&T
|³eTT\T dsÇÁ deÖq+>± +{²jáT >·TsÁTï Ôî#Tá Ì¿Ã+&. n<ó«jáTeTTýË eTqeTT ÿ¹¿ ¿±sÁeTT ¿£*Ð +&û |³eTT\
>·T]+º n<ó«jáTq+ #ûkÍïeTT. ¿±ú, $ ÿ¹¿ |]eÖD+ ¿£*Ð +&qedsÁ+ ýñ<T. ÿ¹¿ ¿±sÁ+ ¿£*Ð +&û (ÿ¹¿
|]eÖDeTT ¿£*Ð +&qedsÁ+ ýñ) |{²\qT dsÁÖ| |{²\T n+{²sÁT . ç|Ôû«¿ì+º eTqeTT çÜuóTC²\ jîTT¿£Ø
dsÁÖ|¿£ÔáqT #á]Ì+#áTÅ£+<eTT eT]jáTT eTT+<T>± HûsÁTÌÅ£q |Õ<¸>·sÁdt d¾<Æ+Ôá+ jîTT¿£Ø kÍ<ósÁD sÁTEeÚqT
n+~+#á&+ýË C²ãH e]ï+|#û<Ý+.
¿=+&\ mÔáTïqT (eTò+{Ù meÂsdt¼ |sÁÇÔá ¥KsÁ+) #á+ç<T&ý² <ÖsÁ+>± qTq y{ì eT<ó« <Ös\qT mý²
¿£qT>=+{²sÃ MTsÁT }V¾²+#á>\· s? M{ì eTqeTT ç|Ô«á ¿£+ >± fñ|Ú dVä jáT+ÔÃ ¿=\e>·\eÖ?
yVt ² ! Ôá Ç sÁ ý Ë Hû q T
zVt²! |sÁÇÔá
#á+ç<T <>sZ· ÅÁ £ yîÞÔø qT
¥KsÁ+ mÔáTïqT
¿=\e&+ #ý²
dT\uó+

148 TRIANGLES
been measured directly with the help of a measuring tape? In fact, all these heights and distances
have been found out using the idea of indirect measurements, which is based on the principle of
similarity of figures (see Example 7, Q.15 of Exercise 6.3 and also Chapters 8 and 9 of this
book)
6.2 Similar Figures
In Class IX, you have seen that all circles with the same radii are congruent, all squares with the
same side lengths are congruent and all equilateral triangles with the same side lengths are
congruent.
Now consider any two (or more)
circles [see Fig. 6.1 (i)]. Are they
congruent? Since all of them do not have
the same radius, they are not congruent to
each other. Note that some are congruent
and some are not, but all of them have the
same shape. So they all are, what we call,
similar. Two similar figures have the same
shape but not necessarily the same size.
Therefore, all circles are similar. What
about two (or more) squares or two (or
more) equilateral triangles
[see Fig. 6.1 (ii) and (iii)]? As observed in
the case of circles, here also all squares are
similar and all equilateral triangles are
similar.
From the above, we can say that all
congruent figures are similar but the Fig. 6.1
similar figures need not be congruent.
Can a circle and a square be similar?
Can a triangle and a square be similar? These
questions can be answered by just looking
at the figures (see Fig. 6.1). Evidently these Fig. 6.2
figures are not similar. (Why?)

çÜuóT C²\T 149
C²¿ì mÔáT\ï T eT]jáTT <Ös\qT eTq+ |sÃ¿£ |<ÔÆ Tá \ <Çs ¿£qT>=+{²eTT. |sÃ¿£ |<ÔÆ Tá \ú dsÖÁ | |{²\
jáTeÖ\|Õ <ósÁ|&qyû. ( |Údï¿£+ýË <V²sÁD 7, nuó²«d+ 6.3 ýË 15e ç|Xø eT]jáTT n<ó«jáTeTT\T
8 eT]jáTT 9 Å£L& #áÖ&+&)
6.2 dsÁÖ| |³eTT\T
9e Ôás>Á Ü· ýË MTsÁT, ÿ¹¿ y«kÍsÁ+ ¿£*Ðq n eÔï\T dsÇÁ deÖH\T, ÿ¹¿ uóT ÈeTT bõ&eÚ ¿£*Ðq q n
#áÔTá sÁçkÍ\T dsÇÁ deÖH\T eT]jáTT n deTu²VQ çÜuóT C²\T dsÇÁ deÖH\T n Ôî\TdTÅ£HsÁT.
@<îÕH Âs+&T (ýñ< n+Ôá¿£+fñ mÅ£Øe) eÔï\qT
|]>·D+ì #á+&. (|³eTT 6.1 (i) #áÖ&+&) n$ dsÇÁ deÖqyûTH?
M{ì n{ì¿¡ ÿ¹¿ y«kÍsÁ+ ýñq+<Tq n$ ÿ¿£<¿=¿£{ì
dsÇÁ deÖqeTT>± ýñeÚ. ¿= dsÇÁ deÖqeTT eT]jáTT ¿=
¿±eÚ, ¿±ú n$ n ÿ¹¿ ¿±sÁeTT ¿£*Ð HsTT n
>·eT+#á+&. n+<T¿£ y{ì n{ìú dsÖÁ bÍ\T n n+{²eTT.
Âs+&T dsÁÖ| |{²\T ÿ¹¿ ¿±s ¿£*Ð +{²jûT ¿±ú ÿ¹¿
|]eÖDeTT ¿£*Ð +&qeds+Á ýñ<T . n+<Te\q, n eÔï\T
dsÁÖbÍ\T. Âs+&T (ýñ< n+Ôá¿£+fñ mÅ£Øe)#áÔáTsÁçkÍ\T ýñ<
Âs+&T (ýñ< n+Ôá¿+£ fñ mÅ£Øe) deTu²VQ çÜuóT C²\T >·T]+º
@$T #î|Î >·\sÁT? [|³eTT 6.1 (ii) eT]jáTT (iii)]? #áÖ&+&.
eÔï\ $wjTá +ýË >·T]ï+ºq³T¢>± ¿£Ø& Å£L& n #áÔTá sÁçkÍ\T
dsÖÁ bÍ\T eT]jáTT n deTu²VQ çÜuóT C²\T Å£L& dsÖÁ bÍ\T.
|qÕ |s=Øq < qT+& n dsÇÁ deÖq |{²\T
dsÖÁ bÍ\T ¿±ú, n dsÖÁ | |{²\T dsÇÁ deÖq |{²\T
¿±qeds+Á ýñ<T . |³+. 6.1
eÔáeï TT eT]jáTT #áÔTá sÁçdeTT dsÖÁ bÍ\ #î|Î >·\eÖ?
ný²Hû çÜuóT ÈeTT eT]jáTT #áÔTá sÁçdeTT dsÖÁ bÍý²? ç|Xø \Å£
¿¹ e\+ |³eTT\qT #áÖ&&+ <Çs deÖ<óq+ eÇe#áTÌqT.
(|³eTT 6.1 #áÖ&+&) |³eTT\T dsÖÁ bÍ\T ¿±e dÎw+¼ >±
|³+. 6.2
#î|Îe#áTÌ (m+<TÅ£?)

150 TRIANGLES
What can you say about the two quadrilaterals ABCD and PQRS
(see Fig 6.2)?Are they similar? These figures appear to be similar but we cannot be certain
about it.Therefore, we must have some definition of similarity of figures and based on this
definition some rules to decide whether the two given figures are similar or not. For this, let us
look at the photographs given in Fig. 6.3:
Fig. 6.3
You will at once say that they are the photographs of the same monument
(Taj Mahal) but are in different sizes. Would you say that the three photographs are similar?
Yes,they are.
What can you say about the two photographs of the same size of the same person one at the
age of 10 years and the other at the age of 40 years? Are these photographs similar? These
photographs are of the same size but certainly they are not of the same shape. So, they are not
similar.
What does the photographer do when she prints photographs of different sizes from the
same negative? You must have heard about the stamp size, passport size and postcard size
photographs. She generally takes a photograph on a small size film, say of 35mm size and then
enlarges it into a bigger size, say 45mm (or 55mm). Thus, if we consider any line segment in
the smaller photograph (figure), its corresponding line segment in the bigger photograph (figure)
45 æ 55 ö
will be ç or ÷ of that of the line segment. This really means that every line segment of the
35 è 35 ø
smaller photograph is enlarged (increased) in the ratio 35:45 (or 35:55). It can also be said
that every line segment of the bigger photograph is reduced (decreased) in the ratio 45:35 (or
55:35). Further, if you consider inclinations (or angles) between any pair of corresponding line
segments in the two photographs of different sizes, you shall see that these inclinations(or
angles) are always equal. This is the essence of the similarity of two figures and in particular
of two polygons. We say that:
Two polygons of the same number of sides are similar, if (i) their corresponding angles
are equal and (ii) their corresponding sides are in the same ratio (or proportion).

çÜuóT C²\T 151
ABCD eT]jáTT PQRS nHû Âs+&T #áÔáTsÁTÒÛC²\ >·T]+º MTsÁT @$T #î|Î >·\sÁT? (|³eTT 6.2 #áÖ&+&) n$
dsÖÁ bÍý²? |³eTT\T dsÖÁ bÍ\T>± ¿£|¾dT Hï sTT ¿±ú eTq+ y{ì >·T]+º KºÌÔáeTT>± #î|Î ýñeTT. n+<Te\q
|³eTT\ dsÖÁ |Ôá >·T]+º eTqÅ£ ¿=+Ôá sÁÇ#áq+ +&* eT]jáTT sÁÇ#áq+ <ósÁ+>± ºÌq sÂ +&T |³eTT\T
dsÖÁ bÍýË ¿±<Ã sÁs TT+#á{²¿ì ¿= jáTeÖ\T +&*. B ¿Ãd+ |³+ 6.3 ýË eÇ&q bþ{Ëç>±|t #áÖ<Ý+.
|³+ 6.3
|³+ 6.3 n$ ÿ¹¿ kÍsÁ¿£ ºV²+ (ÔCÙ eTV²ýÙ) jîTT¿£Ø bþ{Ë\T n MTsÁT #áÖd¾q yî+³Hû #î|Î>·\sÁT. ¿±ú
y{ì |]eÖD²\T yûsTÁ yûsTÁ . eTÖ&T bþ{Ë\T dsÖÁ bÍ\ #î|Î >·\s? neÚqT n$ dsÖÁ bÍýñ.
ÿ¹¿ e«¿ìï jîTT¿£Ø ÿ¹¿ |]eÖD+ýË q Âs+&T bþ{Ë\T ÿ¿£{ì |~ d+eÔáàs\ ejáTdTýË eT]jáTT eTs=¿£{ì
40 d+eÔáàs\ ejáTdTýË q y{ì >·T]+º MTsÁT @$T #î|Î>·\sÁT? bþ{Ë\T dsÁÖbÍý²? bþ{Ë\T ÿ¹¿
|]eÖD+ýË +{²jûT ¿±ú KºÌÔá+>± ÿ¹¿ ¿±sÁ+ýË +&eÚ. ¿±{ì¼ n$ dsÖÁ bÍ\T ¿±eÚ.
ÿ¿£ bþ{Ëç>±|sY ÿ¹¿ |¾ýÙ (HîÐ{ìy) qT+& yûsÁTyûsÁT |]eÖD²\T >·\ bþ{Ë\qT mý² eTTç~+#á>·\T>·TÔáT+<Ã
ýËº+#á+&. MTsÁT bþ{Ë\ýË kÍ¼+|Ú dE Õ , bÍdt bþsY¼ dCÕ Ù, ¿±sY¦ dE
Õ bþ{Ë\ >·T]+º $Hû +{²sÁT. yîT
kÍ<ósÁD+>± bþ{ËqT 35 $T.MT |]eÖD+ ¿£*Ðq ºq |¾ýÙ |Õ rdTÅ£+³T+~ ÔásÁTyÔá < 45 $T.MT (ýñ< 55
$T .MT) Å£ |<~Ý >± #ûdT +ï ~. ºq bþ{Ëç>±|t ç|Ü s¹ KK+&eTT ÔásÇÔá < (ýñ< ) wÎÜïýË ºq~ ¿±e&
eTq+ >·eT+#áe#áTÌ. ºq bþ{Ëç>±|t ýË ç|Ü ¹sU²K+&eTT 35: 45 (ýñ<) 35:55 wÎÜïýË |<Ý$ ¿±e&
45 æýñ< 55 ö
>·eT+#áe#áTÌqT. +¿± |<Ý bþ{Ëç>±|t ýË ç|Ü s¹ KK+&eTT ç or ÷ wÎÜïýË ºq~ ¿±e& >·eT+#áe#áTÌ
35 è 35 ø
n $ +{²sÁT. +¿± MTsÁT yûsÁT yûsÁT |]eÖD²\ Âs+&T bþ{Ëç>±|t @<îÕH ÈÔá d++~óÔá ¹sKK+&\ eT<ó«
¿ÃD²\qT |]o*dï ¿ÃD²\T m\¢|Ú Î&Ö deÖq+>± +{²sTT n >·eTkÍïsTÁ . ~jûT sÂ +&T |³eTT\ dsÖÁ |Ôá
eT]jáTT ç|Ôû«¿ì+º Âs+&T VQuóT C²\ dsÁÖ|Ôá jîTT¿£Ø kÍs+XøeTT.
uóTC²\ d+K« deÖq+>± q Âs+&T VQuóTE\T dsÁÖbÍ\T ¿±y\+fñ (i) y{ì nqTsÁÖ| ¿ÃD²\T
deÖq+>± +&* eT]jáTT (ii) y{ì nqTsÁÖ| uóT C²\T ÿ¹¿ wÎÜïýË (ýñ< nqTbÍÔá+ýË) +&*.

152 TRIANGLES
Note that the same ratio of the corresponding sides is referred to as the scale factor (or
the Representative Fraction) for the polygons. You must have heard that world maps (i.e.,
global maps) and blue prints for the construction of a building are prepared using a suitable
scale factor and observing certain conventions.
In order to understand similarity of figures more clearly, let us perform the following
activity:
Activity 1 : Place a lighted bulb at a point O
on the ceiling and directly below it a table in
your classroom. Let us cut a polygon, say a
quadrilateral ABCD, from a plane cardboard
and place this cardboard parallel to the ground
between the lighted bulb and the table. Then a
shadow of ABCD is cast on the table. Mark
the outline of this shadow as A¢B¢C¢D¢ (see
Fig.6.4).
Note that the quadrilateral A¢B¢C¢D¢ is an
enlargement (or magnification) of the
quadrilateral ABCD. This is because of the
property of light that light propogates in a
straight line. You may also note that A¢ lies on Fig. 6.4
ray OA, B¢ lies on ray OB, C¢
lies on OC and D¢ lies on OD. Thus, quadrilaterals A¢B¢C¢D¢ and ABCD are of the same shape
but of different sizes.
So, quadrilateral A¢B¢C¢D¢ is similiar to quadrilateral ABCD. We can also say that
quadrilateral ABCD is similar to the quadrilateral A¢B¢C¢D¢.
Here, you can also note that vertex A¢ corresponds to vertex A, vertex B¢ corresponds to
vertex B, vertex C¢ corresponds to vertex C and vertex D¢ corresponds to vertex D. Symbolically,
these correspondences are represented as A¢ « A, B¢ « B, C¢ « C and D¢ « D. By actually
measuring the angles and the sides of the two quadrilaterals, you may verify that
(i) Ð A = Ð A¢, Ð B = Ð B¢, Ð C = Ð C¢, Ð D = Ð D¢ and
AB BC CD DA .
(ii) = = =
A¢ B¢ B¢ C¢ C¢ D¢ D¢ A¢
This again emphasises that two polygons of the same number of sides are similar, if (i)
all the corresponding angles are equal and (ii) all the corresponding sides are in the same
ratio (or proportion).

çÜuóT C²\T 153
VQuóT E\ýË nqTsÁÖ| uóT C²\ wÎÜï dØýÙ >·TD¿£+ (ýñ< ç|Ô«eÖjáT >·TD¿£+) n+{²sÁT. ÔáÐq dØ\T
>·TD¿£eTT rdT¿= eT]jáTT ¿= kÍ+ç|<jáÖ\qT >·eTdÖï ç||+ #á |{²\T (>Ã¢ýÙ |{²\T) eT]jáTT uóe q sD+
¿Ãd+ y&û Ö¢ç|¾+³T¢ ÔájáÖsÁT #ûjáT&ÔjáT MTsÁT $Hû +{²sÁT.
dsÁÖ| |{²\ >·T]+º eT]+Ôá dÎw¼+>± nsÁ+ #ûdT¿Ã{²¿ì ç¿ì+~ ¿£Ôá«+ #û<Ý+:
¿£Ôá«+ 1 :
MT Ôás>Á Ü· >·~ýË |Õ ¿£|Ú ÎÅ£ O _+<TeÚ e<Ý neT]Ìq
\TÒÅ£ d]>±Z ç¿ì+<Å£ e#ûÌ³³T¢ \¢qT neTsÁTÌeTT. ÿ¿£
deTÔá\+>± q <Þød] n³¼ qT+& ÿ¿£ VQuóT (ABCD
nqT¿=qTeTT) ¿£Ü]ï +#áTeTT. < Hû\Å£ deÖ+Ôás+Á >±
\TÒÅ£ eT]jáTT \¢Å£ eT<ó« ýË neTsÁTÌeTT. n|Ú&T \¢|Õ
#áÔTá sÁTÒÛÈeTT ABCD ú& @sÁÎ&TqT. ú& jîTT¿£Ø n+#áT\qT
^º #áÔTá sÁTÒÛC²¿ì A¢B¢C¢D¢ n |sÁT |³T¼eTT (|³eTT
6.4 #áÖ&TeTT).
#áÔTá sÁTÒÛÈeTT A¢B¢C¢D¢ nHû~ A #áÔTá sÁTÒÛÈeTT ABCD

¿£H (|<~Ý ýñ< e~Æ) #î+~q~. \TÒ kÍqeTT O nqTÅ£+fñ |³+. 6.4
A nHû~ ¿ìsD Á eTT OA |Õ +&TqT. ný²¹> B¢ nHû~ OB |Õ, D nHû~ OD |Õ +&TqT. #áÔTá sÁTÒÛÈeTT\T
A¢B¢C¢D¢ eT]jáTT ABCDýË ÿ¹¿ ¿±sÁeTT eT]jáTT $$<ó |]eÖDeTT \Å£ #î+~q |³eTT\T.
#áÔTá sÁTÒÛÈeTT ABCD eT]jáTT #áÔTá sÁTÒÛÈeTT A¢B¢C¢D¢ dsÖÁ bÍ\T.
¿£Ø& A¢ nHû~ osÁüeTT AÅ£ nqTsÁÖ|eTT. B eTq+ >·DÔì á ºV²\ýË A¢ « A n çykÍïeTT.
ný²¹> B¢ « B, C¢ « C eT]jáTT D¢ « D. È+>± ¿ÃD²\qT eT]jáTT uóTC²\qT ¿=*º eTqeTT
(i) Ð A = Ð A¢, Ð B = Ð B¢, Ð C = Ð C¢, Ð D = Ð D¢ eT]jáTT
AB BC CD DA
(ii) = = =
A¢ B¢ B¢ C¢ C¢ D¢ D¢ A¢
B qT+& deÖq d+K«ýË uóT C²\T ¿£\ sÂ +&T VQuóT E\T dsÖÁ bÍ\T ¿±y\+fñ (i) y{ì nqTsÁÖ|
¿ÃD²\ú deÖq+>± +&*. (ii) y{ì nqTsÁÖ| uóTC²\ú ÿ¹¿ wÎÜïýË +&* (nqTbÍÔáeTTýË+&*)n
ç<óT e|&T ÔáT+~.

154 TRIANGLES
From the above, you can easily say that quadrilaterals ABCD and PQRS of
Fig. 6.5 are similar.
Fig. 6.5
Remark : You can verify that if one polygon is similar to another polygon and this second
polygon is similar to a third polygon, then the first polygon is similar to the third polygon.
You may note that in the two quadrilaterals (a square and a rectangle) of
Fig. 6.6, corresponding angles are equal, but their corresponding sides are not in the same ratio.
Fig. 6.6
So, the two quadrilaterals are not similar. Similarly, you may note that in the two
quadrilaterals (a square and a rhombus) of Fig. 6.7, corresponding sides are in the same ratio,
but their corresponding angles are not equal. Again, the two polygons (quadrilaterals) are not
similar.

çÜuóT C²\T 155
|Õ ¿£Ôá«eTT <Çs |³eTT 6.5 ýË eÇ&q #áÔTá sÁTÒÛC²\T ABCD eT]jáTT PQRS dsÖÁ bÍ\T n dT\uó+ >±
#î|Î e#áTÌqT.
|³+ 6.5
dÖ#áq: ÿ¿£ VQuóT eTs=¿£ VQuóT¿ì dsÁÖ|eTT eT]jáTT Âs+&Ã VQuóT eTÖ&e VQuóT¿ì dsÁÖ|eTT
nsTTÔû yîTT<{ì VQuóT eTÖ&Ã VQuóT¿ì dsÁÖ|eTT>± +³T+< MTsÁT ç<óTM¿£]+#áe#áTÌqT.
|³eTT 6.6 ýË Âs+&T #áÔáTsÁTÒÛC²\ýË #áÔáTsÁçd+ eT]jáTT BsÁé #áÔáTsÁçd+\ nqTsÁÖ| ¿ÃD²\T deÖq+>±
+{²jûT ¿±ú M{ì nqTsÁÖ| uóT C²\T ÿ¹¿ wÎÜïýË +&eÚ n MTsÁT >·eT+#áe#áTÌqT.
|³+ 6.6
¿±{ì¼ Âs+&T #áÔáTsÁTÒÛC²\T dsÁÖbÍ\T ¿±eÚ. n<û $<óeTT>± |³eTT 6.7 ýË Âs+&T #áÔáTsÁTÒÛC²\T (#áÔáTsÁçd+
eT]jáTT deT #áÔTá sÁTÒÛÈ+)ýË nqTsÁÖ| uóT C²\T deÖq wÎÜïýË +{²sTT ¿±ú y{ì d++~óÔá ¿ÃD²\T deÖq+
¿±<T n MTsÁT >·eT+#áe#áTÌ. eT°ß sÂ +&T VQuóT C²\T (#áÔTá sÁTÒÛC²\T) dsÖÁ bÍ\T ¿±eÚ.

156 TRIANGLES
S
4.2 cm
2.1 cm C 4.2 cm
D R
2.1 cm 2.1 cm
P 4.2 cm
A B 4.2 cm
2.1 cm
Q
Fig. 6.7
Thus, either of the above two conditions (i) and (ii) of similarity of two polygons is not
sufficient for them to be similar.
EXERCISE 6.1
1. Fill in the blanks using the correct word given in brackets :
(i) All circles are . (congruent, similar)
(ii) All squares are . (similar, congruent)
(iii) All triangles are similar. (isosceles, equilateral)
(iv) Two polygons of the same number of sides are similar, if (a) their corresponding
angles are and (b) their corresponding sides are . (equal, proportional)
2. Give two different examples of pair of
(i) similar figures. (ii) non-similar figures.
3. State whether the following quadrilaterals are similar or not:
Fig. 6.8

çÜuóT C²\T 157
S
4.2 cm
2.1 cm C 4.2 cm
D R
2.1 cm 2.1 cm
P 4.2 cm
A B 4.2 cm
2.1 cm
Q
|³+. 6.7
sÂ +&T VQuóT E\T dsÖÁ bÍ\T ¿±y\+fñ |Õ sÂ +&T (i) eT]jáTT (ii) jáTeÖ\ýË¢ @<Ã ÿ¿£Ø jáTeT+ d]bþ<T.
nuó²«deTT 6.1
1. ºÌq |<\ýË dsÂ qÕ |< |jÖî Ð+º U²°\qT |P]+#á+& :

(i) n eÔï\T m\¢|Ú Î&Ö (dsÇÁ deÖH\T / dsÖÁ bÍ\T)
(ii) n #áÔTá sÁçkÍ\T m\¢|Ú Î&Ö (dsÖÁ bÍ\T / dsÇÁ deÖH\T)
(iii) n çÜuóTC²\T dsÁÖbÍ\T (deT~Çu²VQ / deTu²VQ)
(iv) deÖq d+K«ýË uóT C²\T ¿£*Ðq sÂ +&T VQuóT E\T dsÖ Á bÍ\T ¿±y\+fñ (n) y{ì nqTsÁÖ| ¿ÃD²\T
eT]jáTT () y{ì nqTsÁÖ| uóT C²\T +&* (deÖqeTT / nqTbÍÔá+)
2. ç¿ì+~ y{ì¿ì Âs+&T yûsÁT yûsÁT <V²sÁD *eÇ+&
(i) dsÖ
Á | |{²\T (ii) dsÖ
Á | |{²\T ¿±$
3. ç¿ì+~ ºÌq #áÔáTsÁTÒÛC²\T dsÁÖbÍýË ¿±<Ã Ôî\|+&:
|³+. 6.8

158 TRIANGLES
6.3 Similarity of Triangles

What can you say about the similarity of two triangles?
You may recall that triangle is also a polygon. So, we can state the same conditions for the
similarity of two triangles. That is:
Two triangles are similiar, if
(i) their corresponding angles are equal and
(ii) their corresponding sides are in the same ratio (or proportion).
Note that if corresponding angles of two triangles
are equal, then they are known as equiangular
triangles. A famous Greek mathematician Thales gave
an important truth relating to two equiangular triangles
which is as follows:
The ratio of any two corresponding sides in two
equiangular triangles is always the same.
It is believed that he had used a result called the
Basic Proportionality Theorem (now known as the Thales
Thales Theorem) for the same. (640 – 546 B.C.)
To understand the Basic Proportionality Theorem,

let us perform the following activity:
Activity 2 : Draw any angle XAY and on its one
arm AX, mark points (say five points) P, Q, D, R and B
such that AP = PQ = QD = DR = RB.
Now, through B, draw any line intersecting arm AY
at C (see Fig. 6.9).
Also, through the point D, draw a line parallel to
BC to intersect AC at E. Do you observe from your
Fig. 6.9
AD 3
constructions that = ? Measure AE and
DB 2
AE AE 3
EC. What about ? Observe that is also equal to . Thus, you can see that in D ABC, DE
EC EC 2
AD AE
|| BC and = . Is it a coincidence? No, it is due to the following theorem (known as the
DB EC
Basic Proportionality Theorem):

çÜuóT C²\T 159
6.3 çÜuóTC²\ dsÁÖ|¿£Ôá

Âs+&T çÜuóTC²\ dsÁÖ|¿£Ôá >·T]+º MTsÁT @$T #î|Î>·\sÁT?
çÜuóTÈ+ Å£L& ÿ¿£ VQuóT n MTsÁT >·TsÁTï Ôî#áTÌ¿Ãe#áTÌqT. ¿±{ì¼ eTqeTT çÜuóTC²\ dsÁÖ|¿£ÔáÅ£ Å£L&
nyû wsÁÔáT\qT #î|Î>·\eTT.
n+fñ Âs+&T çÜuóTC²\T dsÁÖbÍ\T ¿±y\+fñ
(i) y{ì nqTsÁÖ| ¿ÃD²\T deÖq+>± +&*.
(ii) y{ì nqTsÁÖ| uóTC²\T deÖq wÎÜïýË +&*. (nqTbÍÔá+ýË +&*)
Âs+&T çÜuóT C²\ jîTT¿£Ø nqTsÁÖ| ¿ÃD²\T deÖqeTT>± q³T¢
MTsÁT >·eT+ºq³¢sTTÔû y{ì deT¿ÃD¡jTá çÜuóT C²\T n+{²sÁT. ç|eTTK
ç^Å£ >·DìÔá XæçdïyûÔáï <û̧ýÙà Âs+&T deT¿ÃD¡jáT çÜuóTÈeTT\Å£ d++~ó+ºq
ÿ¿£ eTTK«yîT®q dÔá«eTTqT ç¿ì+~ $<óeTT>± Ôî*bÍsÁT.
Âs+&T deT¿ÃD¡jáT çÜuóTC²\ýË @ Âs+&T nqTsÁÖ| uóTC²\
wÎÜï nsTTq ÿ¹¿ý² +³T+~.
B sÁÖ|DÅ£ çbÍ<¸$ T¿£ nqTbÍÔá d¾<Æ+ÔáeTT (<û̧ýÙà d¾<Æ+ÔáeTT <¸ýû Ùà
n Å£L& n+{²eTT) nedsÁeTT. (640 – 546 B.C.)
çbÍ<¸$T¿£ nqTbÍÔá d¾<Æ+ÔáeTT nsÁ+ #ûdT¿Ãe&¿ì
ç¿ì+~ ¿£Ô« #û<Ý+ :
¿£Ôá«+ 2 : ¿ÃDeTT XAY ^jáT+& eT]jáTT ÿ¿£ ¿ìsD
Á eTT
AX |Õ AP = PQ = QD = DR = RB +&Tq³T¢ _+<TeÚ\T
(×<T _+<TeÚ\T nqT¿=qTeTT) P, Q, D, eT]jáTT R\qT >·T]ï+#áTeTT.
|ÚÎ&T B _+<TeÚ <Çs ¿ìsDÁ eTT AYqT K+&+#áT ÿ¿£
¹sKqT ^jáTTeTT .~ AY C _+<TeÚ e<Ý ÔÅ£qT. (|³+ 6.9 |³+ 6.9
#áÖ& e#áTÌqT)
AD 3
ný²¹> _+<TeÚ D >·T+& BC ¿ì deÖ+ÔásÁ+>± ÿ¿£ ¹sKqT ^jáTTeTT. ~ = ? AE _+<TeÚ e<Ý ÔÅ£qT.
DB 2
AE AE 3
sD+ <Çs n >·eT+#s? AE eT]jáTT EC\qT ¿=\e+&. EC
$\Te m+Ôá ? EC
Å£ L& 2
¿ì deÖqeTT
AD AE
neÚÔáT+< >·eT+#á>\· sÁT. $<óe TT>± D ABC ýË DE || BC eT]jáTT =
DB EC
n #áÖ&e#áTÌqT. ~
jáÖ<ºÌÛ¿£eÖ? ¿±<T, ç¿ì+~ eÇ&q d¾<Æ+Ôá+ e\q ( çbÍ<¸$T¿£ nqTbÍÔá d¾<Æ+Ôá+ n n+{²sÁT )

160 TRIANGLES
Theorem 6.1 : If a line is drawn parallel to one side of a triangle to intersect the other two
sides in distinct points, the other two sides are divided in the same ratio.
Proof : We are given a triangle ABC in which a line
parallel to side BC intersects other two sides AB and
AC at D and E respectively (see Fig. 6.10).
AD AE
We need to prove that = .
DB EC
Let us join BE and CD and then draw DM ^ AC and

EN ^ AB.
Fig. 6.10
1 1
Now, area of D ADE (= base × height) = AD × EN.
2 2
Recall from Class IX, that area of D ADE is denoted as ar(ADE).
1
So, ar(ADE) = AD × EN
2
1
Similarly, ar(BDE) = DB × EN,
2
1 1
ar(ADE) = AE × DM and ar(DEC) = EC × DM.
2 2
1
ar(ADE) AD × EN
AD
Therefore, = 21 = (1)
ar(BDE)
DB × EN DB
2
1
ar(ADE) AE × DM
2 AE
and = 1 = (2)
ar(DEC) EC × DM EC
2
Note that D BDE and DEC are on the same base DE and between the same parallels BC and DE.
So, ar(BDE) = ar(DEC) (3)

çÜuóT C²\T 161
d¾<Ý+Ôá+ 6.1 : ÿ¿£ çÜuóTÈeTTýË ÿ¿£ uóT C²¿ì deÖ+Ôás+Á >± ^ºq s¹ K $TÐ*q Âs+&T uóT C²\qT yûsTÁ yûsTÁ _+<TeÚ\ýË
K+&+ºq, $TÐ*q Âs+&T uóTC²\T ÿ¹¿ wÎÜïýË $uó+|&ÔsTT.
sÁÖ|D : DABC ýË BC Å£ deÖ+Ôás+Á >± AB eT]jáTT AC
\qT D eT]jáTT E \ e<Ý K+&+#áT ÿ¿£ ¹sK eTqÅ£ eÇ&q~.
(|³eTT 6.10 e<Ý #áÖ&+&).
AD AE
eTq+ = n sÁÖ|¾+#áeýÉqT.
DB EC
|³+. 6.10
B,E eT]jáTT CD \qT ¿£\T|ÚeTT eT]jáTT
DM ^ AC and EN ^ AB ^jáTTeTT.
1 1
D ADE yîÕXæ\«eTT (= uóÖ$T × mÔáT)ï = 2 AD × EN.
2
D ADE jîTT¿£Ø çbÍ+Ôá+ ar(ADE) >± dÖº+#á e#áÌ 9e ÔásÁ>·ÜýË HûsÁTÌÅ£H+, >·TsÁTïÅ£ Ôî#áTÌ¿Ã+&.
1
¿±{ì¼, ar(ADE) =
2
AD × EN
1
<û$<ó+ >±, ar(BDE) =
2
DB × EN,
1 1
ar(ADE) = AE × DM and ar(DEC) = EC × DM.
2 2
1
ar(ADE) AD × EN
AD
¿±eÚq, = 21 = (1)
ar(BDE)
DB × EN DB
2
1
ar(ADE) AE × DM
2 AE
¿±eÚq, = 1 = (2)
ar(DEC) EC × DM EC
2
D BDE, DDEC \T ÿ¹¿ uóÖ

$T DE eT]jáTT deÖ+ÔásÁ s¹ K\T BC eT]jáTT DE\ eT<ó« q³T¢ >·eT+#áe#áTÌqT.
ar(BDE) = ar(DEC) (3)

162 TRIANGLES
Therefore, from (1), (2) and (3), we have :
AD AE
=
DB EC
Is the converse of this theorem also true (For the meaning of converse, see Appendix 1)?
To examine this, let us perform the following activity:
Activity 3 : Draw an angle XAY on your
notebook and on ray AX, mark points B1, B2, B3,
B4 and B such that AB 1 = B 1B2 = B 2B 3 =
B3B4 = B4B.
Similarly, on ray AY, mark points
C1, C2, C3, C4 and C such that AC1 = C1C2 = C2C3
= C 3 C 4 = C 4 C. Then join B 1 C 1 and BC
(see Fig. 6.11). Fig. 6.11
AB1 AC1 1
Note that B1B = C1C (Each equal to )
4
You can also see that lines B1C1 and BC are parallel to each other, i.e.,
B1C1 || BC (1)
Similarly, by joining B2C2, B3C3 and B4C4, you can see that:
AB2 AC2 æ 2 ö
= ç = ÷ and B2C2 || BC (2)
B2 B C2C è 3 ø
AB3 AC3 æ 3 ö
= ç = ÷ and B3C3 || BC (3)
B3B C3 C è 2 ø
AB4 AC4 æ 4 ö
= ç = ÷ and B4C4 || BC (4)
B4 B C4C è 1 ø
From (1), (2), (3) and (4), it can be observed that if a line divides two sides of a triangle in
the same ratio, then the line is parallel to the third side.
You can repeat this activity by drawing any angle XAY of different measure and taking any
number of equal parts on arms AX and AY . Each time, you will arrive at the same result. Thus,
we obtain the following theorem, which is the converse of Theorem 6.1:

çÜuóT C²\T 163
\ (1), (2) eT]jáTT (3) \ qT+& :

AD AE
= ¿±eÚq d¾<Æ+ÔáeTT sÁÖ|¾+#á&q~.
DB EC
|Õ d¾<Æ+ÔáeTT jîTT¿£Ø $|sÁ«jáTeTT Å£L& dÔá«yûTH ($|sÁ«jáTeTT nsÁ+ ¿Ãd+ nqT+<ó+`1 #áÖ&+&) B
sÆ]+#áT¿=qT³Å£ ç¿ì+~ ¿£Ô« #û<Ý+.
¿£Ôá«+ 3 : MT HÃ³T |Údï¿+£ ýË ¿ÃDeTT XAY ^jáT+&.
+¿± ¿ìsDÁ eTT AX |Õ AB1 = B1B2 = B2B3 = B3B4 =
B4 +&Tq³T¢ _+<TeÚ\T B1, B2, B3, B4 eT]jáTT B \qT
>·T]ï+#áTeTT. ný²¹> ¿ìsDÁ eTT AY |Õ AC1 = C1C2 = C2C3
= C3C4 = C4C +&Tq³T¢ _+<TeÚ\T C1, C2, C3, C4
|³+. 6.11
eT]jáTT C \qT >·T]ï+#áTeTT. B1C1 eT]jáTT BC _+<TeÚ\qT
¿£\T|ÚeTT. (|³+ 6.11 #áÖ&TeTT).
AB1 AC1 1
|Ú&T , B1B = C1C (ç|r~ deÖq+>± 4 )
B1C1 eT]jáTT BC \T |sÁdÎsÁ+ deÖ+ÔásÁ+>± +&T³qT MTsÁT #áÖ&e#áTÌqT.

B1C1 || BC (1)
<û$<ó+ >± B2C2 , B3C3 \qT B4C4, MTsÁT $<ó+>± #áÖ&>·\sÁT.

AB2 AC2 æ 2 ö
= ç= ÷ eT]jáTT B2C2 || BC (2)
B2 B C2C è 3 ø
AB3 AC3 æ 3 ö
= ç= ÷ eT]jáTT B3C3 || BC (3)
B3B C3 C è 2 ø
AB4 AC4 æ 4 ö
= ç= ÷ eT]jáTT B4C4 || BC (4)
B4 B C4C è 1 ø
(1),(2) ,(3) eT]jáTT (4)\ qT+& ÿ¿£ çÜuóT ÈeTTýË @yîÕH Âs+&T uóTC²\qT ÿ¹¿ wÎÜïýË $uó+#áT dsÁÞsø¹ K
eTÖ&e uóT C²¿ì deÖ+Ôás+Á >± +&TqT.
MTsÁT $$<ó ¿=\Ôá\ XAY ¿ÃD² ^jáT&+ <Çs AX eT]jáTT AY |Õ deÖq uó²>±\qT m+{ìHHÕî
rdT¿Ãe&+ <Çs ¿£Ôá«+ |ÚqseÔá+ #ûjáTe#áTÌ. ç|ÜkÍ] MTsÁT ÿ¹¿ |*Ô¿ì #ûsÁTÅ£+{²sÁT. $<ó+>±
eTq+ ç¿ì+~ d¾<Æ+Ô bõ+<TÔeTT ~ d¾<Æ+Ôá+ 6.1Å£ $|sÁ«jáTeTT.

164 TRIANGLES
Theorem 6.2 : If a line divides any two sides of a triangle in the

same ratio, then the line is parallel to the third side.
This theorem can be proved by taking a line DE such that
AD AE
= and assuming that DE is not parallel to BC
DB EC
(see Fig. 6.12).
If DE is not parallel to BC, draw a line DE¢ parallel to
BC.
AD AE¢
So, = (Why ?) Fig. 6.12
DB E¢C
AE AE¢
Therefore, = (Why ?)
EC E¢C
Adding 1 to both sides of above, you can see that E and E¢ must coincide. (Why ?)
Let us take some examples to illustrate the use of the above theorems.
Example 1 : If a line intersects sides AB and AC of a D ABC at D and E respectively and is
AD AE
parallel to BC, prove that = (see Fig. 6.13).
AB AC
Solution : DE || BC (Given)
AD AE
So, = (Theorem 6.1)
DB EC
DB EC
or, =
AD AE
DB EC
or, +1 = +1
AD AE
AB AC
or, =
AD AE
AD AE
So, =
AB AC
Fig. 6.13

çÜuóT C²\T 165
d¾<Æ+ÔáeTT 6.2 : ÿ¿£ çÜuóT ÈeTTýË @yîHÕ sÂ +&T uóT C²\qT ÿ¹¿ wÎÜïýË
$uó+#áT dsÁÞø¹sK, eTÖ&e uóTC²¿ì deÖ+ÔásÁ+>± +&TqT.
AD AE
d¾<Æ+Ôá+qT = n>·Tq³T¢ eT]jáTT n~ BC deÖ+ÔásÁ+ ¿±
DB EC
$<ó+>± ^jáT&q dsÁÞø¹sK DE nqT¿=qTeTT. (|³+ 6.12 #áÖ&TeTT)
DE ||BC ¿ì deÖ+ÔásÁeTT ¿±<T nqT¿=qTeTT. n|Ú&T BC ¿ì
deTÖ+ÔásÁ+>± DE ^jáTTeTT. (|³eTT 6.12)
AD AE¢ |³+. 6.12
n|Ú&T, DB
=
E¢C
(m+<TÅ£ ?)
AE AE¢
nq>±, EC
=
E¢C
(m+<TÅ£ ?)
sÁTyî|Õ Ú ý² 1 ¿£\T|>± E eT]jáTT E¢\T Ôá|Î d]>± @¿¡u$ó +#* n Ôî\TdT+ï ~ (m+<TÅ£?)
<V²sÁD 1 : D ABC ýË BC ¿ì deÖ+ÔásÁ+>± ^ºq ¹sK AB eT]jáTT AC \qT esÁTd>± D eT]jáTT
AD AE
E\ e<Ý K+&+ºq#Ã = n #áÖ|+& (|³+ 6.13#áÖ&+&).
AB AC
kÍ<óq : DE || BC (ºÌq)
AD AE
¿±eÚq, DB
=
EC
(d¾<Æ+Ôá+ 6.1)
DB EC
ýñ¿£, AD
=
AE
DB EC
ýñ¿£, +1 = +1
AD AE
AB AC
ýñ¿£, AD
=
AE
AD AE
¿±{ì,¼ AB
=
AC
|³+. 6.13

166 TRIANGLES
Example 2 : ABCD is a trapezium with AB || DC. E and

F are points on non-parallel sides AD and BC
respectively such that EF is parallel to AB
AE BF
(see Fig. 6.14). Show that = .
ED FC
Solution : Let us join AC to intersect EF at G
(see Fig. 6.15).
Fig. 6.14
AB || DC and EF || AB (Given)
So, EF || DC (Lines parallel to the same line are
parallel to each other)
Now, in D ADC,
EG || DC (As EF || DC)
AE AG
So, = (Theorem 6.1) (1)
ED GC
Similarly, from D CAB, Fig. 6.15
CG CF
=
AG BF
AG BF
i.e., = (2)
GC FC
Therefore, from (1) and (2),
AE BF
=
ED FC
PS PT
Example 3 : In Fig. 6.16, SQ = and Ð PST =
TR
Ð PRQ. Prove that PQR is an isosceles triangle.
PS PT
Solution : It is given that SQ = TR ×
Fig. 6.16
So, ST || QR (Theorem 6.2)
Therefore, Ð PST = Ð PQR (Corresponding angles) (1)

çÜuóT C²\T 167
<V²sÁD 2 : çfÉ|Ó jáT+ ABCD ýË AB || DC. E eT]jáTT

F _+<TeÚ\T esÁTd>± EF || AB n>·Tq³T¢ deÖ+ÔásÁ+ ¿±ú
uóT C²\T
AE BF
AD,BC \|Õ q$. nsTTq = n #áÖ|+&. |³+
ED FC
6.14#áÖ&+&)
|³+ 6.14
kÍ<óq : AC _+<TeÚ\qT ¿£\T|>± @sÁÎ&q ¹sU² K+&eTT, EF
qT G e<Ý K+&+ºq~. (|³eTT 6.15 #áÖ&+&)
<Ôï+XøeTT: AB || DC eT]jáTT EF || AB (ºÌq)
¿±eÚq, EF || DC (ÿ¹¿ ¹sKÅ£ deÖ+ÔásÁ+>± q ¹sK\T
deÖ+Ôás\T)
AE AG
D ADC ýË EG || DC ¿±eÚq = (d¾<Æ+ÔáeTT 6.2)
ED GC
.... (1) |³+ 6.15
CG CF
n<û$<ó+ >± D CAB ýË GF || AB ¿±eÚq AG
=
BF
AG BF
= ......(2)
GC FC
AE BF
n+<Te\q (1) eT]jáTT (2)\ qT+& =
ED FC
PS PT
<V²sÁD 3 : |³eTT 6.16 ýË #áÖ|¾q $<ó+>±, SQ
=
TR
eT]jáTT Ð PST = Ð PRQ nsTTq PQR ÿ¿£ deT~Çu²VQ
çÜuóT ÈeT #áÖ|+&.
PS PT
kÍ<óq : <Ôï+XøeTT = ×
SQ TR |³+ 6.16
¿±eÚq, ST || QR (d¾<Æ+Ôá+ 6.2)
\ Ð PST =Ð PQR (d< Xø« ¿ÃD²\T) .........(1)

168 TRIANGLES
Also, it is given that

Ð PST = Ð PRQ (2)
So, Ð PRQ = Ð PQR [From (1) and (2)]
Therefore, PQ = PR (Sides opposite the equal angles)
i.e., PQR is an isosceles triangle.
EXERCISE 6.2
1. In Fig. 6.17, (i) and (ii), DE || BC. Find EC in (i) and AD in (ii).
Fig. 6.17
2. E and F are points on the sides PQ and PR

respectively of a D PQR. For each of the following
cases, state whether EF || QR :
(i) PE = 3.9 cm, EQ = 3 cm, PF = 3.6 cm and FR = 2.4
cm
(ii) PE = 4 cm, QE = 4.5 cm, PF = 8 cm and RF = 9 cm
Fig. 6.18
(iii) PQ = 1.28 cm, PR = 2.56 cm, PE = 0.18 cm and PF
= 0.36 cm
3. In Fig. 6.18, if LM || CB and LN || CD, prove that
AM AN
= ×
AB AD
4. In Fig. 6.19, DE || AC and DF || AE. Prove that

BF BE
= × Fig. 6.19
FE EC

çÜuóT C²\T 169
ný²¹> n~ eÇ&q~
<Š
Ô ï+Xø
+ ç| Ÿ
¿±s Á
+ Ð PST =Ð PRQ .......... (2)
¿±eÚq, (1) eT]jáTT (2) \ qT+& Ð PRQ = Ð PQR

\ PQ =PR ( çÜuóT ÈeTTýË deÖq ¿ÃD²\Å£ m<TÂs<TsÁT uóTC²\T deÖqeTT)
¿±eÚq PQR ÿ¿£ deT~Çu²VQ çÜuóT ÈeTT.
<V²sÁD 6.2
1. ºÌq |³eTT 6.17, (i) eT]jáTT (ii) ýË DE || BC nsTTq (i) ýË EC eT]jáTT (ii) ýË AD ¿£qT>=qTeTT
|³+. 6.17
2. D PQR ýË uóTC²\T PQ eT]jáTT QR \|Õ _+<TeÚ\T
esÁ Td >± E eT]jáT T F \T. ç¿ì+ ~ y{ìý Ë ç|Ü
d+<sÒÁ +Û ýË EF || QR neÚHÃ, ¿±<Ã Ôî\|+&.
(i) PE = 3.9 d+.MT, EQ = 3 d+.MT, PF = 3.6 d+.MT eT]jáTT
FR = 2.4 d+.MT
(ii) PE = 4 d+.MT, QE = 4.5 d+.MT, PF = 8 d+.MT eT]jáTT
RF = 9 d+.MT
(iii) PQ = 1.28 d+.MT, PR = 2.56 d+.MT, PE = 0.18 d+.MT |³+. 6.18
eT]jáTT PF = 0.36 d+.MT
3. |³eTT 6.18 ýË LM || CB eT]jáTT LN || CD, sÁÖ|¾+#á+&.
AM AN
= ×
AB AD
4. ºÌq |³eTT 6.19ýË DE || AC eT]jáTT DF || AE nsTTq
BF BE
= × n #áÖ|+&.
FE EC
|³+. 6.19

170 TRIANGLES
5. In Fig. 6.20, DE || OQ and DF || OR. Show that

EF || QR.
6. In Fig. 6.21, A, B and C are points on OP, OQ and
OR respectively such that AB || PQ and AC || PR.
Show that BC || QR.
7. Using Theorem 6.1, prove that a line drawn through
the mid-point of one side of a triangle parallel to
another side bisects the third side. (Recall that Fig. 6.20
you have proved it in Class IX).
8. Using Theorem 6.2, prove that the line joining the
mid-points of any two sides of a triangle is parallel
to the third side. (Recall that you have done it in
Class IX).
9. ABCD is a trapezium in which AB || DC and its
diagonals intersect each other at the point O. Show
AO CO
that = ×
BO DO
Fig. 6.21
AO CO
10. The diagonals of a quadrilateral ABCD intersect each other at the point O such that = ×
BO DO
Show that ABCD is a trapezium.
6.4 Criteria for Similarity of Triangles

In the previous section, we stated that two triangles are similar, if (i) their corresponding angles
are equal and (ii) their corresponding sides are in the same ratio (or proportion).
That is, in D ABC and D DEF, if
(i) Ð A = Ð D, Ð B = Ð E, Ð C = Ð F and
AB BC CA ,
(ii) = = then the two triangles are similar (see Fig. 6.22).
DE EF FD
Fig. 6.22

çÜuóT C²\T 171
5. ºÌq |³eTT 6.20 ýË DE || OQ eT]jáTT DF || OR.

nsTTq EF || QR n #áÖ|+&.
6. ºÌq |³eTT 6.21 ýË A,B,C \T esÁTd>± OP, OQ eT]jáTT
OR \|Õ _+<TeÚ\T. AB || PQ eT]jáTT AC || PR nsTTq
BC || QR n #áÖ|+&.
7. d¾<Æ+Ôá+ 6.1qT |jîÖÐ+º, ÿ¿£ çÜuóTÈ+ýË ÿ¿£ uóTÈ+
eT<ó« _+<TeÚ >·T+& bþjûT s¹ K sÂ +&e uóT C²¿ì deÖ+Ôás+Á >± |³+. 6.20
+fñ n~ eTÖ&e uóT C² deT~ÇK+&q #ûdT +ï < #áÖ|+&.
(9e ÔásÁ>·ÜýË sÁÖ|¾+ºq d¾<Æ+Ô >·TsÁTï Ôî#áTÌ¿Ã+&).
8. d¾<Æ+Ôá+ 6.2 qT|jîÖÐ+º, ÿ¿£ çÜuóT ÈeTTýË Âs+&T uóTC²\
eT<ó« _+<TeÚ\qT ¿£*| s¹ U²K+&eTT eTÖ&e uóT C²¿ì
deÖ+Ôás+Á >± +³T+< #áÖ|+&. (9e Ôás>Á Ü· ýË sÁÖ|¾+ºq
d¾<Æ+Ô >·TsÁTï Ôî#Tá Ì¿Ã+&)..
9. çfÉ|Ó jáT+ ABCD ýË AB || DC < ¿£sÁeTT\T |sÁdÎsÁ+
_+< T eÚ O e< Ý K+& + #á T Å£ +{²sTT. nsTTq |³+. 6.21
AO CO
= × n#áÖ|+&.
BO DO
AO CO
10. ÿ¿£ #áÔáTsÁTÒÛÈ+ ABCDýË ¿£seÁ TT\T _+<TeÚ O e<Ý K+&+#áT¿=qTqT eT]jáTT = × nsTTq n~ ÿ¿£
BO DO
çfÉ|ÓjáT+ n #áÖ|+&.
6.4 çÜuóTC²\ dsÁÖ|¿£ÔáÅ£ jáTeTeTT
eTT+<T #î|Î¾ q $<óe TT>± sÂ +&T çÜuóT C²\T dsÖÁ bÍ\T ¿±y\+fñ (i)y{ì nqTsÁÖ| ¿ÃD²\T deÖq+>± +&*
eT]jáTT (ii) y{ì nqTsÁÖ| uóTC²\T ÿ¹¿ wÎÜïýË (ýñ< nqTbÍÔá+ýË) +&* .
nq>± D ABC eT]jáTT D DEF \ýË
(i) Ð A = Ð D, Ð B = Ð E, Ð C = Ð F eT]jáTT
AB BC CA ,
(ii) = = nsTTq Âs+&T çÜuóTC²\T deÖ+ÔásÁ+ (|³+ 6.22qT #áÖ&+&)
DE EF FD
|³+ 6.22

172 TRIANGLES
Here, you can see that A corresponds to D, B corresponds to E and C corresponds to F.

Symbolically, we write the similarity of these two triangles as ‘D ABC ~ D DEF’ and read it
as ‘triangle ABC is similar to triangle DEF’. The symbol ‘~’ stands for ‘is similar to’. Recall
that you have used the symbol ‘@’ for ‘is congruent to’ in Class IX.
It must be noted that as done in the case of congruency of two triangles, the similarity of
two triangles should also be expressed symbolically, using correct correspondence of their
vertices. For example, for the triangles ABC and DEF of Fig. 6.22, we cannot write D ABC
~ D EDF or D ABC ~ D FED. However, we can write D BAC ~ D EDF.
Now a natural question arises : For checking the similarity of two triangles, say ABC and
DEF, should we always look for all the equality relations of their corresponding angles (Ð A =
Ð D, Ð B = Ð E, Ð C = Ð F) and all the equality relations of the ratios of their corresponding
æ AB BC CA ö
sides ç = = ÷? Let us examine. You may recall that in Class IX, you have obtained
è DE EF FD ø
some criteria for congruency of two triangles involving only three pairs of corresponding parts
(or elements) of the two triangles. Here also, let us make an attempt to arrive at certain criteria
for similarity of two triangles involving relationship between less number of pairs of
corresponding parts of the two triangles, instead of all the six pairs of corresponding parts. For
this, let us perform the following activity:
Activity 4 : Draw two line segments BC and EF of two different lengths, say 3 cm and 5 cm
respectively. Then, at the points B and C respectively, construct angles PBC and QCB of some
measures, say, 60° and 40°. Also, at the points E and F, construct angles REF and SFE of 60° and
40° respectively (see Fig. 6.23).
Fig. 6.23

çÜuóT C²\T 173
#áÌ³ A nHû~ D¿ì nqTsÁÖ|eTT>±, B nHû~ D¿ì nqTsÁÖ|eTT>± eT]jáTT C nHû~ E¿ì nqTsÁÖ|eTT>±
HsTT. Âs+&T çÜuóTC²\ dsÁÖ|¿£ÔáqT, ºVä\qT |jîÖÐ+º ç¿ì+~ $<óeTT>± çyjáTe#áTÌ.
‘D ABC ~ D DEF’ eT]jáTT B çÜuóT ÈeTT ABC çÜuóTÈeTT DEF¿ì dsÖ Á |¿+£ >± +~ n #á<T eÚÔeTT
eT]jáTT Ô=$T<Ã ÔásÁ>·ÜýË MTsÁT dsÁÇdeÖqÔáÇeTTqÅ£ ‘@’ >·TsÁT>ï ± |jîÖÐ+#áT³ >·TsÁTï Ôî#Tá Ì¿=qTeTT.
çÜuóT C²\ dsÇÁ deÖqÔáÇeTTýË |jÖî Ð+ºq $<óe TT>±Hû çÜuóT C²\ dsÖÁ |¿Ô£ ýá Ë Å£L& ºVä\T |jÖî Ð+º sd³|Úð&T
nqTsÁÖ| osü\Hû |jîÖÐ+#*. <V²sÁDÅ£ |³eTT 6.22ýË çÜuóTC²\T ABC eT]jáTT DEF\qT D ABC ~ D
EDF ýñ< D ABC ~ D FED >± çyjáTÅ£L&<T, nsTTq|Î{ì¿¡ D BAC ~ D EDF.n çyjáTe#áTÌ.
|ÚÎ&T eTqÅ£ dV²È+>± <ÒÛ$+#û ç|Xø. Âs+&T çÜuóTC²\ dsÁÖ|¿£ÔáqT |]o*+#á&¿ì nqTsÁÖ|
¿ÃD²\T deÖq+>± HjûTyîÖ |]o*+#* (D A = D D, D B = D E, D C = D F) +¿± nqTsÁÖ| uóTC²\
æ AB BC CA ö
wÎÔáT\ï T deÖqyûTyîÖ |]o*+#ý²? ç = = ÷. sÂ +&T çÜuóT C²\ dsÇÁ deÖqÔÇ |]o*+#á&e TTýË
è DE EF FD ø
çÜuóTC²\ eTÖ&T ÈÔá\ nqTsÁÖ| uó²>±\qT (ýñ¿£ n+¿±\qT) eÖçÔáyûT |]>·DqýË¿ì rdTÅ£+{²eT 9e ÔásÁ>·ÜýË
MTsÁT HûsÁTÌÅ£q $wjáÖ >·TsÁTïÔî#áTÌ¿Ã+&. ¿£Ø& Å£L& Âs+&T çÜuóTC²\ dsÁÖ|¿£ÔáqT |]o*+#á{²¿ì ÔáÅ£Øe
d+K«ýË nqTsÁÖ| uó²>±\qT |jÖî Ð+º ¿= jáTeÖ\qT @sÁÎ]#û ç|jTá Ôá+ #û<ÝeTT. B ¿=sÁÅ£ ç¿ì+~ ¿£Ô«
#û<ÝeTT.
¿£Ôá«+ 4 : BC= 3 d+.MT, EF 5 d+.MT njûT« $<ó+>± BC eT]jáTT EF ¹sK s¹ U²K+&\qT ^jáT+&. _+<TeÚ\T
B eT]jáTT C\ e<Ý esÁTd>± ¿ÃD+ PBC 60°, ¿ÃD+ QCB 40° n>·Tq³T¢ ¿ìsD
Á ²\qT ]+#á+&. n<û$<ó+ >±
_+< T eÚ\T E eT]já T T EF \ e< Ý esÁ T d > ± ¿ÃD+ REF= 60° , ¿ÃD+ SFE = 40°
n>·Tq³T¢ ¿ÃD ¿ìsÁD²\T ]+#á+&. (|³+ 6.23qT #áÖ&+&)
|³+ 6.23

174 TRIANGLES
Let rays BP and CQ intersect each other at A and rays ER and FS intersect each other at D.
In the two triangles ABC and DEF, you can see that
Ð B = Ð E, Ð C = Ð F and Ð A = Ð D. That is, corresponding angles of these two triangles are
BC 3
equal. What can you say about their corresponding sides ? Note that = = 0.6. What about
EF 5
AB CA AB CA
and ? On measuring AB, DE, CA and FD, you will find that and are also equal to
DE FD DE FD
AB BC CA
0.6 (or nearly equal to 0.6, if there is some error in the measurement). Thus, = = ×
DE EF FD
You can repeat this activity by constructing several pairs of triangles having their corresponding
angles equal. Every time, you will find that their corresponding sides are in the same ratio (or
proportion). This activity leads us to the following criterion for similarity of two triangles.
Theorem 6.3 : If in two triangles, corresponding angles are equal, then their corresponding
sides are in the same ratio (or proportion) and hence the two triangles are similar.
This criterion is referred to as the AAA
(Angle–Angle–Angle) criterion of similarity
of two triangles.
This theorem can be proved by taking two
triangles ABC and DEF such that
Ð A = Ð D, Ð B = Ð E and Ð C = Ð F
(see Fig. 6.24)
Cut DP = AB and DQ = AC and join PQ. Fig. 6.24
So, D ABC @ D DPQ (Why ?)

This gives Ð B = Ð P = Ð E and PQ || EF (How?)
DP DQ
Therefore, = QF (Why?)
PE
AB AC
i.e., = (Why?)
DE DF
AB BC AB BC AC
Similarly, = and so = = .
DE EF DE EF DF
Remark : If two angles of a triangle are respectively equal to two angles of another triangle,
then by the angle sum property of a triangle their third angles will also be equal. Therefore, AAA
similarity criterion can also be stated as follows:

çÜuóT C²\T 175
¿ìsDÁ eTT\T BP eT]jáTT CQ\T Ae<Ý K+&+#áTÅ£HsTT nqTÅ£+<eTT eT]jáTT ¿ìsDÁ eTT\T ER eT]jáTT FS\T D
e<Ý K+&+#áTÅ£HsTT nqTÅ£+<eTT. Âs+&T çÜuóT C²\T ABC eT]jáTT DEF\ýË Ð B = Ð E, Ð C = Ð F
eT]jáTT Ð A = Ð D nq>±, sÂ +&T çÜuóT C²\ýË nqTsÁÖ| ¿ÃD²\T deÖH\T. nsTTq, y{ì nqTsÁÖ| uóT C²\
BC 3 AB CA
>·T]+º MTÅ£ @$T Ôî\TdT? = = 0.6. n >·eT+#á+&. eT]jáTT >·T]+º MTÅ£ @$T Ôî\TdT?
EF 5 DE FB
AB CA
AB, DE, CA eT]jáTT FD uóT C²\qT ¿=*ºq ÔásÇÔá úeÚ eT]jáTT \T 0.6¿ì deÖqeT Ôî\TdTÅ£+{²sÁT
DE FB
AB BC AC
(ýñ¿£ ¿=\Ôá\ýË ýË|+ e\q 0.6 Å£ <>sZ· Á $\Te e#áTÌqT) |* Ôá+>± = = . nqTsÁÖ| ¿ÃD²\T
DE EF DF
deÖq+ njûT« $<ó+>± yûsÁTyûsÁT ÈÔá\ çÜuóTC²\qT ]+º ¿£Ô« |ÚqseÔá+ #ûjáT>± y{ì nqTsÁÖ| uóTC²\
wÎÔáTï\T deÖqeT Ôî\TdTÅ£+{²+. ¿£Ôá«+ <Çs çÜuóTC²\ dsÁÖ|¿£ÔáÅ£ eTqeTT ç¿ì+< jáTeÖ
#î|Îe#áTÌ.
d¾<Æ+Ôá+ 6.3 : Âs+&T çÜuóTC²\ýË nqTsÁÖ| ¿ÃD²\T deÖq+>±
+fñ, y{ì nqTsÁÖ| uóTC²\ wÎÔáTï\T deÖq+>± +{²sTT.
(nqTbÍÔá+ýË +{²sTT). ¿£qT¿£ Âs+&T çÜuóTC²\T dsÁÖ|
çÜuóT C²\T neÚÔsTT. jáTeTeTTqT AAA (¿ÃD+-¿ÃD+-
¿ÃD+) çÜuó T C²\ d s Á Ö | já T eTeTT>± #î TÔeTT.
d¾ < Æ + Ôá + qT Ð A = Ð D, Ð B = Ð E eT]já T T
ÐC = Ð F (|³:. 6.24 rdT¿=qT³ <Çs sÁÖ|¾+#áe#áTÌ)
|³+. 6.24
AB = DP eT]jáTT AC = DQ n>·Tq³T¢ PQ \qT ¿£\T|ÚeTT.
¿±eÚq, D ABC @ D DPQ (m+<TÅ£ ?)
B qT+& ÐB=ÐP =ÐE eT]jáTT PQ || EF (mý²?)
DP DQ
\ PE
= QF (m+<TÅ£?)
AB AC
= (mý²?)
DE DF
AB BC AB BC AC
n<û$<ó+ >±, = ¿±{ì¼ = = .
DE EF DE EF DF
dÖ#áq: ÿ¿£ çÜuóT È+ýË sÂ +&T ¿ÃDeTT\T esÁTd>± yûs=¿£ çÜuóT È+ ýË Âs+&T ¿ÃDeTT\Å£ deÖqyîTq® , çÜuóT ÈeTTýË
¿ÃD²\ yîTTÔá+ï <ós Á + ç|¿±sÁ+, sÂ +&T çÜuóT C²\ýË eTÖ&e ¿ÃD²\T Å£L& deÖqeTT neÚÔsTT. ¿±eÚq
AAA dsÖ Á | jáTeÖ $<óe TT>± Å£L& #î|Îe#áTÌqT:

176 TRIANGLES
If two angles of one triangle are respectively equal to two angles of another triangle,
then the two triangles are similar.
This may be referred to as the AA similarity criterion for two triangles.
You have seen above that if the three angles of one triangle are respectively equal to the
three angles of another triangle, then their corresponding sides are proportional (i.e., in the
same ratio). What about the converse of this statement? Is the converse true? In other words, if
the sides of a triangle are respectively proportional to the sides of another triangle, is it true
that their corresponding angles are equal? Let us examine it through an activity :
Activity 5 : Draw two triangles ABC and DEF such that AB = 3 cm, BC = 6 cm,
CA = 8 cm, DE = 4.5 cm, EF = 9 cm and FD = 12 cm (see Fig. 6.25).
Fig. 6.25
AB BC CA 2
So, you have : = = (each equal to )
DE EF FD 3
Now measure Ð A, Ð B, Ð C, Ð D, Ð E and Ð F. You will observe that
Ð A = Ð D, Ð B = Ð E and Ð C = Ð F, i.e., the corresponding angles of the two triangles are
equal.
You can repeat this activity by drawing several such triangles (having their sides in the
same ratio). Everytime you shall see that their corresponding angles are equal. It is due to the
following criterion of similarity of two triangles:
Theorem 6.4 : If in two triangles, sides of one triangle are proportional to
(i.e., in the same ratio of ) the sides of the other triangle, then their corresponding angles
are equal and hence the two triangles are similiar.
This criterion is referred to as the SSS (Side–Side–Side) similarity criterion for two
triangles.
AB BC CA
This theorem can be proved by taking two triangles ABC and DEF such that = =
DE EF FD
(< 1) (see Fig. 6.26):

çÜuóT C²\T 177
ÿ¿£ çÜuóT È+ýË sÂ +&T ¿ÃDeTT\T esÁTd>± yûs=¿£ çÜuóT È+ ýË sÂ +&T ¿ÃDeTT\Å£ deÖqyîTq® , sÂ +&T
çÜuóTC²\T dsÁÖ| çÜuóTC²\T neÚÔsTT.
jáTeÖ AA çÜuóT C²\ dsÖÁ |¿Ô£ á jáTeTeTT>± #îTÔeTT.
ÿ¿£ çÜuóTÈeTTýË eTÖ&T ¿ÃD²\T esÁTd>± eTs=¿£ çÜuóTÈ+ýË eTÖ&T ¿ÃD²\Å£ deÖqyîT®q, y{ì nqTsÁÖ|
uóT C²\T nqTbÍÔá+ýË (n+fñ ÿ¹¿ wÎÜïýË) +{²sTT n MTÅ£ Ôî\TdT. eT] |Õ ç|e#áqeTT jîTT¿£Ø $|s«Á jáTeTT
@$T{ì? ÿ¿£ çÜuóT ÈeTTýË eTÖ&T uóT C²\T, esÁTd>± yûs=¿£ çÜuóT ÈeTTýË nqTsÁÖ| uóT C²\ÔÃ nqTbÍÔáeTTýË q,
sÂ +&T çÜuóT C²\ýË nqTsÁÖ| ¿ÃD²\T deÖqeTqT³ d]jûTH? B eTqeTT ç¿ì+~ ¿£Ôá«eTT <Çs
|]o*<ÝeTT.
¿£Ôá«+ 5 : AB = 3 d+.MT, , BC = 6 d+.MT, , CA = 8 d+.MT, , DE = 4.5 d+.MT, , EF = 9 d+.MT,
eT]jáTT FD = 12 d+.MT, ¿=\Ôá\ÔÃ DEF qT ]+#áTeTT. (|³+ 6.25qT #áÖ&+&)
|³+ 6.25
AB BC CA 2
sÂ +&T çÜuóT C²\ýË : = = (ç|Ü ÿ¿£Ø{ì deÖq+>± 3 )
DE EF FD
Ð A, Ð B, Ð C, Ð D, Ð E eT]jáTT Ð F. ¿ÃD²\qT ¿=\e+&. Ð A = Ð D, Ð B = Ð E eT]jáTT Ð C
= Ð F, n MTsÁT >·eTkÍïsTÁ . n+fñ sÂ +&T çÜuóT C²\ýË nqTsÁÖ| ¿ÃD²\T deÖqeT Ôî\TdTÅ£HsÁT.
nqTsÁÖ| uóTC²\ wÎÔáTï\T deÖqeTjûT« $<ó+>± yûsÁTyûsÁT ÈÔá\ çÜuóTC²\qT ]+º. ¿£Ô«
|ÚqseÔá+ #ûjTá T³ <Çs, ç|Ü d+<sÒÁ +Û ýË Âs+&T çÜuóT C²\ nqTsÁÖ| ¿ÃD²\T deÖqeT>·T³ MTsÁT >·eT+#á>\· sÁT.
|Õ ¿£Ôá«+ <Çs çÜuóTC²\ dsÁÖ|¿£ÔáÅ£ d++~ó+º ç¿ì+~ jáTeTeTT e\q d+uó$+º+~.
d¾<Æ+Ôá+ 6.4 : sÂ +&T çÜuóT C²\ýË ÿ¿£ çÜuóT È+ýË uóT C²\T, yûs=¿£ çÜuóT ÈeTTýË uóT C²\Å£ nqTbÍÔáeTTýË q,
(ÿ¹¿ wàÜïýË q³¢sTTÔû) sÂ +&T çÜuóT C²\ýË nqTsÁÖ| ¿ÃD²\T deÖqeTT. +¿± sÂ +&T çÜuóT C²\T
dsÖÁ bÍ\T. jáTeÖ sÂ +&T çÜuóT C²\ uóT . uóT. uóT (uóT ÈeTT- uóT ÈeTT- uóTÈeTT) dsÁÖ| jáTeTeTT>± #îTÔeTT.
AB BC CA
d¾<Æ+Ôá+qT = = (< 1) n>·Tq³T¢ ABC eT]jáTT DEF\qT rdT¿=qT³ <Çs
DE EF FD
sÁÖ|¾+#áe#áTÌqT. (|³+ 6.26qT #áÖ&+&)

178 TRIANGLES
Fig. 6.26
Cut DP = AB and DQ = AC and join PQ.
DP DQ
It can be seen that = QF and PQ || EF (How?)
PE
So, Ð P = Ð E and Ð Q = Ð F.
DP DQ PQ
Therefore, = =
DE DF EF
DP DQ BC
So, = = (Why?)
DE DF EF
So, BC = PQ (Why?)
Thus, D ABC @ D DPQ (Why ?)
So, Ð A = Ð D, Ð B = Ð E and ÐC=ÐF (How ?)
Remark : You may recall that either of the two conditions namely, (i) corresponding angles are
equal and (ii) corresponding sides are in the same ratio is not sufficient for two polygons to be
similar. However, on the basis of Theorems 6.3 and 6.4, you can now say that in case of similarity
of the two triangles, it is not necessary to check both the conditions as one condition implies
the other.
Let us now recall the various criteria for congruency of two triangles learnt in Class IX.
You may observe that SSS similarity criterion can be compared with the SSS congruency
criterion.This suggests us to look for a similarity criterion comparable to SAS congruency
criterion of triangles. For this, let us perform an activity.
Activity 6 : Draw two triangles ABC and DEF such that AB = 2 cm, Ð A = 50°,
AC = 4 cm, DE = 3 cm, Ð D = 50° and DF = 6 cm (see Fig.6.27).

çÜuóT C²\T 179
|³+ 6.26
AB = DP eT]jáTT AC = DQ n>·Tq³T¢ PQ \qT ¿£\T|ÚeTT.
DP DQ
B $<ó+ >± Å£L& #áÖ&e#áTÌ = QF eT]jáTT PQ || EF (m+<TÅ£?)
PE
¿±eÚq, ÐP=Ð E eT]jáTT Ð Q = Ð F

DP DQ PQ
\ DE
=
DF
=
EF
DP DQ BC
¿±ú = = (m+<TÅ£?)
DE DF EF
¿±ú, BC = PQ (m+<TÅ£?)
D ABC @ D DPQ (m+<TÅ£ ?)
¿±eÚq , ÐA = ÐD, ÐB = ÐE eT]jáTT ÐC = ÐF (mý²?)
dÖ#áq : sÂ +&T VQuóT E\T dsÖÁ bÍ\T ¿±y\+fñ (i) y{ì nqTsÁÖ| ¿ÃD²\T deÖq+>± +&* eT]jáTT (ii)
y{ì nqTsÁÖ| uóT C²\T ÿ¹¿ wÎÜïýË (ýñ< nqTbÍÔá+ýË) +&*. |Õ jáTeÖ\ýË¢ @<Ã ÿ¿£ jáTeT+ d]bþ<T n
#á~yeTT. ¿±ú çÜuóT C²\ dsÁÖ|¿£ÔáÅ£ d++~ó+º Âs+&T jáTeÖ\T nedsÁ+ ýñ<T . m+<T¿£+fñ ÿ¿£ jáTeT+ +fñ
Âs+&e jáTeT+ qfñ¢.
çÜuóTC²\ dsÁÇdeÖqÔáÇeTTqÅ£ Ô=$T<Ã ÔásÁ>·ÜýË MTsÁT HûsÁTÌÅ£q yûsÁTyûsÁT jáTeÖ\qT >·TsÁTï Ôî#áTÌÅ£+<+.
uóT .uóT .uóT dsÇÁ deÖqÔáÇ jáTeÖ uóT .uóT .uóT dsÖÁ |¿Ô£ á jáTeTeTTÔÃ bþ\Ìe#áTÌ. B qT+& uóT .¿Ã.uóT dsÇÁ deÖqÔáÇ
jáTeTeTTÔÃ bþ\Ì<Ðq eTs=¿£ dsÁÖ|¿£Ôá jáTeT+ +&Tq dÖºdTï+~. B ¿=sÁÅ£ ç¿ì+~ ¿£Ô« #û<Ý+.
¿£Ôá«+ 6 : AB = 2 d+.MT, Ð A = 50°, AC = 4 d+.MT +&Tq³T¢ ABC DE = 3 d+.MT Ð D = 50°
eT]jáTT DF = 6 d+.MT +&Tq³T¢ DEF ^jáTTeTT.(|³+ 6.27 #áÖ&+&)

180 TRIANGLES
Fig. 6.27
AB AC 2
Here, you may observe that = (each equal to ) and Ð A (included between the
DE DF 3
sides AB and AC) = Ð D (included between the sides DE and DF). That is, one angle of a triangle
is equal to one angle of another triangle and sides including these angles are in the same ratio
(i.e., proportion). Now let us measure Ð B, Ð C, Ð E and Ð F.
You will find that Ð B = Ð E and Ð C = Ð F. That is, Ð A = Ð D, Ð B = Ð E and Ð C = Ð

F. So, by AAA similarity criterion, D ABC ~ D DEF. You may repeat this activity by drawing
several pairs of such triangles with one angle of a triangle equal to one angle of another triangle
and the sides including these angles are proportional. Everytime, you will find that the triangles
are similar. It is due to the following criterion of similarity of triangles:
Theorem 6.5 : If one angle of a triangle is equal to one angle of the other triangle and the
sides including these angles are proportional, then the two triangles are similar.
This criterion is referred to as the

SAS (Side–Angle–Side) similarity
criterion for two triangles.
As before, this theorem can be

proved by taking two triangles ABC
AB AC
and DEF such that = (< 1) and
DE DF
Ð A = Ð D (see Fig. 6.28). Cut DP = Fig. 6.28
AB, DQ = AC and join PQ.

çÜuóT C²\T 181
|³+ 6.27
AB AC 2
DE
=
DF
=
3
eT]jáTT Ð A = ÐD n |]o*+#áTeTT. (¿£Ø& AB eT]jáTT AC\ eT<ó« ÐA, DE
eT]jáTT DF\ eT<ó« ÐD ¿£\eÚ nq>± ÿ¿£ çÜuóT È+ýË ÿ¿£ ¿ÃD+ eTs=¿£ çÜuóT È+ýË eTs=¿£ ¿ÃD+Å£ <
¿£*Ð q uóTC²\ wàÜï ÿ¹¿$<ó+>± (nq>± nqTbÍÔá+>±) +³T+~.
|Úð&T ÐB, ÐC, ÐE eT]jáTT ÐF \qT eT]jáTT BC, EF \qT ¿=\T#áTeTT.
ÐB, ÐE eT]jáTT ÐC, ÐF n+fñ ÐA = ÐD, ÐB = ÐE eT]jáTT
D ABC ~ D DEF (¿Ã.¿Ã.¿Ã jáTeTeTT)

ÿ¿£ çÜuóT È+ýË ¿ÃDeTT eTs=¿£ çÜuóT ÈeTTýË ¿ÃD²¿ì deÖqeTT>± deÖq ¿ÃD² ¿£*Ðq nqTsÁÖ|
uóTC²\ wÎÔáTï\T deÖq+>± +&Tq³T¢ $$<ó ¿=\Ôá\T >·\ çÜuóTC²\qT rdTÅ£, ¿£Ô« |ÚqseÔá+ #ûjáT+&.
B qT+º çÜuóTC²\ dsÁÖ|¿£ÔáÅ£ d++~ó+º ç¿ì+~ jáTeT+ edTï+~.
d¾<Æ+Ôá+ 6.5 : ÿ¿£ çÜuóT È+ýË ÿ¿£ ¿ÃDeTT, yûs=¿£ çÜuóT È+ýË ¿ÃDeTTqÅ£ deÖqyîT,® ¿ÃD²\qT ¿£*Ð H
uóT C²\T nqTbÍÔá+ýË +fñ sÂ +&T çÜuóT C²\T dsÖÁ bÍ\T.
jáTeÖ sÂ +&T çÜuóTC²\ uóT. ¿Ã . uóT
(uóT ÈeTT- ¿ÃDeTT - uóT ÈeTT) dsÁÖ|¿£Ôá jáTeTeTT>±
#îTÔeTT.
AB AC
>·Ô+á ýË #î|Î¾ q³T¢ ABC eT]jáTT DEF\ýË DE = DF
(< 1) eT]jáTT ÐA = ÐD \qT rdT¿Ãe&+ <Çs
|³+ 6.28
d¾<Ý+Ôá+qT sÁÖ|¾+#á e#áTÌqT. (|³+ 6.28 #áÖ&+&).
AB = DP , AC= DQ n>·Tq³T¢>± PQ\qT ¿£\T|ÚeTT.

182 TRIANGLES
Now, PQ || EF and D ABC @ D DPQ (How ?)

So, Ð A = Ð D, Ð B = Ð P and Ð C = Ð Q
Therefore, D ABC ~ D DEF (Why?)
We now take some examples to illustrate the use of these criteria.
Example 4 : In Fig. 6.29, if PQ || RS, prove that D POQ ~ D SOR.
Fig. 6.29
Solution : PQ || RS (Given)
So, ÐP= ÐS (Alternate angles)
and ÐQ= ÐR
Also, Ð POQ = Ð SOR (Vertically opposite angles)
Therefore, D POQ ~ D SOR (AAA similarity criterion)
Example 5 : Observe Fig. 6.30 and then find Ð P.
Fig. 6.30
Solution : In D ABC and D PQR,

çÜuóT C²\T 183
|Úð&T, PQ ||EF eT]jáTT D ABC @ D DPQ (mý² ?)
ÐA = ÐD, ÐB = ÐP eT]jáTT ÐC = ÐQ
\ D ABC ~ D DEF (m+<TÅ£?)

jáTeÖ $e]+#á&¿ì |ÚÎ&T ¿= <V²sÁD\qT rdTÅ£+{²eTT.
<V²sÁD 4 : ºÌq |³+ýË 6.2ýË, PQ || RS nsTTq D POQ ~ D SOR.
|³+ 6.29
kÍ<óq : PQ || RS (<Ôï+XøeTT)
¿±eÚq, ÐP= ÐS (@¿±+ÔásÁ ¿ÃD²\T)
eT]jáTT ÐQ= ÐR
+¿± Ð POQ = Ð SOR (osü_óeTTK ¿ÃD²\T)
\ D POQ ~ D SOR (¿Ã.¿Ã.¿Ã. dsÖ

Á |¿Ô£ á jáTeT+)
<V²sÁD 5 : ºÌq |³eTT 6.30 >·eT+º Ð P $\Te ¿£qT>=q+&.
|³+ 6.30
kÍ<óq : D ABC eT]jáTT D PQR \ýË

184 TRIANGLES
AB 3.8 1 , BC 6 1 CA 3 3 1
= = = = and = =
RQ 7.6 2 QP 12 2 PR 6 3 2
AB BC CA
That is, = =
RQ QP PR
So, D ABC ~ D RQP (SSS similarity)

Therefore, Ð C = Ð P(Corresponding angles of similar triangles)
But Ð C = 180° – Ð A – Ð B (Angle sum property)
= 180° – 80° – 60° = 40°
So, Ð P = 40°
Example 6 : In Fig. 6.31,
OA . OB = OC . OD.
Show that Ð A = Ð C and Ð B = Ð D.
Solution : OA . OB = OC . OD (Given)
OA OD Fig. 6.31
So, = (1)
OC OB
Also, we have Ð AOD = Ð COB(Vertically opposite angles) (2)

Therefore, from (1) and (2),D AOD ~ D COB (SAS similarity criterion)
So, Ð A = Ð C and Ð D = Ð B
(Corresponding angles of similar triangles)
Example 7 : A girl of height 90 cm is walking

away from the base of a
lamp-post at a speed of 1.2 m/s. If the lamp is
3.6 m above the ground, find the length of her
shadow after 4 seconds.
Solution : Let AB denote the lamp-post and CD
the girl after walking for 4 seconds away from
the lamp-post (see Fig. 6.32).
From the figure, you can see that DE is the shadow
of the girl. Let DE be x metres.
Fig. 6.32

çÜuóT C²\T 185
AB 3.8 1 , BC 6 1 CA 3 3 1
= = = = eT]jáTT = =
RQ 7.6 2 QP 12 2 PR 6 3 2
AB BC CA
= =
RQ QP PR
\ D ABC ~ D RQP (uóT.uóT.uóT. dsÁÖ|¿£Ôá jáTeTeTT)
ÐC = ÐP (dsÖ
Á | çÜuóT È+ýË d< Xø« ¿ÃD²\T)
¿±ú ÐC = 180° – Ð A – Ð B(çÜuóTÈ+\ýË ¿ÃD²\ yîTTÔáï+ <ósÁ+)
ÐC = 180° – 80° – 60° = 40°
\ Ð P = 40°
<V²sÁD 6 : ºÌq |³eTT 6.31ýË,

OA . OB = OC . OD nsTTq
ÐA= Ð C eT]jáTT Ð B = Ð D n #áÖ|+&.
|³+ 6.31
kÍ<óq : OA . OB = OC . OD (<Ôï+XøeTT)
OA OD
¿±eÚq = ............... (1)
OC OB
+¿± Ð AOD = Ð COB (osü_óeTTK ¿ÃD²\T) ............. (2)

¿±eÚq (1) eT]jáTT (2),qT+&D AOD ~ D COB (uóT.¿Ã.uóT) dsÁÖ|¿£Ôá jáTeTeTT
\ ÐA = ÐC eT]jáTT ÐB = ÐD (dsÖÁ | çÜuóT C²\ýË d< Xø« ¿ÃD²\T)
<V²sÁD 7 : <V²sÁD 7 : 90 d+.MT. mÔáTï>·\ ÿ¿£
u²*¿£ B| dï+uó+ qT+& <ÖsÁeTT>± 1.2 MT/d yû>·eTTÔÃ
q&T#áT#áTq~. B| dï+uóeTT mÔáTï 3.6MT nsTTH 4 d¿£+&¢
ÔásTÁ yÔá @sÁÎ&û u²*¿£ ú& bõ&eÚqT ¿£qT>=qTeTT.
kÍ<óq : AB B|d+ï uóeTT eT]jáTT 4 d¿£+&¢ q&¿£ ÔásÇÔá
u²*¿£ kÍq+ CD qT dÖºdT+ï ~ nqTÅ£+<+. |³eTT qT+&
DE u²*¿£ ú& bõ&eÚqT dÖºdT+ï ~.DE=x MT. nqT¿=qTeTT.
|³+ 6.32

186 TRIANGLES
Now, BD = 1.2 m × 4 = 4.8 m.

Note that in D ABE and D CDE,
ÐB= ÐD (Each is of 90° because lamp-post
as well as the girl are standing
vertical to the ground)
and ÐE= ÐE (Same angle)
So, D ABE ~ D CDE (AA similarity criterion)
BE AB
Therefore, =
DE CD
4.8 + x 3.6 90
i.e., = (90 cm = m = 0.9 m)
x 0.9 100
i.e., 4.8 + x = 4x
i.e., 3x = 4.8
i.e., x = 1.6
So, the shadow of the girl after walking for 4 seconds is 1.6 m long.
Example 8 : In Fig. 6.33, CM and RN are

respectively the medians of D ABC and
D PQR. If D ABC ~ D PQR, prove that :
(i) D AMC ~ D PNR
CM AB
(ii) RN = PQ
Fig. 6.33
(iii) D CMB ~ D RNQ
Solution : (i) D ABC ~ D PQR (Given)
AB BC CA
So, = = (1)
PQ QR RP
and Ð A = Ð P, Ð B = Ð Q and Ð C = Ð R (2)

But AB = 2 AM and PQ = 2 PN
(As CM and RN are medians)
2 AM CA
So, from (1), 2PN =
RP

çÜuóT C²\T 187
|Úð&T, BD = 1.2 m × 4 = 4.8 m.

D ABE eT]jáTT D CDE, \ýË
ÐB= ÐD (B| d ï + uó +
eT]jáTT u²*¿£ ¿ìÜÈÔáý²¿ì
90° \++>± +&³+ e\q )
eT]jáTT ÐE=ÐE (eT& ¿ÃD+)
D ABE ~ D CDE (¿Ã.¿Ã. dsÖ
Á |¿Ô£ á jáTeT+)
BE AB
¿±eÚq, DE
=
CD
4.8 + x 3.6 90
nq>±, = (90 d+.MT = MT = 0.9 MT)
x 0.9 100
nq>±, 4.8 + x = 4x
nq>±, 3x = 4.8
nq>±, x = 1.6
4 d¿£+&¢ q&¿£ ÔásÇÔá u²*¿£ ú& bõ&eÚ 1.6 MT.
<V²sÁD 8 : |³+ 6.33ýË CM eT]jáTT RN

esÁTd>± D ABC eT]jáTT D PQR nHû çÜuóT C²\Å£
^jáT&q eT<ó«>·Ôá ¹sK\T. D ABC ~ D PQR,
nsTTq
(i) D AMC ~ D PNR
CM AB
(ii) RN = PQ |³+ 6.33
(iii) D CMB ~ D RNQ n sÁÖ|¾+#á+&.
kÍ<óq : (i) D ABC ~ D PQR (<Ôï+XøeTT)
AB BC CA
¿±eÚq, = = ........... (1) eT]jáTT
PQ QR RP
Ð A = Ð P,Ð B = Ð Q and Ð C = Ð R .........(2)

AB =2 AM ¿±eÚq PQ = 2 PN ( CM eT]jáTT RN \T eT<ó« >·Ôá s¹ K\T)
2 AM CA
(1) qT+& 2PN =
RP

188 TRIANGLES
AM CA
i.e., = (3)
PN RP
Also, Ð MAC = Ð NPR [From (2)] (4)

So, from (3) and (4),
D AMC ~ D PNR (SAS similarity) (5)
CM CA
(ii) From (5), = (6)
RN RP
CA AB
But = PQ [From (1)] (7)
RP
CM AB
Therefore, = PQ [From (6) and (7)] (8)
RN
AB BC
(iii) Again, PQ
= QR
[From (1)]
CM BC
Therefore, = [From (8)] (9)
RN QR
CM AB 2 BM
Also, = =
RN PQ 2 QN
CM BM
i.e., = QN (10)
RN
CM BC BM
i.e., = QR = QN [From (9) and (10)]
RN
Therefore, D CMB ~ D RNQ (SSS similarity)

[Note : You can also prove part (iii) by following the same method as used for proving part (i).]
EXERCISE 6.3
1. State which pairs of triangles in Fig. 6.34 are similar. Write the similarity criterion used
by you for answering the question and also write the pairs of similar triangles in the
symbolic form :

çÜuóT C²\T 189
AM CA
i.e., = ...... (3)
PN RP
ný²¹>, (2) qT+& Ð MAC = Ð NPR [ (2) qT+& ] ....... (4)
(3) eT]jáTT (4) qT+& D AMC ~ D PNR (uóT .¿Ã.uóT . dsÖ

Á |¿Ô£ á jáTeT+) ...... (5)
CM CA
(ii) (5) qT+& = ....... (6)
RN RP
CA AB
¿±ú (1) qT+& = PQ [ (1) qT+& ] ...... (7)
RP
CM AB
(6) eT]jáTT (7) qT+& = PQ [ (6),(7) \ qT+& ] ...... (8)
RN
AB BC
(iii) eTsÁý² (1) qT+& PQ
= QR
[ (11) qT+& ]
CM BC
¿±eÚq (8) qT+& RN
=
QR
[ (8) qT+& ] ..... (9)
CM AB 2 BM
eT]jáTT, = =
RN PQ 2 QN
CM BM
= QN ....... (10)
RN
CM BC BM
(9) eT]jáTT (10) qT+& = QR = QN [ (9), (10) \ qT+& ]
RN
\ D CMB ~ D RNQ (uóT .uóT.uóT. dsÁÖ|¿£Ôá jáTeT+)
>·eT¿£: ç|Xø ýË (i)e uó²>± sÁÖ|¾+ºq $<ó+ >±Hû (iii) e uó²>± Å£L& sÁÖ|¾+#áe#áTÌ
<V²sÁD 6.3
1. |³eTT 6.34ýË eÇ&q çÜuóT C²\ ÈÔá\ýË @$ dsÖÁ bÍýË Ôî\|+&. dsÖÁ bÍ\sTTÔû @ jáTeT+ <ósÁ+>±HÃ
$e]dÖï çÜuóTC²\ dsÁÖ|¿£ÔáqT >·TsÁTï\qT |jîÖÐ+º çyjáT+&.

190 TRIANGLES
Fig. 6.34
2. In Fig. 6.35, D ODC ~ D OBA, Ð BOC =

125° and Ð CDO = 70°. Find Ð DOC, Ð
DCO and Ð OAB.
3. Diagonals AC and BD of a trapezium

ABCD with AB || DC intersect each other
at the point O. Using a similarity criterion
OA OB
for two triangles, show that = ×
OC OD Fig. 6.35

çÜuóT C²\T 191
|³+ 6.34
2. ºÌq |³+ 6.35, D ODC ~ D OBA, Ð BOC

= 125° eT]já T T Ð CDO = 70°. nsTTq
Ð DOC, Ð DCO eT]jáTT Ð OAB ¿£qT>=qTeTT.
3. çfÉ|ÓjáT+ ABCD AB || DC. ¿£seÁ TT\T AC

eT]jáTT BD \T _+<TeÚ »Oµ e<Ý K+&+#áT¿=qTqT.
çÜuóT ÈeTT\ dsÖÁ | jáTeÖ\qT |jÖî Ð+#áT¿=
OA OB
= × n #áÖ|+&. |³+ 6.35
OC OD

192 TRIANGLES
QR QT
4. In Fig. 6.36, =
QS PR
and Ð 1 = Ð 2. Show
that D PQS ~ D TQR.
5. S and T are points on sides PR and QR of
D PQR such that Ð P = Ð RTS. Show that
D RPQ ~ D RTS. Fig. 6.36
6. In Fig. 6.37, if D ABE @ D ACD, show that
D ADE ~ D ABC.
7. In Fig. 6.38, altitudes AD and CE of D ABC

intersect each other at the point P. Show that:
(i) D AEP ~ D CDP
(ii) D ABD ~ D CBE
(iii) D AEP ~ D ADB
(iv) D PDC ~ D BEC Fig. 6.37
8. E is a point on the side AD produced of a
parallelogram ABCD and BE intersects CD
at F. Show that D ABE ~ D CFB.
9. In Fig. 6.39, ABC and AMP are two right

triangles, right angled at B and M
respectively. Prove that:
(i) D ABC ~ D AMP
(ii)
CA BC
=
Fig. 6.38
PA MP
10. CD and GH are respectively the bisectors
of Ð ACB and Ð EGF such that D and H lie
on sides AB and FE of D ABC and D EFG
respectively. If D ABC ~ D FEG, show that:
CD AC
(i) =
GH FG
(ii) D DCB ~ D HGE

(iii) D DCA ~ D HGF
Fig. 6.39

çÜuóT C²\T 193
QR QT
4. ºÌq |³+ 6.36 ýË, =
QS PR
eT]jáTT Ð 1 =
Ð2 nsTTq D PQS ~ D TQR n #áÖ|ÚeTT.
5. D PQR ýË ÐP = ÐRTS njûT«$<ó+ >± PR eT]jáTT
QR \ |Õ >·\ Âs+&T _+<TeÚ\T S eT]jáTT TnsTTq
|³+ 6.36
D RPQ ~ D RTS n #áÖ|ÚeTT.
6. ºÌq |³+ 6.37ýË .D ABE @ D ACD nsTTq D
ADE ~ D ABC n #áÖ|ÚeTT.
7. |³+ 6.38ýË #áÖ|¾q³T¢ D ABC ýË qÔáT\T AD
eT]jáTT CE\T P e<Ý K+&+#áT¿=q ç¿ì+~ çÜuóT C²\T
dsÖÁ bÍ\T n #áÖ|ÚeTT.
(i) D AEP ~ D CDP (ii) D ABD ~ D CBE
(iii) D AEP ~ D ADB (iv) D PDC ~ D BEC
8. deÖ+ÔásÁ #áÔáTsÁTÒÛÈ+ ABCD ýË, BE, CDqT F e<Ý |³+ 6.37

K+& + #á T q³T¢ AD E esÁ Å £ bõ& Ð +ºq,
D ABE ~ D CFB n #áÖ|ÚeTT.
9. |³+ 6.39 ýË #áÖ|¾q $<ó+>± D ABC eT]jáTT D

AMP\T sÂ +&T \+¿ÃD çÜuóT ÈeTT\T. M{ìýË \+¿ÃDeTT\T
esÁTd>± B eT]jáTT M _+<TeÚ\ e<Ý ¿£\eÚ nsTTq
(i) D ABC ~ D AMP
|³+ 6.38
CA BC
(ii) = n #áÖ|ÚeTT.
PA MP
10. ABC eT]jáTT EFG çÜuóT C²\ýË AB eT]jáTT FE uóT C²\|Õ

D eT]jáTT H _+<TeÚ\T esÁTd>± @sÁÎ&Tq³T¢ Ð ACB
eT]jáTT Ð EGF \Å£ ^d¾q ¿Ãq deT~ÇK+&q s¹ K\T esÁTd>±
CD eT]jáTTGH\T. +¿± D ABC ~ D FEG nsTTq
CD AC
(i) =
GH FG
|³+ 6.39
(ii) D DCB ~ D HGE
(iii) D DCA ~ D HGF n #áÖ|ÚeTT.

194 TRIANGLES
11. In Fig. 6.40, E is a point on side CB

produced of an isosceles triangle ABC
with AB = AC. If AD ^ BC and EF ^ AC,
prove that D ABD ~ D ECF.
12. Sides AB and BC and median AD of a
triangle ABC are respectively propor-
tional to sides PQ and QR and median
PM of D PQR (see Fig. 6.41). Show that
Fig. 6.40
D ABC ~ D PQR.
13. D is a point on the side BC of a triangle
ABC such that Ð ADC = Ð BAC. Show
that CA2 = CB.CD.
14. Sides AB and AC and median AD of a
triangle ABC are respectively
proportional to sides PQ and PR and
median PM of another triangle PQR.
Fig. 6.41
Show that D ABC ~ D PQR.
15. A vertical pole of length 6 m casts a shadow 4 m long on the ground and at the same time
a tower casts a shadow 28 m long. Find the height of the tower.
16. If AD and PM are medians of triangles ABC and PQR, respectively where
AB AD
D ABC ~ D PQR, prove that =
PQ PM
×
6.5 Summary
In this chapter you have studied the following points :
1. Two figures having the same shape but not necessarily the same size are called similar
figures.
2. All the congruent figures are similar but the converse is not true.
3. Two polygons of the same number of sides are similar, if (i) their corresponding angles
are equal and (ii) their corresponding sides are in the same ratio (i.e., proportion).
4. If a line is drawn parallel to one side of a triangle to intersect the other two sides in
distinct points, then the other two sides are divided in the same ratio.
5. If a line divides any two sides of a triangle in the same ratio, then the line is parallel to the
third side.
6. If in two triangles, corresponding angles are equal, then their corresponding sides are in
the same ratio and hence the two triangles are similar (AAA similarity criterion).
7. If in two triangles, two angles of one triangle are respectively equal to the two angles of
the other triangle, then the two triangles are similar (AA similarity criterion).

çÜuóT C²\T 195
11. |³+ 6.40 ýË #áÖ|¾q³T¢ deT~Çu²VQ çÜuóTÈ+ ABC
ýË AB = AC eT]jáTT AD ^ BC EF ^ AC njûT«
$<ó+ >± CB E esÁÅ£ bõ&Ð+#á>±,D ABD ~ D ECF
n #áÖ|ÚeTT.
12. ºÌq |³+ DABCýË uóT C²\T AB,BC eT<ó« >·Ôá
¹sK AD \Å£ esÁTd>± D PQRýË uóT C²\T PQ eT]jáTT
QR eT<ó«>·Ôá ¹sK PM\T nqTbÍÔá+ýË q,
D ABC ~ D PQR n #áÖ|ÚeTT. |³+ 6.40
13. Ð ADC = Ð BAC njûT« $<ó+ >± DABCýË BC
uóT È+|Õ ÿ¿£ _+<TeÚ D ¿£\<T nsTTq CA2 = CB.CD
n #áÖ|ÚeTT.
14. DABC ýË uóT C²\T AB, AC eT<ó« >·Ôá s¹ K AD esÁTd>±
D PQRýË uóT C²\T PQ eT]jáTT PR eT]jáTT eT<ó« >·Ôá
¹sK PM\T nqTbÍÔá+ ýË q, D ABC ~ D PQR n
#áÖ|ÚeTT. |³+ 6.41
15. {²sÁT>± q 6 MT bõ&eÚ >·\ ÿ¿£ d+ï uó+ 4 MT bõ&eÚ >·\ ú&qT @sÁÎ]ºq, n<û deTjáT+ýË 28 MT bõ&eÚ
>·\ ú&qT @sÁÎ]#û uóeq+ mÔáTï m+Ôá?
16. AD eT]jáTT PM\T esÁTd>± DABC. eT]jáTT D PQR\ýË eT<ó«>·Ôá ¹sK\T eT]jáTT D ABC ~ D PQR
AB AD
nsTTq = × n sÁÖ|¾+#áTeTT.
PQ PM
6.5 kÍs+Xø+:
eTq+ n<ó«jáTeTTýË, ç¿ì+~ n+Xæ\qT HûsÁTÌÅ£HeTT :
1. ÿ¹¿ ¿±sÁ+ ¿£*Ð+& ÿ¹¿ |]eÖDeTT ¿£*Ð +&qedsÁ+ ýñ |{²\qT dsÁÖ| |{²\T n+{²sÁT.
2. n dsÇÁ deÖq |{²\T dsÖ Á bÍ\T ¿±ú $|s«Á jáTeTT dÔ«á eTT ¿±<T.
3. deÖq d+K«ýË uóT C²\T ¿£*Ðq Âs+&T VQuóTE\T dsÁÖbÍ\T ¿±y\+fñ (i)y{ì nqTsÁÖ| ¿ÃD²\T deÖq+>±
+&*. (ii) y{ì nqTsÁÖ| uóTC²\T ÿ¹¿ wÎÜïýË +&*. (nqTbÍÔá+ýË +&*).
4. ÿ¿£ çÜuóTÈ+ýË ÿ¿£ uóTC²¿ì deÖ+ÔásÁ+>± ^d¾q ¹sK $TÐ*q Âs+&T uóT C²\qT yûsÁTyûsÁT _+<TeÚ\ýË
K+&+ºq, $TÐ*q Âs+&T uóTC²\T ÿ¹¿ wÎÜïýË $uó+|&ÔsTT.
5. ÿ¿£ çÜuóTÈeTTýË @yîÕH Âs+&T uóTC²\qT ÿ¹¿ wÎÜïýË $uó+#áT dsÁÞø¹sK, eTÖ&e uóTC²¿ì deÖ+ÔásÁ+>±
qT+&TqT.
6. Âs+&T çÜuóTC²\ýË ¿ÃD²\T deÖq+>± +fñ y{ì nqTsÁÖ| uóTC²\ wÎÔáT\ ï T deÖq+>± +{²sTT.
(nqTbÍÔá+ýË +{²sTT) +¿± sÂ +&T çÜuóTC²\T dsÁÖ| çÜuóTC²\T (¿Ã .¿Ã.¿Ã.dsÁÖ|¿£Ôá)
7. ÿ¿£ çÜuóT ÈeTTýË sÂ +&T ¿ÃDeTT\T esÁTd>± yûs=¿£ çÜuóT ÈeTTýË sÂ +&T ¿ÃDeTT\Å£ deÖqyîTq
® sÂ +&T
çÜuóTC²\T dsÁÖbÍ\T (¿Ã.¿Ã.dsÁÖ|¿£Ôá)

196 TRIANGLES
8. If in two triangles, corresponding sides are in the same ratio, then their corresponding
angles are equal and hence the triangles are similar (SSS similarity criterion).
9. If one angle of a triangle is equal to one angle of another triangle and the sides including
these angles are in the same ratio (proportional), then the triangles are similar
(SAS similarity criterion).

If in two right triangles, hypotenuse and one side of one
triangle are proportional to the hypotenuse and one side of
the other triangle, then the two triangles are similar. This
may be referred to as the RHS Similarity Criterion.
If you use this criterion in Example 2, Chapter 8, the proof will
become simpler.

çÜuóT C²\T 197
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dsÖÁ bÍ\T B \+.¿£. uóT . (RHS) dsÁÖ|¿£Ôá jáTeT+>± dÖºkÍï+.
jáTeÖ n<ó« jáTq+ 8 ýË <V²sÁD 2 e deTd«Å£ e]ï+| #ûdq¾ kÍ<óq
dT\uó+ n>·TqT.

198 COORDINATE GEOMETRY
COORDINATE GEOMETRY 7
7.1 Introduction
In Class IX, you have studied that to locate the position of a point on a plane, we require a pair
of coordinate axes. The distance of a point from the y-axis is called its x-coordinate, or abscissa.
The distance of a point from the x-axis is called its y-coordinate, or ordinate. The coordinates
of a point on the x-axis are of the form (x, 0), and of a point on the y-axis are of the form (0, y).
Here is a play for you. Draw a set of a pair of perpendicular axes on a graph paper. Now plot
the following points and join them as directed: Join the point A(4, 8) to B(3, 9) to C(3, 8) to
D(1, 6) to E(1, 5) to F(3, 3) to G(6, 3) to H(8, 5) to I(8, 6) to J(6, 8) to K(6, 9) to L(5, 8) to A.
Then join the points P(3.5, 7), Q (3, 6) and R(4, 6) to form a triangle. Also join the points
X(5.5, 7), Y(5, 6) and Z(6, 6) to form a triangle. Now join S(4, 5), T(4.5, 4) and U(5, 5) to form
a triangle. Lastly join S to the points (0, 5) and (0, 6) and join U to the points (9, 5) and (9, 6).
What picture have you got?
Also, you have seen that a linear equation in two variables of the form
ax + by + c = 0, (a, b are not simultaneously zero), when represented graphically, gives a
straight line. Further, in Chapter 2, you have seen the graph of y = ax2 + bx + c (a ¹ 0), is a
parabola. In fact, coordinate geometry has been developed as an algebraic tool for studying
geometry of figures. It helps us to study geometry using algebra, and understand algebra with
the help of geometry. Because of this, coordinate geometry is widely applied in various fields
such as physics, engineering, navigation, seismology and art!
In this chapter, you will learn how to find the distance between the two points whose
coordinates are given, and to find the area of the triangle formed by three given points. You will
also study how to find the coordinates of the point which divides a line segment joining two
given points in a given ratio.

sÁÖ|¿£ C²«$TÜ 199
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$dïÔá+>± nqÇsTT+#á&TÔáTq~.
eÇ&q sÂ +&T _+<TeÚ\ sÁÖ|¿±\ eT<ó« <ÖsÁ+ mý² ¿£qT¿ÃØy*. eÇ&q eTÖ&T _+<TeÚ\ <ósÁ+>±
çÜuóT È yîXÕ æ\«+ ¿£qT¿ÃØe&+ n<ó«jáT+ýË MTsÁT HûsTÁ ÌÅ£+{²sÁT. eÇ&q sÂ +&T _+<TeÚ\qT ¿£\|>± @sÁÎ&û s¹ U²K+&
ºÌq wÎÜï <ósÁ+>± $uó +#û sÁÖ|¿£ _+<TeÚ\qT ¿£qT>=q& Å£L& MTsÁT n<ó« jáTq+ #ûkÍïsTÁ .

7.2 Distance Formula

Let us consider the following situation:
A town B is located 36 km east and 15 km
north of the town A. How would you find the
distance from town A to town B without actually
measuring it. Let us see. This situation can be
represented graphically a s show n in
Fig. 7.1. You may use the Pythagoras Theorem
to calculate this distance.
Now, suppose two points lie on the x-axis. Can
we find the distance between them? For instance, Fig. 7.1
consider two points A(4, 0) and B(6, 0) in Fig. 7.2.
The points A and B lie on the x-axis.
From the figure you can see that OA = 4 units
and OB = 6 units.
Therefore, the distance of B from A, i.e., AB
= OB – OA = 6 – 4 = 2 units.
So, if two points lie on the x-axis, we can easily
find the distance between them.
Now, suppose we take two points lying on the
y-axis. Can you find the distance between
them. If the points C(0, 3) and D(0, 8) lie on
the y-axis, similarly we find that CD = 8 – 3 = 5
units (see Fig. 7.2). Fig. 7.2
Next, can you find the distance of A from C (in Fig. 7.2)? Since OA = 4 units and OC = 3
units, the distance of A from C, i.e., AC = 32 + 42 = 5 units. Similarly, you can find the distance
of B from D = BD = 10 units.
Now, if we consider two points not lying on coordinate axis, can we find the distance
between them? Yes! We shall use Pythagoras theorem to do so. Let us see an example.
In Fig. 7.3, the points P(4, 6) and Q(6, 8) lie in the first quadrant. How do we use Pythagoras
theorem to find the distance between them? Let us draw PR and QS perpendicular to the x-axis
from P and Q respectively. Also, draw a perpendicular from P on QS to meet QS at T. Then the
coordinates of R and S are (4, 0) and (6, 0), respectively. So, RS = 2 units. Also, QS = 8 units
and TS = PR = 6 units.

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7.2 eT<ó« <Ös¿ì dÖçÔá+ ÔáïsÁ+
¿ì+< eÇ&q d+<sÒÛ #áÖ&+&:

B nHû |³D ¼ + A nHû |³D¼ ²¿ì ÔáÖsÁTÎ>± 36 ¿ì.MT.
eT]jáTT Ôásï Á+>± 15¿ì.MT. <Ös\ýË eÚ+~. |³D¼ + A qT+&
|³D¼ + B¿ì eT<ó« >·\ <Ös ydïe+>± ¿=\eÅ£+&Hû mý²
¿=\e>·\eÚ. mý²HÃ |Úð&T #áÖ<Ý+. d+<sÒÛ ç>±|t
sÁÖ|+ýË |³+ 7.1ýË #áÖ|¾q³T¢ #áÖ|¾+#áe#áTÌ. <Ös ÔáÖsÁTÎ
¿£qT>=q{²¿ì |Õ<¸>·sdÁ t d¾<Æ+Ô |jÖî Ð+#áe#áTÌ. |³+. 7.1
|Úð&T x n¿£+ |Õ sÂ +&T _+<TeÚ\ eÚHjáTqT¿=+<+.
eTq+ y{ì eT<ó« <ÖsÁ+ ¿£qT>=q>·\eÖ? <V²sÁD¿ì |³+
7.2ýË A(4, 0) eT]jáTT B(6, 0) nHû _+<TeÚ\qT
|]>·D+ì #á+&. _+<TeÚ\T A eT]jáTT B \T X ` n¿£+ |Õ
eÚ+{²sTT.
|³+ qT+& OA = 4 jáTÖ³T¢ eT]jáTT OB = 6
jáTÖ³¢ eTq+ >·eT+#áe#áTÌ.
n+<Te\q A qT+& B jîT T¿£Ø <ÖsÁ+, nq>±
AB = OB – OA = 6 – 4 = 2 jáTÖ³T¢.
¿±{ì¼ sÂ +&T _+<TeÚ\T x ` n¿£+ MT< +fñ, y{ì eT<ó«
<Ös eTq+ dT\uó+ >± ¿£qT¿ÃØe#áTÌ. |³+. 7.2
|Úð&T, sÂ +&T _+<TeÚ\T y-n¿£+ |Õ eÚHjáTqTÅ£+<+. MTsÁT y{ì eT<ó« >·\ <Ös ¿£qT¿ÃØ>·\s?
_+<TeÚ\T C(0, 3) eT]jáTT D(0, 8) y`n¿£+ |Õ eÚ+fñ, n<û$<ó+>± CD = 8 – 3 = 5 jáTÖ³¢ eTq+ ¿£qT¿ÃØe#áTÌ
(|³+ 7.2 #áÖ&+&)
ÔásÇÔá, A qT+& C¿ì >·\ <Ös ¿£qT¿ÃØ>·\eÖ (|³+ 7.2 ýË)? OA = 4 jáTÖ³T¢ eT]jáTT OC = 3
jáTÖ³T¢ ¿£qT¿£, A qT+& C¿ì >·\ <ÖsÁ+, AC = 32 + 42 = 5 jáTÖ³T¢. n<û$<ó+ >±, B qT+& D¿ì >·\ <Ös
MTsÁT ¿£qT¿ÃØ>·\sÁT. BD = 10 jáTÖ³T¢.
|ð&T @yîHÕ sÂ +&T _+<TeÚ\T sÁÖ|¿£ n¿±\|Õ ýñ¿b£ þÔû, y{ì eT<ó« <Ös eTq+ ¿£qT¿ÃØ>·\eÖ? neÚqT! y{ì eT<ó«
<Ös ¿£qT¿ÃØe{²¿ì |<Õ ¸ >·sÁdt d¾<Æ+Ô Ôá|Î¿£ |jÖî Ð+#*. |ÚÎ&T ÿ¿£ <V²sÁD #áÖ<Ý+.
|³+ 7.3ýË _+<TeÚ\T P(4, 6) eT]jáTT Q(6,8)\T yîTT<{ì bÍ<+ýË HsTT. y{ì eT<ó« <Ös ¿£qT¿ÃØe{²¿ì
|Õ<¸ >·sdÁ t d¾<Æ+Ô eTq+ mý² |jÖî ÐkÍï+? x-n¿±¿ì \++>± P eT]jáTT Q\Å£ nqT>·TD+>± PR eT]jáTT QS
\+u²\qT ^<Ý+. n<û$<ó+>± P¿ì \++>± QSqT Te<Ý ¿£*d³³T¢ ^jáT+&. nsTTÔû R eT]jáTT S\ sÁÖ|¿±\T
(4,0) eT]jáTT (6, 0)\T neÚÔsTT. ¿±eÚq, RS = 2 jáTÖ³T¢. +¿± QS = 8 jáTÖ³T¢ eT]jáTT TS = PR = 6
jáTÖ³T¢ neÚÔsTT.

Therefore, QT = 2 units and PT = RS = 2 units.

Now, using the Pythagoras theorem, we
have
PQ2 = PT2 + QT2
= 22 + 2 2 = 8
So, PQ = 2 2 units
How will we find the distance between two
points in two different quadrants?
Consider the points P(6, 4) and Q(–5, –3)
(see Fig. 7.4). Draw QS perpendicular to the
x-axis. Also draw a perpendicular PT from the
point P on QS (extended) to meet y-axis at the
point R.
Fig. 7.3
Fig. 7.4
Then PT = 11 units and QT = 7 units. (Why?)

Using the Pythagoras Theorem to the right triangle PTQ, we get
PQ = 112 + 72 = 170 units.

sÁÖ|¿£ C²«$TÜ 203
¿±eÚq, QT = 2 jáTÖ³T¢ eT]jáTT PT = RS = 2 jáTÖ³T¢

|ÚÎ&T |<Õ ¸ >·sdÁ t d¾<Æ+Ô |jÖî Ð+#á>±,
PQ2 = PT2 + QT2
= 22 + 2 2 = 8
¿±eÚq, PQ = 2 2 jáTÖ³T¢
Âs+&T yûs¹ ÇsÁT bÍ<\ýË >·\ Âs+&T _+<TeÚ\ eT<ó«
<ÖsÁ+ eTq+ mý² ¿£qT>=q>·\+?
P(6,4) eT]jáTT Q(-5,-3) _+<TeÚ\qT rdT¿Ã+& (|³+
7.4 #áÖ&+&). x-n¿±¿ì \++>± QSqT ^jáT+&.
n<û$<ó+ >± P qT+& \++ PT, y-n¿£+ |Õ _+<TeÚ R qT
¿£*d³³T¢ (bõ&Ð+#á&q) QSqT ^jáT+&.
|³+ 7.3
|³+ 7.4
n|ÚÎ&T PT = 11 jáTÖ³T¢ eT]jáTT QT = 7 jáTÖ³T¢ (m+<TÅ£?)

|ÚÎ&T \+¿ÃD çÜuóT È+ PTQ q+<T |<Õ ¸ >·sdÁ t d¾<Æ+Ô |jÖî Ð+#á>±, PQ = 112 + 72 = 170 jáTÖ³¢
eTq+ bõ+<TÔ+.

Let us now find the distance between any two points

P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2). Draw PR and QS perpendicular to
the x-axis. A perpendicular from the point P on QS is drawn
to meet it at the point T (see Fig. 7.5).
Then, OR = x1, OS = x2. So, RS = x2 – x1 = PT.
Also, SQ = y2, ST = PR = y1. So, QT = y2 – y1.
Now, applying the Pythagoras theorem in D PTQ, we get
PQ2 = PT2 + QT2
= (x2 – x1)2 + (y2 – y1)2
Fig. 7.5
Therefore, PQ = ( x2 - x1 )2 + ( y2 - y1 ) 2
Note that since distance is always non-negative, we take only the positive square root. So,
the distance between the points P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2) is
PQ = ( x2 – x1 )2 + ( y2 – y1 )2 ,
which is called the distance formula.

Remarks :
1. In particular, the distance of a point P(x, y) from the origin O(0, 0) is given by
OP = x 2 + y 2 .
2. We can also write, PQ = ( x1 - x2 ) 2 + ( y1 - y2 )2 . (Why?)
Example 1 : Do the points (3, 2), (–2, –3) and (2, 3) form a triangle? If so, name the type of
triangle formed.
Solution : Let us apply the distance formula to find the distances PQ, QR and PR, where P(3,
2), Q(–2, –3) and R(2, 3) are the given points. We have
PQ = (3 + 2)2 + (2 + 3)2 = 52 + 52 = 50 = 7.07 (approx.)
QR = (–2 – 2)2 + (–3 – 3) 2 = (– 4)2 + (– 6)2 = 52 = 7.21 (approx.)
PR = (3 – 2) 2 + (2 – 3) 2 = 12 + (-1)2 = 2 = 1.41 (approx.)

Since the sum of any two of these distances is greater than the third distance, therefore, the
points P, Q and R form a triangle.

sÁÖ|¿£ C²«$TÜ 205
@yîÕH Âs+&T _+<TeÚ\T P(x1, y1) eT]jáTT Q(x2, y2)\ eT<ó«

<Ös eTq+ |Úð&T ¿£qT¿=Ø+<+. PR eT]jáTT QS \qT x- n¿±¿ì
\++>± ^jáT+&. _+<TeÚ P qT+& QS |¿Õ ì @<îHÕ \++qT _+<TeÚ
T e<Ý ¿£*d³³T¢ ^jáT+&. (|³+ 7.5 qT #áÖ&+&).
n|Ú&T, OR = x1, OS = x2. ¿£qT¿£, RS = x2 – x1 = PT.
SQ = y2, ST = PR = y1. ¿£qT¿£, QT = y2 – y1.
D PTQ ýË |< Õ ¸ >·sdÁ t d¾<Ý+Ô |jÖî Ð+#á>±,
PQ2 = PT2 + QT2
= (x2 – x1)2 + (y2 – y1)2
|³+. 7.5
n+<Te\q, PQ = ( x2 - x1 )2 + ( y2 - y1 ) 2
<ÖsÁ+ m|ÚÎ&Ö TTD²Ôá¿£+ ¿±<T ¿£qT¿£, eTq+ m\¢|ÚÎ&Ö <óHÔá¿£ esÁZeTÖ\+ rdT¿Ãy*. P(x1, y1) eT]jáTT
Q(x2, y2) _+<TeÚ\ eT<ó« <ÖsÁ+.
PQ = ( x2 – x1 ) 2 + ( y2 – y1 )2
BHû _+<TeÚ\ eT<ó« <ÖsÁ+ dÖçÔá+ n+{²sÁT.

dÖ#áq\T :
1. eTÖ\_+<TeÚ (0,0) qT+& P(x, y) _+<TeÚ¿ì eT<ó« >·\ <ÖsÁ+
OP = x 2 + y 2 .
2. <Hû eTq+ ý² PQ = ( x1 - x2 )2 + ( y1 - y2 )2 n Å£L& sjáTe#áTÌ. (m+<TÅ£?)
<V²sÁD 1 : (3,2), (-2,-3) eT]jáTT (2,3) _+<TeÚ\T çÜuóT C² @sÁÎsÁTkÍïjÖá ? ÿ¿£yûÞø çÜuóT È+ @sÁÎ&Ôû < |sÁT
sjáT+&. .
kÍ<óq : ¿£Ø& eÇ&q _+<TeÚ\T P(3,2) Q (`2,`3) eT]jáTT R (2,3) nsTTÔû, eT<ó« <ÖsÁ+ dÖçÔ |jÖî Ð+º
PQ, QR eT]jáTT PR\ eT<ó« <ÖsÁ+ ¿£qT>=+<+.
PQ = (3 + 2)2 + (2 + 3)2 = 52 + 52 = 50 = 7.07 (dTeÖsÁT>±)
QR = (–2 – 2)2 + (–3 – 3) 2 = (– 4)2 + (– 6)2 = 52 = 7.21 (dTeÖsÁT>±)
PR = (3 – 2) 2 + (2 – 3) 2 = 12 + (-1)2 = 2 = 1.41 (dTeÖsÁT>±)
@yîHÕ sÂ +&T _+<TeÚ\ eT<ó« <Ös\ yîTTÔá+ï eTÖ&e _+<TeÚ <Ös¿£+fñ mÅ£Øe eÚ+&eýÉqT. ¿±eÚq, n|ÚÎ&û
_+<TeÚ\T P, Q eT]jáTT R \T çÜuóTC² @sÁÎsÁkÍïsTT.

Also, PQ2 + PR2 = QR2, by the converse of Pythagoras theorem, we have Ð P = 90°.
Therefore, PQR is a right triangle.
Example 2 : Show that the points (1, 7), (4, 2), (–1, –1) and (– 4, 4) are the vertices of a square.
Solution : Let A(1, 7), B(4, 2), C(–1, –1) and D(– 4, 4) be the given points. One way of showing
that ABCD is a square is to use the property that all its sides should be equal and both its
digonals should also be equal. Now,
AB = (1 – 4) 2 + (7 - 2)2 = 9 + 25 = 34
BC = (4 + 1) 2 + (2 + 1)2 = 25 + 9 = 34
CD = (–1 + 4)2 + (–1 – 4) 2 = 9 + 25 = 34
DA = (1 + 4) 2 + (7 – 4) 2 = 25 + 9 = 34
AC = (1 + 1) 2 + (7 + 1) 2 = 4 + 64 = 68
BD = (4 + 4) 2 + (2 - 4) 2 = 64 + 4 = 68
Since, AB = BC = CD = DA and AC = BD, all the four sides of the quadrilateral ABCD are equal
and its diagonals AC and BD are also equal. Thereore, ABCD is a square.
Alternative Solution : We find the four
sides and one diagonal, say, AC as above.
Here AD2 + DC2 = 34 + 34 = 68 = AC2.
Therefore, by the converse of Pythagoras
theorem, Ð D = 90°. A quadrilateral with
all four sides equal and one angle 90° is a
square. So, ABCD is a square.
Example 3 : Fig. 7.6 shows the

arrangement of desks in a classroom.
Ashima, Bharti and Camella are seated at
A(3, 1), B(6, 4) and C(8, 6) respectively.
Do you think they are seated in a line? Give
reasons for your answer.
Fig. 7.6

sÁÖ|¿£ C²«$TÜ 207
n<û$<ó+>± PQ2 + PR2 = QR2, |<Õ ¸ >·sÁdt d¾<Æ+Ôá $|sÁ«jáT <ósÁ+>± ÐP = 90°.
¿±eÚq, PQR ÿ¿£ \+¿ÃD çÜuóT È+ neÚÔáT+~.
<V²sÁD 2 : (1, 7), (4, 2), (–1, –1) eT]jáTT (`4,4) nHû$ #áÔáTsÁçd osü\ #áÖ|+&.
kÍ<óq : A(1, 7), B(4, 2), C(–1, –1) eT]jáTT D(– 4, 4) ºÌq _+<TeÚ\T nqT¿Ã+&.
ABCD ÿ¿£ #áÔTá sÁçd+ n #áÖ|&¿ì, y{ì n uóT C²\T deÖq+ eT]jáTT sÂ +&T ¿£s\T deÖq+ n #áÖ|&+
ÿ¿£ $<óq+. |ÚÎ&T,
AB = (1 – 4) 2 + (7 - 2)2 = 9 + 25 = 34
BC = (4 + 1) 2 + (2 + 1) 2 = 25 + 9 = 34
CD = (–1 + 4)2 + (–1 – 4) 2 = 9 + 25 = 34
DA = (1 + 4) 2 + (7 – 4) 2 = 25 + 9 = 34
AC = (1 + 1) 2 + (7 + 1) 2 = 4 + 64 = 68
BD = (4 + 4) 2 + (2 - 4) 2 = 64 + 4 = 68
$<ó+ >± AB = BC = CD = DA eT]jáTT AC = BD. ¿±eÚq, #áÔáTsÁçd+ ABCD ýË H\T>·T uóT C²\T deÖq+
eT]jáTT y{ì sÂ +&T ¿£s\T AC eT]jáTT BD Å£L& deÖqeT #î|Î e#áTÌ. ¿±eÚq ABCD ÿ¿£ #áÔTá sÁçd+
n #î|Î e#áTÌ.
ç|Ô«eÖjáT |<ÆÜ : |$Õ <ó+ >± H\T>·T uóT C²\T eT]jáTT
ÿ¿£ ¿£s+Á AC bõ&eÚ ¿£qT¿ÃØ+&. ¿£Ø& AD2 + DC2 = 34
+ 34 = 68 = AC2 nsTTÔû |< Õ ¸ >·dt $|s«Á jáT d¾<Æ+Ôá+
n&T¦ esÁTd\T
ç|¿±sÁ+ Ð D = 90°. ÿ¿£ #áÔáTsÁTÒÛÈ+ýË H\T>·T uóTC²\T

deÖq+ eT]jáTT ÿ¿£ ¿ÃD+ 90° nsTTÔû n~ #áÔáTsÁçd+
neÚÔáT+~. ¿£qT¿£, ABCD ÿ¿£ #áÔáTsÁçd+ neÚÔáT+~.
<V²sÁD 3 : ÿ¿£ Ôás>Á Ü· >·~ýË uÉ+N\qT neT]Ìq

$<óq+ |³+ 7.6 ýË #áÖ|&+~. w¾eÖ, uó²sÁÜ,
¿±yî Tý²¢\T esÁTd>± A(3, 1), B(6, 4) eT]já T T
C(8, 6) \ e<Ý Å£Ls=ÌHsÁT. nsTTÔû ysÁT ÿ¹¿ esÁTdýË \Te esÁTd\T
Å£Ls=ÌHsÁ MTsÁT uó²$dTïHs? MT ÈyT¿ì ¿±sÁD²\T |³+. 7.6
Ôî\|+&.

Solution : Using the distance formula, we have

AB = (6 - 3) 2 + (4 - 1) 2 = 9 + 9 = 18 = 3 2
BC = (8 – 6) 2 + (6 – 4) 2 = 4 + 4 = 8 = 2 2
AC = (8 – 3) 2 + (6 – 1)2 = 25 + 25 = 50 = 5 2
Since, AB + BC = 3 2 + 2 2 = 5 2 = AC, we can say that the points A, B and C are collinear..
Therefore, they are seated in a line.
Example 4 : Find a relation between x and y such that the point (x , y) is equidistant from the
points (7, 1) and (3, 5).
Solution : Let P(x, y) be equidistant from the points A(7, 1) and B(3, 5).
We are given that AP = BP. So, AP2 = BP2
i.e., (x – 7)2 + (y – 1)2 = (x – 3)2 + (y – 5)2
i.e., x2 – 14x + 49 + y2 – 2y + 1 = x2 – 6x + 9 + y2 – 10y + 25
i.e., x–y= 2
which is the required relation.
Remark : Note that the graph of the equation x – y
= 2 is a line. From your earlier studies, you know
that a point which is equidistant from A and B lies
on the perpendicular bisector of AB. Therefore, the
graph of
x – y = 2 is the perpendicular bisector of AB (see
Fig. 7.7).
Example 5 : Find a point on the y-axis which is
equidistant from the points A(6, 5) and B(– 4, 3).
Solution : We know that a point on the
y-axis is of the form (0, y). So, let the point P(0, y)
be equidistant from A and B. Then Fig. 7.7
(6 – 0)2 + (5 – y)2 = (– 4 – 0)2 + (3 – y)2
i.e., 36 + 25 + y2 – 10y = 16 + 9 + y2 – 6y
i.e., 4y = 36
i.e., y=9

sÁÖ|¿£ C²«$TÜ 209
kÍ<óq : eT<ó« <ÖsÁ+ dÖçÔ |jÖî Ð+º

AB = (6 - 3) 2 + (4 - 1) 2 = 9 + 9 = 18 = 3 2
BC = (8 – 6) 2 + (6 – 4) 2 = 4 + 4 = 8 = 2 2
AC = (8 – 3) 2 + (6 – 1)2 = 25 + 25 = 50 = 5 2
¿£qT¿£ AB + BC = 3 2 + 2 2 = 5 2 = AC, A, B eT]jáTT C _+<TeÚ\T ds
¹ FjáÖ\ eTq+ #î|Î >·\+.
¿±eÚq, ysÁT ÿ¹¿ esÁTdýË Å£LsÁTÌHsÁ #î|Î >·\+.
<V²sÁD 4 : _+<TeÚ P(x , y) nHû~ _+<TeÚ\T (7, 1) eT]jáTT (3, 5)\Å£ deÖq <ÖsÁ+ýË +fñ x eT]jáTT y\
eT<ó« >·\ d++<ó ¿£qT¿ÃØ+&.
kÍ<óq : _+<TeÚ P(x , y) nHû~ (7, 1) eT]jáTT B(3, 5) _+<TeÚ\Å£ deÖq <ÖsÁ+ýË +<qT¿Ã+&.
AP = BP n eÇ&+~. ¿±{ì¼ AP2 = BP2 n>·TqT.
i.e., (x – 7)2 + (y – 1)2 = (x – 3)2 + (y – 5)2
i.e., x2 – 14x + 49 + y2 – 2y + 1 = x2 – 6x + 9 + y2 – 10y + 25
i.e., x–y= 2
<û ¿±e\d¾q d++<ó+ .

dÖ#áq : ç>±|t dMT¿£sDÁ + x – y = 2, ÿ¿£ s¹ KqT dÖºdT+ï <
>·eT+#á+&. +ÔáÅ£ eTT+<T MTsÁT HûsTÁ Ì¿=q³T¢, A eT]jáTT
B\Å£ deÖq <ÖsÁ+ýË ¿£\ _+<TeÚ AB jîTT¿£Ø \+¹sK|Õ
+³T+~. ¿±eÚq x – y = 2 jîTT¿£Ø ç>±|t AB \+
deT~ÇK+&q #ûdTï+~. (|³eTT 7.7 #áÖ&+&.)
<V²sÁD 5 : A (6, 5) eT]jáTT B(-4, 3) _+<TeÚ\Å£
deÖq <ÖsÁ+ýË y - n¿£+ |Õ +&û _+<TeÚqT ¿£qT¿ÃØ+&.
kÍ<óq : y - n¿£+ |Õ +&û _+<TeÚ (0, y) sÁÖ|+ýË +³T+<
MTÅ£ Ôî\TdT. ¿±eÚq _+<TeÚ (0, y) nHû~ _+<TeÚ\T A eT]jáTT
|³+. 7.7
B\Å£ deÖq <ÖsÁ+ýË +~.
¿±eÚq, (6 – 0)2 + (5 – y)2 = (– 4 – 0)2 + (3 – y)2
nq>±, 36 + 25 + y2 – 10y = 16 + 9 + y2 – 6y
nq>±, 4y = 36
nq>±, y=9

So, the required point is (0, 9).
Let us check our solution :AP = (6 – 0)2 + (5 – 9) 2 = 36 + 16 = 52
BP = (– 4 – 0) 2 + (3 – 9) 2 = 16 + 36 = 52
Note : Using the remark above, we see that (0, 9) is the intersection of the y-axis and the
perpendicular bisector of AB.
EXERCISE 7.1
1. Find the distance between the following pairs of points :
(i) (2, 3), (4, 1) (ii) (– 5, 7), (– 1, 3) (iii) (a, b), (– a, – b)
2. Find the distance between the points (0, 0) and (36, 15). Can you now find the distance
between the two towns A and B discussed in Section 7.2.
3. Determine if the points (1, 5), (2, 3) and (– 2, – 11) are collinear.
4. Check whether (5, – 2), (6, 4) and (7, – 2) are the vertices of an isosceles triangle.
5. In a classroom, 4 friends are seated at
the points A, B, C and D as shown in
Fig. 7.8. Champa and Chameli walk into
the class and after observing for a few
minutes Champa asks Chameli, “Don’t
you think ABCD is a square?” Chameli
disagrees. Using distance formula, find
which of them is correct.
6. Name the type of quadrilateral formed,
if any, by the following points, and give
reasons for your answer:
(i) (– 1, – 2), (1, 0), (– 1, 2), (– 3, 0)
(ii) (–3, 5), (3, 1), (0, 3), (–1, – 4)
(iii) (4, 5), (7, 6), (4, 3), (1, 2) Fig. 7.8
7. Find the point on the x-axis which is equidistant from (2, –5) and (–2, 9).
8. Find the values of y for which the distance between the points P(2, – 3) and Q(10, y) is
10 units.

sÁÖ|¿£ C²«$TÜ 211
¿£qT¿£, ¿±e\d¾q _+<TeÚ (0, 9).

eTq deÖ<óH d]#áÖdTÅ£+<+: AP = (6 – 0)2 + (5 – 9) 2 = 36 + 16 = 52
BP = (– 4 – 0) 2 + (3 – 9) 2 = 16 + 36 = 52
>·eT¿£: |Õ dÖ#áq ç|¿±sÁ+ _+<TeÚ (0, 9) nHû~ y-n¿± $uódT+ï ~ eT]jáTT AB \+ deT~ÇK+&q #ûdT +ï ~.
nuó²«d+ 7.1
1. ¿ì+< eÇ&q _+<TeÚ\ ÈÔá\ eT<ó« <Ös ¿£qT¿ÃØ+&.
(i) (2, 3), (4, 1) (ii) (– 5, 7), (– 1, 3) (iii) (a, b), (– a, – b)
2. _+<TeÚ\T (0, 0) eT]jáTT (36, 15) \ eT<ó« <Ös ¿£qT¿ÃØ+&. d¿£H 7.2 ýË #á]Ì+ºq³T¢ A eT]jáTT B
|³D¼ ²\ eT<ó« <Ös MTsÁT ¿£qT¿ÃØ>·\s?
3. _+<TeÚ\T (1, 5), (2, 3) eT]jáTT (– 2, – 11) \T ds¹ FjáÖ\ sÆ]+#á+&.
4. _+<TeÚ\T (5, – 2), (6, 4) eT]jáTT (7, – 2) \T deT~Çu²VQ osü\T neÚÔjîÖ ýñ<Ã |]o*+#á+&.
5. |³+ýË 7.8ýË #áÖ|¾q³T¢ ÿ¿£ Ôás>Á ·Ü >·~ýË q\T>·TsÁT
dV¾²ÔáT\T A, B, C eT]jáTT D kÍHýË¢ Å£LsÁTÌHsÁT.
ÔásÁ>·ÜýË n³Ö ³Ö ÜsÁT>·TÔáÖ ¿= $TcÍ\T
|]o*+ºq ÔásÇÔá #á+| #áyTû © ý² n&Ð+~. »»ABCD
n&T¦ esÁTd\T
ÿ¿£ #áÔTá sÁçd+ neÚÔTá +< úeÚ uó²$+#á&+ ýñ<?µµ n+<TÅ£

#áyTû © ÿ|Úð¿Ãýñ<T . _+<TeÚ\ eT<ó« <ÖsÁeTTqÅ£ dÖçÔ
|jîÖÐ+º, me] deÖ<óq+ dÂsÕq<Ã Ôî\|+&.
6. ç¿ì+< eÇ&q _+<TeÚ\ÔÃ @sÁÎ&û #áÔáTsÁTÒÛÈ+ @
sÁ¿y£ Tî q® <Ã ? < |sÁTqT Ôî\|+&. MT deÖ<óH¿ì
dsÂ Õq ¿±sÁD+ #î|Î+&.
(i) (– 1, – 2), (1, 0), (– 1, 2), (– 3, 0) \TeÚ esÁTd\T
|³+ 7.8
(ii) (–3, 5), (3, 1), (0, 3), (–1, – 4)
(iii) (4, 5), (7, 6), (4, 3), (1, 2)
7. x - n¿£+ |Õ eÚ+³Ö _+<TeÚ\T (2, –5) eT]jáTT (–2, 9) \Å£ deÖq <ÖsÁ+ýË >·\ _+<TeÚqT ¿£qT¿ÃØ+&?
8. _+<TeÚ\T P(2, – 3) eT]jáTT Q (10, y) \ eT<ó« <ÖsÁ+ 10 jáTÖ³T¢ nsTTÔû y $\TeqT ¿£qT¿ÃØ+&.

9. If Q(0, 1) is equidistant from P(5, –3) and R(x, 6), find the values of x. Also find the
distances QR and PR.
10. Find a relation between x and y such that the point (x, y) is equidistant from the point
(3, 6) and (– 3, 4).
7.3 Section Formula

Let us recall the situation in Section 7.2. Suppose
a telephone company wants to position a relay
tower at P between A and B is such a way that the
distance of the tower from B is twice its distance
from A. If P lies on AB, it will divide AB in the
ratio 1 : 2 (see Fig. 7.9). If we take A as the origin
O, and 1 km as one unit on both the axis, the
coordinates of B will be (36, 15). In order to know
the position of the tower, we must know the Fig. 7.9
coordinates of P. How do we find these
coordinates?
Let the coordinates of P be (x, y). Draw perpendiculars from P and B to the
x-axis, meeting it in D and E, respectively. Draw PC perpendicular to BE. Then, by the AA
similarity criterion, studied in Chapter 6, D POD and D BPC are similar.
OD OP 1 PD OP 1
Therefore , = = , and = =
PC PB 2 BC PB 2
x 1 y 1
So, = and = ×
36 - x 2 15 - y 2
These equations give x = 12 and y = 5.

You can check that P(12, 5) meets the condition that
OP : PB = 1 : 2.
Now let us use the understanding that you may have
developed through this example to obtain the general
formula.
Consider any two points A(x1, y1) and B(x2, y2) and
assume that P (x, y) divides AB internally in the ratio m1 : Fig. 7.10
PA m1
m2, i.e., = (see Fig. 7.10).
PB m2

sÁÖ|¿£ C²«$TÜ 213
9. Q(0, 1) nHû _+<TeÚ P(5, –3) eT]jáTT R(x, 6) _+<TeÚ\Å£ deÖq <ÖsÁ+ýË +fñ x $\TeqT ¿£qT¿ÃØ+&.
QR eT]jáTT PR\ <Ös\qT Å£L& ¿£qT¿ÃØ+&.
10. (x, y) _+<TeÚ, (3, 6) eT]jáTT (– 3, 4) \Å£ deÖq <ÖsÁ+ýË _+<TeÚ (x, y) +&û³³T¢ x eT]jáTT y \ eT<ó«
>·\ d++<ó ¿£qT¿ÃØ+&.
7.3 $uóÈq dÖçÔá+
d¿£H 7.2 ýË d+<sÒÛ ÿ¿£kÍ] >·TsÁTÅï £ Ôî#Tá Ì¿Ã+&. ÿ¿£ fÉ*bþH
¿£+|ú ³esY A eT]jáTT B\ eT<ó« @sÎ³T #ûjTá Ö\qT¿£= HsÁ
nqT¿=+<+. ³esYqT ysÁT A qT+& B¿ì >·\ <ÖsÁ+ ¿£H
Âs{ì¼+|Ú <ÖsÁ+ýË P qT+& B eT<ó« eÚ+&û $<ó+>± @sÎ³T
#û<ÝeTqT¿=HsÁT. P nHû _+<TeÚ AB s¹ K|Õ q³¢sTTÔû _+<TeÚ
¹sKqT 1:2 wÎÜïýË $uó dT+ï ~. (|³+ 7.9 #áÖ&+&). A _+<TeÚ
eTÖ\ _+<TeÚ ‘O’ e<Ý q<qTÅ£+fñ eT]jáTT sÂ +&T n¿±\|Õ
1¿ì.MT. <Ös 1 jáTÖ{Ù>± rdT¿=q, _+<TeÚ B sÁÖ|¿±\T |³+ 7.9
(36,15) neÚÔsTT. ³esY jîTT¿£Ø kÍH Ôî\TdT¿Ãy\+fñ P
_+<TeÚ sÁÖ|¿±\qT eTq+ Ôá|Î¿£ Ôî\TdT¿Ãy*. eT]
sÁÖ|¿±\qT eTq+ mý² Ôî\TdTÅ£+{²+?
_+<TeÚ P jîTT¿£Ø sÁÖ|¿±\qT (x, y) nqTÅ£+<+. P qT+& eT]jáTT B qT+& esÁTd>± x-n¿£+ |¿Õ ì D eT]jáTT E
e<Ý ¿£*dý² \+u²\qT ^jáT+&. P qT+& C e<ÅÝ £ BE¿ì \++>± eÚ+&ûý² ÿ¿£ s¹ K PC qT ^jáT+&. 6e n<ó«jáT+ýË
HûsTÁ ÌÅ£q ¿Ã.¿Ã. dsÁÖ|Ô£ á jáTeT+ <Çs D POD eT]jáTT D BPC\T dsÖÁ | çÜuóT C²\eÚÔsTT.
OD OP 1 PD OP 1
n+<Te\¢ , = = , eT]jáTT = =
PC PB 2 BC PB 2
x 1 y 1
¿±{ì,¼ = eT]jáTT = ×
36 - x 2 15 - y 2
dMT¿£sDÁ ²\ <Çs x = 12 eT]jáTT y = 5 n Ôî\TdTqï ~.

_+<TeÚ P(12, 5) ¹sKqT OP : PB = 1 : 2 wÎÜïýË $uó dT+ï <q
jáTeÖ MTsÁT d]#áÖ&e#áTÌ.
¿±eÚq, |Úð&T B eTq+ nsÁ+Æ #ûdT ¿=, <V²sÁD qT+&
ÿ¿£ kÍ<ósÁD dÖçÔ n_óe~Æ |s#Á eá #áTÌ.
|³+ 7.10
@yîHÕ sÂ +&T _+<TeÚ\T A(x1, y1) eT]jáTT B(x2, y2) nqT¿=+fñ,
_+<TeÚ P (x, y) nHû~ AB n+ÔásÁ+>± m1 : m2, wÎ ÜïýË
PA m1
$uódT+ï <qT¿=q, = (|³+ 7.10 #áÖ&+&).
PB m2

Draw AR, PS and BT perpendicular to the x-axis. Draw AQ and PC parallel to the x-axis.
Then, by the AA similarity criterion,
D PAQ ~ D BPC
PA AQ PQ
Therefore, = = (1)
BP PC BC
Now, AQ = RS = OS – OR = x – x1
PC = ST = OT – OS = x2 – x
PQ = PS – QS = PS – AR = y – y1
BC = BT– CT = BT – PS = y2 – y
Substituting these values in (1), we get
m1 x - x1 y - y1
= =
m2 x2 - x y2 - y
m1 x - x1 m x + m2 x1
Taking = , we get x = 1 2
m2 x2 - x m1 + m2
m1 y - y1 m y + m2 y1
Similarly, taking = , we get y = 1 2
m2 y2 - y m1 + m2
So, the coordinates of the point P(x, y) which divides the line segment joining the points
A(x1, y1) and B(x2, y2), internally, in the ratio m1 : m2 are
æ m1 x2 + m2 x1 , m1 y2 + m2 y1 ö
ç ÷ (2)
è m1 + m2 m1 + m2 ø
This is known as the section formula.
This can also be derived by drawing perpendiculars from A, P and B on the
y-axis and proceeding as above.
If the ratio in which P divides AB is k : 1, then the coordinates of the point P will be
æ kx2 + x1 , ky2 + y1 ö
ç ÷×
è k+1 k+1 ø
Special Case : The mid-point of a line segment divides the line segment in the ratio
1 : 1. Therefore, the coordinates of the mid-point P of the join of the points A(x1, y1) and
B(x2, y2) is
æ 1 × x1 + 1 × x2 , 1 × y1 + 1 × y2 ö æ x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 ö
ç ÷=ç
è 1+1 1+1 ø è 2 2 ÷ø .
Let us solve a few examples based on the section formula.

sÁÖ|¿£ C²«$TÜ 215
AR, PS eT]jáTT BT \qT x-n¿£+ |Õ¿ì \++>± ^jáT+&. AQ eT]jáTT PC \qT x-n¿±¿ì deÖ+ÔásÁ+>±
eÚ+&ûý² ^jáT+&. n|Úð&T ¿Ã.¿Ã. dsÁÖ|Ôá jáTeT+ qT+&
D PAQ ~ D BPC
PA AQ PQ
n+<Te\¢, = = (1)
BP PC BC
|Úð&T, AQ = RS = OS – OR = x – x1
PC = ST = OT – OS = x2 – x
PQ = PS – QS = PS – AR = y – y1
BC = BT– CT = BT – PS = y2 – y
|Õ $\Te\qT (1) ýË ç|Ü¿¹ | +¾ #á>±
m1 x - x1 y - y1
= = n bõ+<TÔeTT.
m2 x2 - x y2 - y
m1 x - x1 m x + m2 x1
= , rdT¿=q>± x = 1 2 bõ+<TÔeTT.
m2 x2 - x m1 + m2
m1 y - y1 m y + m2 y1
n<û$<ó+ >±, = , rdT¿=q>± = 1 2 bõ+<TÔeTT.
m2 y2 - y m1 + m2
¿±{ì¼ A(x1, y1) eT]jáTT B(x2, y2) \#û @sÁÎ&T ¹sKqT n+ÔásÁ+>± m1 : m2 wÎÜïýË $uó+#û _+<TeÚ P(x, y)
æ m1 x2 + m2 x1 , m1 y2 + m2 y1 ö
sÁÖ|¿±\T ç ÷ ....... (2)
è m1 + m2 m1 + m2 ø
<û $uóÈ q dÖçÔá+.

y`n¿£+ |Õ¿ì A, P eT]jáTT B \ qT+& \+¹sK\qT ^d¾ Å£L& |Õ |<ÆÜ <Çs dÖçÔ s³¼e#áTÌ.
AB ¹sKqT P _+<TeÚ k : 1 wÎÜïýË $uódTïq³¢sTTÔû n|Úð&T P _+<TeÚ sÁÖ|¿±\T
æ kx2 + x1 , ky2 + y1 ö
ç ÷×
è k+1 k+1 ø
ç|Ô«û ¿£ d+<sÒÁ +Û : ÿ¿£ ¹sU²K+&+ jîTT¿£Ø eT<ó« _+<TeÚ, ¹sU² K+& 1:1 wÎÜïýË $uódTï+~. n+<Te\¢
_+<TeÚ\T A(x1, y1) eT]jáTT B(x2, y2) \#û @sÁÎ&û s¹ K eT<ó« _+<TeÚ P sÁÖ|¿±\T.
æ 1 × x1 + 1 × x2 , 1 × y1 + 1 × y2 ö æ x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 ö
ç ÷=ç
è 1+1 1+1 ø è 2 2 ÷ø .
|Úð&T, $uóÈ q dÖçÔ |jÖî Ð+º ¿= deTd«\qT kÍ~<Æ+.

Example 6 : Find the coordinates of the point which divides the line segment joining the points
(4, – 3) and (8, 5) in the ratio 3 : 1 internally.
Solution : Let P(x, y) be the required point. Using the section formula, we get
3(8) + 1(4) 3(5) + 1(–3)

x= = 7, y = =3
3+1 3+1
Therefore, (7, 3) is the required point.
Example 7 : In what ratio does the point (– 4, 6) divide the line segment joining the points A(–
6, 10) and B(3, – 8)?
Solution : Let (– 4, 6) divide AB internally in the ratio m1 : m2. Using the section formula, we
get
æ 3m1 - 6m2 – 8m1 + 10m2 ö
(– 4, 6) = ç , ÷ (1)
è 1m + m2 m1 + m2 ø
Recall that if (x, y) = (a, b) then x = a and y = b.
3m1 - 6m2 - 8m1 + 10m2

So, –4= and 6 =
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
3m1 - 6m2
Now, –4= gives us
m1 + m2
– 4m1 – 4m2 = 3m1 – 6m2

i.e., 7m1 = 2m2
i.e., m1 : m2 = 2 : 7
You should verify that the ratio satisfies the y-coordinate also.
m1
-8 + 10
-8m1 + 10m2 m2
Now, = m1
(Dividing throughout by m2)
m1 + m2 +1
m2
2
-8 ´ + 10
7 =6
= 2
+1
7

sÁÖ|¿£ C²«$TÜ 217
<V²sÁD 6 : _+<TeÚ\T (4, – 3) eT]jáTT (8, 5) \#û @sÁÎ&û ¹sU²K+& 3 : 1 wÎÜïýË n+ÔásÁ+>± $uó+#û
_+<TeÚ sÁÖ|¿±\qT ¿£qT¿ÃØ+&.
kÍ<óq : ¿±e\d¾q _+<T sÁÖ|¿±\T P(x, y) nqT¿=+<+. $uóÈ q dÖçÔ |jîÖÐ+#á>±,
3(8) + 1(4) 3(5) + 1(–3)
x= = 7, y = = 3 n bõ+<TÔ+.
3+1 3+1
n+<Te\q, ¿±e\d¾q _+<TeÚ (7, 3) n>·TqT.

<V²sÁD 7 : _+<TeÚ\T (– 6, 10) eT]jáTT B(3, – 8) \qT ¿£*| ¹sU²K+&+, _+<TeÚ (`4,6) @ wÎÜïýË
$uó dT+ï ~?
kÍ<óq : AB ¹sU²K+&eTTqT _+<TeÚ (`4,6) n+ÔásÁ+>± m1 : m2 wÎÜïýË $uódTï+~ n nqTÅ£+<+. $uóÈq
dÖçÔ |jîÖÐ+#á>±,
æ 3m - 6m
2 , – 8m1 + 10m2 ö
(– 4, 6) = ç 1 ÷ n bõ+<TÔ+. (1)
m
è 1 + m2 m1 + m2 ø
¿±eÚq (x, y) = (a, b) nsTTÔû x = a eT]jáTT y = b n >·TsÁTï Ôî#Tá Ì¿Ã+&.

3m1 - 6m2 - 8m1 + 10m2
¿±eÚq, –4= eT]jáTT 6=
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
3m1 - 6m2
|Úð&T, –4=
m1 + m2
– 4m1 – 4m2 = 3m1 – 6m2 dT+ï ~.

nq>±, 7m1 = 2m2
nq>±, m1 : m2 = 2 : 7
wÎÜï Y - sÁÖ|¿±¿ì Å£L& d+Ôá|¾ï |sÁTdTï+< n |]o*+#*.
m1
-8 + 10
-8m1 + 10m2 m2
|Úð&T, = m1
( m2 #û n |<\qT uó²Ð+#á>±)
m1 + m2 +1
m2
2
-8 ´ + 10
7 =6
= 2
+1
7

Therefore, the point (– 4, 6) divides the line segment joining the points A(– 6, 10) and B(3, – 8)
in the ratio 2 : 7.
m1
Alternatively : The ratio m1 : m2 can also be written as : 1, or k : 1. Let (– 4, 6) divide AB
m2
internally in the ratio k : 1. Using the section formula, we get
æ 3k - 6 , -8k + 10 ö
(– 4, 6) = ç ÷ (2)
è k +1 k +1 ø
3k - 6
So, –4=
k +1
i.e., – 4k – 4 = 3k – 6
i.e., 7k = 2
i.e., k:1=2:7
You can check for the y-coordinate also.
So, the point (– 4, 6) divides the line segment joining the points A(– 6, 10) and
B(3, – 8) in the ratio 2 : 7.
Note : You can also find this ratio by calculating the distances PA and PB and taking their ratios
provided you know that A, P and B are collinear.
Example 8 : Find the coordinates of the points of trisection (i.e., points dividing in three equal
parts) of the line segment joining the points A(2, – 2) and B(– 7, 4).
Solution : Let P and Q be the points of
trisection of AB i.e., AP = PQ = QB
(see Fig. 7.11). Fig. 7.11
Therefore, P divides AB internally in the ratio 1 : 2. Therefore, the coordinates of P, by applying
the section formula, are
æ 1( -7) + 2(2) , 1(4) + 2( -2) ö
ç ÷ , i.e., (–1, 0)
è 1+ 2 1+ 2 ø
Now, Q also divides AB internally in the ratio 2 : 1. So, the coordinates of Q are
æ 2(-7) + 1(2) , 2(4) + 1( -2) ö

ç ÷ , i.e., (– 4, 2)
è 2+1 2 +1 ø

sÁÖ|¿£ C²«$TÜ 219
n+<Te\q, _+<TeÚ\T A(– 6, 10) eT]jáTT B(3, – 8) \qT ¿£*| ¹sU²K+&+, (`4,6) _+<TeÚ nqTq~ 2 : 7
wÎÜïýË $uódTï+~.
m1
ç|Ô«eÖjáT |<ÆÜ : wÎÜï m1 : m2
m2
: 1, ýñ< k : 1>± Å£L& sjáTe#áTÌ. _+<TeÚ (– 4, 6) qT
AB n+ÔásÁ+>± k : 1 wÎÜïýË $uódTï+<qT¿Ã+&. $uóÈq dÖçÔ |jîÖÐ+#á>±,
æ 3k - 6 , -8k + 10 ö
(– 4, 6) = ç ÷ (2)
è k +1 k +1 ø
3k - 6
¿±eÚq, –4=
k +1
i.e., – 4k – 4 = 3k – 6
i.e., 7k = 2
i.e., k:1=2:7
B y-sÁÖ|¿±¿ì Å£L& MTsÁT d] #áÖ&e#áTÌ.
¿±eÚq, _+<TeÚ\T A(– 6, 10) eT]jáTT B(3, – 8)\qT ¿£*| ¹sU²K+& (– 4, 6) _+<TeÚ 2:7 wÎÜïýË
$uó dT+ï ~.
>·eT¿£ : A, P eT]jáTT B \T d¹sFjáÖ\T ¿£qT¿£ PA eT]jáTT PB\ eT<ó« <Ös ¿£qT>=q³+ <Çs Å£L& y{ì
wÎÜï ¿£qT>=qe#áTÌ.
<V²sÁD 8 : A(2, – 2) eT]jáTT B(– 7, 4) _+<TeÚ\qT ¿£*| s¹ U²K+& eTÖ&T deÖq uó²>±\T>± $uó +#û
çÜBó¿]£ +#û _+<TeÚ sÁÖ|¿±\qT ¿£qT¿ÃØ+&.
kÍ<óq : AB ¹sU²K+&eTT jîTT¿£Ø çÜ<¸¿£sÁD _+<TeÚ\T P eT]jáTT
Q nqT¿=q
|³+ 7.11
AP = PQ = QB (|³+ 7.11 #áÖ|¾q³T¢) n+<Te\¢ AB ¹sU²K+& _+<TeÚ P n+ÔásÁ+>± 1:2. wàÜïýË
$uódTï+~.
æ 1( -7) + 2(2) , 1(4) + 2( -2) ö
¿±eÚq, $uóÈq dÖçÔá+ qT+& ç ÷ , (–1, 0)
è 1+ 2 1+ 2 ø
P jîTT¿£Ø sÁÖ|¿±\T neÚÔsTT. Q Å£L& AB n+ÔásÁ+>± $uó+#û wàÜï 2:1. ¿±eÚq, Q jîTT¿£Ø
æ 2(-7) + 1(2) , 2(4) + 1( -2) ö
sÁÖ|¿±\T ç ÷ , i.e., (– 4, 2)
è 2+1 2 +1 ø

Therefore, the coordinates of the points of trisection of the line segment joining A and B are (–
1, 0) and (– 4, 2).
Note : We could also have obtained Q by noting that it is the mid-point of PB. So, we could
have obtained its coordinates using the mid-point formula.
Example 9 : Find the ratio in which the y-axis divides the line segment joining the points (5, –
6) and (–1, – 4). Also find the point of intersection.
Solution : Let the ratio be k : 1. Then by the section formula, the coordinates of the point
æ -k + 5 , -4k - 6 ö
which divides AB in the ratio k : 1 are ç ÷×
è k +1 k +1 ø
This point lies on the y-axis, and we know that on the y-axis the abscissa is 0.
-k + 5
Therefore, =0
k +1
So, k=5
æ -13 ö
That is, the ratio is 5 : 1. Putting the value of k = 5, we get the point of intersection as ç 0, ÷.
è 3 ø
Example 10 : If the points A(6, 1), B(8, 2), C(9, 4) and D(p, 3) are the vertices of a parallelogram,
taken in order, find the value of p.
Solution : We know that diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.
So, the coordinates of the mid-point of AC = coordinates of the mid-point of BD
æ6 + 9, 1+ 4ö æ 8 + p , 2 + 3ö
i.e., ç ÷ = ç ÷
è 2 2 ø è 2 2 ø
æ 15 , 5 ö æ8 + p, 5ö
i.e., ç ÷ = ç ÷
è 2 2ø è 2 2ø
15 8+ p
so, =
2 2
i.e., p=7

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¿±eÚq A eT]jáTT B \qT ¿£*| ¹sU²K+&+ jîTT¿£Ø çÜ<¸¿£sÁD _+<TeÚ\T P (-1, 0) eT]jáTT Q (-4, 2).
>·eT¿£ : ~ PB jîTT¿£Ø eT<ó« _+<TeÚ Q n >·T]ï+#á&+ <Çs eTq+ < bõ+<e#áTÌqT. ¿±{ì¼ <
sÁÖ|¿±\qT eT<ó« _+<TeÚ dÖçÔ |jÖî Ð+º Å£L& bõ+<e#áTÌ.
<V²sÁD 9 : _+<TeÚ\T (5, – 6) eT]jáTT (–1, – 4)\ÔÃ @sÁÎ&û s¹ U²K+& y-n¿£+ @ wÎÜïýË $uó dTï+<Ã
¿£qT¿ÃØ+&. K+&q _+<TeÚqT Å£L& ¿£qT¿ÃØ+&.
kÍ<óq : _+<TeÚ k : 1 wÎÜïýË $uódTï+<qT¿Ã+&. $uóÈ q dÖçÔ |jÖî Ð+#á>±, AB k : 1wÎÜïýË $uó +#û
æ -k + 5 , -4k - 6 ö
_+<TeÚ sÁÖ|¿±\T ç ÷×
è k +1 k +1 ø
_+<TeÚ y-n¿£+ |Õ +³T+~ eT]jáTT y-n¿£+ jîTT¿£Ø ç|<e¸ T sÁÖ|¿£+ »0µ n eTqÅ£ Ôî\TdT.
-k + 5
¿±eÚq, k +1
=0
¿£qT¿£, k=5
æ -13 ö
¿±eÚq wÎÜï 5 : 1 neÚÔáT+~. k = 5 $\TeqT ç|Ü¿¹ | +¾ #á>±, K+&q _+<TeÚ sÁÖ|¿±\T çè 0, 3 ø
÷ neÚÔsTT.
<V²sÁD 10 : _+<TeÚ\T A(6, 1), B(8, 2), C(9, 4) eT]jáTT D(p, 3)\T esÁTd>± deÖ+ÔásÁ #áÔTá sÁTÒÛÈ osüýÔÕÉ ,û
p $\TeqT ¿£qT¿ÃØ+&.
kÍ<óq : deÖ+ÔásÁ #áÔTá sÁTÒÛÈ+ýË ¿£s\T deT~ÇK+&q #ûdTÅ£+{²jáT eTqÅ£ Ôî\TdT.

¿±{ì¼ AC eT<ó« _+<TeÚ sÁÖ|¿±\T R BD eT<ó« _+<TeÚ sÁÖ|¿±\T,
æ 6 + 9, 1+ 4ö æ 8 + p , 2 + 3ö
nq>±, ç ÷ = ç ÷
è 2 2 ø è 2 2 ø
æ 15 , 5 ö æ8 + p, 5ö
nq>±, ç
è 2 2ø
÷ = ç
è 2
÷
2ø
15 8+ p
¿±eÚq, 2
=
2
nq>±, p=7

EXERCISE 7.2
1. Find the coordinates of the point which divides the join of (–1, 7) and (4, –3) in the
ratio 2 : 3.
2. Find the coordinates of the points of trisection of the line segment joining (4, –1)
and (–2, –3).
3. To conduct Sports Day activities, in your
rectangular shaped school ground ABCD, lines
have been drawn with chalk powder at a distance
of 1m each. 100 flower pots have been placed at
a distance of 1m from each other along AD, as
1
shown in Fig. 7.12. Niharika runs th the distance
4
AD on the 2nd line and posts a green flag. Preet
1
runs 5 th the distance AD on the eighth line and
posts a red flag. What is the distance between both
the flags? If Rashmi has to post a blue flag exactly
halfway between the line segment joining the two
flags, where should she post her flag? Fig. 7.12
4. Find the ratio in which the line segment joining the points (– 3, 10) and (6, – 8) is divided
by (– 1, 6).
5. Find the ratio in which the line segment joining A(1, – 5) and B(– 4, 5) is divided by the
x-axis. Also find the coordinates of the point of division.
6. If (1, 2), (4, y), (x, 6) and (3, 5) are the vertices of a parallelogram taken in order, find
x and y.
7. Find the coordinates of a point A, where AB is the diameter of a circle whose centre is
(2, – 3) and B is (1, 4).
8. If A and B are (– 2, – 2) and (2, – 4), respectively, find the coordinates of P such that
3
AP = 7 AB and P lies on the line segment AB.
9. Find the coordinates of the points which divide the line segment joining A(– 2, 2) and B(2,
8) into four equal parts.
10. Find the area of a rhombus if its vertices are (3, 0), (4, 5), (– 1, 4) and (– 2, – 1) taken in
1
order. [Hint : Area of a rhombus = (product of its diagonals)]
2

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1. _+<TeÚ\T (`1,7) eT]jáTT (4,`3)\#û @sÁÎ&û s¹ U²K+& 2:3 wÎÜïýË $uó +#û _+<TeÚ sÁÖ|¿±\T ¿£qT¿ÃØ+&.
2. (4,`1) eT]jáTT ( —2, —3)\#û @sÁÎ&û s
¹ U²K+&+ jîTT¿£Ø çÜ<¸¿£sDÁ _+<TeÚ\ sÁÖ|¿±\T ¿£qT¿ÃØ+&.
3. bÍsÄÁXæ\ ç¿¡& ~HÃÔáàe+ d+<sÁÒÛ+>±, BsÁ#é áÔáTsÁçkÍ¿±sÁ+ýË
>·\ ³d\ + ABCD ýË ÿ¿=Ø¿£Ø s¹ U eT<ó« ÿ¿£ MT³sÁT <ÖsÁ+
+&Tq³T¢ ¿= s¹ K\T dTq+ÔÃ ^jáT&¦sTT. |³+ 7.12 ýË
#áÖ|¾q³T¢ s¹ K\ eT<ó« <ÖsÁ+ 1 MTöö +&Tq³T¢ 100 |P\Å£+&\T
1
AD s¹ K|Õ +#á&¦sTT. Vä]¿£ sÂ +&e ýÉq
Õ TýË AD ýË e
4
e+Ôá T < Ö s | ] Â > Üï n¿£ Ø & Å£ | # á Ì CÉ + &qT
1
+º+~. ç|ÓÔY AD ýË 5
e e+ÔáT <Ös |]>Â Üï m$T<e
ýÉÕqTýË mçsÁC+É &qT +#&T. sÂ +&T CÉ+&\ eT<ó« >·\
<ÖsÁ+ m+Ôá? sÂ +&T CÉ+&\ eT<ó« <ÖsÁ+ýË d>±¿ì ú\+
sÁ+>·T CÉ+&qT sÁwÓ +#\+fñ yîT CÉ+&qT m¿£Ø&
+#*?
4. _+<TeÚ\T (—3, 10) eT]jáTT (6, —8) \#û @sÁÎ&û ¹sU²K+& _+<TeÚ (—1,|³6)[email protected] wÎÜïýË $uó dT+ï <Ã
¿£qT>=q+&.
5. A(1, —5) eT]jáTT B (—4, 5) \ÔÃ @sÁÎ&û s¹ U²K+& x-n¿£+ @ wÎÜïýË $uódTï+<Ã ¿£qT¿ÃØ+&.
$uóÈ q _+<TeÚ sÁÖ|¿±\qT Å£L& ¿£qT¿ÃØ+&.
6. _+<TeÚ\T (1, 2), (4, y), (x, 6) eT]jáTT (3, 5) \T esÁTd>± ÿ¿£ deÖ+ÔásÁ #áÔTá sÁTÒÛÈ osüýÔÉÕ û x eT]jáTT
$\Te\qT ¿£qT¿ÃØ+&.
7. AB y«d+>± >·\ ÿ¿£ eÔáï ¿¹ +ç<+ (2, `3) eT]jáTT _+<TeÚ B sÁÖ|¿±\T (1, 4) nsTTÔû _+<TeÚ A
sÁÖ|¿±\T ¿£qT¿ÃØ+&.
8. _+<TeÚ A eT]jáTT B sÁÖ|¿±\T esÁTd>± (`2, `2) eT]jáTT (2,`4) nsTTÔû AB s¹ U²K+&+ |Õ
3
AP = 7 AB njûT«$<ó+ >± P _+<TeÚ sÁÖ|¿±\T ¿£qT¿ÃØ+&.
9. A (– 2, 2) eT]jáTT B(2, 8) \#û @sÁÎ&û s¹ U²K+& H\T>·T deÖq uó²>±\T>± $uó
+#û _+<TeÚ\ sÁÖ|¿±\T
¿£qT¿ÃØ+&.
10. _+<TeÚ\T (3, 0), (4, 5), (`1, 4) eT]jáTT (`2, `1) esÁTd>± s+dt osü\T nsTTÔû < yîÕXæý²«
¿£qT¿ÃØ+&. [ dÖ#áq : s+dt yîÕXæ\«+ R 12 (¿£s\ \Ý+) ]

7.4 Summary
In this chapter, you have studied the following points :
1. The distance between P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2) is ( x2 - x1 )2 + ( y2 - y1 )2 .
2. The distance of a point P(x, y) from the origin is x2 + y 2 .

3. The coordinates of the point P(x, y) which divides the line segment joining the points A(x1,
æ m1 x2 + m2 x1 , m1 y2 + m2 y1 ö
y1) and B(x2, y2) internally in the ratio m1 : m2 are ç ÷×
è m1 + m2 m1 + m2 ø
4. The mid-point of the line segment joining the points P(x 1, y1) and Q(x2, y 2) is
æ x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 ö
ç 2 .
è 2 ÷ø

Section 7.3 discusses the Section Formula for the coordinates
(x, y) of a point P which divides internally the line segment
joining the points
A(x1, y1) and B(x2, y2) in the ratio m1 : m2 as follows :
m1 x2 + m2 x1 , m1 y2 + m2 y1
x= y=
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
Note that, here, PA : PB = m1 : m2.

However, if P does not lie between A and B but lies on the line
AB, outside the line segment AB, and PA : PB = m1 : m2, we say
that P divides externally the line segment joining the points A
and B. You will study Section Formula for such case in higher
classes.

sÁÖ|¿£ C²«$TÜ 225
7.4 kÍs+Xø+
n<ó«jáT+ýË, MTsÁT ¿ì+~ $wjáÖ\qT HûsÁTÌÅ£HsÁT: :
1. Âs+&T _+<TeÚ\T P(x1, y1) eT]jáTT Q(x2, y2) \ eT<ó« <ÖsÁ+ ( x2 - x1 )2 + ( y2 - y1 )2 .
2. eTÖ\ _+<TeÚ qT+& _+<TeÚ P(x, y) Å£ >·\ eT<ó« <ÖsÁ+ x2 + y 2 .
3. _+<TeÚ\T A(x1, y1) eT]jáTT B(x2, y2) \#û @sÁÎ&û ¹sU²K+& _+<TeÚ P(x, y), m1 : m2 wÎÜïýË
n+ÔásÁ+>± $uódï @sÁÎ&û P _+<TeÚ sÁÖ|¿±\T æç m1mx2 ++ mm2 x1 , m1my2 ++ mm2 y1 ö÷ ×

è 1 2 1 2 ø
4. sÂ +&T _+<TeÚ\T P(x1, y1) eT]jáTT Q(x2, y2) \qT ¿£\|>± @sÁÎ&û s¹ U²K+&+ eT<ó« _+<TeÚ æç x1 +2 x2 , y1 + y2 ö
2 ÷ø
.
è

d¿£H 7.3 ýË #á]Ì+ºq³T¢ $uóÈq dÖçÔá+ <ósÁ+>± A(x1, y1) eT]jáTT
B(x2, y2) _+<TeÚ\qT ¿£*| s¹ U²K+& n+Ôás+Á >± m1 : m2 wÎÜïýË
$uó +#û _+<TeÚ PjîTT¿£Ø sÁÖ|¿±\T (x, y) ç¿ì+~$<ó+ >± eÚ+{²sTT.
m1 x2 + m2 x1 , m1 y2 + m2 y1
x= y=
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
¿£Ø& PA : PB = m1 : m2 n >·eT+#á+&.
nsTTÔû P nHû~ A eT]jáTT B\ eT<ó« ýñ¿b£ þÔû n~ AB s¹ U²K+&+ jáT³ AB
¹sK|Õ +³T+~ eT]jáTT PA : PB = m1 : m2 neÚÔáT+~. _+<TeÚ\T A eT]jáTT
B \#û @sÁÎ&û s¹ U²K+& _+<TeÚ P u²V²«+>± $uódTï+~. ný²+{ì $uóÈ
q
dÖçÔá+ d+<sÒÛ\qT |Õ ÔássÁ >Á ·ÔáT\ýË HûsTÁ ÌÅ£+{²sÁT.

226 PROOFS IN MATHEMATICS
PROOFS IN MATHEMATICS A1
A1.1 Introduction
The ability to reason and think clearly is extremely useful in our daily life. For example, suppose
a politician tells you, ‘If you are interested in a clean government, then you should vote for me.’
What he actually wants you to believe is that if you do not vote for him, then you may not get a
clean government. Similarly, if an advertisement tells you, ‘The intelligent wear XYZ shoes’,
what the company wants you to conclude is that if you do not wear XYZ shoes, then you are not
intelligent enough. You can yourself observe that both the above statements may mislead the
general public. So, if we understand the process of reasoning correctly, we do not fall into such
traps unknowingly.
The correct use of reasoning is at the core of mathematics, especially in constructing

proofs. In Class IX, you were introduced to the idea of proofs, and you actually proved many
statements, especially in geometry. Recall that a proof is made up of several mathematical
statements, each of which is logically deduced from a previous statement in the proof, or from
a theorem proved earlier, or an axiom, or the hypotheses. The main tool, we use in constructing
a proof, is the process of deductive reasoning.
We start the study of this chapter with a review of what a mathematical statement is. Then,
we proceed to sharpen our skills in deductive reasoning using several examples. We shall also
deal with the concept of negation and finding the negation of a given statement. Then, we discuss
what it means to find the converse of a given statement. Finally, we review the ingredients of a
proof learnt in Class IX by analysing the proofs of several theorems. Here, we also discuss the
idea of proof by contradiction, which you have come across in Class IX and many other chapters
of this book.
A1.2 Mathematical Statements Revisited
Recall, that a ‘statement’ is a meaningful sentence which is not an order, or an
exclamation or a question. For example, ‘Which two teams are playing in the

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#îbÍÎ&qT¿Ã+&. C²¿ì MTsÁT qeÖ\ jáTq ¿ÃsÁTÅ£+³Tq~ @$T³+fñ, MTsÁT jáTqÅ£ z³T yûjTá ¿£bþÔû, MTÅ£
dÇ#áÌÛyTî q® ç|uTó ÔáÇ+ s¿£bþe#áTÌ n. n<û$<ó+>±, ÿ¿£ ç|¿³£ q MTÅ£, »Ôî*yîqÕ ysÁT XYZ wOdt <ó] kÍïsTÁ µ n #î_Ôû,
MTsÁT XYZ wO\qT <ó] +#á¿b£ þÔû, MTsÁT ÔáÐq+Ôá Ôî*$Ôû³\T ¿£*Ð ýñsTÁ n ¿£+| sÆ]+#\qTÅ£+³Tq~. |Õ sÂ +&T
yU²«\T kÍeÖq« ç|È\qT Ôá|Ú Î<Ãe |{¼+ì #ûý² HjáT MT¹s >·eT+#á>\· sÁT. ¿±{ì¼, Ô]Ø¿£ ç|ç¿ìjTá qT d]>±Z nsÁ+
#ûdT Å£+fñ, eTqÅ£ Ôî*jáTÅ£+&Hû ný²+{ì #áTÌ\ýË |&e TT.
eTTK«+>± sÁÖ|D\qT #ûjTá &+ýË Ô]Ø¿£+ jîTT¿£Ø dsÂ qÕ |jÖî >·+ >·DÔì +á ýË ç|<ó qyîTq® ~, 9e Ôás>Á Ü· ýË, MTsÁT
sÁÖ|D\ ýË#áqÅ£ |]#ájTá + #ûjTá &¦sTÁ eT]jáTT eTTK«+>± sÁÖ|D\qT #ûjTá &+ýË MTsÁT C²¿ì nHû¿£ ç|e#áH\qT,
eTTK«+>± C²«$TÜýË sÁÖ|¾+#sÁT. ÿ¿£ sÁÖ|D nHû¿£ >·DÔì á ç|e#áq+\ÔÃ sÁÖbõ+~+#á&TÔáT+< >·TsÁT+ï #áT¿Ã+&,
M{ìýË ç|Ü ÿ¿£Ø{ì Ô]Ø¿£+>± sÁÖ|DýË eTTqT|{ì ç|e#áq+ qT+& ýñ< eTT+<T>± sÁÖ|¾+#á&q d¾<Æ+Ôá+ qT+&
ýñ< |]¿£\Îq\ qT+& kÍ~ó+#á&TÔáT+~. sÁÖ|DqT #ûjáT&eTTýË eTqeTT |jîÖÐ+#û ç|<óq kÍ<óq +, »»>·DìÔá
Ô]Ø¿£ ç|ç¿ìjTá µµ.
eTqeTT n<ó«jáT+ jîTT¿£Ø n<ó« jáTH >·DìÔá ç|e#áq+ n+fñ @$T{ì nHû dMT¿£Ô Ã çbÍsÁ+_ó<ÝeTT. ÔásTÁ yÔá,
eTqeTT nHû¿£ <V²sÁD\qT |jÖî Ð+º >·DÔì á Ô]Ø¿£+ýË eTq HîÕ|ÚD²«\Å£ |<TqT |&<eTT. eTqeTT e«Ü¹sK
ç|e#áq uó²eqqT $e]<ÝeTT. eT]jáTT ºÌq ç|e#áq+ jîTT¿£Ø $sÁT<ÆÔáqT ¿£qT>=+<eTT. n|ÚÎ&T, ºÌq ç|e#áq+
jîTT¿£Ø $|s«Á ç|e#áq+ ¿£qT>=q&+ n+fñ @$T{Ë eTqeTT #á]ÌkÍïeTT. ºesÁ>±, eTqeTT nHû¿£ d¾<Æ+Ô\ sÁÖ|D \qT
$Xâw¢ +¾ #á&+ <Çs IXe Ôás>Á Ü· ýË HûsTÁ ÌÅ£q sÁÖ|D jîTT¿£Ø n+Xæ\qT dMT¿ìk ÍïeTT. ¿£Ø&, eTqeTT IXe ÔásÁ>·Ü
eT]jáTT |Úd¿ï +£ ýË nHû¿£ ÔásÁ n<ó«jáÖ\ýË MTsÁT #áÖd¾q $sÁT<ÔÆ á <Çs sÁÖ|D ýË#áqqT Å£L& #á]ÌkÍïeTT.
A1.2 >·DÔì á ç|e#áH\ |Úq:|]o\q

»ç|e#áq+ » nHû~ nsÁeÆ +ÔáyTî q® y¿£«+, ~ ÿ¿£ Èã ýñ< XøÌs«sÁ¿ +£ ýñ< ç|Xø ¿±<T. <V²sÁDÅ£,

Cricket World Cup Final?’ is a question, not a statement. ‘Go and finish your homework’ is an
order, not a statement. ‘What a fantastic goal!’ is an exclamation, not a statement.
Remember, in general, statements can be one of the following:

· always true
· always false
· ambiguous
In Class IX, you have also studied that in mathematics, a statement is acceptable only if
it is either always true or always false. So, ambiguous sentences are not considered as
mathematical statements.
Let us review our understanding with a few examples.
Example 1 : State whether the following statements are always true, always false or ambiguous.
Justify your answers.
(i) The Sun orbits the Earth.
(ii) Vehicles have four wheels.
(iii) The speed of light is approximately 3 × 105 km/s.
(iv) A road to Kolkata will be closed from November to March.
(v) All humans are mortal.
Solution :
(i) This statement is always false, since astronomers have established that the Earth orbits the
Sun.
(ii) This statement is ambiguous, because we cannot decide if it is always true or always false.
This depends on what the vehicle is — vehicles can have 2, 3, 4, 6, 10, etc., wheels.
(iii) This statement is always true, as verified by physicists.
(iv) This statement is ambiguous, because it is not clear which road is being referred to.
(v) This statement is always true, since every human being has to die some time.
Example 2 : State whether the following statements are true or false, and justify your answers.
(i) All equilateral triangles are isosceles.
(ii) Some isosceles triangles are equilateral.
(iii) All isosceles triangles are equilateral.
(iv) Some rational numbers are integers.

»ç¿ì¿Â {Ù esÁý¿¦Ù |£ t |ýÕ ÙýË @ sÂ +&T {¡yT \T &TÔáTHsTT?µ nHû~ ÿ¿£ ç|Xø , ç|e#áq+ ¿±<T. »yî[¢ MT VA+esYØ |P]ï
#ûjTá +&µ nHû~ ÿ¿£ Èã, ç|e#áq+ ¿±<T. »m+Ôá n<TÒÛÔyá Tî q® >ÃýÙ!µ ÿ¿£ XøÌs«sÁ¿ +£ , ç|e#áq+ ¿±<T.
>·TsÁT+ï #áT¿Ã+&, kÍ<ósÁD+>±, ç|e#áH\T ç¿ì+~ y{ìýË ÿ¿£{ì ¿±e#áTÌ:
· m\¢|Ú Î&Ö È+
· m\¢|Ú Î&Ö Ôá|Ú Î
· ndÎw+¼ >± +~
IXe Ôás> Á Ü· ýË, MTsÁT >·DÔì +á ýË, ÿ¿£ ç|e#áq+ m\¢|Ú Î&Ö È+ ýñ< m\¢|Ú Î&Ö Ôá|Ú Î>± +fñ eÖçÔáyTû yîÖ<jÖî >·«yîTq® <
Å£L& n<ó« jáTq+ #ûkÍsÁT. ¿±{ì¼, ndÎw¼yîT®q y¿±«\T >·DÔì á Xæçdï ç|e#áH\T >± |]>·Dì+#á&eÚ.
¿= <V²sÁD\ÔÃ eTq ne>±V²qqT dMT¿ì+ #áTÅ£+<+.
<V²sÁD 1 : ¿ì+~ ç|e#áH\T m\¢|Ú Î&Ö dÔá«eÖ, m\¢|ÚÎ&Ö ndÔ«á eÖ ýñ< ndÎw¼+>± HjîÖ ýñ<Ã |s=Øq+&.
MT deÖ<óH\qT deT]+#á+&.
(i) dÖsÁT«&T uóÖ$T #áT³Ö¼ ÜsÁT>·TÔáTH&T.
(ii) yV²H\Å£ H\T>·T #áç¿±\T +{²sTT.
(iii) ¿±+Ü yû>·+ dTeÖsÁT>± 3 × 105 ¿ìMT/d.
(iv) qe+sY qT+& eÖ]Ì esÁÅ£ ¿£\¿£Ôï sÁV² <] eTÖd¾yûjáT&TÔáT+~.
(v) eÖqeÚ\+<sÖÁ eTsÁD+ì #ûy¹s.
kÍ<óq :
(i) ç|e#áq+ m\¢|Ú Î&Ö ndÔ«á +, m+<T¿£+fñ K>ÃÞø Xæçdyï Ôû \ïá T dÖsÁT« #áT³Ö¼ uóÖ $T ÜsÁT>·TÔáT+< sÆ]+#sÁT
(ii) ç|e#áq+ ndÎw+¼ >± +~, m+<T¿£+fñ ~ m\¢|Ú Î&Ö dÔá«+ ýñ< m\¢|Ú Î&Ö ndÔ«á + n eTqeTT
sÁsTT+#áýñeTT. ~ yV²q+ nHû <|Õ <ósÁ|& +³T+~ - yV²H\T 2, 3, 4, 6, 10, yîTT<ýÕqÉ #áç¿±\qT
¿£*Ð +{²sTT.
(iii) uó Ü¿£ XæçdïyûÔï\
á #û <óM¿£]+#á&q³T¢>±, ç|e#áq+ m\¢|ÚÎ&Ö dÔá«+.
(iv) ç|e#áq+ ndÎw¼+>± +~, m+<T¿£+fñ @ sÁV² <] dÖºdTH ï sÃ dÎw+¼ >± Ôî*jáT<T.
(v) ç|e#áq+ m\¢|Ú Î&Ö dÔ«á +, m+<T¿£+fñ ç|Ü eÖqeÚ&T ¿=+Ôá ¿±\+ ÔásTÁ yÔá #ábþe\d¾ +³T+~.
<V²sÁD 2 : ¿ì+~ ç|e#áH\T dÔá«eÖ ýñ< ndÔá«eÖ |s=Øq+& eT]jáTT MT deÖ<óH\T deT]+#á+&.
(i) n deTu²VQ çÜuóT C²\T deT~Çu²VQ çÜuóT C²\T.
(ii) ¿= deT~Çu²VQ çÜuóT C²\T deTu²VQ çÜuóT C²\T >± +{²sTT.
(iii) n deT~Çu²VQ çÜuóT C²\T deTu²VQ çÜuóT C²\T >± +{²sTT.
(iv) ¿= n¿£sD Á j¡ Tá d+K«\T |PsÁ d+K« \T.

(v) Some rational numbers are not integers.

(vi) Not all integers are rational.
(vii) Between any two rational numbers there is no rational number.
Solution :
(i) This statement is true, because equilateral triangles have equal sides, and therefore are
isosceles.
(ii) This statement is true, because those isosceles triangles whose base angles are 60° are
equilateral.
(iii) This statement is false. Give a counter-example for it.
p
(iv) This statement is true, since rational numbers of the form , where p is an integer and
q
3
q = 1, are integers (for example, 3 = ).
1
p
(v) This statement is true, because rational numbers of the form , p, q are integers and
q
3
q does not divide p, are not integers (for example, ).
2
(vi) This statement is the same as saying ‘there is an integer which is not a rational number’.
This is false, because all integers are rational numbers.
r +s
(vii) This statement is false. As you know, between any two rational numbers r and s lies ,
2
which is a rational number.
Example 3 : If x < 4, which of the following statements are true? Justify your answers.
(i) 2x > 8 (ii) 2x < 6 (iii) 2x < 8
Solution :
(i) This statement is false, because, for example, x = 3 < 4 does not satisfy 2x > 8.
(ii) This statement is false, because, for example, x = 3.5 < 4 does not satisfy 2x < 6.
(iii) This statement is true, because it is the same as x < 4.
Example 4 : Restate the following statements with appropriate conditions, so that they become
true statements:
(i) If the diagonals of a quadrilateral are equal, then it is a rectangle.
(ii) A line joining two points on two sides of a triangle is parallel to the third side.
(iii) p is irrational for all positive integers p.
(iv) All quadratic equations have two real roots.

(v) ¿= n¿£sDÁ j ¡ Tá d+K«\T |PsÁ d+K«\T ¿±eÚ.

(vi) n |PsÁ d+K« \T n¿£sD Á j
¡ Tá d+K«\T ¿±eÚ.
(vii) @yîH
Õ sÂ +&T n¿£sDÁ j
¡ Tá d+K«\ eT<ó« n¿£sÁD¡jTá d+K« ýñ<T .
kÍ<óq :
(i) ç|e#áq+ dÔá«+, m+<T¿£+fñ deTu²VQ çÜuóT C²\T deÖq uóTC²\qT ¿£*Ð +{²sTT eT]jáTT n+<Te\¢
deT~Çu²VQ çÜuóT C²\T.
(ii) ç|e#áq+ dÔ«á +, m+<T¿£+fñ @ deT~Çu²VQ çÜuóT È+ jîTT¿£Ø uóÖ ¿ÃD²\T 60° +{²jîÖ n~ deTu²VQ
çÜuóT È+.
(iii) ç|e#áq+ ndÔá«+ B¿ì ç|ÔáT«<V²sÁDeÇ+&.
(iv) ºÌq ç|Ü e#áq+ dÔá«+, m+<Te\qq>± n¿£sÁDj ¡ áT d+K«\T p , sÁÖ|+ýË +{²sTT p, q \T |PsÁ d+K«\T
3 q
eT]jáTT q = 1, (<V²sÁD, 3 = 1 ).
(v) ç|e#áq+ dÔá«+, m+<Te\qq>± n¿£sD Á j¡ Tá d+K«\T p , sÁÖ|+ýË +{²sTT p, q \T |PsÁ d+K«\T eT]jáTT
q 3
q nHû~ p uó²Ð+#á<T . ý²+{ì$ |PsÁd + K«\T ¿±<T. (<V²sÁD, 2 ).
(vi) n¿£sÁDj ¡ Tá d+K« ¿±ú |PsÁ d+K« +³T+~ nHû~ ndÔ«á +, n+<Te\q n |PsÁ d+K«\T n¿£sÁDj ¡ Tá d+K«\T.
r +s
(vii) ºÌq ç|e#áq+ ndÔ«á + n eTqÅ£ Ôî*d¾q³T¢>± r eT]jáTT s \T sÂ +&T n¿£sD ¡ Tá d+K«\T nsTTÔû 2 , nHû~
Á j
Âs+&{ì eT<ó«>·\ n¿£sÁDj ¡ áT d+K«.
<V²sÁD 3 : x < 4 nsTTÔû, ¿ì+~ y{ìýË @~ È+? MT deÖ<óH\T deT]Æ+#á+&.
(i) 2x > 8 (ii) 2x < 6 (iii) 2x < 8
kÍ<óq :
(i) ç|e#áq+ Ôá|ð, m+<T¿£+fñ, <V²sÁDÅ£, x = 3 < 4, 2x > 8 d+Ôá|¾ï|s #Á <á T .
(ii) ç|e#áq+ Ôá|ð, m+<T¿£+fñ, <V²sÁDÅ£, x = 3.5 < 4 , 2x < 6 d+Ôá|¾ï|s # Á <á T .
(iii) ç|e#áq+ È+, m+<T¿£+fñ x < 4 eýÉ +³T+~.
<V²sÁD 4 : ç¿ì+~ ç|e#áH\qT ÔáÐq ¿±sÁD²\ÔÃ eT°¢ #î|Î+&, Ôá<Çs n$ ÈyîT®q ç|e#áH\T >± eÖsÁÔsTT:
(i) #áÔTá sÁTÒÛÈ+ jîTT¿£Ø ¿£s\T deÖq+>± +fñ, n~ BsÁ# é Ôá Tá sÁçd+.
(ii) çÜuóTÈ+ jîTT¿£Ø Âs+&T uóTC²\ eT<ó« _+<TeÚ\qT ¿£*| ¹sK eTÖ&e uóTÈeTTqÅ£ deÖ+ÔásÁ+>± +³T+~.
(iii) p jîTT¿£Ø n <óH Ôá¿£ |PsÁ d+K« \Å£ p ÿ¿£ ¿£sÁD¡jáT d+K«
(iv) n esÁZ dMT¿£sÁD²\T sÂ +&T ydïe eTÖý²\qT ¿£*Ð +{²sTT.

Solution :
(i) If the diagonals of a parallelogram are equal, then it is a rectangle.
(ii) A line joining the mid-points of two sides of a triangle is parallel to the third side.
(iii) p is irrational for all primes p.
(iv) All quadratic equations have at most two real roots.

Remark : There can be other ways of restating the statements above. For instance, (iii) can also
be restated as ‘ p is irrational for all positive integers p which are not a perfect square’.
EXERCISE A1.1
1. State whether the following statements are always true, always false or ambiguous. Justify
your answers.
(i) All mathematics textbooks are interesting.
(ii) The distance from the Earth to the Sun is approximately 1.5 × 108 km.
(iii) All human beings grow old.
(iv) The journey from Uttarkashi to Harsil is tiring.
(v) The woman saw an elephant through a pair of binoculars.
2. State whether the following statements are true or false. Justify your answers.
(i) All hexagons are polygons. (ii) Some polygons are pentagons.
(iii) Not all even numbers are divisible by 2. (iv) Some real numbers are irrational.
(v) Not all real numbers are rational.
3. Let a and b be real numbers such that ab ¹ 0. Then which of the following statements are
true? Justify your answers.
(i) Both a and b must be zero. (ii) Both a and b must be non-zero.
(iii) Either a or b must be non-zero.
4. Restate the following statements with appropriate conditions, so that they become true.
(i) If a2 > b2, then a > b. (ii) If x2 = y2 , then x = y.
(iii) If (x + y)2 = x2 + y2, then x = 0. (iv) The diagonals of a quadrilateral bisect each other.
A1.3 Deductive Reasoning

In Class IX, you were introduced to the idea of deductive reasoning. Here, we will
work with many more examples which will illustrate how deductive reasoning is

kÍ<óq :
(i) deÖ+ÔásÁ #áÔTá sÁTÒÛÈ+ jîTT¿£Ø ¿£s\T deÖq+>± +fñ, n~ BsÁ#é Ôá Tá sÁçd+.
(ii) çÜuóTÈ+ jîTT¿£Ø Âs+&T uóTC²\ eT<ó« _+<TeÚ\qT ¿£*| ¹sK eTÖ&e uóTÈeTTqÅ£ deÖ+ÔásÁ+>± +³T+~.
(iii) p nHû~ @<û ç|<ó q d+K« nsTTÔû p ÿ¿£ ¿£sÁD¡jáT d+K«.
(iv) n esÁZ dMT¿£sÁD²\T >·]w¼+>± Âs+&T ydïe eTÖý²\qT ¿£*Ð +{²sTT.
y«K« : |qÕ |s=Øq ç|e#áH\qT eT°¢ #î|Î &¿ì ÔásÁ eÖsZ\T +&e#áTÌ. <V²sÁDÅ£, (iii) qT $<ó+ >±
|Úq]½+#á+&. p nHû~ »KºÌÔáyîT®q esÁZ+ ¿± n <óH Ôá¿£ |PsÁ d+K« \Å£ ‘ p ’ ÿ¿£ ¿£sÁD¡jáT d+K«.
nuó²«d+ A1.1
1. ¿ì+~ ç|e#áH\T m\¢|ÚÎ&Ö dÔá«eÖ, m\¢|Ú Î&Ö ndÔá«eÖ ýñ< ndÎw¼+>± HjîÖ ýñ<Ã Ôî*jáTCñjáT+&.
MT deÖ<óH\qT deT]+#á+&.
(i)n >·DÔì á bÍsÄ«Á |Úd¿ï ±\T d¿¿ïì s£ +Á >± +{²sTT.
(ii)uóÖ$T qT+& dÖsÁT«¿ì <ÖsÁ+ dTeÖsÁT 1.5 × 108 ¿ì.MT.
(iii) eÖqeÚ\+<sÁÖ e<TÆ\eÚÔsÁT.
(iv) Ôásï Á¿±o qT+& V²]àýÙ esÁÅ£ ç|jáÖD+ n\d³dTï+~.
(v) çdÓï ÿ¿£ ÈÔá uÉH Õ Å£«\sÁ¢ <Çs @qT>·TqT #áÖd¾+~.
2. ¿ì+~ ç|e#áH\T dÔá«yîÖ, ndÔá«yîÖ |s=Øq+&. MT deÖ<óH\qT deT]+#á+&.
(i) n w&T ÒÛE\T VQuóT E\T. (ii) ¿= VQuóT E\T |+#áuTó E\T.
(iii) n d] d+K«\T 2 ÔÃ uó²Ð+#á&eÚ. (iv) ¿= yde ï d+K«\T ¿£sDÁ j ¡ Tá d+K«\T.
(v) n ydïe d+K«\T n¿£sÁD¡jáT d+K«\T ¿±eÚ.
3. a eT]jáTT b yde ï d+K«\T eT]jáTT ab ¹ 0. n|ÚÎ&T ¿ì+~ ç|e#áH\ýË @~ dÔ«á +? MT deÖ<óH\qT
deT]+#á+&.
(i) a eT]jáTT b Âs+&Ö Ôá|Î d]>± XøSq«+ nsTT +&*.
(ii) a eT]jáTT b Âs+&Ö Ôá|Îd]>± XøSHû«ÔásÁ+>± +&*. (iii) a ýñ< b Ôá|Î d]>± XøSq«+ ¿±<T.
4. ¿ì+~ ç|e#áH\ qT ÔáÐq wsÔ Á áT\ÔÃ eT°¢ #î|Î+&, Ôá<Çs n$ ÈeTeÚÔsTT.
(i) a2 > b2, nsTTÔû a > b neÚÔTá +~. (ii) x2 = y2 , nsTTÔû n|Úð&T x = y neÚÔTá +~.
(iii) (x + y)2 = x2 + y2, nsTTÔû x = 0 neÚÔTá +~.
(iv) #áÔTá sÁTÒÛÈ+ jîTT¿£Ø ¿£s\T ÿ¿£<¿=¿£{ì deT~ÇK+&q #ûdT Å£+{²sTT.
A 1.3 >·eTq ÔásØÁ +
9e ÔásÁ>·ÜýË, MTsÁT >·eTq ÔásÁØ+ ýË#áq |]#ájáT+ #ûjáT&+~ . ¿£Ø&, eTqeTT #ý² mÅ£Øe <V²sÁD\ÔÃ
eTqeTT ÈeT uó²$+#û ºÌq ç|e#áH\ qT+& rsH\qT #ûjTá &eTTýË >·eTq ÔásÁØ+ mý² |jÖî >· |&TÔáT+<Ã
$e]dT+ï ~.

used to deduce conclusions from given statements that we assume to be true. The given statements
are called ‘premises’ or ‘hypotheses’. We begin with some examples.
Example 5 : Given that Bijapur is in the state of Karnataka, and suppose Shabana lives in
Bijapur. In which state does Shabana live?
Solution : Here we have two premises:
(i) Bijapur is in the state of Karnataka (ii) Shabana lives in Bijapur
From these premises, we deduce that Shabana lives in the state of Karnataka.
Example 6 : Given that all mathematics textbooks are interesting, and suppose you are reading
a mathematics textbook. What can we conclude about the textbook you are reading?
Solution : Using the two premises (or hypotheses), we can deduce that you are reading an
interesting textbook.
Example 7 : Given that y = – 6x + 5, and suppose x = 3. What is y?
Solution : Given the two hypotheses, we get y = – 6 (3) + 5 = – 13.
Example 8 : Given that ABCD is a parallelogram, and
suppose AD = 5 cm, AB = 7 cm (see Fig. A1.1). What can
you conclude about the lengths of DC and BC?
Solution : We are given that ABCD is a parallelogram.
So, we deduce that all the properties that hold for a
parallelogram hold for ABCD. Therefore, in particular, Fig. A1.1
the property that ‘the opposite sides of a parallelogram are equal to each other’, holds. Since
we know AD = 5 cm, we can deduce that BC = 5 cm. Similarly, we deduce that DC = 7 cm.
Remark : In this example, we have seen how we will often need to find out and use properties
hidden in a given premise.
Example 9 : Given that p is irrational for all primes p, and suppose that 19423 is a prime.
What can you conclude about 19423 ?
Solution : We can conclude that 19423 is irrational.
In the examples above, you might have noticed that we do not know whether the
hypotheses are true or not. We are assuming that they are true, and then applying

ºÌq ç|e#áH\qT ‘ç|¾$Tddt’ ýñ< ‘|]¿£\Îq\T’ n+{²sÁT. eTqeTT |ÚÎ&T ¿= <V²sÁD\qT #áÖ<Ý+.
<V²sÁD 5 : ;C²|PsY ¿£s³¿£ sçw¼+ýË +~ eT]jáTT wu²H ;C²|PsÃ¢ ed¾dT Hï sÁ nqTÅ£+<+. wu²H
@ sçw+¼ ýË ed¾dT qï ~?
kÍ<óq : ¿£Ø& eTqÅ£ sÂ +&T |]¿£\Îq\T HsTT:
(i) ;C²|PsY ¿£s³¿£ sçw¼+ýË +~ (ii) wu²H ;C²|PsÃ¢ ed¾dT H ï sÁT
|]¿£\Îq\ qT+&, wu²H ¿£s³¿£ sçw¼+ýË ed¾dT ï+< eTqeTT d+ç>·V²¾ +#á>·\+.
<V²sÁD 6 : n >·DÔì á bÍsÄ«Á |Úd¿ï ±\T d¿¿ïì s£ +Á >± +{²jáT eÇ&+~ eT]jáTT MTsÁT >·DÔì á bÍsÄÁ«|Úd¿ï ±
#á<T eÚÔáTHsÁ nqTÅ£+<+. MTsÁT #á<TeÚÔáTq bÍsÄÁ«|Údï¿£+ >·T]+º eTqeTT @$T #î|Î >·\+?
kÍ<óq : Âs+&T |]¿£\Îq\qT |jîÖÐ+º, MTsÁT d¿¿ïì s£ ÁyTî q® bÍsÄ«Á |Údï¿± #á<T eÚÔáTHsÁ eTqeTT d+ç>·V²¾ +#á>\· +.
<V²sÁD 7 : y = – 6x + 5, eT]jáTT x = 3 nqTÅ£+<+. y $\Te m+Ôá?
kÍ<óq : Âs+&T |]¿£\Îq\qT {ì¼, eTqÅ£ y = – 6 (3) + 5 = – 13 edT+ï ~.
<V²sÁD 8 : ABCD ÿ¿£ deÖ+ÔásÁ #áÔTá sÁTÒÛÈ+, eT]jáTT AD = 5
d+.MT., AB = 7 d+.MT. (|³+. A.1.1 #áÖ&+&) nqTÅ£+<+. DC
eT]jáTT BC bõ&eÚ\ >·T]+º MTsÁT @$T sÆ]+#á>·\sÁT?
kÍ<óq : ABCD nHû~ ÿ¿£ deÖ+ÔásÁ #áÔTá sÁTÒÛÈ+. deÖ+ÔásÁ #áÔTá sÁTÒÛC²¿ì
e]ï+#û <ós \T ABCD ¿ì e]ïkÍïsTT. eTTK«+>± |³+. A1.1
»deÖ+ÔásÁ #áÔTá sÁÒÈÛ +ýË m<TsÂ <TsÁT uóT C²\T deÖH\T: AD = 5 d+.MT., ¿±{ì¼ BC = 5 d+.MT. n<û $<ó+>±
DC = 7 d+.MT. neÚÔTá +~.
y«K« : <V²sÁDýË, ºÌq |]¿£\ÎqýË <Ð q \¿£D ²\qT eTq+ Ôás#Á Tá >± mý² ¿£qT>=H* eT]jáTT
|jîÖÐ+#* n eTqeTT #áÖXæeTT.
<V²sÁD 9 : n ç|<óq d+K«\T p Å£ p ¿£sDÁ ¡jTá d+K«, eT]jáTT 19423 nHû~ ç|<óq d+K« nsTTÔû
19423 >·T]+º MTsÁT @$T #î|Î e#áTÌ?
kÍ<óq : 19423 nHû~ ¿£sDÁ j

¡ Tá d+K« n eTq+ sÆ]+#áe#áTÌ.
|Õ <V²sÁD\ýË, |]¿£\Îq ÈyîÖ ¿±<Ã eTqÅ£ Ôî*jáT< MTsÁT >·eT+º +&e#áTÌ. n$ ÈeT eTqeTT
}V¾²dTHï eTT , |Õ >·eTq Ô]Ø¿± e]ï+|CñdTïHeTT.

deductive reasoning. For instance, in Example 9, we haven’t checked whether 19423

is a prime or not; we assume it to be a prime for the sake of our argument.What we are trying to
emphasise in this section is that given a particular statement, how we use deductive reasoning
to arrive at a conclusion. What really matters here is that we use the correct process of reasoning,
and this process of reasoning does not depend on the trueness or falsity of the hypotheses.
However, it must also be noted that if we start with an incorrect premise (or hypothesis), we
may arrive at a wrong conclusion.
EXERCISE A1.2
1. Given that all women are mortal, and suppose that A is a woman, what can we conclude
about A?
2. Given that the product of two rational numbers is rational, and suppose a and b are rationals,
what can you conclude about ab?
3. Given that the decimal expansion of irrational numbers is non-terminating, non-recurring,
and 17 is irrational, what can we conclude about the decimal expansion of 17 ?
4. Given that y = x2 + 6 and x = – 1, what can we conclude about the value of y?

5. Given that ABCD is a parallelogram and Ð B = 80°. What can you conclude about the
other angles of the parallelogram?
6. Given that PQRS is a cyclic quadrilateral and also its diagonals bisect each other. What
can you conclude about the quadrilateral?
7. Given that p is irrational for all primes p and also suppose that 3721 is a prime. Can you
conclude that 3721 is an irrational number? Is your conclusion correct? Why or why not?
A1.4 Conjectures, Theorems, Proofs and Mathematical Reasoning

Consider the Fig. A1.2. The first circle has one
point on it, the second two points, the third
three, and so on. All possible lines connecting
the points are drawn in each case.
The lines divide the circle into mutually
exclusive regions (having no common portion).
We can count these and tabulate our results as
shown :
Fig. A1.2

ç|dT ïÔ¿ì, <V²sÁD 9 ýË, eTqeTT 19423 nHû~ ç|<ó q d+U²« ¿±< n d]#áÖ& ýñ<T . eTqeTT y<q ¿=sÁÅ£
~ ÿ¿£ ç|<ó q d+K« >± uó²$kÍïeTT. eTqeTT $uó²>·+ýË H=¿ìØ#î|Î &¿ì ç|jTá ÜdTqï ~ @$T³+fñ, ÿ¿£ ]Ýw¼
ç|e#áq+ eÇ&+~, eTqeTT eTTÐ+|ÚÅ£ se&¿ì >·eTq Ô]Ø¿£Ôqá T mý² |jÖî ÐkÍïeTT. ¿£Ø& È+>±
eTTK«yîTq® ~ @$T³+fñ, eTqeTT dsÂ qÕ Ô]Ø¿£ ç|ç¿ìjTá qT |jÖî ÐkÍïeTT eT]jáTT Ô]Ø¿£ ç|ç¿ìjTá |]¿£\Îq jîTT¿£Ø
dÔ«á + ýñ< ndÔá«+|Õ <ósÁ|& +&<T . nsTTq|Î{ì¿,¡ eTq+ Ôá|ÚÎ |]¿£\ÎqÔÃ çbÍsÁ+_ó+ºq³¢sTTÔû, eTq+ Ôá|Ú Î
sÁj Öá ¿ì se#áÌ Å£L& >·eT+#*.
nuó²«d+ A1.2
1. çdÓ\ï +<sÖÁ eTsÁD+ì #ûy¹s n eÇ&q~ eT]jáTT A ÿ¿£ çdÓï n nqTÅ£+<+, eTq+ A >·T]+º @eT
#î|Î >·\+?
2. Âs+&T n¿£sD Á j
¡ Tá d+K«\ \Ý+ ÿ¿£ n¿£sDÁ j
¡ Tá d+K« n eÇ&q~ a eT]jáTT b \T n¿£sÁDj
¡ Tá d+K«\T , MTsÁT
ab >·T]+º @$T #î|Î >·\sÁT?
3. ¿£sDÁ j
¡ Tá d+K«\ jîTT¿£Ø <Xæ+Xø sÁÖ|eTT n+ÔáeTT ¿± e]ïÔá <Xæ+XøeTT eT]jáTT 17 nHû~ ¿£sÁD¡jáT d+K«
nsTTÔû 17 jîTT¿£Ø <Xæ+Xø sÁÖ|eTT >·T]+º @$T #î|Î e#áTÌ?
4. y = x2 + 6 eT]jáTT x = – 1, nsTTq+<Tq y $\Te >·T]+º eTq+ @$T Ôû\Ìe#áTÌ?
5. ABCD ÿ¿£ deÖ+ÔásÁ #áÔTá sÁTÒÛÈeTT eT]jáTT Ð B = 80°. nsTTÔû deÖ+ÔásÁ #áÔTá sÁTÒÛÈ+ ýË $TÐ*q ¿ÃDeTT\
>·T]+º @$T #î|Î >·\sÁT?
6. PQRS ÿ¿£ #áç¿¡jáT #áÔTá sÁTÒÛÈ+ eT]jáTT < ¿£s\T ÿ¿£<¿=¿£{ì deT~ÇK+&q #ûdT Å£+{²sTT. #áÔáTsÁTÒÛÈ+
>·T]+º MTsÁT @$T #î|Î >·\sÁT?
7. n ç|<ó q d+K«\T p Å£ p ¿£sDÁ j
¡ Tá d+K« , eT]jáTT 3721 nHû~ ç|<ó q d+K« nsTTÔû 3721 >·T]+º MTsÁT
@$T #î|Î >·\sÁT? MT jîTT¿£Ø Ô]Ø¿£ ýË#áq dsÂ qÕ <ûH ? m+<TÅ£ ýñ< m+<TÅ£ ¿±<T?
A 1.4 |]¿£\Îq\T, d¾<Æ+ÔáeTT\T, sÁÖ|D\T eT]jáTT >·DìÔá Ô]Ø¿£Ôá
|³+ A1.2 qT |]o*+ºq³¢sTTÔû yîTT<{ì eÔá+ï MT< ÿ¿£
_+<TeÚ sÂ +&e eÔá+ï MT< sÂ +&T _+<TeÚ\T eTÖ&e eÔá+ï
MT< eTÖ&T _+<TeÚ\T yîTT<\>·Tq$>± ¿£\eÚ.
ç|Ü d+<sÒÁ +Û ýËqÖ n _+<TeÚ\qT ¿£\T|ÚÔáÖ
kÍ<ó«eTjûT« s¹ K\T ^jáT&q$. eÔï |sdÁ ÎsÁ e]¨Ôá
çbÍ+Ô\T (eT&`çbÍ+ÔáeTT ýñ) y{ì>± $&>=&ÔsTT
|ÚÎ&T çbÍ+Ô\qT eTqeTT ÿ¿£ |{ì¼¿ý£ Ë yûd¾ ýÉ¿ìØ+º
|³+ A 1.2
#áÖ<Ý+.

Number of points Number of regions

1 1
2 2
3 4
4 8
5
6
7
Some of you might have come up with a formula predicting the number of regions given
the number of points. From Class IX, you may remember that this intelligent guess is called a
‘conjecture’.
Suppose your conjecture is that given ‘n’ points on a circle, there are 2n – 1 mutually exclusive
regions, created by joining the points with all possible lines. This seems an extremely sensible
guess, and one can check that if n = 5, we do get 16 regions. So, having verified this formula for
5 points, are you satisfied that for any n points there are 2n – 1 regions? If so, how would you
respond, if someone asked you, how you can be sure about this for n = 25, say? To deal with
such questions, you would need a proof which shows beyond doubt that this result is true, or a
counter-example to show that this result fails for some ‘n’. Actually, if you are patient and try it
out for n = 6, you will find that there are 31 regions, and for n = 7 there are 57 regions. So, n =
6, is a counter-example to the conjecture above. This demonstrates the power of a counter-
example. You may recall that in the Class IX we discussed that to disprove a statement, it is
enough to come up with a single counter-example.
You may have noticed that we insisted on a proof regarding the number
of regions in spite of verifying the result for n = 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5. Let us consider
a few more examples. You are familiar with the following result (given in Chapter 5): 1 + 2 + 3
+ ... + n = n ( n + 1) . To establish its validity, it is not enough to verify the result for n = 1, 2, 3,
2
and so on, because there may be some ‘n’ for which this result is not true (just as in the example
above, the result failed for n = 6). What we need is a proof which establishes its truth beyond
doubt. You shall learn a proof for the same in higher classes.

_+<TeÚ\T d+K« çbÍ+Ô\ d+K«

1 1
2 2
3 4
4 8
5
6
7
MTýË ¿=+<sÁT eÔáï+ |Õ _+<TeÚ\T d+K« qT {ì¼ çbÍ+Ô\ d+K«qT n+#áH yûd dÖçÔá+Å£ ne>±V²qÅ£ eºÌ
+&e#áTÌ. 9e Ôás>Á Ü· qT+&, MTsÁT Ôî*yîqÕ }V²Hû »|]¿£\Îqµ n+{²sÁ n >·TsÁTï+#áT¿Ã+&.
ÿ¿£ eÔá+ï |Õ »nµ _+<TeÚ\T ºÌq, kÍ<ó« eTjûT« n _+<TeÚ\TqT ¿£\|&+ <Çs |sdÁ Î sÁ+ ç|Ô«û ¿£yTî q® çbÍ+Ô\T
2 HsTT nHû~ MT n+#áH nqTÅ£+<+. ~ #ý² nsÁT<îq
n–1
Õ n+#áH>± n|¾dT +ï ~ eT]jáTT n = 5, nsTTÔû, eTqÅ£
16 çbÍ+Ô\T \_ókÍïjÖî ýñ<Ã d]#áÖ&e#áTÌ. ¿±{ì¼, 5 _+<TeÚ\Å£ dÖçÔ <óM¿£]+ºq ÔásÇÔá, MTsÁT @<îHÕ
n _+<TeÚÅ£ 2n – 1 çbÍ+Ô\T HjáÖ? ný² nsTTÔû d+Ôá|¾ï #î+<s? n = 25Å£ Å£L& MTsÁT B mý² #î|Î >·\sÁT?
n³Te+{ì ç|Xø \qT m<TsÃØe{²¿ì, MTsÁT |* Ôá+ ÈeT dà+<ûV² +>± #áÖ|¾+#û sÁÖ|D ýñ< ¿= ‘n’
$\Te\qT |*Ôá+ |Õeú #áÖ|¾+#á&¿ì d]jáT>·T ç|ÔTá «<V²sÁD neds+Á . MTsÁT z|¾¿£>± ç|jTá Ü+ºq³¢sTTÔû ~
n = 6, $\TeÅ£ MTsÁT 31 çbÍ+Ô\T HjáT eT]jáTT n = 7 Å£ 57 çbÍ+Ô\T HjáT ¿£qT>=+{²sÁT. ¿±{ì¼,
n = 6 nHû~ MT |]¿£\ÎqÅ£ ç|ÔTá «<V²sÁD. 9e ÔásÁ>Ü · ýË eTqeTT #á]Ì+#áTÅ£q $wjTá + MTÅ£ >·TsÁT+ï &û +³T+~ ÿ¿£
ç|e#áq+ qT K+&+#á&¿ì, ÿ¿£Ø ç|ÔTá «<V²sÁD dï d]bþÔáT+~.
n = 1, 2, 3, 4 eT]jáTT 5 \Å£çbÍ+Ô\ d+U«qT ¿£qT>=Hû sÁÖ|D #ûjTá T³qT MTsÁT >·T]ï+#áe#áTÌ.eT]¿=
<V²sÁD\T |]o*<Ý+. ¿ì+~ |* Ôá+ MTÅ£ u²>± Ôî\TdT (n<ó«jáT+ 5ýË eÇ&+~): 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n =
n ( n + 1)
. |*
Ô sÆ]+#á&¿ì n = 1, 2, 3 Å£ d]#áÖdï d]bþ<T. (|Õ <V²sÁDýË eýÉ, n = 6 ¿Ãd+ |* Ôá+
2
$|\ yîT+® ~ ). eTqÅ£ ¿±e\d¾+~ ÿ¿£Ø d+<ûV²+ Å£L& ýñÅ£ +& < dÔ« kÍ|¾+#û<û sÁÖ|D . MTsÁT < ¿Ãd+ ÿ¿£
|<ÝÜ HûsTÁ Ì¿Ãy*, B eTqeTT |Õ Ôás>Á Ô· Tá \ýË HûsTÁ ÌÅ£+{²eTT.

Now, consider Fig. A1.3, where PQ and PR are

tangents to the circle drawn from P.
You have proved that PQ = PR (Theorem 10.2).
You were not satisfied by only drawing several such
figures, measuring the lengths of the respective
tangents, and verifying for yourselves that the result
was true in each case. Fig. A1.3
Do you remember what did the proof consist of ? It consisted of a sequence of statements
(called valid arguments), each following from the earlier statements in the proof, or from
previously proved (and known) results independent from the result to be proved, or from axioms,
or from definitions, or from the assumptions you had made. And you concluded your proof with
the statement PQ = PR, i.e., the statement you wanted to prove. This is the way any proof is
constructed.
We shall now look at some examples and theorems and analyse their proofs to help us in
getting a better understanding of how they are constructed.
We begin by using the so-called ‘direct’ or ‘deductive’ method of proof. In this method, we
make several statements. Each is based on previous statements. If each statement is logically
correct (i.e., a valid argument), it leads to a logically correct conclusion.
Example 10 : The sum of two rational numbers is a rational number.

Solution :
S.No. Statements Analysis/Comments
1. Let x and y be rational numbers. Since the result is about rationals, we start
with x and y which are rational.
p Apply the definition of rationals.

2. Let x = m , n ¹ 0 and y = ,q¹0
n q
where m, n, p and q are integers.

m p mq + np The result talks about the sum of rationals,
3. So, x + y = + =
n q nq so we look at x + y.

|ÚÎ&T, |³+. A1.3 |]>·D+ì #á+&, ¿£Ø& PQ eT]jáTT

PR \T u²V²« _+<TeÚ P qT+& eÔï¿ì ^d¾q dÎsÁô ¹sK\T.
MTsÁT PQ = PR (d¾<Æ+ÔáeTT 10.2) n sÁÖ|¾+#sÁT.

ý²+{ì$ |{²\T ^jáT&+ <Çs d++~óÔá dÎsÁô s¹ K\T bõ&eÚ\qT
¿=\e&+ , eT]jáTT |* Ô MT¹s d]#áÖdT¿= ç|Ü d+<sÒÁ +Û ýË |³+. A1.3
ç|e#áq+ dÔá«+ n Ôá|¾ï|&ýñeTT.
sÁÖ|D @$T ¿£*Ð +<Ã MTÅ£ >·TsÁT+ï <? ~ ÿ¿£ ç|e#áH\ ç¿£eÖ ¿£*Z +³T+~. (#î\T¢u²³T njûT« y<q\T
n |¾\TkÍïsÁT), eTq+ sÁÖ|¾+#áe\d¾q ç|e#áq+ >·Ô+á ýË sÁÖ|¾+#á&q (eT]jáTT Ôî*d¾q) |*Ô\ qT+& dÇÔá+çÔá
|*Ôá+ sÁÖ|¾+#á&{²¿ì, ýñ< d¾<Æ+Ô\ qT+&, ýñ< sÁÇ#áH\ qT+& ýñ< MTsÁT ¿£*Ð q n+#áH\ qT+&
kÍ~ó+ºq~ eT]jáTT MTsÁT MT sÁÖ|DqT PQ = PR nHû ç|e#áq+ÔÃ eTTÐ+#á+&. @<îHÕ sÁÖ|D ]+#á&q eÖsÁ+Z
~.
eTqeTT |ÚÎ&T ¿= <V²sÁD\T eT]jáTT d¾<Æ+Ô\qT |]o*kÍïeTT eT]jáTT y{ì sÁÖ|D \qT $Xâw¢ k¾ ÍïeTT
n$ mý² ]+#á&¦jÖî u²>± nsÁ+ #ûdT ¿Ãe&+ýË eTqÅ£ dVä jáT|&Ô sTT.
eTqeTT sÁÖ|D jîTT¿£Ø »ç|Ô«á ¿£µ ýñ< »Ô]Ø¿£µ |<ÜÆ |jÖî Ð+#á&+ <Çs çbÍsÁ+_ókÍïeTT. |<ÜÆ ýË, eTqeTT
nHû¿£ ç|e#áH\T #ûkÍïeTT. ç|Ü ÿ¿£Ø{ì eTTqT|{ì ç|e#áq+ |Õ <ósÁ|& +³T+~. ç|Ü ç|e#áq+ Ô]Ø¿£+>± dÂsÕq~
(n+fñ, #î\T¢u²³T njûT« y<q), ~ Ô]Ø¿£+>± dsÂ qÕ eTTÐ+|Ú.
<V²sÁD 10 : Âs+&T n¿£sDÁ j
¡ Tá d+K«\ yîTTÔáï+ ÿ¿£ n¿£sDÁ j
¡ Tá d+K«.
kÍ<óq :
ç¿£.d+ ç|e#áH\T $Xâw¢ D /y«K«\T
1. x eT]jáTT y \T n¿£sD
Á j
¡ Tá d+K«\T. |*Ôá+ nHû~ n¿£sÁD¡jáT d+K«\ >·TsÁT+º ¿±{ì¼
eTqeTT x, y \T n¿£sDÁ j
¡ Tá d+K«\ÔÃ çbÍsÁ+_ókÍïeTT.
m p
2. x= , n ¹ 0 eT]jáTT y = , q ¹ 0 n¿£sÁD¡jTá d+K«\ sÁÇ#áH |jÖî Ð+#á>±,
n q
nqT¿=qTeTT. ¿£Ø& m, n, p eT]jáTT q \T
|PsÁ d+K«\T.
m p mq + np
3. ¿±eÚq, x+ y = + = x + y |*Ôá+ Âs+&T n¿£sÁDj
¡ Tá d+K«\
n q nq
yîTTÔá+ï >·T]+º Ôî*jáT CñdTï+~.

4. Using the properties of integers, we see Using known properties of

that mq + np and nq are integers. integers.
5. Since n ¹ 0 and q ¹ 0, it follows that Using known properties of

nq ¹ 0. integers.
mq + np
6. Therefore, x + y = is a rational Using the definition of a
nq
number rational number.
Remark : Note that, each statement in the proof above is based on a previously established
fact, or definition.
Example 11 : Every prime number greater than 3 is of the form 6k + 1 or 6k + 5, where k is
some integer.
Solution :
S.No. Statements Analysis/Comments
1. Let p be a prime number greater than 3. Since the result has to do with a prime
number greater than 3, we start with
such a number.
2. Dividing p by 6, we find that p can be of Using Euclid’s

the form 6k, 6k + 1, 6k + 2, division lemma.
6k + 3, 6k + 4, or 6k + 5, where k is
an integer.
3. But 6k = 2(3k), 6k + 2 = 2(3k + 1), We now analyse the

6k + 4 = 2(3k + 2), remainders given that
and 6k + 3 = 3(2k + 1). So, they are p is prime.
not primes.
4. So, p is forced to be of the We arrive at this conclusion
form 6k + 1 or 6k + 5, for some having eliminated the other
integer k. options.
Remark : In the above example, we have arrived at the conclusion by eliminating different
options. This method is sometimes referred to as the Proof by Exhaustion.

4. |PsÁ d+K«\ <ós\qT |jÖî Ð+º, mq + np |PsÁ d+K« \ jîTT¿£Ø Ôî*d¾q <ós
eT]jáTT nq |PsÁ d+K«\T>± n #áÖkÍïeTT. |jÖî Ð+#á&+ .
5. n ¹ 0 eT]jáTT q ¹ 0, ¿±{ì¼ |PsÁ d+K« \ jîTT¿£Ø Ôî*d¾q <ós
nq ¹ 0. |jÖî Ð+#á&+ .
6. n+<Te\q, x + y = mq + np nHû~ n¿£sDÁ ¡jTá d+K«\ sÁÇ#áq+,

nq
n¿£sDÁ j
¡ Tá d+K« |jÖî Ð+#á&+ <Çs
>·eT¿£ : |qÕ |s=Øq sÁÖ|DýË ç|Ü ç|e#áq+ >·Ô+á ýËHû kÍ|+¾ #á&q ydïe+ ýñ< sÁÇ#áq+ <ósÁ+>± +<
>·eT+#á+&.
<V²sÁD 11 : 3 ¿£+fñ mÅ£Øe q ç|Ü ç|<óq d+K« 6k + 1 ýñ< 6k + 5 sÁÖ|+ýË +³T+~, ¿£Ø& k nHû~
@<îHÕ |PsÁd + K«.
kÍ<óq :
ç¿£.d+ ç|e#áH\T $Xâw¢ D /y«K«\T
1. p nHû~ 3 ¿£+fñ mÅ£Øe nsTTq ç|<ó q d+K« |*Ôá+ 3 ¿£+fñ mÅ£Øe ç|<ó q d+K«ÔÃ
nqT¿=qTeTT d++<ó+ ¿£*Ð q~ ¿±{ì,¼ eTq+
ný²+{ì d+K«ÔÃHû çbÍsÁ+_ókÍïeTT.
2. p 6 ÔÃ uó²Ðd,ï p nHû~ 6k, 6k + 1, 6k + 2, jáTÖ¿ì&¢ uó²>·Vä sÁ jáTeT+qT
6k + 3, 6k + 4, ýñ< 6k + 5, |jÖî Ð+#á&+ .
¿£Ø& k nHû~ |PsÁ d+K«.
3. ¿±ú 6k = 2(3k), 6k + 2 = 2(3k + 1), p ç|<ó q d+K« nsTTÔû

6k + 4 = 2(3k + 2), Xâwe TT\qT $Xâ¢wD #ûkÍïeTT.
eT]jáTT 6k + 3 = 3(2k + 1). ¿±{ì,¼ n$
ç|<óq d+K«\T ¿±eÚ.
4. ¿±{ì,¼ ¿= |PsÁ d+K«\ k ¿Ãd+ eTqeTT ÔásÁ m+|¾¿£\qT Ô=\Ð+#á&+ <Çs
p = 6k + 1 ýñ< 6k + 5, sÁÖ|+ýË +&*. sÁj
áÖ¿ì e#ÌeTT.
>·eT¿£ : |Õ <V²sÁDýË, eTqeTT $$<ó m+|¾¿£\qT Ô=\Ð+#á&+ <Çs eTTÐ+|ÚÅ£ e#ÌeTT. |<ÆÜ ¿=kÍsÁT¢
»XËwD+ <Çs sÁÖ|qµ n |¾\TkÍïsTÁ .

Theorem A1.1 (Converse of the Pythagoras

Theorem) : If in a triangle the square of the
length of one side is equal to the sum of the
squares of the other two sides, then the angle
opposite the first side is a right angle.
Proof :
Fig. A1.4
S.No. Statements Analysis

1. Let DABC satisfy the hypothesis Since we are proving a statement about
AC2 = AB2 + BC2. such a triangle, we begin by taking this.
2. Construct line BD perpendicular to This is the intuitive step we have talked
AB, such that BD = BC, and join A to D. about that we often need to take for
proving theorems.
3. By construction, DABD is a right We use the Pythagoras
triangle, and from the Pythagoras theorem, which is already
Theorem, we have AD2 = AB2 + BD2. proved.
4. By construction, BD = BC. Therefore, Logical deduction.

we have AD2 = AB2 + BC2.
5. Therefore, AC2 = AB2 + BC2 = AD2. Using assumption, and previous

statement.
6. Since AC and AD are positive, we Using known property of

have AC = AD. numbers.
7. We have just shown AC = AD. Also Using known theorem.

BC = BD by construction, and AB is
common. Therefore, by SSS,
DABC @ DABD.
8. Since DABC @ DABD, we get Logical deduction, based on

ÐABC = ÐABD, which is a right angle. previously established fact.

d¾<Æ+Ôá+ A1.1 (|<Õ ¸ >·sdÁ t d¾<Æ+Ôá+ jîTT¿£Ø $|s«Á +) : ÿ¿£

çÜuóTÈ+ýË |<Ý uóT È+ bõ&eÚ jîTT¿£Ø esÁZ+ ÔásÁ Âs+&T
uóT C²\ esZ\ yîTTÔï¿ì deÖq+ nsTTÔû, |<Ý uóT È+ m<TsÁT>±
+&û ¿ÃD+ \+ ¿ÃD+.
sÁÖ|D :
|³+. A1.4
ç¿£.d+ çee#áH\T $Xâw¢ D
1. <Ôï+Xø+ DABC ýË AC2 = AB2 + BC2. eTqeTT n³Te+{ì çÜuóT È+ >·T]+º ÿ¿£ ç|e#áq+
sÁÖ|D #ûdT qï +<Tq, eTqeTT B rdT¿Ãe&+
<Çs çbÍsÁ+_ókÍïeTT.
2. BD = BC njûT«³³T¢ BD ý+u² AB |Õ ~ eTqeTT eÖ{²¢&q dV² ÈyîTq® <X,ø ~
]+º A qT D ¿£\bÍ*. d¾<Æ+Ô\qT sÁÖ|¾+#á&¿ì eTq+ ÔásÁ#áT >±
rdT¿Ãe\d¾ +³T+~.
3. sD+ <Çs DABD ÿ¿£ \+¿ÃD çÜuóT È+ |Î{ì¿¹ sÁÖ|¾Ôyá îTq® |Õ<¸ >·sÁdt d¾<Æ+Ô eTq+.
eT]jáTT |<Õ ¸ >·sÁdt d¾<Æ+Ôá+ qT+&, eTqÅ£ |jîÖÐdTïHeTT.
AD2 = AB2 + BD2 n Ôî\TdT.
4. sD+ <Çs, BD = BC ¿±{ì,¼ eTqÅ£ >·eTq ÔásØÁ +

AD = AB + BC .
2 2 2
5. n+<Te\q AC2 = AB2 + BC2 = AD2. n+#áH yûjTá &+ eT]jáTT eTT+<T ç|e#áH
|jÖî Ð+#á&+ <Çs
6. AC eT]jáTT AD \T <óH
Ôá¿±\T d+K«\ jîTT¿£Ø Ôî*d¾q <ós |jîÖÐ+#á&+.
¿±eÚq, AC = AD.
7. eTqeTT |ð&û AC = AD n #áÖ|¾+#eTT. Ôî*d¾q d¾<Æ+Ô |jÖî Ð+#á&+ .
ný²¹> sD+ <Çs BC = BD eT]jáTT AB
eT& uóT È+ ¿±{ì¼ SSS dsÇÁ deÖqÔáÇ+ <Çs
DABC @ DABD.
8. DABC @ DABD ¿±{ì,¼ dsÇÁ deÖqÔáÇ jáTeT+ >·eTq ÔásØÁ +, >·Ô+á ýË HûsTÁ ÌÅ£q ydeï + <ósÁ+>±.
ç|¿±sÁ+ ÐABC = ÐABD ~ \+¿ÃD²¿ì deÖq+

Remark : Each of the results above has been proved by a sequence of steps, all linked together.
Their order is important. Each step in the proof follows from previous steps and earlier known
results. (Also see Theorem 6.9.)
EXERCISE A1.3
In each of the following questions, we ask you to prove a statement. List all the steps in each
proof, and give the reason for each step.
1. Prove that the sum of two consecutive odd numbers is divisible by 4.
2. Take two consecutive odd numbers. Find the sum of their squares, and then add 6 to the
result. Prove that the new number is always divisible by 8.
3. If p ³ 5 is a prime number, show that p2 + 2 is divisible by 3.
[Hint: Use Example 11].
4. Let x and y be rational numbers. Show that xy is a rational number.
5. If a and b are positive integers, then you know that a = bq + r, 0 £ r < b, where q is a whole
number. Prove that HCF (a, b) = HCF (b, r).
[Hint : Let HCF (b, r) = h. So, b = k1h and r = k2h, where k1 and k2 are coprime.]
6. A line parallel to side BC of a triangle ABC, intersects AB and AC at D and E respectively.
AD AE
Prove that = ×
DB EC
A1.5 Negation of a Statement

In this section, we discuss what it means to ‘negate’ a statement. Before we start, we would like
to introduce some notation, which will make it easy for us to understand these concepts. To
start with, let us look at a statement as a single unit, and give it a name. For example, we can
denote the statement ‘It rained in Delhi on 1 September 2005’ by p. We can also write this by
p: It rained in Delhi on 1 September 2005.
Similarly, let us write
q: All teachers are female.
r: Mike’s dog has a black tail.
s: 2 + 2 = 4.
t : Triangle ABC is equilateral.
This notation now helps us to discuss properties of statements, and also to see how we can
combine them. In the beginning we will be working with what we call ‘simple’ statements, and
will then move onto ‘compound’ statements.

>·eT¿£ : |qÕ |s=Øq ç|Ü |* Ô\T ÿ¿£<ÔÃ ÿ¿£{ì nqTd+<ó+#á&q <Xø\ ç¿£eT+ <Çs sÁÖ|¾+#á&¦sTT. y{ì
ç¿£eT+ eTTK«+. sÁÖ|D ýË ç|Ü <Xø eTTqT|{ì <X\ø T eT]jáTT eTT+<T>± Ôî*d¾q |* Ô\qT nqTd]dT+ï ~. (d¾<Æ+ÔáeTT
6.9 Å£L& #áÖ&+&.)
nuó²«d+ A 1.3
¿ì+~ ç|Ü ç|Xø ýË, ÿ¿£ ç|e#áH sÁÖ|¾+#áeT $TeT* n&T>·TÔáTHeTT. ç|Ü sÁÖ|D ýË n <X\ø C²_Ô
ÔájÖá sÁT #ûjTá +& eT]jáTT ç|Ü <XÅø £ >·\ ¿±sÁD² eÇ+&.
1. Âs+&T esÁTd uñd¾ d+K«\ yîTTÔáï+ 4 #û uó²Ð+#á&TÔáT+< sÁÖ|¾+#á+&.
2. Âs+&T esÁTd uñd¾ d+K«\qT rdT¿Ã+&. y{ì esZ\ yîTTÔï ¿£qT>=, <¿ì 6 ¿£\|>± |*
Ôá d+K« m\¢|Ú Î&Ö 8ÔÃ
uó²Ð+#á&TÔáT+< sÁÖ|¾+#á+&.
3. p ³ 5 ç|<óq d+K« nsTTÔû, p2 + 2 nHû~ 3 #û uó²Ð+#á&TÔáT+< #áÖ|+&.
[dÖ#áq: <V²sÁD 11 |jîÖÐ+#áT¿=q+&].
4. x eT]jáTT y \T n¿£sD ¡ Tá d+K«\T nsTTq xy ÿ¿£ n¿£sD
Á j Á j
¡ Tá d+K« n #áÖ|¾+#á+&.
5. a eT]jáTT b <óq |PsÁ d+K«\T, q |PsÁ d+K« eT]jáTT a = bq + r, nsTTÔû 0 £ r < b, n MTÅ£ Ôî\TdT. HCF
(a, b) = HCF (b, r) n sÁÖ|¾+#á+&.
[dÖ#áq: HCF (b, r) = h. nqT¿=q, b = k1h eT]jáTT r = k2h, ¿£Ø& k1 eT]jáTT k2 |sd Á Î sÁ ç|<ó q d+K«\T]
6. DABC ýË BC ¿ì deÖ+Ôás+Á >± ^ºq s¹ K AB, AC \qT D eT]jáTT E\ e<Ý esÁTd>± K+&dï AD =
AE
n
DB EC
sÁÖ|¾+#á+&?
A 1.5 e«Ü¹sK ç|e#áq+
$uó²>·+ýË »e«Ü¹sK ç|e#áq+µ n+fñ @$T{Ë eTqeTT #á]ÌkÍïeTT. uó²eq\T çbÍsÁ+_ó+#á&¿ì eTT+<T, M{ì
dT\uó+>± nsÁ+ #ûdT Å£Hûý² ¿=+Ôá d+C²ãeÖH |]#ájTá + #ûdT Å£+<+. ~ çbÍsÁ+_ó+#á&¿ì ÿ¿£ ç|e#áq+qT ÿ¿£
ç|eÖD+>± rdT¿= |sÁT |&<+. <V²sÁDÅ£ »»1 d|+¼ sY 2005q &ó© ¢ýË esÁü+ Å£]d¾+~µµ nHû ç|e#áq+ÔÃ
dÖº<Ý+. BHû ç¿ì+~$<ó+>± Å£L& sjáTe#áTÌ.
p: 1 d|¼+sY 2005q &ó© ý¢ Ë esÁü+ Å£]d¾+~.
n<û$<ó+>±, eTq+ ý² s<Ý+
q: bÍ<ó«jáTT\+<sÁÖ çdÓïýñ.
r: yîT¿® ù Å£¿£ØÅ£ q\¢{ì ÔÃ¿£ +~.
s: 2 + 2 = 4.
t : DABC deTu²VQ çÜuóT È+.
d+C²ãeÖq+ |ÚÎ&T ç|e#áH\ \¿£D ²\qT #á]Ì+#á&¿ì eT]jáTT #áÖ&{²¿ì Å£L& eTqÅ£ dVäjáT|&TÔáT+~
eTqeTT y{ì mý² ¿£\|e#áTÌ. çbÍsÁ+uó+ ýË eTq+ »dsÞÁ ø µ ç|e#áH\ÔÃ | #ûkÍïeTT |Õ »d+¿ìw¢ ¼ µ ç|e#áH\Å£
yîÞø<+.

Now consider the following table in which we make a new statement from each of the
given statements.
Original statement New statement
p: It rained in Delhi on ~p: It is false that it rained in Delhi

1 September 2005 on 1 September 2005.
q: All teachers are female. ~ q: It is false that all teachers are female.
r: Mike’s dog has a black tail. ~r: It is false that Mike’s dog has a black tail.
s: 2 + 2 = 4. ~s: It is false that 2 + 2 = 4.
t: Triangle ABC is equilateral. ~t: It is false that triangle ABC is equilateral.
Each new statement in the table is a negation of the corresponding old statement. That is,
~p, ~q, ~r, ~s and ~t are negations of the statements p, q, r, s and t, respectively. Here, ~p is
read as ‘not p’. The statement ~p negates the assertion that the statement p makes. Notice that
in our usual talk we would simply mean ~p as ‘It did not rain in Delhi on 1 September 2005.’
However, we need to be careful while doing so. You might think that one can obtain the negation
of a statement by simply inserting the word ‘not’ in the given statement at a suitable place.
While this works in the case of p, the difficulty comes when we have a statement that begins
with ‘all’. Consider, for example, the statement q: All teachers are female. We said the negation
of this statement is ~q: It is false that all teachers are female. This is the same as the statement
‘There are some teachers who are males.’ Now let us see what happens if we simply insert ‘not’
in q. We obtain the statement: ‘All teachers are not female’, or we can obtain the statement:
‘Not all teachers are female.’ The first statement can confuse people. It could imply (if we lay
emphasis on the word ‘All’) that all teachers are male! This is certainly not the negation of q.
However, the second statement gives the meaning of ~q, i.e., that there is at least one teacher
who is not a female. So, be careful when writing the negation of a statement!
So, how do we decide that we have the correct negation? We use the following criterion.
Let p be a statement and ~p its negation. Then ~p is false whenever p is true, and ~p is
true whenever p is false.

|ÚÎ&T ¿ì+~ |{¼¿ì £qT |]>·Dì+#á+&, BýË eTqeTT ÿ¿=Ø¿£Ø<Ôáï ç|e#áq+ qT+& ¿=Ôáï ç|e#áqeTTqT çykÍïeTT.
ydeï ç|e#áq+ ¿=Ôáï ç|e#áq+

p1: d|¼+sY 1, 2005q &ó©
ý¢ Ë esÁü+ ~p: 1 d|¼+sY 2005q &ó©
ý¢ Ë esÁü+
Å£]d¾+~. Å£]d¾+<H~û Ôá|Ú Î.
q: bÍ<ó«jáTT\+<sÁÖ çdÓïýñ. ~ q: bÍ<ó«jáTT\+<sÁÖ çdÓý
ï ñ nHû~ Ôá|ÚÎ.
r: yîT¿® ù Å£¿£ØÅ£ q\¢{ì ÔÃ¿£ +~. ~r: yîT¿® ù Å£¿£ØÅ£ q\¢{ì ÔÃ¿£ +<Hû~ Ôá|ÚÎ.
s: 2 + 2 = 4 ~s: 2 + 2 = 4 nHû~ Ôá|ÚÎ.
t: DABC deTu²VQ çÜuóT È+. ~t: DABC deTu²VQ çÜuóT È+ nHû~ Ôá|Ú Î.
|{¼¿ì £ýË ç|Ü ¿=Ôáï ç|e#áq+ d++~óÔá bÍÔá ç|e#áq+ jîTT¿£Ø e«Ü¹sK+. n+fñ, ~p, ~q, ~r, ~s eT]jáTT ~t
nHû$ esÁTd>± p, q, r, s eT]jáTT t, nHû ç|e#áq+\ jîTT¿£Ø e«Ü¹sK+. ¿£Ø&, ~p nHû~ ‘p¿±<Tµ n #á<e&TÔáT+~.
~p ç|e#áq+ p nHû ç|e#áq+ qT s¿£]dT+ï ~ . eTq kÍ<ósÁD eÖ³\ýË eTq+ ~p n+fñ »1 d|+¼ sY 2005q &ó© ý¢ Ë
esÁü+ |&ýñ<Tµ n nsÁ+ #ûdT ¿Ãe#áÌ >·eT+#á+&. nsTTÔû, ný² #ûd³|ÚÎ&T eTq+ C²ç>·Ôï>á ± +&*. ÔáÐq d\+ýË
ºÌqç|e#áq+ ýË »¿±<Tµ nHû |< #ûsÁÌ&+ <Çs meÂÂsÕH ç|e#áq+ jîTT¿£Ø e«Ü¹sK ç|e#áq+ bõ+<e#áÌ MTsÁT
nqT¿Ãe#áTÌ. ~ p, $wjTá +ýË | #ûdT qï |ÚÎ&T, eTqÅ£ »nµÔÃ çbÍsÁ+uóeTjûT« ç|e#áq+ q|ÚÎ&T Ò+~ edT+ï ~.
<V²sÁDÅ£ qnHû ç|e#áH |]>·D+ì #á+&: bÍ<ó«jáTT\+<sÖÁ çdÓýï ñ. eTqeTT ç|e#áq+ jîTT¿£Ø e«Ü¹sK ç|e#áq+
n #îbÍÎeTT ~q: bÍ<ó«jáTT\+<sÖÁ çdÓýï ñ nq~ Ôá|ÚÎ. »eT>·ysÁT ¿=+<sTÁ bÍ<ó«jáTT\T HsÁTµ nHû ç|e#áq+
Å£L& <û. |ÚÎ&T eTq+ q ýË »¿±<Tµ n #=|¾Î+ºq³¢sTTÔû @$T ÈsÁT>·TÔáT+<Ã #áÖ<Ý+. eTqeTT ç|e#áq+ qT
bõ+<TÔeTT: »n+<sTÁ bÍ<ó«jáTT\T çdÓ\ï T ¿±<Tµ ýñ< »n+<sTÁ bÍ<ó«jáTT\T çdÓ\ï T ¿±<T nqT ç|e#áq+qT bõ+<e#áTÌ.
yîTT<{ì ç|e#áq+ ç|È\qT >·+<s>Á ÃÞ²¿ì >·T] #ûdT +ï ~. ~ (eTq+ »n+<sÖÁ µ nHû |<¿ì çbÍ<óq«Ôá dï)
bÍ<ó«jáTT\+<sÁÖ eT>·y¹sq dÖº+#áe#áTÌ! ~ KºÌÔá+>± q jîTT¿£Ø e«Ü¹sK ç|e#áq+ ¿±<T. nsTTÔû, Âs+&e
ç|e#áq+ ~q ¿ì deÖq ns dT+ï ~, n+fñ dïÓ ¿± ¿£úd+ ÿ¿£ bÍ<ó«jáTT&TÅ£L& +{²&T. ¿±{ì,¼ ç|e#áq+ jîTT¿£Ø
e«Ü¹sK ç|e#áq+ çyd³|ÚÎ&T C²ç>·Ôï>á ± +&+&!
¿±{ì,¼ eTqÅ£ dÂsÕq e«Ü¹sK ç|e#áq+ +< mý² sÁsTT+#áT¿Ãy*? eTqeTT ç¿ì+~ ç|eÖD+
|jÖî ÐkÍïeTT.
p ÿ¿£ ç|e#áq+ eT]jáTT ~p < e«Ü¹sK+. n|ÚÎ&T p dÔ«á +, nsTTq|ÚÎ&ý²¢ ~p ndÔ«á +.

For example, if it is true that Mike’s dog has a black tail, then it is false that Mike’s dog
does not have a black tail. If it is false that ‘Mike’s dog has a black tail’, then it is true that
‘Mike’s dog does not have a black tail’.
Similarly, the negations for the statements s and t are:
s: 2 + 2 = 4; negation, ~s: 2 + 2 ¹ 4.
t: Triangle ABC is equilateral; negation, ~t: Triangle ABC is not equilateral.
Now, what is ~(~s)? It would be 2 + 2 = 4, which is s. And what is ~(~t)? This would be ‘the
triangle ABC is equilateral’, i.e., t. In fact, for any statement p, ~(~p)
is p.
Example 12 : State the negations for the following statements:

(i) Mike’s dog does not have a black tail.
(ii) All irrational numbers are real numbers.
(iii) 2 is irrational.
(iv) Some rational numbers are integers.
(v) Not all teachers are males.
(vi) Some horses are not brown.
(vii) There is no real number x, such that x2 = – 1.
Solution :
(i) It is false that Mike’s dog does not have a black tail, i.e., Mike’s dog has a black tail.
(ii) It is false that all irrational numbers are real numbers, i.e., some (at least one) irrational
numbers are not real numbers. One can also write this as, ‘Not all irrational numbers are
real numbers.’
(iii) It is false that 2 is irrational, i.e., 2 is not irrational.
(iv) It is false that some rational numbers are integers, i.e., no rational number is an integer.
(v) It is false that not all teachers are males, i.e., all teachers are males.
(vi) It is false that some horses are not brown, i.e., all horses are brown.
(vii) It is false that there is no real number x, such that x2 = – 1, i.e., there is at least one real
number x, such that x2 = – 1.
Remark : From the above discussion, you may arrive at the following Working Rule for
obtaining the negation of a statement :
(i) First write the statement with a ‘not’.
(ii) If there is any confusion, make suitable modification , specially in the statements involving
‘All’ or ‘Some’.

<V²sÁDÅ£, yîT®¿ù Å£¿£ØÅ£ q\¢ ÔÃ¿£ +<H~û ÈyîT®, yîT®¿ù Å£¿£ØÅ£ q\¢ ÔÃ¿£ ýñ<H û~ n<Æ+. »yîT¿® ù Å£¿£ØÅ£ q\¢ ÔÃ¿£
+~µ nHû~ n<ÆyîTÔ® ,û » yîT¿® ù Å£¿£ØÅ£ q\¢ ÔÃ¿£ ýñ<T µ nHû~ È+.
n<û$<ó+>±, ç|e#áH\T s eT]jáTT t jîTT¿£Ø e«Ü¹s¿£Ô\á T :
s: 2 + 2 = 4; e«Ü¹sK ç|e#áq+, ~s: 2 + 2 ¹ 4.
t: çÜuóT È+ ABC deTu²VQ çÜuóT È+ e«Ü¹sK+ ç|e#áq+, ~t: çÜuóTÈ+ ABC deTu²VQ çÜuóTÈ+ ¿±<T.
|ÚÎ&T, ~(~s)? n+fñ @$T{ì? ~ 2 + 2 = 4 neÚÔTá +~, n+fñ s. eT]jáTT ~(~t)n+fñ @$T{ì ? ~ çÜuóT È+
ABC »deTu²VQ çÜuóT È+µ nq>±, t. C²¿ì, @<îÕH ç|e#áq+ p ¿Ãd+, ~(~p) nHû~ »pµHû neÚÔáT+~.
<V²sÁD 12 : ¿ì+~ ç|e#áH\Å£ e«Ü¹sK ç|e#áH\qT |s=Øq+&:
(i) yîT¿® ù Å£¿£ØÅ£ q\¢{ì ÔÃ¿£ ýñ<T .
(ii) n ¿£sD Á j¡ Tá d+K«\T ydeï d+K«\T.
(iii) 2 ¿£sD Á j¡ áT d+K«.
(iv) ¿= n¿£sD Á j
¡ Tá d+K«\T |PsÁd+K«\T.
(v) bÍ<ó«jáTT\+<sÁÖ |ÚsÁTw§\T ¿±<T.
(vi) ¿= >·Tçs\T >Ã<óT eT sÁ+>·TýË+&eÚ.
(vii) x2 = – 1 njûT«$<ó+>± yde ï d+K« x ýñ<T .
kÍ<óq :
(i) yîT¿® ù Å£¿£ØÅ£ q\¢{ì ÔÃ¿£ ýñ<H ~û ndÔ«á +, n+fñ yîT¿® ù Å£¿£ØÅ£ q\T|Ú ÔÃ¿£ +~.
(ii) n ¿£sD Á j¡ Tá d+K«\T ydïe d+K«\T nHû~ ndÔ«\T n+fñ ¿= (¿£úd+ ÿ¿£) ¿£sDÁ j ¡ Tá d+K«\T ydïe d+K«\T
¿±eÚ. B »n ¿£sD Á j
¡ Tá d+K«\T ydeï d+K«\T ¿±eÚµ n Å£L& çyjáTe#áTÌ.
(iii) 2 ¿£sD Á j¡ Tá d+K« nHû~ ndÔ«á +. n+fñ 2 ¿£sDÁ j ¡ Tá d+K« ¿±<T.
(iv) ¿= n¿£sD Á j¡ áT d+K«\T |PsÁ d+K«\T nHû~ ndÔ«á +, nq>±, @ n¿£sDÁ j ¡ áT d+K« Å£L& ÿ¿£ |PsÁ d+K« ¿±<T.
(v) bÍ<ó«jáTT\+<sÁÖ |ÚsÁTw§\q~ ndÔ«á + n+fñ bÍ<ó«jáTT\+<sÁÖ |ÚsÁTw§ýñ.
(vi) ¿= >·Tçs\T >Ã<óT eT sÁ+>·TýË ýñeHû~ ndÔ«á +. n+fñ, n >·Tçs\T >Ã<óT eT sÁ+>·TýË HsTT.
(vii) x2 = – 1njûT«$<ó+>± yde ï d+K« x ýñ<H ~û ndÔá«+, x n+fñ, ¿£úd+ ÿ¿£ ydeï d+K« x nH x2 = – 1
njûT«$<ó+ >± +³T+~.
y«K« : |Õ #ásÌÁ qT+&, ç|e#áq+ jîTT¿£Ø e«Ü¹sK ç|e#áq+ qT bõ+<&+ ¿Ãd+ MTsÁT ç¿ì+~ |jÖî >·|& û dÖçÔá+Å£
#ûsTÁ ¿Ãe#áTÌ.
(i) eTT+<T>± ç|e#áq+ »¿±<TµÔÃ sjáT+&.
(ii) @<îHÕ >·+<s>Á ÃÞø+ +fñ, ç|Ô«û ¿£+>± »núµ ýñ< »¿=µÔÃ Å£L&q ç|e#áH\Å£ ÔáÐq desÁD\T #ûjTá +&.

EXERCISE A1.4
1. State the negations for the following statements :
(i) Man is mortal. (ii) Line l is parallel to line m.
(iii) This chapter has many exercises.(iv) All integers are rational numbers.
(v) Some prime numbers are odd. (vi) No student is lazy.
(vii) Some cats are not black.
(viii) There is no real number x, such that x = -1 .
(ix) 2 divides the positive integer a. (x) Integers a and b are coprime.
2. In each of the following questions, there are two statements. State if the second is the
negation of the first or not.
(i) Mumtaz is hungry. (ii) Some cats are black.
Mumtaz is not hungry. Some cats are brown.
(iii) All elephants are huge. (iv) All fire engines are red.
One elephant is not huge. All fire engines are not red.
(v) No man is a cow.
Some men are cows.
A1.6 Converse of a Statement

We now investigate the notion of the converse of a statement. For this, we need the notion of a
‘compound’ statement, that is, a statement which is a combination of one or more ‘simple’
statements. There are many ways of creating compound statements, but we will focus on those
that are created by connecting two simple statements with the use of the words ‘if’ and ‘then’.
For example, the statement ‘If it is raining, then it is difficult to go on a bicycle’, is made up of
two statements:
p: It is raining
q: It is difficult to go on a bicycle.
Using our previous notation we can say: If p, then q. We can also say ‘p implies q’, and
denote it by p Þ q.
Now, supose you have the statement ‘If the water tank is black, then it contains potable
water.’ This is of the form p Þ q, where the hypothesis is p (the water tank is black) and the
conclusion is q (the tank contains potable water). Suppose we interchange the hypothesis and
the conclusion, what do we get? We get q Þ p, i.e., if the water in the tank is potable, then the
tank must be black. This statement is called the converse of the statement p Þ q.

nuó²«d+ A1.4
1. ç¿ì+~ ç|e#áH\Å£ e«Ü¹sK ç|e#áH\qT |s=Øq+& :
(i) eTw¾ eTsÁT«ï &T. (ii) l s¹ K m ¿ì deÖ+ÔásÁ+>± +³T+~.
(iii) n<ó«jáT+ýË nHû¿£ nuó²«kÍ\T HsTT. (iv) n |PsÁ d+K«\T n¿£sÁD¡jáT d+K«\T.
(v) ¿= ç|<ó q d+K«\T uñd¾ d+K«\T. (vi) @ $<«] kþeT] ¿±<T.
(vii) ¿= |¾\T¢\T q\¢>± +&eÚ.
(viii) x = - 1 njûT«³³T¢ x, Å£ @ ydïe d+K« ýñ<T .
(ix) a nHû <óq |PsÁ d+K«qT 2 uó²ÐdT+ï ~ . (x) a eT]jáTT b |PsÁd + K«\T |sÁdÎsÁ ç|<óq d+K«\T.
2. ¿ì+~ ç|Ü ç|Xø ýË, sÂ +&T ç|e#áH\T +{²sTT. sÂ +&e~ yîTT<{ì <¿ì e«Ü¹sKeÖ ¿±< n |s=Øq+&.
(i) eTT+ÔCÙ Å£ ¿£*>± +~. (ii) ¿= |¾\T¢\T q\¢>± +{²sTT.
eTT+ÔCÙ Å£ ¿£*>± ýñ<T . ¿= |¾\T¢\T >Ã<óT eT sÁ+>·TýË +{²sTT.
(iii) n @qT>·T\T |<$ Ý . (iv) n nÐeÖ|¿£ jáT+çÔ\T msÁT|Ú sÁ+>·TýË +{²sTT.
ÿ¿£Ø @qT>·T |<~Ý ¿±<T. n nÐeÖ|¿£ jáT+çÔ\T msÁT|Ú sÁ+>·TýË +&eÚ.
(v) @eTw¾ eÚ ¿±<T.
¿=+<sTÁ |ÚsÁTw§\T eÚ\T.
A 1.6 ç|e#áq+ jîTT¿£Ø $|s«Á +

eTqeTT |ÚÎ&T ç|e#áq+ jîTT¿£Ø $|s«Á + jîTT¿£Ø uó²eqqT |]o*kÍïeTT. B ¿Ãd+, eTqÅ£ ÿ¿£ d+jáTT¿£ï ç|e#áq uó²eq
neds+Á n+fñ, ÿ¿£{ì ýñ< mÅ£Øe »dsÞÁ yø Tî q® µ ç|e#áH\ ¿£\sTT¿£ÔÃ Å£L&q ç|e#áq+. d+jáTT¿£ï ç|e#áq+ \qT
sÁÖbõ+~+#á&¿ì nHû¿£ eÖsZ\T HsTT, ¿±ú eTqeTT »»nsTTÔûµµ nHû |<+ ÔÃ ¿£\|³+ <Çs sÂ +&T dsÁÞø ç|e#áH\T
@sÁÎsÁ#û y{ì|Õ <w¾¼ kÍ]<Ý+. <V²sÁDÅ£, »esÁü+ |&Ô û n|Úð&T dÕ¿ýì Ù |Õ yîÞ&¢ø + ¿£w+¼ µ nHû~ sÂ +&T ç|e#áH\T ¿£\sTT¿£
p: esÁü+ |&T ÔÃ+~.
q: dÕ¿ìýÙ |Õ yîÞ¢&
ø + ¿£w¼+.
eTq eTTqT|{ì d+C²ãeÖH |jÖî Ð+º eTq+ ý² #î|Î e#áTÌ: p nsTTÔû, q eT]jáTT B p +|dí¢ t
2 n+{²sÁT. < p Þ q <Çs dÖº+#áe#áTÌ.
|ÚÎ&T, »y³sY {²«+¿ù q\¢>± +fñ, n~ Ô>·TúsÁT ¿£*Ð +³T+~µ nHû ç|e#áq+ +<qT¿Ã+&. ~
p Þ q, sÁÖ|+ýË +³T+~, ¿£Ø& |]¿£\Îq p (y³sY {²«+¿ù q\T|Ú sÁ+>·TýË +³T+~) eT]jáTT eTTÐ+|Ú q ({²«+¿Ã¢
Ô>·TúsÁT +³T+~). |]¿£\Îq eT]jáTT eTTÐ+|ÚqT |sÁdÎsÁ+ eÖsÌeTT nqT¿Ã+&, eTqÅ£ @$T \_ódT +ï ~? eTqÅ£
q Þ p, i({²«+¿ùýË Ô>·TúsÁT +³T+~). |]¿£\Îq eT]jáTT eTTÐ+|ÚqT |sd Á Î sÁ+ eÖsÌeTT nqT¿Ã+&, eTqÅ£ @$T
\_ódT +ï ~? eTqÅ£ q Þ p edT+ï ~, n+fñ, {²«+¿Ã¢ úsÁT çÔ>·<Ð q~, nsTTÔû n|ÚÎ&T {²«+¿ù q\¢>± +&*, B
p Þ q jîTT¿£Ø $|sÁ«+ n+{²sÁT .

In general, the converse of the statement p Þ q is q Þ p, where p and q are statements.

Note that p Þ q and q Þ p are the converses of each other.
Example 13 : Write the converses of the following statements :

(i) If Jamila is riding a bicycle, then 17 August falls on a Sunday.
(ii) If 17 August is a Sunday, then Jamila is riding a bicycle.
(iii) If Pauline is angry, then her face turns red.
(iv) If a person has a degree in education, then she is allowed to teach.
(v) If a person has a viral infection, then he runs a high temperature.
(vi) If Ahmad is in Mumbai, then he is in India.
(vii) If triangle ABC is equilateral, then all its interior angles are equal.
(viii) If x is an irrational number, then the decimal expansion of x is non-terminating non-
recurring.
(ix) If x – a is a factor of the polynomial p(x), then p(a) = 0.
Solution : Each statement above is of the form p Þ q. So, to find the converse, we first
identify p and q, and then write q Þ p.
(i) p: Jamila is riding a bicycle, and q: 17 August falls on a Sunday. Therefore, the converse is:
If 17 August falls on a Sunday, then Jamila is riding a bicycle.
(ii) This is the converse of (i). Therefore, its converse is the statement given in
(i) above.
(iii) If Pauline’s face turns red, then she is angry.
(iv) If a person is allowed to teach, then she has a degree in education.
(v) If a person runs a high temperature, then he has a viral infection.
(vi) If Ahmad is in India, then he is in Mumbai.
(vii) If all the interior angles of triangle ABC are equal, then it is equilateral.
(viii) If the decimal expansion of x is non-terminating non-recurring, then x is an irrational
number.
(ix) If p(a) = 0, then x – a is a factor of the polynomial p(x).
Notice that we have simply written the converse of each of the statements above without
worrying if they are true or false. For example, consider the following statement: If Ahmad is in
Mumbai, then he is in India. This statement is true. Now consider the converse: If Ahmad is in
India, then he is in Mumbai. This need not be true always – he could be in any other part of India.

kÍ<ósÁD+>±, ç|e#áq+ p Þ q jîTT¿£Ø $|sÁ«+ , q Þ p ¿£Ø& p eT]jáTT q\T ç|e#áH\T. p Þ q eT]jáTT

q Þ p ÿ¿£<¿=¿£{ì $|s«Á + n >·eT+#á+&.
<V²sÁD 13 : ¿ì+~ ç|e#áH\Å£ $|sÁ« ç|e#áH\qT çyjáT+&:
(i) ÈMTý² d¿Õ ý ì Ù q&T|ÚÔáT+fñ, >·dT ¼ 17 ~ysÁ+ edT+ï ~.
(ii) >·d¼t 17 ~ysÁ+ nsTTÔû, ÈMTý² d¿Õ ý ì Ù q&T|ÚÔÃ+~.
(iii) bå*H ¿Ã|+>± +fñ, yîT eTTK+ mçsÁ>± eÖsÁTÔáT+~.
(iv) ÿ¿£ e«¿ìï $<«ýË &ç^ ¿£*Ð +fñ, yîT uË~ó+#á&¿ì nqTeTÜ+#á&TÔáT+~.
(v) ÿ¿£ e«¿ì¿ï ì yîsÕ ý
Á Ù HîÎ¿Û H£ +fñ, n|ÚÎ&T nÔáqT n~ó¿£ yû& ¿£*Ð +{²&T.
(vi) nV²eT< eTT+uÉý Õ Ë +fñ, nÔáqT uó²sÁÔ<á ûXø+ýË +{²&T.
(vii) ABC çÜuóT È+ deTu²VQ çÜuóT È+ nsTTÔû, < n+ÔásÁ ¿ÃD²\ú deÖq+>± +{²sTT.
(viii) x ¿£sDÁ j
¡ Tá d+K« nsTTÔû, x jîTT¿£Ø <Xæ+Xø $dsï D Á n+Ôá+ ¿± e]ïÔ+á ¿± <Xæ+Xø+.
(ix) VQ|~ p(x) jîTT¿£Ø ¿±sÁD²¿£+ x – a nsTTÔû, p(a)R0 n>·TqT.
kÍ<óq : |Õ ç|Ü ç|e#áq+ p Þ q sÁÖ|+ýË +³T+~. ¿±{ì¼ $|s«Á ç|e#áq+ ¿£qT>=q&¿ì, eTq+ yîTT<³ p eT]jáTT
q \qT >·T]ï+º |Õ q Þ p n çykÍïeTT.
(i) p: ÈMTý² d¿Õ ý ì Ù q&T|ÚÔÃ+~ eT]jáTT, q: 17 >·dT ¼ ~ysÁ+ edT+ï ~. ¿±{ì¼ $|s«Á ç|e#áq+ @$T³+fñ: >·dT ¼
17 ~ysÁ+ ed,ï ÈMTý² dÕ¿ìýÙ Ô=Å£ØÔÃ+~.
(ii) ~ (i). jîTT¿£Ø $|sÁ«+ . B jîTT¿£Ø $|s«Á + |q Õ (i) ýË ç|e#áq+>± eÇ &q~.
(iii) bå*H eTTK+ mçsÁ>± eÖ]Ôû, yîT ¿Ã|+>± +³T+~.
(iv) ÿ¿£ e«¿ì¿ï ì uË~ó+#á&¿ì nqTeTÜd,ï yîTÅ£ $<«ýË &ç^ +³T+~.
(v) ÿ¿£ e«¿ìï n~ó¿£ yû& ¿£*Ð +fñ, nÔá¿ì yîsÕ ÁýÙ HîÎÛ¿£H +³T+~.
(vi) nV²eT< uó²sÁÔ< á Xû ø+ýË +fñ, nÔáqT eTT+uÉÕ ýË +{²&T.
(vii) ABC çÜuóT È+ jîTT¿£Ø n n+ÔásÔ ZÁ á ¿ÃD²\T deÖq+>± +fñ, n~ deTu²VQ çÜuóT È+>± +³T+~.
(viii) x jîTT¿£Ø <Xæ+Xø $dïsÁD n+Ôá+ ¿± e]ïÔ+á ¿± <Xæ+Xø+ nsTTÔû, x nHû~ ÿ¿£ ¿£sÁDj ¡ Tá d+K«.
(ix) p(a) = 0 nsTTÔû, x – a nHû~ VQ|~ p(x) jîTT¿£Ø ¿±sÁD²+¿£+.
|Õq |s=Øq ç|Ü ç|e#áH\T dÔ«á eÖ ýñ< ndÔ«á eÖ n ýËº+#áÅ£ +& eTqeTT y{ì $|s«\qT çyd¾q³T¢
>·eT+#á+&. <V²sÁDÅ£, ç|e#áq+ qT >·eT+#á+& : nV²eT< eTT+uÉýÕ Ë +fñ, nÔáqT uó²sÁÔ<á Xû +ø ýË +{²&T.
ç|e#áq+ dÔ«á +. |ÚÎ&T $|s«Á ç|e#áq+qT >·eT+#á+&: nV²eT< uó²sÁÔ<á Xû ø+ýË +fñ, nÔáqT eTT+uÉÕýË +{²&T.
~ m\¢|Ú Î&Ö dÔá«+ ¿±qedsÁ+ ýñ<T - nÔáqT uó²sÁÔá<ûXø+ýË eT¹s ÔásÁ çbÍ+Ôá+ýË nsTTH +&e#áTÌ.

In mathematics, especially in geometry, you will come across many situations where
p Þ q is true, and you will have to decide if the converse, i.e., q Þ p, is also true.
Example 14 : State the converses of the following statements. In each case, also decide
whether the converse is true or false.
(i) If n is an even integer, then 2n + 1 is an odd integer.
(ii) If the decimal expansion of a real number is terminating, then the number is rational.
(iii) If a transversal intersects two parallel lines, then each pair of corresponding angles is
equal.
(iv) If each pair of opposite sides of a quadrilateral is equal, then the quadrilateral is
a parallelogram.
(v) If two triangles are congruent, then their corresponding angles are equal.
Solution :
(i) The converse is ‘If 2n + 1 is an odd integer, then n is an even integer.’ This is a false
statement (for example, 15 = 2(7) + 1, and 7 is odd).
(ii) ‘If a real number is rational, then its decimal expansion is terminating’, is the converse.
This is a false statement, because a rational number can also have a non-terminating recurring
decimal expansion.
(iii) The converse is ‘If a transversal intersects two lines in such a way that each pair of
corresponding angles are equal, then the two lines are parallel.’ We have assumed, by Axiom
6.4 of your Class IX textbook, that this statement is true.
(iv) ‘If a quadrilateral is a parallelogram, then each pair of its opposite sides is equal’, is the
converse. This is true (Theorem 8.1, Class IX).
(v) ‘If the corresponding angles in two triangles are equal, then they are congruent’, is the
converse. This statement is false. We leave it to you to find suitable counter-examples.
EXERCISE A1.5
1. Write the converses of the following statements.
(i) If it is hot in Tokyo, then Sharan sweats a lot.
(ii) If Shalini is hungry, then her stomach grumbles.
(iii) If Jaswant has a scholarship, then she can get a degree.
(iv) If a plant has flowers, then it is alive.
(v) If an animal is a cat, then it has a tail.

>·DÔì +á ýË, eTTK«+>± C²«$TÜýË, MTsÁT p Þ q dÔá«eTjûT« d+<sÒÛ\qT m<Ts=Ø+{²sÁT eT]jáTT MTsÁT $|sÁ«
ç|e#áq+ n+fñ q Þ p, Å£L& dÔ«á eÖ ¿±< n sÁsTT+#áT¿Ãy*.
<V²sÁD 14 : ¿ì+~ ç|e#áH\ $|s«Á ç|e#áq+\qT |s=Øq+&. ç|Ü d+<sÒÁ +Û ýË, $|s«Á ç|e#áq+ dÔ«á eÖ ndÔá«eÖ
n sÁs TT+#áT.
(i) n nHû~ d] |PsÁ d+K« nsTTÔû, 2n + 1 nHû~ uñd¾ |PsÁ d+K« neÚÔáT+~.
(ii) ydïe d+K« jîTT¿£Ø <Xæ+Xø $dsï DÁ n+ÔáeTsTTÔû, d+K« n¿£sDÁ j
¡ Tá d+K«.
(iii) ÿ¿£ ÜsÁ«ç¹>K Âs+&T deÖ+ÔásÁ ¹sK\qT K+&dï , @sÁÎ&û d< Xø« ¿ÃD²\ ÈÔá\T deÖq+>± +{²sTT.
(iv) #áÔTá sÁTÒÛÈ+ jîTT¿£Ø m<TsÂ <TsÁT uóT C²\ ÈÔá\T deÖq+>± +fñ, #áÔTá sÁTÒÛÈ+ ÿ¿£ deÖ+ÔásÁ #áÔTá sÁTÒÛÈ+ neÚÔáT+~.
(v) Âs+&T çÜuóT C²\T dsÇÁ deÖq+>± +fñ, y{ì nqTsÁÖ| ¿ÃD²\T deÖq+>± +{²sTT.
kÍ<óq :
(i) $|s«Á ç|e#áq+: 2n + 1 uñd¾ |PsÁ d+K« nsTTÔû, n nHû~ d] |PsÁ d+K« neÚÔáT+~. ~ ÿ¿£ ndÔá«
ç|e#áq+. (<V²sÁDÅ£, 15 = 2(7) + 1, eT]jáTT 7 uñd¾ d+K«)
(ii) $|s«Á ç|e#áq+: »yde ï d+K« n¿£sD Á j
¡ Tá + nsTTÔû , < <Xæ+Xø $dsï D
Á n+ÔáeTòÔáT+~. ~ ndÔ«á ç|e#áq+,
m+<T¿£+fñ n¿£sD Á j¡ Tá d+K« n+Ôá+ ¿± e]ïÔá <Xæ+Xø+ Å£L& neÚÔáT+~.
(iii) $|s«Á ç|e#áq+: »» ÜsÁ«ç¹>K sÂ +&T s¹ K\qT, d< Xø« ¿ÃD²\ ÈÔá\T deÖq+>± +&û $<ó+ >± K+&d,ï sÂ +&T s¹ K\T
deÖ+ÔásÁ+ s¹ K\Tµµ MT 9e Ôás>Á Ü· bÍsÄ«Á |Úd¿ï +£ ýË dÓÇ¿£Ôá+ 6.4 <Çs dÔ«á eT dÓÇ¿£]+#á&q~.
(iv) $|s«Á ç|e#áq+: » ÿ¿£ #áÔTá sÁTÒÛÈ+ deÖ+ÔásÁ #áÔTá sÁTÒÛÈ+ nsTTÔû, < m<TsÂ <TsÁT uóTC²\ ÈÔá\T deÖq+>±
+{²sTTµ. ~ dÔá«+. (9e Ôás>Á Ü· d¾<Æ+ÔáeTT 8.1)
(v) $|s«Á ç|e#áq+: »Âs+&T çÜuóT C²\ýË d< Xø« ¿ÃD²\T deÖq+>± +fñ, çÜuóT C²\T dsÇÁ deÖH\Tµ.~
ndÔá«+. B sÁÖ|¾+#á{²¿ì |jÖî Ð+#û ç|ÔTá «<V²sÁDqT ¿£qT>=qT³qT MT¹¿ e~*dTïHeTT.
nuó²«d+ A1.5
1. ¿ì+~ ç|e#áH\ $|s«\qT çyjáT+&.
(i) {Ë¿Ã«ýË yû&> ± +fñ, XøsDÁ ¿Y ì mÅ£Øe>± #îeT³\T |&Ô sTT.
(ii) cÍ* ¿£*ÔÃ +fñ, yîT ¿£&T|Ú eT+&TÔáT+~.
(iii) ÈXøÇ+ÔYÅ£ kÍØ\sYw|¾ t +fñ, yîT &ç^ bõ+<>·\sÁT.
(iv) ÿ¿£ yîTT¿£ØýË |ÚeÚÇ\T +fñ, n~ dJe+>± +³T+~.
(v) |¾*¢ ÿ¿£ È+ÔáTeÚ nsTTÔû, <¿ì ÔÃ¿£ +³T+~.

2. Write the converses of the following statements. Also, decide in each case whether the
converse is true or false.
(i) If triangle ABC is isosceles, then its base angles are equal.
(ii) If an integer is odd, then its square is an odd integer.
(iii) If x2 = 1, then x = 1.
(iv) If ABCD is a parallelogram, then AC and BD bisect each other.
(v) If a, b and c, are whole numbers, then a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c.
(vi) If x and y are two odd numbers, then x + y is an even number.
(vii) If vertices of a parallelogram lie on a circle, then it is a rectangle.
A1.7 Proof by Contradiction

So far, in all our examples, we used direct arguments to establish the truth of the results. We
now explore ‘indirect’ arguments, in particular, a very powerful tool in mathematics known as
‘proof by contradiction’. We have already used this method in Chapter 1 to establish the
irrationality of several numbers and also in other chapters to prove some theorems. Here, we
do several more examples to illustrate the idea.
Before we proceed, let us explain what a contradiction is. In mathematics, a contradiction
occurs when we get a statement p such that p is true and ~p, its negation, is also true. For
example,
a
p: x = , where a and b are coprime.
b
q: 2 divides both ‘a’ and ‘b’.
If we assume that p is true and also manage to show that q is true, then we have arrived at a
contradiction, because q implies that the negation of p is true. If you remember, this is exactly
what happened when we tried to prove that 2 is irrational (see Chapter 1).
How does proof by contradiction work? Let us see this through a specific example.
Suppose we are given the following :
All women are mortal. A is a woman. Prove that A is mortal.
Even though this is a rather easy example, let us see how we can prove this by
contradiction.
l Let us assume that we want to establish the truth of a statement p (here we want to show
that p : ‘A is mortal’ is true).

2. ¿ì+~ ç|e#áH\ $|s«\qT çyjáT+&. ný²¹>, ç|Ü d+<sÒÁ +Û ýËqÖ $|s«Á + dÔ«á eÖ, ndÔá«eÖ n sÁs TT+#á+&.
(i) ABC çÜuóTÈ+ deT~Çu²VQ nsTTÔû, < uóT C²\T deÖq+>± +{²sTT.
(ii) ÿ¿£ |PsÁ d+K« uñd¾ nsTTÔû, < esÁ+Z Å£L& uñd¾ |PsÁ d+K« neÚÔáT+~.
(iii) x2 = 1 nsTTÔû, x = 1.
(iv) ABCD deÖ+ÔásÁ #áÔTá sÁTÒÛÈ+ nsTTÔû, AC eT]jáTT BD\T ÿ¿£<¿=¿£{ì $uó kÍïsTT.
(v) a, b eT]jáTT c |Ps+¿±\T nsTTÔû, a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c.
(vi) x eT]jáTT y sÂ +&T uñd¾ d+K«\T nsTTÔû, x + y nHû~ d] d+K«.
(vii) deÖ+ÔásÁ #áÔáTsÁTÒÛÈ+ jîTT¿£Ø osü\T eÔáï+ MT< +fñ, n~ BsÁ# é Ôá áTsÁçd+ neÚÔáT+~.
A 1.7 $sÁT<Ô á <Çs sÁÖ|D
|Î{ìesÁÅ£ , eTq n <V²sÁD\ýË, dÔ«á eTT n sÁÖ|¾+#á&¿ì eTqeTT ç|Ô«á ¿£ |<ÜÆ |jÖî Ð+º |* Ô\T
s{²¼eTT. eTqeTT |ÚÎ&T »|sÃ¿£µ y<q\qT nHûÇw¾kÍïeTT, ç|Ô«û ¿ì+º, » $sÁT<ÔÆ á <Çs sÁÖ|D+ »#ý² Xø¿eïì +ÔáyTî q®
>·DÔì á kÍ<óq + n+{²sÁT. eTqeTT |Î{ì¿¹ |<ÜÆ n<ó«jáT+ 1ýË ¿£sDÁ j ¡ Tá d+K«\ sÁÖ|DýË |jÖî Ð+#eTT
eT]jáTT ÔásÁ n<ó«jáÖ\ýË Å£L& d¾<Æ+Ô\qT sÁÖ|¾+#á&¿ì |<ÜÆ |jÖî Ð+#eTT. ¿£Ø& uó²eqqT
$e]+#á&¿ì eT] <V²sÁD\T |]o*<ÝeTT.
eTqeTT ¿=qkÍ¹> eTT+<T, $sÁT<Æ+ n+fñ @$T{Ë #áÖ<Ý+. >·DÔì Xá æçd+ï ýË, p nHû~ dÔ«á + eT]jáTT ~p <
e«Ü¹sK ç|e#áq+ Å£L& dÔ«á +. ç¿ì+~ <V²sÁD qT |]o*dï ,
a
p: x = , ¿£Ø& a, b \T |sÁdÎsÁ ç|<óq d+K«\T.
b
q: ‘a’ eT]jáTT ‘b’\qT 2 uó²ÐdT+ï ~.
eTq+ p dÔ«á eT uó²$dï q Å£L& dÔ«á eT sÁÖ|¾+#á>*· ÐÔû eTqeTT $sÁT<ÔÆ Åá £ #ûsTÁ Å£+{²eTT. m+<T¿£+fñ p
jîTT¿£Ø e«Ü¹sK ç|e#áq+ dÔ«á eT q dÖºdT+ï ~. eTqeTT 2 ¿£sDÁ j ¡ Tá d+K« n sÁÖ|¾+#á&¿ì ç|jTá Ü+ºq|ÚÎ&T <û
È]Ð+~ n >·TsÁTïÅ£ Ôî#áTÌ¿Ã+& (n<ó«jáT+ 1 |]o*+#á+&)
$sÁT<ÔÆ á <Çs sÁÖ|D mý² | #ûdT +ï ~? B ÿ¿£ ]Ýw¼ <V²sÁD <Çs #áÖ<Ý+:
eTqÅ£ ç¿ì+~ y{ì #ÌsÁ nqTÅ£+<+ :
çdÓ\ï +<sÖÁ eTsÁD+ì #ûy¹s. A ÿ¿£ çdÓ.ï A çdÓï eTsÁDì+#û~ n sÁÖ|¾+#á+&.
~ #ý² dT\uóq <V²sÁD nsTTq|Î{ì¿¡, $sÁT<ÔÆ á <Çs B mý² sÁÖ|¾+#áe#ÃÌ #áÖ<Ý+.
l eTq+ p nHû ç|e#áq+ jîTT¿£Ø dÔ« kÍ|+¾ #\qTÅ£+³THeT nqTÅ£+<+ (¿£Ø& eTq+ p : ‘A çdÓï »eTsÁD+ì #û~µ
dÔ«á + n sÁÖ|¾+#\qTÅ£+³THeTT).

l So, we begin by assuming that the statement is not true, that is, we assume that the negation
of p is true (i.e., A is not mortal).
l We then proceed to carry out a series of logical deductions based on the truth of the
negation of p. (Since A is not mortal, we have a counter-example to the statement ‘All
women are mortal.’ Hence, it is false that all women are mortal.)
l If this leads to a contradiction, then the contradiction arises because of our faulty assumption
that p is not true. (We have a contradiction, since we have shown that the statement ‘All
women are mortal’ and its negation, ‘Not all women are mortal’ is true at the same time.
This contradiction arose, because we assumed that A is not mortal.)
l Therefore, our assumption is wrong, i.e., p has to be true. (So, A is mortal.)
Let us now look at examples from mathematics.
Example 15 : The product of a non-zero rational number and an irrational number is irrational.
Solution :
Statements Analysis/Comment
We will use proof by contradiction. Let r be a non-
zero rational number and x be an irrational number.
m
Let r = , where m, n are integers and m ¹ 0,
n
n ¹ 0. We need to prove that rx is irrational.
Assume rx is rational. Here, we are assuming the

negation of the statement that
we need to prove.
p
Then rx = , q ¹ 0, where p and q are integers. This follow from the previous
q
statement and the definition of a
rational number.
p
Rearranging the equation rx = , q ¹ 0, and
q
m p np
using the fact that r = , we get x = = .
n rq mq

l ¿±{ì,¼ eTqeTT ç|e#áq+ dÔ«á + ¿±< uó²$+#á&+ <Çs çbÍsÁ+_ókÍïeTT, n+fñ, eTqeTT p jîTT¿£Ø $ýËeT+
dÔ«á eT uó²$kÍïeTT. (n+fñ, A çdÓï eTsÁDì+#û~ ¿±<T).
l eTqeTT dÔ«á + <ósÁ+>± >·DÔì á Ô]Ø¿£ çXâDì ¿=qkÍÐ+#á&¿ì eTT+<TÅ£ yîÞ²ïeTT p jîTT¿£Ø $ýËeT+. ( A
eTÔáT«s\T ¿±<T ¿±{ì,¼ eTqÅ£ ç|ÔTá «<V²sÁD »çdÓ\ï +<sÁÖ eTsÁD+ì #ûy¹s.µ n+<T#ûÔ,á çdÓï\+<sÖÁ eTsÁD+ì #ûy¹s
nHû~ ndÔ«á +)
l eTq Ôá|ÚÎ uó²eq ¿±sÁD+>± ç|e#áq+ $sÁT<ÔÆ Åá £ <]rdï, p dÔ«á + ¿±< #î|Î e#áTÌ. (»çdÓ\ï +<sÖÁ eTsÁD+ì #ûysÁTµ
nHû ç|¿£³q eT]jáTT < e«Ü¹sK ç|e#áq+, »n+<sÁÖ çdÓï\T eTsÁDì+#ûysÁT ¿±<Tµ n<û deTjáT+ýË dÔá«+.
$sÁT<ÆÔá eTqeTT }V¾²+ºq e«Ü¹sK uó²eq A eTsÁD+ì #ûysÁT ¿±<T qT+& eºÌq~.
l ¿±{ì,¼ eTq uó²eq Ôá|Ú Î, n+fñ p dÔ«á yîT® +&*. (¿±{ì,¼ A çdÓï eTsÁD+ì #ûysÁT.)
|ÚÎ&T >·DÔì +á qT+& <V²sÁD\qT #áÖ<Ý+.
<V²sÁD 15 : XøSHû«ÔásÁ n¿£sÁD¡jáT eT]jáTT ¿£sDÁ ¡jáT d+K«\ \Ý+ ¿£sÁD¡jáT d+K« n #áÖ|+&.
kÍ<óq :
ç|e#áH\T $Xâw¢ D /y«U²«+#á&+
eTqeTT »$sÁT<ÔÆ á <Çs sÁÖ|DµqT m+#áTÅ£HeTT. r nHû~
m
XøSHû«ÔásÁ n¿£sÁD¡jáT d+K«, x nHû~ ¿£sÁD¡jáT d+K«. r = n
nqT ¿=qTeTT, ¿£Ø& m, n\T |PsÁd + K«\T eT]jáTT m ¹ 0,
n ¹ 0. eTqeTT rx nHû~ ¿£sÁD¡jáT d+K« n sÁÖ|¾+#*.
rx n¿£sD
Á j
¡ Tá d+K« nqT¿=qTeTT. ¿£Ø& ç|e#áqeTT jîTT¿£Ø $ýËeÖ
sÁÖ|¾+#* n eTqeTT
uó²$dTHï eTT.
p
rx = nqT ¿=qTeTT ¿£Ø& p, q Î Z eT]jáTT q ¹ 0. ~ eTTqT|{ì ç|e#áqeTT eT]jáTT n¿£sDÁ j
¡ Tá d+K«
q
sÁÇ#áq+qT nqTd]dT+ï ~.
m p
r= nqT C² |jîÖÐ+º, rx = , q ¹ 0 qT +~.
n q
p np
x= = qT s&ÔeTT.
rq mq

Since np and mq are integers and mq ¹ 0, Using properties of integers,

x is a rational number. and definition of a rational
number.
This is a contradiction, because we have shown x This is what we were looking
to be rational, but by our hypothesis, we have x for — a contradiction.
is irrational.
The contradiction has arisen because of the faulty Logical deduction.
assumption that rx is rational. Therefore, rx
is irrational.
We now prove Example 11, but this time using proof by contradiction. The proof is given
below:
Let us assume that the statement is note true. As we saw earlier, this is the
starting point for an argument using
‘proof by contradiction’.
So we suppose that there exists a prime number This is the negation of the
p > 3, which is not of the form 6n + 1 or 6n + 5, statement in the result.
where n is a whole number.
Using Euclid’s division lemma on division by 6, Using earlier proved results.
and using the fact that p is not of the form 6n + 1
or 6n + 5, we get p = 6n or 6n + 2 or 6n + 3
or 6n + 4.
Therefore, p is divisible by either 2 or 3. Logical deduction.
So, p is not a prime. Logical deduction.
This is a contradiction, because by our hypothesis Precisely what we want!
p is prime.
The contradiction has arisen, because we assumed
that there exists a prime number p > 3 which is
not of the form 6n + 1 or 6n + 5.
Hence, every prime number greater than 3 is of the We reach the conclusion.
form 6n + 1 or 6n + 5.

np eT]jáTT mq |PsÁd + K«\T eT]jáTT mq ¹ 0, |PsÁ d+K«\T <ós \T, n¿£sDÁ j

¡ Tá
¿±{ì¼ x nHû~ n¿£sDÁ j
¡ Tá d+K«. d+K« sÁÇ#áq+ qT+&.
<Ôï+Xø+ ç|¿±sÁ+ x ¿£sDÁ j

¡ Tá d+K« ¿± eTqeTT ~ eTqeTT yîÔTá Å£ÔáTq~ -
x n¿£sDÁ j
¡ Tá d+K« n sÁÖ|¾+#eTT. ÿ¿£ $sÁT<+Æ .
~ $sÁT<Ý+.
rx n¿£sÁD¡jáT nHû Ôá|ÚÎ }V² ¿±sÁD+>± $sÁT<ÔÆ á Å£ >·eTq Ô]Ø¿£+.
<] rd¾+~. n+<Te\q, rx ¿£sDÁ j ¡ Tá d+K«.
eTqeTT |ÚÎ&T <V²sÁD 11 sÁÖ|¾kÍïeTT, ¿±ú kÍ] $sÁT<ÔÝ á <Çs sÁÖ|DqT qT |jÖî ÐdTHï eTT.
sÁÖ|D ç¿ì+< eÇ&+~:
ç|e#áq+ ÈyûTq nqTÅ£+<+. eTq+ +ÔáÅ£ eTT+<T #áÖd¾q³T¢>±,
~ »$sÁT<ÔÆ á <Çs sÁÖ|Dµ Å£
çbÍsÁ+uó+ .
p > 3 ç|<óq d+K« nsTTÔû, n~ 6n + 1 ýñ< 6n + 5, ~ |*Ôá ç|e#áq+ jîTT¿£Ø $|sÁ«+.
sÁÖ|+ýË +&<T , ¿£Ø&
n nHû~ |Ps+¿£+
jáTÖ¿ì&¢ jîTT¿£Ø uó²>±VäsÁ jáTeÖ |jÖî Ð+º p qT eTT+<T>± sÁÖ|¾+#á&q |* Ô\qT
6 #û uó²Ðdï , eTqÅ£ Ôî*d¾q uó²eq qT+& 6n + 1 ýñ< |jÖî Ð+#á&+ .
6n + 5 sÁÖ|+ýË +&<T eT]jáTT p = 6n ýñ< 6n + 2
ýñ< 6n + 3 ýñ< 6n + 4.
¿±{ì,¼ p nHû~ 2 ýñ< 3 #û uó²Ð+#á&TÔáT+~. >·eTq Ô]Ø¿£+.
¿±{ì,¼ p nHû~ ç|<ó q d+K« ¿±<T. >·eTq Ô]Ø¿£+.
~ ÿ¿£ $sÁT<+Æ , m+<T¿£+fñ <Ôï+Xø+ ç|¿±sÁ+ <Çs KºÌÔá+>± eTqÅ£ ¿±e\d¾q~!
p ÿ¿£ ç|<óqd+K«
$sÁT<ÆÔá @sÁÎ&+~, m+<T¿£+fñ 6n + 1 ýñ< 6n + 5
sÁÖ|+ýË ýñ ç|<ó q d+K« p > 3 +< eTqeTT
nqTÅ£HeTT.
n+<Te\¢, 3 ¿£+fñ mÅ£Øe q ç|Ü ç|<óq d+K« 6n + 1 eTqeTT kÍs+XøeTTqT #ûsÁTÅ£HeTT.
ýñ< 6n + 5 sÁÖ|+ýË +³T+~.

Remark : The example of the proof above shows you, yet again, that there can be several ways
of proving a result.
Theorem A1.2 : Out of all the line segments, drawn from a point to points of a line not
passing through the point, the smallest is the perpendicular to the line.
Proof :
Fig. A1.5
Let XY be the given line, P a point not lying on XY Since we have to prove that
and PM, PA1, PA2, . . . etc., be the line segments out of all PM, PA1, PA2, . . .
drawn from P to the points of the line XY, out of etc., the smallest is perpendi-
which PM is the smallest (see Fig. A1.5). cular to XY, we start by
taking these line segments.
Let PM be not perpendicular to XY This is the negation of the
statement to be proved by
contradiction.
Draw a perpendicular PN on the line XY, shown We often need
by dotted lines in Fig. A1.5. constructions to prove our
results.
PN is the smallest of all the line segments PM, Side of right triangle is less
PA1, PA2, . . . etc., which means PN < PM. than the hypotenuse and
known property of numbers.
This contradicts our hypothesis that PM is the Precisely what we want!
smallest of all such line segments.
Therefore, the line segment PM is perpendicular We reach the conclusion.
to XY.

y«K« : |qÕ q <V²sÁD jîTT¿£Ø sÁÖ|DqT |* Ô#áÖd¾q ÔásTÁ yÔá ç|e#áH sÁÖ|¾+#á&¿ì nHû¿£
|<ÔÝ Tá \T ¿£\eÚ n Ôî\TdT+ï ~.
d¾<Æ+Ôá+ A1.2 : s¹ K MT< ýñ ÿ¿£ _+<TeÚ qT+& s¹ K MT< qTq _+<TeÚ\Å£ ^º n ¹sU² K+&\ýË, ºq~
¹sKÅ£ \++>± +³T+~.
sÁÖ|D :
|³+ A 1.5
XY nHû~ ÿ¿£ s¹ K, P _+<TeÚ XY ¹sK|Õ ýñ _+<TeÚ eTqeTT P _+<TeÚ qT+& XY s¹ KÅ£
PM, PA1, PA2, . . . yîTT<ýq
ÕÉ $, P _+<TeÚ qT+& ^ºq PM, PA1, PA2, . . . yîTT<ýÉÕq
XY, s¹ K|Õ ^ºq s¹ U² K+&\T n+<TýË PM s¹ U² K+&\ýË PM nÜ ºq~ XY ¿ì
nHû~ nÜºq s¹ U²K+&+ (|³+.A1.5). \++>± +³T+~.
PM nHû~ XY Å£ \++>± ýñ<T nqT¿=qTeTT. ~ $sÁT<ÔÆ á <Çs sÁÖ|¾+#áe\d¾q

ç|e#áq+ jîTT¿£Ø $ýËeT+
XY s¹ K|Õ \++ PN ^jáT+&, ~ |³+.n1.5 ýË eTq |* Ô\qT sÁÖ|¾+#áT¿Ãe&¿ì

_+<TeÚ\T <Çs #áÖ|&+~. eTqÅ£ Ôás#Á Tá >± sD²\T neds+Á .
PM, PA1, PA2, . . . yîTT<ýÕq

É s¹ U² K+&\ýË PN nÜ ºq \+¿ÃD çÜuóT È+ýË ÿ¿£ uóT ÈeTT
¹sU²K+&+ ¿±eÚq PN < PM. ¿£H ºq~. ~ $sÁT<ÔÆ á
n³Te+{ì n s¹ U² K+&\ýË ýË PM ºq~ nHû eTq KºÌÔá+>± eTqÅ£ ¿±e\d¾q~!

<Ôï+XøeTTqÅ£ ~ $sÁT<+Æ >± +~.
¿±{ì,¼ PM s¹ U² K+&+ XY ¿ì \++>± +³T+~. eTqeTT kÍs+XøeTTqT #ûsÁTÅ£HeTT.

EXERCISE A1.6
1. Suppose a + b = c + d, and a < c. Use proof by contradiction to show b > d.
2. Let r be a rational number and x be an irrational number. Use proof by contradiction to
show that r + x is an irrational number.
3. Use proof by contradiction to prove that if for an integer a, a2 is even, then so is a.
[Hint : Assume a is not even, that is, it is of the form 2n + 1, for some integer n, and then
proceed.]
4. Use proof by contradiction to prove that if for an integer a, a2 is divisible by 3, then a is
divisible by 3.
5. Use proof by contradiction to show that there is no value of n for which 6n ends with the
digit zero.
6. Prove by contradiction that two distinct lines in a plane cannot intersect in more than one
point.
A1.8 Summary
In this Appendix, you have studied the following points :
1. Different ingredients of a proof and other related concepts learnt in Class IX.
2. The negation of a statement.
3. The converse of a statement.
4. Proof by contradiction.

nuó²«d+ A1.6
1. a + b = c + d, eT]jáTT a < c nqTÅ£+<+. b > d n #áÖ|¾+#á&¿ì $sÁT<Ô
Æ á <Çs sÁÖ|DqT #ûjTá +&.
2. r nHû~ ¿£sD ¡ Tá d+K« eT]jáTT x n¿£sÁD¡jáT d+K«. r + x n¿£sD
Á j Á j
¡ Tá d+K« n #áÖ|¾+#á&¿ì $sÁT<ÔÆ á <Çs
sÁÖ|DqT #ûjTá +&.
3. ç|Ü |PsÁd+K« a Å£ a2 d]d+K« neÚÔáT+< #áÖ|¾+#á& ¿ì $sÁT<ÆÔá <Çs sÁÖ|DqT #ûjáT +&.
[dÖ#áq : a d]d+K« ¿±<T n nqTÅ£+<+, n+fñ n |PsÁd + K«\T n Å£ ~ 2n + 1, sÁÖ|+ýË +~, |Õ
¿=qkÍ>·+&.]
4. |PsÁd + K« a Å£ a2 nHû~ 3 #û uó²Ð+#á&Ô,û a nHû~ 3 #û uó²Ð+#á&TÔáT+~ n #áÖ|¾+#á&¿ì $sÁT<ÆÔá <Çs
sÁÖ|DqT #ûjTá +&.
5. 6n dTHÔÃ eTTÐd n $\Te ýñ<T n #áÖ|¾+#á&¿ì $sÁT<Ô Æ á <Çs sÁÖ|DqT #ûjTá +&.
6. ÿ¿£ Ôá\eTTýË sÂ +&T $_óq s¹ K\T ÿ¿£{ì ¿£+fñ mÅ£Øe _+<TeÚ\ýË ¿£\ee $sÁT<ÔÆ á <Çs sÁÖ|DqT
#ûjTá +&.
A 1.8 kÍs+Xø+
nqT+<ó+ ýË, MTsÁT ç¿ì+~ n+Xæ\qT n<ó«jáTq+ #ûkÍsÁT :
1. 9e ÔásÁ>·ÜýË HûsÁTÌÅ£q sÁÖ|DýË <Xø\T eT]jáTT ÔásÁ d++~óÔá uó²eq\T.
2. ÿ¿£ ç|e#áqeTT jîTT¿£Ø $ýËeTeTT.
3. ÿ¿£ ç|e#áqeTT jîTT¿£Ø $|sÁ«eTT.
4. $sÁT<Ô
Æ á <Çs sÁÖ|D.

268 Answers/ Hints
APPENDIX 1
ANSWERS/ HINTS
EXERCISE 1.1
1. (i) 22 × 5 × 7 (ii) 22 × 3 × 13 (iii) 32 × 52 × 17
(iv) 5 × 7 × 11 × 13 (v) 17 × 19 × 23
2. (i) LCM = 182; HCF = 13(ii) LCM = 23460; HCF = 2 (iii) LCM = 3024; HCF = 6
3. (i) LCM = 420; HCF = 3 (ii) LCM = 11339; HCF = 1 (iii) LCM = 1800; HCF = 1
4. 22338 7. 36 minutes
EXERCISE 2.1
1. (i) No zeroes (ii) 1 (iii) 3 (iv) 2 (v) 4 (vi) 3
EXERCISE 2.2
1 1 1 3
1. (i) –2, 4 (ii) , (iii) - ,
2 2 3 2
4
(iv) –2, 0 (v) - 15, 15 (vi) –1,
3
2. (i) 4x2 – x – 4 (ii) 3x 2 - 3 2 x + 1 (iii) x2 + 5
(iv) x2 – x + 1 (v) 4x2 + x + 1 (vi) x2 – 4x + 1
EXERCISE 3.1
1. (i) Required pair of linear equations is
x + y = 10; x – y = 4, where x is the number of girls and y is the number of boys.
To solve graphically draw the graphs of these equations on the same axes on graph
paper.
Girls = 7, Boys = 3.

deÖ<óH\T/ dÖ#áq\T 269
APPENDIX 1
deÖ<óH\T / dÖ#áq\T
nuó²«d+ 1.1
1. (i) 22 × 5 × 7 (ii) 22 × 3 × 13 (iii) 32 × 52 × 17
(iv) 5 × 7 × 11 × 13 (v) 17 × 19 × 23
2. (i) ¿£.kÍ.>·T= 182; >·.kÍ.uó²=13 (ii) ¿£.kÍ.>·T= 23460; >·.kÍ.uó² = 2 (iii) ¿£.kÍ.>·T= 3024; >·.kÍ.uó²= 6
3. (i) ¿£.kÍ.>·T= 420; >·.kÍ.uó²= 3 (ii) ¿£.kÍ.>·T= 11339; >·.kÍ.uó² = 1 (iii) ¿£.kÍ.>·T= 1800; >·.kÍ.uó² = 1
4. 22338 7. 36 $TcÍ\T
nuó²«d+ 2.1
1. (i) XøSH«\T ýñeÚ (ii) 1 (iii) 3 (iv) 2 (v) 4 (vi) 3
nuó²«d+ 2.2
1 1 1 3
1. (i) –2, 4 (ii) , (iii) - ,
2 2 3 2
4
(iv) –2, 0 (v) - 15, 15 (vi) –1,
3
2. (i) 4x2 – x – 4 (ii) 3x 2 - 3 2 x + 1 (iii) x2 + 5
(iv) x2 – x + 1 (v) 4x2 + x + 1 (vi) x2 – 4x + 1
nuó²«d+ 3.1
1. (i) ¿±e\d¾q s¹ FjáT dMT¿£sD
Á ²\ ÈÔá
x + y = 10; x – y = 4, ¿£Ø& x nHû~ u²*¿£\ d+K« eT]jáTT y nHû~ nu²ÒsTT\ d+K«.
dMT¿£sÁD²\ ç>±|t \qT, ç>±|t |{ì¼¿£\qT kÍ~ó+#áT³Å£ ç>±|t |Õ ÿ¹¿ n¿±\|Õ ^jáÖ*
u²*¿£\ d+K« = 7, u²\TsÁ d+K« = 3.

270 Answers/ Hints
(ii) Required pair of linear equations is

5x + 7y = 50; 7x + 5y = 46, where x and y represent the cost (in `) of a pencil and of a
pen respectively.
To solve graphically, draw the graphs of these equations on the same axes on graph
paper.
Cost of one pencil = ` 3, Cost of one pen = ` 5
2. (i) Intersect at a point (ii) Coincident (iii) Parallel
3. (i) Consistent (ii) Inconsistent (iii) Consistent
(iv) Consistent (v) Consistent
4. (i) Consistent (ii) Inconsistent (iii) Consistent (iv) Inconsistent
The solution of (i) above, is given by y = 5 – x, where x can take any value, i.e., there are
infinitely many solutions.
The solution of (iii) above is x = 2, y = 2, i.e., unique solution.
5. Length = 20 m and breadth = 16 m.
6. One possible answer for the three parts:
(i) 3x + 2y – 7 = 0 (ii) 2x + 3y – 12 = 0 (iii) 4x + 6y – 16 = 0
7. Vertices of the triangle are (–1, 0), (4, 0) and (2, 3).
EXERCISE 3.2
1. (i) x = 9, y = 5 (ii) s = 9, t = 6 (iii) y = 3x – 3,
where x can take any value, i.e., infinitely many solutions.
(iv) x = 2, y = 3 (v) x = 0, y = 0 (vi) x = 2, y = 3
2. x = –2, y = 5; m = –1
3. (i) x – y = 26, x = 3y, where x and y are two numbers (x > y); x = 39, y = 13.
(ii) x – y = 18, x + y = 180, where x and y are the measures of the two angles in degrees;
x = 99, y = 81.
(iii) 7x + 6y = 3800, 3x + 5y = 1750, where x and y are the costs (in `) of one bat and one
ball respectively; x = 500, y = 50.
(iv) x + 10y = 105, x + 15y = 155, where x is the fixed charge (in `) and y is the charge (in
` per km); x =5, y = 10; ` 255.
(v) 11x – 9y + 4 = 0, 6x – 5y + 3 = 0, where x and y are numerator and denominator of the
7
fraction; ( x = 7, y = 9).
9
(vi) x – 3y – 10 = 0, x – 7y + 30 = 0, where x and y are the ages in years of Jacob and his
son; x = 40, y = 10.

(ii) ¿±e\d¾q ÈÔá s¹ FjáT dMT¿£sD

Á ²\T
5x + 7y = 50; 7x + 5y = 46, ¿£Ø& x -|àýÙ yî\, y - ¿£\+ yî\qT dÖº+#áe#áTÌ. ç>±|t <Çs
kÍ~ó+#áT³Å£, dMT¿£sÁD²\ ç>±|t\qT ÿ¹¿ n¿±\|Õ ^jáT+&.
|àýÙ ¹s³T = ` 3, |qT ¹s³T = ` 5
2. (i) ÿ¿£ _+<TeÚ e<Ý K+&+#áTÅ£+{²sTT. (ii) @¿¡u$ ó +#áTqT (iii) deÖ+Ôás\T
3. (i) d+>·Ôe á TT\T (ii) nd+>·Ôe á TT\T (iii) d+>·Ôe
á TT\T
(iv) d+>·Ôe á TT\T (v) d+>·Ôe á TT\T
4. (i) d+>·Ôe á TT\T (ii) nd+>·Ôeá TT\T (iii) d+>·Ôeá TT\T (iv) nd+>·Ôeá TT\T
|Õq q (i) jîTT¿£Ø kÍ<óq y = 5 – x, <Çs eÇ&+~, ¿£Ø& x @<îHÕ $\Te¿±e#áTÌ, nq>±,nq+ÔáyTî q®
kÍ<óq\T e#áTÌqT.
|Õ (iii) jîTT¿£Ø kÍ<óq x = 2, y = 2, nq>±, @Â¿¿Õ £ kÍ<óq .
5. bõ&eÚ = 20 MT eT]jáTT yî&\TÎ = 16 MT.
6. eTÖ&T uó²>±\Å£ kÍ<ó« eTjûT« ÿ¿£ deÖ<óq+:
(i) 3x + 2y – 7 = 0 (ii) 2x + 3y – 12 = 0 (iii) 4x + 6y – 16 = 0
7. çÜuóT È+ jîTT¿£Ø osü\T (–1, 0), (4, 0) eT]jáTT (2, 3).
nuó²«d+ 3.2
1. (i) x = 9, y = 5 (ii) s = 9, t = 6 (iii) y = 3x – 3,
¿£Ø& x Å£ nq+Ôá $\Te\T rdT¿Ãe#áTÌ, ¿£qT¿£ kÍ<óq\T nq+Ôá+.
(iv) x = 2, y = 3 (v) x = 0, y = 0 (vi) x = 2, y = 3
2. x = –2, y = 5; m = –1
3. (i) x – y = 26, x = 3y, ¿£Ø& x eT]jáTT y \T Âs+&T d+K«\T (x > y); x = 39, y = 13.
(ii) x – y = 18, x + y = 180, ¿£Ø& x eT]jáTT y nHû$ sÂ +&Ö &ç^\ýË ¿ÃD²\ ¿=\Ôá\T; x = 99, y = 81.
(iii) 7x + 6y = 3800, 3x + 5y = 1750, ¿£Ø& x eT]jáTT y nHû$ esÁTd>± ÿ¿£ u²«³T yî\, ÿ¿£ +Ü
jîTT¿£Ø yî\ (` ýË); x = 500, y = 50.
(iv) x + 10y = 105, x + 15y = 155, ¿£Ø& x nHû~ d¾ÝsÁ sÁyD² KsÁTÌ ( `ýË) eT]jáTT y nHû~ ¿ì.MT. Å£
sÁyD² KsÁTÌ\T (¿ì.MT. ¿ì ` \ýË); x =5, y = 10; ` 255.
7
(v) 11x – 9y + 4 = 0, 6x – 5y + 3 = 0, ¿£Ø& x eT]jáTT y nHû$ _óq+ jîTT¿£Ø \e+, VäsÁ+ ( x = 7, y = 9).
9
(vi) x – 3y – 10 = 0, x – 7y + 30 = 0, ¿£Ø& x eT]jáTT y nHû$ C²¿£uÙ, nÔá Å£eÖsÁT&T jîTT¿£Ø ejáTdTà\T

(d+eÔáàsýË¢); x = 40, y = 10.

272 Answers/ Hints
EXERCISE 3.3
19 6 9 5
1. (i) x = 5
, y= 5
(ii) x = 2, y = 1 (iii) x = , y= -
13 13
(iv) x = 2, y = –3
2. (i) x – y + 2 = 0, 2x – y – 1 = 0, where x and y are the numerator and denominator of the
3
fraction; ×
5
(ii) x – 3y + 10 = 0, x – 2y – 10 = 0, where x and y are the ages (in years) of Nuri and Sonu
respectively. Age of Nuri (x) = 50, Age of Sonu (y) = 20.
(iii) x + y = 9, 8x – y = 0, where x and y are respectively the tens and units digits of the
number; 18.
(iv) x + 2y = 40, x + y = 25, where x and y are respectively the number of ` 50 and ` 100
notes; x = 10, y = 15.
(v) x + 4y = 27, x + 2y = 21, where x is the fixed charge (in `) and y is the additional
charge (in `) per day; x = 15, y = 3.
EXERCISE 4.1
1. (i) Yes (ii) Yes (iii) No (iv) Yes
(v) Yes (vi) No (vii) No (viii) Yes
2. (i) 2x2 + x – 528 = 0, where x is breadth (in metres) of the plot.
(ii) x2 + x – 306 = 0, where x is the smaller integer.
(iii) x2 + 32x – 273 = 0, where x (in years) is the present age of Rohan.
(iv) u2 – 8u – 1280 = 0, where u (in km/h) is the speed of the train.
EXERCISE 4.2
3 5 ,
1. (i) – 2, 5 (ii) – 2, (iii) - - 2
2 2
1, 1 1 , 1
(iv) (v)
4 4 10 10
2. (i) 9, 36 (ii) 25, 30

3. Numbers are 13 and 14. 4. Positive integers are 13 and 14.
5. 5 cm and 12 cm 6. Number of articles = 6, Cost of each article = ` 15

nuó²«d+ 3.3
19 6 9 5
1. (i) x = 5
, y= 5
(ii) x = 2, y = 1 (iii) x = , y= -
13 13
(iv) x = 2, y = –3
3
2. (i) x – y + 2 = 0, 2x – y – 1 = 0, ¿£Ø& x eT]jáTT y nHû$ _óq+ jîTT¿£Ø \e+, VäsÁ+ \T ×
5
(ii) x – 3y + 10 = 0, x – 2y – 10 = 0, ¿£Ø& x eT]jáTT y nHû~ esÁTd>± qÖ] eT]jáTT kþqÖ jîTT¿£Ø

ejáTdTà\T (d+eÔáàsýË¢) qÖ] ejáTdTà (x) = 50, kþqÖ ejáTdTà (y) = 20.
(iii) x + y = 9, 8x – y = 0, ¿£Ø& x eT]jáTT y \T esÁTd>± |<T \T eT]jáTT kÍq $\Te\T n+Â¿; 18.
(iv) x + 2y = 40, x + y = 25, ¿£Ø& x eT]jáTT y \T esÁTd>± ` 50 eT]jáTT ` 100 HÃ{Ùà; x = 10, y = 15.
(v) x + 4y = 27, x + 2y = 21, ¿£Ø& x nHû~ d¾sÁ KsÁTÌ (`\ýË) eT]jáTT y nHû~ n<q|Ú KsÁTÌ ( ` \ýË)
sÃEÅ£; x = 15, y = 3.
nuó²«d+ 4.1
1. (i) neÚqT (ii)
neÚqT (iii) ¿±<T (iv) neÚqT
(v) neÚqT (vi) ¿±<T (vii) ¿±<T (viii) neÚqT
2. (i) 2x2 + x – 528 = 0, ¿£Ø& x nHû~ d\eTT jîTT¿£Ø yî&\TÎ (MT³sÁ¢ýË).
(ii) x2 + x – 306 = 0, ¿£Ø& x nHû~ ºq |Ps+¿£+.
(iii) x2 + 32x – 273 = 0, ¿£Ø& x nHû~ (d+eÔáàsýË¢) sÃV²H jîTT¿£Ø ç|dTïÔá ejáTdTà.
(iv) u2 – 8u – 1280 = 0, ¿£Ø& u nHû~ (¿ì.MT/>·+ ýË) ÂsÕ\T yû>+· .
nuó²«d+ 4.2
3 5 ,
1. (i) – 2, 5 (ii) – 2, (iii) - - 2
2 2
1, 1 1 , 1
(iv) (v)
4 4 10 10
2. (i) 9, 36 (ii) 25, 30

3. d+K«\T 13 eT]jáTT 14. 4. <óq |PsÁ d+K«\T 13 eT]jáTT 14.
5. 5d+.MT eT]jáTT 12d+.MT 6. edTeï Ú\ d+K« = 6, ç|Ü edTeï Ú K¯<T = ` 15

274 Answers/ Hints
EXERCISE 4.3
2 , 2 3± 3
1. (i) Real roots do not exist (ii) Equal roots; (iii) Distinct roots;
3 3 2
2. (i) k = ± 2 6 (ii) k = 6
3. Yes. 40 m, 20 m 4. No 5. Yes. 20 m, 20 m
EXERCISE 5.1
1. (i) Yes. 15, 23, 31, . . . forms an AP as each succeeding term is obtained by adding 8 in its
preceding term.
2
3V , æ 3 ö
(ii) No. Volumes are V, ç ÷ V, L (iii) Yes. 150, 200, 250, . . . form an AP.
4 è4ø
2 3
æ 8 ö, æ 8 ö , æ 8 ö ,
(iv) No. Amounts are 10000 ç1 + ÷ 10000 ç1 + ÷ 10000 ç1 + ÷ L
è 100 ø è 100 ø è 100 ø
2. (i) 10, 20, 30, 40 (ii) – 2, – 2, – 2, – 2 (iii) 4, 1, – 2, – 5
1 1
(iv) –1, - , 0, (v) – 1.25, – 1. 50, – 1.75, – 2.0
2 2
3. (i) a = 3, d = – 2 (ii) a = – 5, d = 4
1, 4
(iii) a= d = (iv) a = 0.6, d = 1.1
3 3
1 9
4. (i) No (ii) Yes. d = ; 4, , 5
2 2
(iii) Yes. d = – 2; – 9.2, –11.2, – 13.2 (iv) Yes. d = 4; 6, 10, 14

(v) Yes. d = 2 ; 3 + 4 2, 3 + 5 2, 3 + 6 2 (vi) No
1 1 1
(vii) Yes. d = – 4; – 16, – 20, – 24 (viii) Yes. d = 0; - , - , -
2 2 2
(ix) No (x) Yes. d = a; 5a, 6a, 7a
(xi) No (xii) Yes. d = 2; 50 , 72 , 98
(xiii)No (xiv) No (xv) Yes. d = 24; 97, 121, 145

EXERCISE 5.2
1. (i) an = 28 (ii) d = 2 (iii) a = 46 (iv) n = 10 (v) an = 3.5

nuó²«d+ 4.3
2 , 2 3± 3
1. (i) ydeï eTÖý²\T ýñeÚ (ii) deÖq eTÖý²\T; (iii) $_óq eTÖý²\T;
3 3 2
2. (i) k = ± 2 6 (ii) k = 6
3. neÚqT. 40 MT, 20 MT 4. kÍ<ó« + ¿±<T 5. neÚqT. 20 MT, 20 MT
nuó²«d+ 5.1
1. (i) neÚqT. 15, 23, 31, . . . AP çXâ&ýË eTT+<T |<+Å£8 ¿£*|¾q ÔásÇÔá d+U²« |<+ e#áTÌqT.
2
3V , æ 3 ö
(ii) ¿±<T |T q |T q |]eÖD²\ $\Te\ d+K« V, ç ÷ V, L
4 è4ø
(iii) neÚqT. 150, 200, 250, . . . AP çXâ&>± >± @sÁÎ&TÔáT+~.
2 3
æ 8 ö, æ 8 ö , æ 8 ö ,
(iv) ¿±<T, yîTTÔáï+ kõeTT esÁTd>± 10000 ç1 + ÷ 10000 ç1 + ÷ 10000 ç1 + ÷ L
è 100 ø è 100 ø è 100 ø
2. (i) 10, 20, 30, 40 (ii) – 2, – 2, – 2, – 2 (iii) 4, 1, – 2, – 5

1 1
(iv) –1, - , 0, (v) – 1.25, – 1. 50, – 1.75, – 2.0
2 2
3. (i) a = 3, d = – 2 (ii) a = – 5, d = 4
1, 4
(iii) a= d = (iv) a = 0.6, d = 1.1
3 3
4. (i) ¿±<T (ii) neÚqT. d = 12 ; 4, 92 , 5

(iii) neÚqT. d = – 2; – 9.2, –11.2, – 13.2 (iv) neÚqT. d = 4; 6, 10, 14
(v) neÚqT. d = 2 ; 3 + 4 2, 3 + 5 2, 3 + 6 2 (vi) ¿±<T
(vii) neÚqT. d = – 4; – 16, – 20, – 24 (viii) neÚqT. d = 0; - 12 , - 12 , - 12
(ix) ¿±<T (x) neÚqT. d = a; 5a, 6a, 7a
(xi) ¿±<T (xii) neÚqT. d = 2; 50 , 72 , 98
(xiii) ¿±<T (xiv) ¿±<T (xv) neÚqT. d = 24; 97, 121, 145
nuó²«d+ 5.2
1. (i) an = 28 (ii) d = 2 (iii) a = 46 (iv) n = 10 (v) an = 3.5

276 Answers/ Hints
2. (i) C (ii) B
3. (i) 14 (ii) 18 , 8 (iii) 6 12 , 8
(iv) –2 , 0 , 2 , 4 (v) 53 , 23 , 8 , –7
4. 16th term 5. (i) 34 (ii) 27
6. No 7. 178 8. 64
9. 5th term 10. 1 11. 65th term
12. 100 13. 128 14. 60
15. 13 16. 4, 10, 16, 22, . . .
17. 20th term from the last term is 158.
18. –13, –8, –3 19. 11th year 20. 10
EXERCISE 5.3
33
1. (i) 245 (ii) –180 (iii) 5505 (iv)
20
1
2. (i) 1046 (ii) 286 (iii) – 8930
2
7,
3. (i) n = 16, Sn = 440 (ii) d = S13 = 273 (iii) a = 4, S12 = 246
3
35 , 85
(iv) d = –1, a10 = 8 (v) a = - a9 = (vi) n = 5, an = 34
3 3
54
(vii) n = 6, d = 5
(viii) n = 7, a = – 8 (ix) d = 6
(x) a = 4
n
4. 12. By putting a = 9, d = 8, S = 636 in the formula S = [2a + (n - 1) d ], we get a quadratic
2
53
equation 4n2 + 5n – 636 = 0. On solving, we get n = - , 12 . Out of these two roots only
4
one root 12 is admissible.
8
5. n = 16, d = 3
6. n = 38, S = 6973 7. Sum = 1661
8. S51 = 5610 9. n2 10. (i) S15 = 525 (ii) S15 = – 465

2. (i) C (ii) B
3. (i) 14 (ii) 18 , 8 (iii) 6 12 , 8
(iv) –2 , 0 , 2 , 4 (v) 53 , 23 , 8 , –7
4. 16 e |<+ 5. (i) 34 (ii) 27
6. No 7. 178 8. 64
9. 5 e |<+ 10. 1 11. 65 e |<+
12. 100 13. 128 14. 60
15. 13 16. 4, 10, 16, 22, . . .
17. ºe] |<+ qT+& 20 e |<+158.
18. –13, –8, –3 19. 11e d+eÔáàsÁ+ 20. 10
nuó²«d+ 5.3
33
1. (i) 245 (ii) –180 (iii) 5505 (iv)
20
1
2. (i) 1046 (ii) 286 (iii) – 8930
2
7,
3. (i) n = 16, Sn = 440 (ii) d = S13 = 273 (iii) a = 4, S12 = 246
3
35 , 85
(iv) d = –1, a10 = 8 (v) a = - a9 = (vi) n = 5, an = 34
3 3
54
(vii) n = 6, d = 5
(viii) n = 7, a = – 8 (ix) d = 6
(x) a = 4
n
4. 12. a = 9, d = 8, S = 636 \qT dÖçÔá+ S = [2 a + (n - 1) d ] ýË ç|Ü¿¹ | +¾ #á>± \_ó+#áT esÁZ dMT¿£sD
Á +
2
53
4n2 + 5n – 636 = 0. B kÍ~ó+#á>± kÍ<óq
n = - , 12 . \_ódT +ï ~. sÂ +&T eTÖý²ýË¢ ÿ¿£ eTÖ\+ 12
4
eÖçÔáyTû yîÖ<jÖî >·«yîTq® ~.
8
5. n = 16, d = 3
6. n = 38, S = 6973 7. yîTTÔáï+ = 1661
8. S51 = 5610 9. n2 10. (i) S15 = 525 (ii) S15 = – 465

278 Answers/ Hints
11. S1 = 3, S2 = 4; a2 = S2 – S1 = 1; S3 = 3, a3 = S3 – S2 = –1,
a10 = S10 – S9 = – 15; an = Sn – Sn – 1 = 5 – 2n.
12. 4920 13. 960 14. 625 15. ` 27750
16. Values of the prizes (in `) are 160, 140, 120, 100, 80, 60, 40.
17. 234 18. 143 cm
19. 16 rows, 5 logs are placed in the top row. By putting S = 200, a = 20, d = –1 in the formula
n
S= [2a + (n - 1) d ], we get, 41n – n2 = 400. On solving, n = 16, 25. Therefore, the number
2
of rows is either 16 or 25. a25 = a + 24 d = – 4
i.e., number of logs in 25th row is – 4 which is not possible. Therefore n = 25 is not
possible. For n = 16, a16 = 5. Therefore, there are 16 rows and 5 logs placed in the top
row.
20. 370 m
EXERCISE 5.4 (Optional)*
1. 32nd term 2. S16 = 20, 76 3. 385 cm
4. 35 5. 750 m3
EXERCISE 6.1
1. (i) Similar (ii) Similar (iii) Equilateral
(iv) Equal, Proportional 3. No
EXERCISE 6.2
1. (i) 2 cm (ii) 2.4 cm
2. (i) No (ii) Yes (iiii) Yes
9. Through O, draw a line parallel to DC, intersecting AD and BC at E and F respectively.
EXERCISE 6.3
1. (i) Yes. AAA, D ABC ~ D PQR (ii) Yes. SSS, D ABC ~ D QRP
(iii) No (iv) Yes. SAS, D MNL ~ D QPR
(v) No (vi) Yes. AA, D DEF ~ D PQR
2. 55°, 55°, 55°
14. Produce AD to a point E such that AD = DE and produce PM to a point N such that
PM = MN. Join EC and NR.
15. 42 m

11. S1 = 3, S2 = 4; a2 = S2 – S1 = 1; S3 = 3, a3 = S3 – S2 = –1,
a10 = S10 – S9 = – 15; an = Sn – Sn – 1 = 5 – 2n.
12. 4920 13. 960 14. 625 15. ` 27750
16. VQeTÔáT\ $\Te\T (`ýË) 160, 140, 120, 100, 80, 60, 40.
17. 234 18. 143 d+.MT
19. 16 esÁTd\T, 5 #î¿£Ø yîTT<TÝ\qT |Õ esÁTdýË +ºHsÁT. S = 200, a = 20, d = –1 \qT dÖçÔá+
n
S= ýË ç|Ü¿¹ | +¾ #á>± eTqÅ£ 41n – n2 = 400 \_ódT +ï ~. kÍ<óq ýË, n = 16, 25.
[2a + (n - 1) d ]
2
n+<Te\¢, Âs+&T esÁTdýË¢ @<Ã¿£{ì d+K« 16 ýñ< 25. a25 = a + 24 d = – 4 nq>±, 25 e esÁTdýË
q #î¿£Ø yîTT<TÝ \ d+K« – 4 ~ kÍ<ó« + ¿±<T. n+<Te\¢ n = 25 kÍ<ó« + ¿±<T. n = 16, a16 = 5.
n+<Te\q, 16 esÁTd\T eT]jáTT |Õ esÁTdýË 5 #î¿£Ø yîTT<TÝ\T +#á&ÔsTT.
20. 370 MT.
nuó²«d+ 5.4 (×ºÌÛ¿+£ )*
1. 32e |<+ 2. S16 = 20, 76 3. 385 d+.MT.
4. 35 5. 750 MT3
nuó²«d+ 6.1
1. (i) dsÖÁ bÍ\T (ii) dsÖ
Á bÍ\T (iii) deTu²VQ
(iv) deÖq+, nqTnqTbÍÔá+ 3. ¿±<T
nuó²«d+ 6.2
1. (i) 2 d+.MT (ii) 2.4 d+.MT
2. (i) ¿±<T (ii) neÚqT (iiii) neÚqT
9. O <Çs, DC ¿ì deÖ+ÔásÁ+>± ÿ¿£ ¹sKqT ^ºq, ~ esÁTd>± E eT]jáTT F \ e<Ý AD eT]jáTT BC \qT
K+&+#áTqT
nuó²«d+ 6.3
1. (i) neÚqT. AAA, D ABC ~ D PQR (ii) neÚqT. SSS, D ABC ~ D QRP
(iii) ¿±<T (iv) neÚqT. SAS, D MNL ~ D QPR
(v) ¿±<T (vi) neÚqT. AA, D DEF ~ D PQR
2. 55°, 55°, 55°
14. AD bõ&Ð+#á>± E e<Ý AD = DE, PM bõ&Ð+#á>± N e<Ý PM = MN n>·TqT. EC eT]jáTT NR
¿£\bÍ*.
15. 42 MT

280 Answers/ Hints
EXERCISE 7.1
1. (i) 2 2 (ii) 4 2 (iii) 2 a2 + b2
2. 39; 39 km 3. No 4. Yes 5. Champa is correct.

6. (i) Square (ii) No quadrilateral (iii) Parallelogram
7. (– 7, 0) 8. – 9, 3 9. ± 4, QR = 41, PR = 82 , 9 2
10. 3x + y – 5 = 0
EXERCISE 7.2
æ 5ö æ 7ö
1. (1, 3) 2. ç 2, - ÷ ; ç 0, - ÷
è 3 ø è 3ø
3. 61 m; 5th line at a distance of 22.5 m 4. 2 : 7
5. æ 3 ö 6. x = 6, y = 3 7. (3, – 10)
1 : 1 ; ç - , 0÷
è 2 ø
8. æ 2 , 20 ö 9. æ 7ö æ 13 ö 10. 24 sq. units

ç- - ÷ ç -1, ÷ , (0,5), ç 1, ÷
è 7 7 ø è 2 ø è 2ø
EXERCISE 8.1
7 , 24 24 , 7
1. (i) sin A = cos A = (ii) sin C = cos C =
25 25 25 25
7, 3 15 , 17
2. 0 3. cos A = tan A = 4. sin A = sec A =
4 7 17 8
5, 12 , 5 12 13
5. sin q = cos q = tan q = , cot q = , cosec q =
13 13 12 5 5
49 49
7. (i) 64
(ii) 64
8. Yes
12 , 5 12
9. (i) 1 (ii) 0 10. sin P = cos P = , tan P =
13 13 5
11. (i) False (ii) True (iii) False (iv) False (v) False

nuó²«d+ 7.1
1. (i) 2 2 (ii) 4 2 (iii) 2 a2 + b2
2. 39; 39 ¿ì.MT 3. ¿±<T 4. neÚqT 5. #á+bÍ d]>± #î|Î¾ +~

6. (i) #áÔTá sÁçd+ (ii) #áÔTá sÁTÒÛÈ+ ¿±<T (iii) deÖ+ÔásÁ #áÔTá sÁTÒÛÈ+
7. (– 7, 0) 8. – 9, 3 9. ± 4, QR = 41, PR = 82 , 9 2
10. 3x + y – 5 = 0
nuó²«d+ 7.2
æ 5ö æ 7ö
1. (1, 3) 2. ç 2, - ÷ ; ç 0, - ÷
è 3 ø è 3ø
3. 61 MT.; 22.5 MT <ÖsÁ+ýË 5e ýÉÕqT e<Ý 4. 2 : 7
5. æ 3 ö 6. x = 6, y = 3 7. (3, – 10)
1 : 1 ; ç - , 0÷
è 2 ø
8. æ 2 , 20 ö 9. æ 7ö æ 13 ö 10. 24 #á<s |
Á Ú jáTÖ³T¢
ç- - ÷ ç -1, ÷ , (0,5), ç1, ÷
è 7 7 ø è 2 ø è 2ø

Class X
Suggested Pedagogical Processes Learning Outcomes
The learners may be provided with The learner —
opportunities individually or in groups
and encouraged to —
y extend the methods of finding LCM and y generalises properties of numbers and
HCF of large numbers learnt earlier to relations among them studied earlier to
general form. evolve results, such as, Euclid’s division
y discuss different aspects of algorithm, Fundamental Theorem of
polynomials, such as — their degree, Arithmetic and applies them to solve
type (linear, quadratic, cubic), zeroes, problems related to real life contexts.
etc., relationship between their visual
representation and their zeroes.
y play a game which may involve a series y develops a relationship between
of acts of factorising a polynomial and algebraic and graphical methods of
using one of its factors to form a new finding the zeroes of a polynomial.
one. For example, one group factorising
say, (x3 – 2x2 – x – 2) and using one of
its factors x–1 to construct another
polynomial, which is further factorised
by another group to continue the
y finds solutions of pairs of linear
process.
equations in two variables using
y use quadratic equations to solve real life graphical and different algebraic
problems through different strategies, methods.
such as, making a perfect square,
y demonstrates strategies of finding
quadratic formula, etc.
roots and determining the nature of
y discuss different aspects of linear roots of a quadratic equation.
equations by engaging students in the
y develops strategies to apply the concept
activities of the following nature:
of A.P. to daily life situations.
one group may ask another to form
y works out ways to differentiate between
linear equation in two variables with
congruent and similar figures.
coefficients from a particular number
system, i.e., natural numbers or
numbers that are not integers, etc. y establishes properties for similarity of
two triangles logically using different
graphically representing a linear
geometric criteria established earlier
equation in 1D or 2D and try to
such as, Basic Proportionality Theorem,
explain the difference in their nature.
etc.
encouraging students to observe
identities and equations and
segregate them.
y use graphical ways to visualise different
aspects of linear equations, such as,
visualising linear equations in two
variables or to find their solution.
y observe and analyse patterns in their
daily life situations to check if they form
an Arithmetic Progression and, if so,
282
Learning Outcomes at the Secondary Stage

find rule for getting their nth term and
sum of n terms. The situations could be
— our savings or pocket money, games
such as, playing cards and snakes and
ladders, etc.
y analyse and compare different y derives formulae to establish relations
geometrical shapes, charts, and models for geometrical shapes in the context
made using paper folding and tell about of a coordinate plane, such as, finding
their similarity and congruence. the distance between two given points,
y discuss in groups different situations, to determine the coordinates of a point
such as, constructing maps, etc., in between any two given points, to find
which the concepts of trigonometry are the area of a triangle, etc.
used. y determines all trigonometric ratios
y work in projects related to heights and with respect to a given acute angle (of a
distances, that may include situations right triangle) and uses them in solving
in which methods have to be devised problems in daily life contexts like
for measuring the angle of inclination finding heights of different structures
of the top of a building and their own or distance from them.
distance from the building. y derives proofs of theorems related to
y devise ways to find the values of the tangents of circles
different trigonometric ratios for a given
value of a trigonometric ratio.
y observe shapes in the surroundings y constructs —
that are a combination of shapes a triangle similar to a given triangle
studied so far, such as, cone, cylinder, as per a given scale factor.
cube, cuboid, sphere, hemisphere, etc.
a pair of tangents from an external
They may work in groups and may
provide formulas for different aspects point to a circle and justify the
of these combined shapes. procedures.
y determine areas of various materials, y examines the steps of geometrical
objects, and designs around them for constructions and reason out each step
example design on a handkerchief,
design of tiles on the floor, geometry y finds surface areas and volumes
box, etc. of objects in the surroundings by
y discuss and analyse situations related visualising them as a combination of
to surface areas and volumes of different solids like cylinder and a cone,
different objects, such as, (a) given cylinder and a hemisphere, combination
two boxes of a certain shape with of different cubes, etc.
different dimensions, if one box is to
be changed exactly like another box,
which attribute will change, its surface
area or volume? (b) By what percent
will each of the dimensions of one box
have to be changed to make it exactly y calculates mean, median and mode for
of same size as the other box? different sets of data related with real
y discuss and analyse the chance of life contexts.
happening of different events through
simple activities like tossing a coin,
throwing two dices simultaneously,
283
Learning Outcomes for Mathematics

picking up a card from a deck of 52
playing cards, etc.
y generalise the formulas of mean, median y determines the probability of an event
and mode read in the earlier classes by and applies the concept in solving daily
providing situations for these central life problems.
tendencies.
y collect data from their surroundings
and calculate the central tendencies.
y to draw tangents to a circle from a
point which lies outside and a point
which lies inside the circle. They may
be motivated to evolve different ways to
verify the properties of such tangents.
Suggested Pedagogical Processes in an Inclusive Setup

Children with special needs to be taken along the class and
keeping in view the learning objectives, similar to those of the
others, appropriate activities may be designed. The teacher
should take into account the specific problem of the child and
plan alternate strategies for teaching-learning process. A healthy
inclusive classroom environment provides equal opportunity to
all the students; to those with and without learning difficulties.
The measures to be adopted may include:
y developing process skills through group activities and using
ICT for simulation, repeated practice and evaluation.
y assessing learning progress through different modes taking
cognizance of the learner’s response.
y observing the child’s engagement in multiple activities,
through varied ways and levels of involvement.
y using of embossed diagram in the pedagogical process and
learning progress.
y using of adapted equipment (large print materials, adapted
text materials with simple language, more pictures and
examples, etc.) in observation and exploration (for example:
visual output devices should have aural output and vice
versa) during the teaching-learning process.
y using multiple choice questions to get responses from
children who find it difficult to write or explain verbally.
284
Learning Outcomes at the Secondary Stage

HÃ{Ùà

286 Answers/ Hints
NOTES

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MATHEMATICS

Sri Praveen Prakash IAS Sri. S. Suresh Kumar IAS

Sri. B. Srinivasa Rao IAS Sri. K. Ravindranath Reddy MA., B.Ed.

Dr. B. Pratap Reddy MA., B.Ed., Ph.D.

Dr. Ch.V.S. Ramesh Kumar

State Council of Educational Research & Training

GSR INFO - www.gsrmaths.in

First Published - 2024

All rights reserved

No part of this publication may be

This book has been printed on 70 G.S.M. SS Maplitho

Free distribution by Samagra Shiksha, Government of Andhra Pradesh

GSR INFO - www.gsrmaths.in

Dr.Chennamsetti. Ramesh, S.A. Sri Gangalapudi Bhasker, S.A.

Sri. Kandula.Mallikarjuna Reddy, S.A. Smt. K.Vahini, S.A.

Sri G.V. Krishna Mohan, S.A. Smt P. Anjani Kumari, PGT.

Sri. Md. Nazeer Hussain, S.A. Sri Y.L. Sreenivasulu, S.A.

Sri Kadiyala. Mallikarjuna, S.A. Sri. Donepudi.Venkateswara Rao, S.A.

Sri Turpati. Lakshmu Naidu, S.A. Sri. P. Nagendra Naik, S.A.

Smt Majji. Sandhya Rani, CRT. Sri. Siyyadri Yellajiyamma, S.A.

Smt. T. Vijaya Kumari, HM. Smt. Yasam. Jaya Bharati, S.A.

Editors for Translation

Sri S.Satish, Sri Kesiraju Srinivas,

Sri K.Satish Babu, MEO-2, Sri M. Somasekhar.B.,

Designing & Page Layout : Stock Assortment, Bapatla.

GSR INFO - www.gsrmaths.in

The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) appreciates

GSR INFO - www.gsrmaths.in

GSR INFO - www.gsrmaths.in

Dr. B. Pratap Reddy

GSR INFO - www.gsrmaths.in

GSR INFO - www.gsrmaths.in

Chairperson, Advisory Group in Science and Mathematics

GSR INFO - www.gsrmaths.in

GSR INFO - www.gsrmaths.in

GSR INFO - www.gsrmaths.in

Chapter 1 Real Numbers

GSR INFO - www.gsrmaths.in

terminating and when it is non-terminating repeating. We do so by looking at the prime

completely reveal the nature of the decimal expansion of p .

So let us begin our exploration.

GSR INFO - www.gsrmaths.in

m|ÚÎ&T n+Ôá+¿± esÁïqeTeÚÔáT+<Ã Ôî\TdT¿Ãe&¿ì |jîÖÐkÍï+. B¿Ãd+ p ýË VäsÁ+ q jîTT¿£Ø ç|<óq

GSR INFO - www.gsrmaths.in

1.2 The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic

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1.2 n+¿£>·DìÔá çbÍ<¸$T¿£ d¾<Æ+Ôá+

GSR INFO - www.gsrmaths.in

So we have factorised 32760 as 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 5 × 7 × 13 as a product of primes,

An equivalent version of Theorem 1.2 was probably first

from the order in which the prime factors occur.

GSR INFO - www.gsrmaths.in

¿±eÚq eTq+ 32760 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 5 × 7 × 13 >± ç|<ó q ¿±sÁD²+¿±\ \Ý+>±, nq>±, 32760

n+¿£>D· ìÔá çbÍ<¸$ T¿£ d¾<Æ+Ôá+>± ~ eTqÅ£ |]#ájáT+ ne&¿ì eTT+<û

GSR INFO - www.gsrmaths.in

GSR INFO - www.gsrmaths.in

GSR INFO - www.gsrmaths.in

GSR INFO - www.gsrmaths.in

1. ç|Ü d+K«qT < ç|<ó q ¿±sÁD²+¿±\ \Ý+>± sjáT+&.

GSR INFO - www.gsrmaths.in

m|ÚÎ&T n+Ôá+¿± esÁïqeTeÚÔáT+<Ã Ôî\TdT¿Ãe&¿ì |jîÖÐkÍï+. B¿Ãd+ p ýË VäsÁ+ q jîTT¿£Ø ç|<óq

1.2 n+¿£>·DìÔá çbÍ<¸$T¿£ d¾<Æ+Ôá+

¿±eÚq eTq+ 32760 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 5 × 7 × 13 >± ç|<ó q ¿±sÁD²+¿±\ \Ý+>±, nq>±, 32760

n+¿£>D· ìÔá çbÍ<¸$ T¿£ d¾<Æ+Ôá+>± ~ eTqÅ£ |]#ájáT+ ne&¿ì eTT+<û

1. ç|Ü d+K«qT < ç|<ó q ¿±sÁD²+¿±\ \Ý+>± sjáT+&.

d¾<Æ+Ôá+ 1.3 2 ¿£sDÁ j

sÁTyî|Õ Ú ý² esÁ+Z #ûd ç¿£eT+ýË neTsÁÌ>± eTqÅ£ 3b2 = a2 edT+ï ~.

n+<T#û eTq+ Ü]Ð a = 3c, c nHû~ ÿ¿£ |PsÁd +K«>± sjáTe#áTÌ.

ç¿£eT+ýË neTsÁÌ>± dMT¿£sDÁ +qT+& a nedT+ï ~.

bÍsÄÅÁ £ \¿ì ÿ¿£ >·eT¿£ :

ç>±|t ¿±ÐÔáeTT q+<T |Õ |{ì¿¼ £ýË >·\

|{¿¼ì £ 2.2 |]o*dï |T q VQ|~?

|³+ 2.7 |³+ 2.8

(iv) XøSH«\ d+K« 1 ( m+<TÅ£?) / (@ $<óeTT>±?)

kÍ<ósÁDeTT>± , ÿ¿£ esÁZ VQ|~ p(x) = ax2 + bx + c, a ¹ 0 jîTT¿£Ø XøSH«\T a* eT]jáTT b* \T

¿ì+< ¿= <V²sÁD\qT eTq+ |]o*<ÝeTT.

¿±eÚq, x2 – 3 jîTT¿£Ø XøSH«\T 3 eT]jáTT - 3×