DIRE DAWA UNIVERSITY

INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

SCHOOL OF ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING

POWER STREAM

INTERNSHIP REPORT AND PROJECT

Company:Ethiopian Electric Power Sululta Substation

Duration: June 8/2013 – August 8/2013 E.C

Prepared By: Nigusu Kefyalew

Idintification No: R/1024/09

Advisor : Mr.Dawit Adane

Submission date: 20/12/2013 E.C

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Declaration

I declare that this Internship Report entitled “INTERNSHIP REPORT IN NORTH ADDIS
ABABA REGION OF SULULTA SUBSTATION.” is an original work of me and also that
submitted to Dire Dawa university Institute of Technology, School of Electrical and
Computer Engineering.This internship report includes all requirements of internship program.
To accomplish this report,i have referred manuals, different related books, EEP report papers,
and website to have important information on what i have done in my internship
period.Presentation of the Internship Report will be held on august 28/2013 E.C and the
suggestions approved by the school were duly incorporated.

Name of intern: Date Signature

Nigusu kefyalew ………….. …..…………..

Approval mentor:

Mr. Dawit Adane …………… ………………

Approval supervisor

Mr. Yohannis Abera …………… ……………...

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Acknowledgment

First of all, I would like to thank almighty God who has been with me from the beginning to
the end of this internship program. Secondly, I would like to thanks Dire Dawa Institute of
technology University for offering this internship program which increases my practical Skill
of knowledge. Thirdly, I would like to express my great appreciation for university industry
linkage(UIL) officers for their smart idea about our two-month internship duration in the
company. I would like to say my academic advisor Mr. Dawit Adane thanks for their usefull
advices. Bearing in mind, I am using this opportunity to express my deepest gratitude and
special Thanks to all the companies’ member who follow-up, encouragement, insight,
valuable guidance, and professional expertise and all owing me to carry out the internship
period at their esteemed organization. I express my deepest gratitude to Mr. Yohanis
(supervisor and my adviser in company) for taking part in use full decision and giving advice.

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Executive Summary

This report concerns about the work i have done in two months internship program.
Internships are formal programs within organizations whose primary purpose is to offer
practical work experience in a particular occupation. Internships strengthen resumes by
giving students visible work experience and providing older job hunters with needed
credentials to change careers. This report includes the hosting company (Ethiopian Electric
power) main departments. I have discussed the benefits that we have got from the internship,
challenges those faced, and measurement we took to solve problems. Finally, we give a
conclusion on internship experience according to our learning goals. Also recommendation &
references are included.

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Contents
CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................................ 1
BACKGROUND OF EEP ......................................................................................................... 1
1.1 History of EEP ..................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Vision, Mission, and Purpose of EEP’s Establishment ....................................................... 2
1.3 Main Products and Services of EEP ............................................................................... 2
1.4 Main Customers of EEP.................................................................................................. 2
1.5 Organizational structure of EEP ..................................................................................... 3
1.6 Work Flow in EEP ............................................................................................................... 4
1.6.1 Generation Stations and Current Energy Situation ....................................................... 4
1.6.2 Transmission and Substation ................................................................................... 5
1.6.3 Distribution.................................................................................................................... 5
CHAPTER TWO ....................................................................................................................... 5
OVERALL INTERNSHIP EXPERIENCE ............................................................................... 6
2.1. Objectives of the Internship ................................................................................................ 6
2.1.1. General Objective ......................................................................................................... 6
2.1.2. Specific Objectives ....................................................................................................... 6
2.2 How Do I Get in To the Company ....................................................................................... 6
2.3. Work Section that I have been working .............................................................................. 7
2.4. Overall System Components and Operation ....................................................................... 7
2.4.1. Transmission Line Design Considerations ................................................................... 7
2.4.2 Types of Substations ................................................................................................... 10
2.4.3 Major Components of Transmission Substation ......................................................... 11
2.5 Control and Protection Room ....................................................................................... 23
2.6 How good we have been in performing in our tasks ......................................................... 25
2.7 Challenges we Face in Performing Tasks ..................................................................... 25
3.1 Improving our practical skill .............................................................................................. 26
3.2. Improving our theoretical skill.......................................................................................... 26
3.3 Improving our team playing skill ....................................................................................... 27
3.4 Improving my leadership skills.......................................................................................... 27
3.5 Understanding about work ethics....................................................................................... 27
3.6 Entrepreneurship skill ........................................................................................................ 28
3.7 Interpersonal Communication Skills.................................................................................. 28

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CHAPTER FOUR .................................................................................................................... 29
PROJECT................................................................................................................................. 29
Load Forecasting For Sululta Town To Expand The Existing Substation .............................. 29
4.2 Problem Statement and Justification .................................................................................. 32
4.3 Objective ............................................................................................................................ 32
4.3.1 General Objective ........................................................................................................ 32
4.3.2 Specific objective ........................................................................................................ 32
4.4 Review of Literature .......................................................................................................... 32
4.5 Methodology ...................................................................................................................... 34
4.6 Results and Discussion ...................................................................................................... 36
4.7 Limitation of the project ............................................................................................... 40
CHAPTER FIVE ..................................................................................................................... 40
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ....................................................................... 40
5.1 Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 40
5.2 Recommendations .............................................................................................................. 40
5.2.1 Recommendations for EEP ......................................................................................... 40

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LIST OF FIGURES

Fig 1. 1 Re-organization of EEU ............................................................................................... 1

Fig 1. 2 The Over All Organizational Structure of EEP ............................................................ 3
Fig 1. 3 Block diagram of engineering structural organization ................................................. 4
Fig 2.1 Pin type insulator ........................................................................................................... 8
Fig 2.2 Suspension type insulator ............................................................................................. 9
Fig 2.3 Strain type insulator ....................................................................................................... 9
Fig 2.4 Shackle insulator.......................................................................................................... 10
Fig 2.5 Lightning arrester ........................................................................................................ 12
Fig 2.6 Conservator tank .......................................................................................................... 15
Fig 2.7 Silica gel breather ........................................................................................................ 15
Fig 2.8 a:15 KV Auxiliary transformer.................................................................................... 16
Fig 2.9 a: 15KV Earthing transformer ..................................................................................... 17
Fig 2.10 Current transformer ................................................................................................... 18
Fig 2.11 Power transformer ..................................................................................................... 19
Fig 2.12 Disconnector .............................................................................................................. 20
Fig 2.13 Circuit Breaker .......................................................................................................... 21
Fig 2.14 Bus Bar ...................................................................................................................... 22
Fig 2.15 Control room.............................................................................................................. 24
Fig 2.16 Batteries………..………………...………………………………………………...24
Fig 4. 1 View Of Sululta 400/230/132/33/15KV Substation ................................................... 30
Fig 4. 2 Single Line Diagram Of Sululta 400/230/132/33/15KV Substation .......................... 30
Fig 4. 1 Sululta town 15KV and 33KV feeder lines…………………………………………29
Fig 4. 2 Load Forecast Models…………………………………………………………….…34
Fig 4. 3 Linear trend forecasting……………………………………………………………...38

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 :The value of actual peak load. ................................................................................... 35
Table 2 :Mean absolute percentage error and rank correlation coefficient values .................. 38
Table 3 : The peak load forecasted using Linear trend forecasting model for the year 2021 to
2025 G.C. ................................................................................................................................. 38

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LIST OF ACRONYMS

EEPCO Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation

EEP Ethiopian Electric Power
GC Gregorian Calendar
GHz Giga Watt Hertz
KV Kilo Volt
HVAC High Voltage Alternating Current
HVDC High Voltage Direct Current
PMO Portfolio Management Office
AAC All Aluminum Conductor
AAAC All Aluminum Alloy Conductor
ACAR Aluminum Conductor Alloy Reinforced
CT Current Transformer
VT Voltage Transformer
SF6 Sulfur Hexafluoride
I Current
E.C Ethiopian Calendar
ACSR Aluminum Conductor Steel Reinforced
AC Alternating Current
MVA Mega Volt Ampere
EEU Ethiopian Electric Utility

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 CHAPTER ONE

BACKGROUND OF EEP

1.1 History of EEP

Electric Power was introduced to Ethiopian in the 19th Century, during the regime of
emperor Menilik. The first diesel generator was introduced to the palace in 1898 GC. The
first Hydropower Plant was constructed on Akaka River in the year 1912 GC in order to
supply power to small factories in Addis Ababa. The name of the company was changing in
different times since its establishment. Ethiopian electric light and power authority (EELPA)
which was established in year 1956.Its name was changed to the Ethiopian Electric Power
Corporation (EEPCO) since in 1997 E.C. And also EEPCO is changed into EEU in 2006 E.C,
even if now a days for the seek of doing well Ethiopian electric utility is branched in to two
departments those are EEP ( which works on transmission and substations ) and EEU ( the
purpose of the utility is distributing and selling electrical energy to the costumers) under the
Ministry of Water and Energy. The purpose of the corporation is to engage in the business of
producing, transmitting, distributing and selling electrical energy in accordance with
economic and social development policies and priorities of the government and to carry on
any other related activities that would enable it achieve its purpose. Currently the annual
electricity production capacity of the corporation is about 3112 GWH and number of
customer 1.1 million. The corporation has been increasing the number of customers by more
than 15% annually, but this does not mean that the corporation has met demand for electric
power. EEPCo is required to think and work strategically to meet the power supply need of
the socioeconomy development of country. The corporation has two electric power supplying
systems: The Interconnected System (ICS) and Self Contained System (SCS). The main
energy source of ICS is hydropower plant, and for the SCS mini-hydro and a number of
isolated diesels power generators allocated in various areas of the country are the energy
sources. EEPCo is a government owned corporation and it has two organizations one of this,
EEP which is responsible for the generation, transmission service of electric energy
throughout Ethiopia. The second organization is Ethiopian Electric Utility (EEU) which is
responsible for distributing and selling power to customers.

Fig 1. 1 Re-organization of EEU

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1. 2 Vision, Mission, and Purpose of EEP’s Establishment

Vision
To be a first class providing quality universal electrification of the country and regionally
connected as a competitive export industry.
Mission
To provide adequate and quality electricity generation, transmission through continuous
improvement of management practice responsive to the socio-economic development and
environmental protection need of the public.
The purposes for which EEP is established are;
To undertake feasibility studies, design and survey of electricity generation, transmission
and substation; to contract out such activities to consultants as required; to undertake
electricity generation, transmission and substation construction and upgrading;
 To contract out such works to contractors as required;
 To handle electricity generation and transmission operational and maintenance
activities;
 To lease electricity transmission lines as required;
 To sell bulk electric power;
 To undertake universal electric access works;
1.3 Main Products and Services of EEP
EEP produces electric power from hydropower, diesel, geothermal, wind, solar, natural
gas, biomass and coal plants that provides the service of selling the electric power to its
customers mainly the Ethiopian people for house hold uses, factories, and the nearby
countries like Kenya, Sudan, and Djibouti.
1.4 Main Customers of EEP
Numbers of customers are those who are connected to the electric energy produced from
generation station. The total number of connected customers at present is 1,900,000.
Note: All our data about EEP’s products, customers, and overall energy situations are up
to 2012 GC.

1.4.1 Interconnection

Ethiopia is focusing on the development of the huge hydro potential it possesses in the
Eastern African Region. To get the required economy of scale to develop the big hydropower
sites in Ethiopia, it is compulsory to seek foreign demands for export purposes, especially,
neighboring countries of Sudan, Egypt, Djibouti, Yemen, Kenya, Eritrea, and Somalia. There
are current and potential interconnections. Ethiopia-Sudan (Current Interconnections)
Currently, Ethiopia is supplying 100MW of power to Sudan A link of double circuit 230 KV
with transfer capacity of about 400 MW is Constructed. The link starts from Bahir Dar
substation passing through Gondar and Shehedi substations in Ethiopia and ends at Gedaref
substation in Sudan with a total length of 296 km(from Shehedi to gedarif) . Ethiopia-
Djibouti (Current Interconnections) Currently, Ethiopia is supplying 60MW of power to
Djibouti a link of Double circuit 230 KV with transfer capacity of about 400 MW is
Construct .The link starts from Dire Dawa substation in Ethiopia and ends at PK-12
substation in Djibouti with a total length of 283 km. Ethiopia-Kenya (Potential

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Interconnections) the export will, possibly, be based on firm energy. The link may start from
Gilgel Gibe-III power plant and passes through Mega substation in Ethiopia and ends at the
towns of Nairobi or Eldorate in Kenya. The link from Gilgel Gibe-III to Mega will be double
circuit 400 KV HVAC. HVDC link of at least 500 KV with transfer capacity of about 600
MW is anticipated from Mega substation to Kenya (Nairobi or Eldorate).

1.5 Organizational structure of EEP

Fig 1. 2 The Over All Organizational Structure of EEP

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Under Engineering division there are four subdivisions which are redefined after the
establishment of EEP enterprise.

Fig 1. 3 Block diagram of engineering structural organization

1.6 Work Flow in EEP

EEP is responsible for generating, transmitting, distributing and selling of electric energy
throughout the country. To fulfill this company, use a wide and interconnected work flow
therefore by using different mechanism power will be generated and this will be
transmitted and will be distributed for customers. We must consider this all system is
interconnected by a system which is called load dispatch center (LDC).
1.6.1 Generation Stations and Current Energy Situation
Ethiopia is a country endowed with abundant, natural recourses such as Hydro power;
Geothermal, natural gas, solar and wind energy etc. that could generate surplus
electricity. Among these only Hydro powers potential of the country is estimated to be
up to 45,000 MW. Since almost all the listed resources not yet tapped the prevailing
energy source that constitutes about 94.1 is biomass. The rest are petroleum 5.2% and
electricity 0.8%.
Supply system: - The Ethiopian electric power corporation (EEP) is a sole electricity
power supplier in the country. The corporation has two electric energy supply system.
These are the interconnected system (ICS) and the self-contained system (SCS). The
main energy source of ICS is hydro and also the SCS are mini hydrous and diesel
power generators allocated in various areas of the country. For the record, most diesel
power Generators are becoming out of service because they are too much costly with
little amount of power.

Inter Connected System (ICS): - The ICS consists of 12 hydro, 11 diesel standbys, one
geothermal and two wind from power plants with installed capacity of 1939.6MW,
112.3MW, 7.30MW and 81MW respectively which brought a total of 2140.2MW.

Self-Contained System (SCS): - The SCS consists of three small hydro and several diesel
power plants. Generation in this System is mainly by diesel power plants having an aggregate
capacity of 26.80MW.The contribution from the small hydro power plants is only 6.15MW.

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1.6.2 Transmission and Substation

The electric energy generated from the main hydro power plants is transported through high
Voltage transmission lines rated 45, 66,132,230,400KV.The total length of the existing
Transmission lines is about 11,796.32 Km. the existing transmission lines status by voltage
level is categorized. Supply of the distribution network is provided by step down substation
connected to the respective transmission and sub-transmission voltages. Totally there are 143
substations of which 127 are supplying the distribution system the rest 16 are located by the
power house areas (switch yard).

1.6.3 Distribution
Power distribution is both ICS and SCS is effected at primary voltage of 33, and
15KV.Consisting entirely of 3-phases, 3-wire feeders and is stepped down to a utilization
voltage of 380\220 (3-phase, 4-wire) using 3-phase transformers to customer’s level.

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 CHAPTER TWO
OVERALL INTERNSHIP EXPERIENCE
2.1. Objectives of the Internship
An internship program has its own general and specific objectives. Both objectives are very
essential to get enough educated and skilled man power in all aspects of Engineering.

2.1.1. General Objective

Dire Dawa Institute of Technology targeted this internship program can enable Engineering
students at their school to relate their theoretical knowledges gained from their department to
practical knowledge, and develop their profession skills.

2.1.2. Specific Objectives

 Intern students during internship program are aimed on
 Improving their theoretical, practical, professional, industrial problem solving
capability,
 Developing interpersonal communication skills, team playing and leadership.
 Also, knowing, understanding, practicing work ethics
 Adapting and developing work environment conditions are also parts of specific
objectives of internship.

2.2 How Do I Get in To the Company

After i have taken the request paper of internship paper from the Industrial linkage of Dire
Dawa University Institute of technology at the beginning of June 2013 E.C, i distribute the
request paper to many companies related to my school. From those companies, Ethiopian
Electric Power Corporation, were the first company which accepted my requesting internship
paper for two months starting from June 8 to August 8 of 2013 E.C. and they announced me
by calling cell phone to Dire Dawa University Institute of technology industrial linkage. After
i got the phone number of the company from the EEP, and they told me that EEP is divided in
to two main organizations, Ethiopian Electric Utility and Ethiopian Electric Power then
informed me that ours name list is on Ethiopian Electric Power. And i submitted it to the wire
business office, and then i met Mr.Mulugeta, manager of wire business office at Sululta and
he welcomed me tenderly and explains what their office performs and looks like. And he
informed me that i am going to stay the internship period at Super vision and design sub
department and he gave me paper that have been submitted to the supervision office with best
wishes. Finally i met Mr.Yohannis, manager of the supervision office at Sululta substation,
he welcomed us with full of kindness and explained what i will work on the internship period
and informed me that we will be with his office for the next four months and introduces us to
Mr. Tadese, Mr. Hululalem and other stuff members and i start my intern with eager on June
10. But to get this placement in the company it was tedious i were spending a lot of times
come and backs.

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2.3. Work Section that I have been working
Sululta substation receives power from four incoming line. Those incoming line are from
Deberemarkos ,Holeta , Sebeta and Gefersa substation. This substation can be received or
send through Holeta and Gefersa lines. Hence, Holeta and Gefersa substation can be
considered as ring system. Ring system is a system that can be received and sent. Ethiopian
Electric Power Corporation, EEP is associated with generation, transmission and distribution
system. In fact that after the power is generated; it has to be distributed to the customers
through high voltage transmission lines. But it is impossible to provide the generated power
from generation station directly to the customer due to different reasons. The first and main
reason is voltage drop, because the voltage drop will be high when the transmission line
becomes longer and longer. So that substations have a great role to solve the occurrence of
this problem. Since most of distributions’ fault are occurred due to over loading and due to
lacking of ability of transmission lines to carry the required power when they are designed
and constructed. So, i selected this work section to solve such problems. As a result,
customers such as residents, companies, real estates, factories and interconnected countries
can get enough and suitable power.

2.4. Overall System Components and Operation

2.4.1. Transmission Line Design Considerations
An overhead transmission lines consists of conductors, insulators, support structures, and in
most cases, shield wires.

a. Conductors

Aluminum is the most common conductor metal for overhead transmission than copper, due
to its lower cost and lighter in weight properties, and its abundant whereas copper is limited.
Most common Al conductors are

 All-Aluminum Conductor, AAC.

 All-Aluminum-Alloy Conductor, AAAC.
 Aluminum Conductor Alloy Reinforced, ACAR.
 Aluminum Conductor Steel Reinforced, ACSR.

From those Al conductors, Aluminum Conductor Steel Reinforced, ACSR, is the most
common conductor type, which consists of layers of Al strands surrounding a central core of
steel strands. Stranded conductors are easier to manufacture, since larger conductor size can
be obtained by simply adding successive layers of strands. Stranded conductors are also
easier to handle and more flexible than solid conductors, especially in large size. The use of
steel strands gives ACSR conductors a high strength to weight ratio, and for the purpose of
heat dissipation, overhead lines are bare (no insulator cover).EHV lines often have more than
one conductor per phase, these conductors are called a bundle. Bundle conductors have a
lower electric field strength of the conductor surfaces, thereby controlling corona. They also
have a smaller series reactance.

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b. Insulators

Insulators provide electrical insulation between live conductors and earthed structures under
operating and over voltage conditions. Insulators are mainly made of either glazed, porcelain,
or toughened glass.

Most Commonly used Types of Insulators are;

 Pin type
 Suspension type
 Strain insulator and
 Shackle insulator

Pin Type Insulators

Pin type insulators are used for transmission and distribution of electric power at voltages up
to 33 KV. Beyond operating voltage of 33 KV, the pin type insulators become too bulky and
hence uneconomical.

Fig 2. 1 Pin type insulator

Suspension Type Insulators

For high voltages (greater than 33 KV), it is mostly used suspension type insulators shown in
figure below, which consists of a number of porcelain discs connected in series by metal links
in the form of a string.

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 Fig 2.2 Suspension type insulator

Stain Insulators

When there is a dead end of the line or there is corner or sharp curve, the line is subjected to
greater tension. In order to relive the line of excessive tension, strain insulators are used. For
low voltage lines (less than 11 KV), shackle insulators are used as strain insulators. However,
for high voltage transmission lines, strain insulators consist of assembly of suspension
insulators as shown in figure below.

Fig 2.3 Strain type insulator

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Shackle Insulator

They can be directly fixed to the pole with a bolt or to the cross arm. Figure below shows a
shackle insulator fixed to the pole. The conductor in the groove is fixed with a soft binding
wire.

Fig 2.4 Shackle insulator

Insulators for transmission lines above 33KV are suspension type insulator, which consists of
discs, typically porcelain. The standard discs have a 10-inch (0.254-m) diameter, 5.75 inch
(0.146-m) spacing between centers of adjacent discs, and mechanical strength of 7500 Kg.
The number of insulator discs in a string increases with line voltage. Other types of discs
include larger units with higher mechanical strength and fog insulators for use in
contaminated areas.

Support Structures

Transmission lines employ a variety of support structures. Support structures are arranged
either in a triangular configuration to reduce tower height or in a vertical configuration to
reduce tower width. Shield Wires Shield wires located above phase conductors protect the
phase conductors against lightning. They are usually high or extreme high strength steel,
ACSR with much smaller cross section than phase conductors. The number and location of
the shield wires are selected so that almost all lightning strokes terminate on the shield wires
than on the phase conductors. Shield wires are grounded to the tower. As such, when
lightning strike shields wires, it flows harmlessly to ground, provided that the tower
impedance and tower footing resistance are small.

2.4.2 Types of Substations

Substations may be categorized as distribution substation, transmission substation, switching
Substation or any combination of them.

Distribution Substations

Distribution substation is a combination of switching, controlling, and voltage step- down

equipment arranged to reduce transmission voltage to primary distribution voltage for
residential, farm, commercial, and industrial loads. Typical distribution substation capacities

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vary. Substation generally include one 1.5 MVA to three 5 MVA transformers. These
substations may be supplied radially, tapped from a sub transmission line, or may have two
source of supply.

Switching Substations

A switching substation is a combination of switching and controlling equipment arranged to

Provide circuit protection and system switching flexibility. Switching stations are becoming
Common on cooperatives transmission systems. Flexible switching arrangements in a
transmission network can be aided in maintaining reliable service under certain abnormal or
Maintenance conditions.

Transmission Substations

A transmission substation is a combination of switching, controlling, and voltage step-down

Equipment arranged to reduce transmission voltage to sub transmission voltage for
distribution of electrical energy to distribution substations. Transmission substations
frequently have two or more large transformers. Transmission substations function as bulk
power distribution centers, and their importance in the system often justifies bus and
switching arrangements that are much more elaborative than distribution substations.

2.4.3 Major Components of Transmission Substation

Surge arrester

A surge arrester is a product installed near the end of any conductor which is long enough
before the conductor lands on its intended electrical component. The purpose is to divert
damaging lighting-induced transients safely to ground through property changes to its
arrestor in parallel arrangement to the conductor inside the unit. Also, called a surge
protection device (SPD) or transient voltage surge suppressor (TVSS), they are only designed
to protect against electrical transients resulting from the lightning flash, not a direct lightning
termination to the conductors. Surge arrestors or other surge protective equipment are located
at the line entrances and exits. In these instances, it is best to locate the arrestor or other
protective equipment on the line side of the substation equipment to be protected to limit the
lightning and switching surges to acceptable levels. As they enter the substations locating the
arrestors on the line side of the circuit breaker will also protect the gap in the breakers when
in the open position.

Lightning arrester

A lightning arrester, also known as lightning conductor, is a device used on electrical power
Systems and telecommunication systems to protect the insulation and conductors of the
system from the damaging effects of lightning. The typical lightning arrester has a high –
voltage terminal and a ground terminal. When a lightning surge (or switching surge, which is
very similar) travels along the power line to the arrester, the current from the surge is diverted
through the arrestor, in most cases to earth.

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If protection fails or is absent lightning that strikes the electrical system introduces thousands
of kilo volts that may damage the transmission lines, and can also cause severe damage to
Transformers and other electrical or electronic devices. Lightning-produced extreme voltage
Spikes in incoming power lines can damage electrical home appliances.

Fig 2.5 Lightning arrester

Transformer

Transformer is generally a four-terminal device that can transform an AC input voltage into a
relatively higher or lower AC output voltage. A transformer usually consists of two closely
coupled coils that are designed to transfer energy between its winding circuits. A typical
transformer has two or more coils that share a common laminated iron core. One of the coils
is referred to as the primary (containing NP turns), while the other coil is called secondary
(containing NS turns). Primary coils are defined as those coils whose current is driven by an
external alternating-current source, whereas secondary coils are defined as those coils whose
voltage is induced by the varying magnetic field produced by the primary coil.

Transformer Cooling System and Methods

The main source of heat generation in transformer is its copper loss or loss and core loss.
Although there are other factors contribute heat in transformer such as hysteresis & eddy
current losses but contribution of loss dominates them. If this heat is not dissipated properly,
the temperature of the transformer will rise continually which may cause damages in paper
insulation and liquid insulation medium of transformer. So, it is essential to control the
temperature with in permissible limit to ensure the long life of transformer by reducing
thermal degradation of its insulation system. In electrical power transformer, we use external
transformer cooling system to accelerate the dissipation rate of heat of transformer. There are
different transformers cooling methods available for transformer.

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Transformers immersed in the following transformer cooling methods.

 Air natural (AN) cooling

 Air Natural Air Natural (ANAN)
 Air Blast or Air Forced (AB or AF)
 Oil Natural Air Natural (ONAN)
 Oil Natural Air Forced (ONAF)
 Oil Forced Air Natural (OFAN)
 VII. Oil Natural Air Forced (ONAF

The transformer has an oil level indicator and winding temperature indicator.

Oil Level Indicator

For indicating a change of oil in the conservator, any change in the oil level is detected by a
float converted in to rotary motion by gear and transmitted to the external pointer through
magnet. If the indicator tilted downward then the oil should change. Oil temperature indicator
is also shows the heating up of transformer.

Winding Temperature Indictor

The temperature of winding is measured and determined indirectly. The temperature

difference between the winding and coolant is the actual current in the winding. The
transformer secondary current is proportional to the current transformer winding. The
secondary current feeds a heating resistor in thermometer and so produces a display reading
of transformer load. Generally, when the loss is happened on the winding, the heat has been
developed; transformer becomes heated up and because of thermostat starts rotating for
cooling the transformer.

ONAN Cooling of Transformer

This is the simplest transformer cooling system. The full form of ONAN is "Oil Natural Air
Natural". Here natural convectional flow of hot oil is utilized for cooling. In convectional
circulation of oil, the hot oil flows to the upper portion of the transformer tank and the vacant
Place is occupied by cold oil. This hot oil which comes to upper side will dissipate heat in the
Atmosphere by natural conduction, convection & radiation in air and will become cold. In
this Ways the oil in the transformer tank continually circulate when the transformer put into
load. As the rate of dissipation of heat in air depends upon dissipating surface of the oil tank,
it is essential to increase the effective surface area of the tank. So, additional dissipating
surface in the form of tubes or radiators connected to the transformer tank. This is known as
radiator of transformer or radiator.

ONAF Cooling of Transformer

Heat dissipation can obviously be increased, if dissipating surface is increased but it can be
make further faster by applying forced air flow on that dissipating surface. Fans blowing air
on cooling surface is employed. Forced air takes away the heat from the surface of radiator

13
and provides better cooling than natural air. The full form of ONAF is "Oil Natural Air
Forced". As the heat dissipation rate is faster and more in ONAF transformer cooling method
than ONAN cooling system, electrical power transformer can be put into more load without
crossing the permissible temperature limits.

Radiator

The radiator of transformer accelerates the cooling rate of transformer. Thus, it plays a vital
role in increasing loading capacity of a transformer. This is basic function of radiator of an
electrical power transformer. Oil immersed power transformer is generally provided with
detachable pressed sheet radiator with isolating valves. But in case of small size distributing
transformer, the radiators are generally integrated parts of transformer body and projected
from the main tank. The working principle of radiator is very simple. It just increases the
surface area for dissipating heat of the oil. In case of electrical power transformer, due to the
transport limitation, these units are sent separately and assembled at site with transformer
main body. At the time of dispatching, the flings of radiator are blanketed by gasket and
blanketing plates. The radiator valves on the main tank are also blanketed by gasket and
blanketing plates.

Operation of Transformer Radiator

Under loaded condition, warm oil increases in volume and comes to the upper portion of the
main tank. Then this oil enters in the radiator through top valve and cools down by
dissipating heat through the thin radiator wall. This cold oil comes back to the main tank
through the bottom radiator valve. This cycle is repeated continuously till the load is
connected to the transformer. Dissipation of heat in the transformer radiator; can be
accelerated further by force air provided by means of fans. These fans are fitted either on the
radiator bank itself or fitted nearby the bank but all the fans must be faced towards the
radiator. Sometime, the cooling rate of convectional circulation of oil is not sufficient. That
time an oil pump may be used for speeding up oil circulation.

Conservator

Conservator tank, where fitted should be assembled with its pipe work, etc. making sure that
Skated joints are oil tight and the pipe work is clean and free from moisture. The mechanism
of the float type oil gauge inside the conservator is locked to prevent damage during transit.
After placing the conservator in position, it should be released by turning the locking bolt in
the direction indicated on the plate. While feeling the conservator with transformer oil, it
should be ensured that the oil filled up to the level indicated by the oil gauge on the
conservator. On the oil gauge’s dial, there is an indication of temperature, this tells the
prescribed level of oil in the conservator at that temperature. For example, if temperature is
30°C. But during actual oil filling in conservator tank, we should commensurate with the oil
temperature at that time.

The function of conservator tank is giving the space to the oil expanded during the ambient
temperature rises. When transformer is loaded and ambient temperature rises, the volume of

14
oil inside transformer increases. A conservator tank of transformer provides adequate space
to this expanded transformer oil. It also acts as a reservoir for transformer insulating oil.

Fig 2.6 Conservator tank

Silica Gel

Silica gel breather always comes as loose item. The plastic plug sealing on the top of the
breather should be removed and fitted to the associated pipe work. The oil cup at the bottom
of the breather should be removed, filled with transformer oil to the level indicated on it and
then re fitted to the position. Thus, the silica gel is prevented from absorbing moisture from
atmosphere. When the oil becomes depreciate the silica gel color becomes change from pink
to the blue this indicates the oil should be changed and silica gel itself changed into new.

Fig 2.7 Silica gel breather

Buchholz relay

Buchholz which is part of transformer that connected across the pipe work between
conservator tank and main tank of the transformer. It is considered as buchholz relay. There
is generally a Stop Valve between Buchholz relay and conservator tank. The Buchholz relay

15
should be mounted on the pipe work only after the oil level inside the transformer is above
the tank cover. The Buchholz relay is provided with an arrow marked on its housing and this
arrow should always point towards the conservator. If the gas release pipe is provided, it must
be fitted to the top pocket of the Buchholz relay. In this case, the top pockets of Buchholz
relay should be opened and gas release pipes should be full of oil during normal operation of
transformer. When the gas is to be collected through the gas release pipe, oil will flow out
initially followed by the gas. But when gas release pipe is not provided with Buchholz relay,
the top pockets are generally screwed tightly. During fittings of Buchholz relay in the pipe
work, the relay should be mechanically locked with the locking screw provided in the relay.
It prevents any mechanical damage inside the relay due to transit. The alarm and trip contacts
provided on the relay should be properly identified from the control drawings of the relay
before connecting the control wires on those terminals of the relay. The ‟ NO’’ contacts for
alarm and trip should be checked for their proper functioning. Therefore, buchholz relay is
used as protective and cooling systems.

Auxiliary Transformer

Auxiliary transformer is types of transformer which gives service only the compound of the
Substations. Auxiliary transformer is used to supply low voltage for AC power system inside
substation such as lighting, air conditioners and other AC supply system and DC power
system such as protection relays, batteries.

Fig 2.8 a:15 KV Auxiliary transformer Fig 2.8 b: 33 KV Auxiliary transformer

Earthing Transformer

Earthing transformer is used stabilize an external earth fault on the delta side of star -delta
power transformer. In cases where the neutral point of three phase system is not accessible
like the system connected to the delta connected side of an electrical power transformer, an
artificial neutral point may be created with help of a zigzag connected earthing transformer.
In normal condition of the system, the voltage across the winding of the earthing transformer
is 1/√3 times of rated per phase voltage of the system. But when single line to ground fault
occurs on any phase of the system, zero sequence component of the earth fault current flows

16
in the earth and returns to the electrical power system by way of earth star point of the
earthing transformer. The rated voltage of an earthing or grounding transformer is the line to
line voltage on which it is intended to be used. Current rating of this transformer is the
maximum neutral current in Amperes that the transformer is designed to carry in fault
condition for a specific time. Generally,the time interval, for which transformer designed to
carry the maximum fault current through it safely, is taken as 30 second.

Fig 2.9a : 15KV Earthing transformer Fig 2.9b: 33KV Earthing transformer

Instrument transformers

Instrument transformers are high accuracy class electrical devices used to isolate or transform
voltage or current levels. The most common usage of instrument transformers is to operate
instruments or metering from high voltage or high current circuits, safely isolating secondary
Control circuitry from the high voltages or currents. The primary winding of the transformer
is connected to the high voltage or high current circuit, and the meter or relay is connected to
the secondary circuit. The two types of instrument transformers are discussed below.

Current transformer

A current transformer works on the same principle as that of a simple transformer however it
Steps down the high current into a low level so that the range can be measured. In some
current transformers, extra cores are provided. This is done to prevent the faulty currents i.e.
the over currents, earth faults, differential protections. The extra cores of a C.T. gets saturated
as soon as the faulty currents starts flowing and thereby does not harm the main core of the
transformer and the ammeter connected. The C.T. is always connected in the line carrying
current. It first steps down the current to measurable form and further gives this current to the
ammeter.

17
 Fig 2.10 Current transformer

Potential transformer (voltage transformer)

A potential transformer (or voltage transformer) is used to reduce high-voltages to values that
Can be remotely monitored with ordinary voltmeters, or to provide inputs to protective
relays. It also electrically-isolates meters/relays from the high-voltage systems. They are
mutual transformers which work on the same principle as any other step-down transformer
i.e. a voltage applied to the primary winding results in a lower voltage induced into its
secondary.

Power transformer

Power transformer is a device that is used to convert inbound electricity or voltage to a higher
or lower value in order to accommodate the current flow needed for specific purposes. Power
transformers are a normal component in the power grids of many nations, making it possible
to regulate the transfer of power to residences and commercial building without overloading
the circuit in those structures. From this perspective, the transformer can also be viewed as a
safety feature that reduces some of the risk associated with utilizing electrical current in those
settings. The two main functions of a power transformer are to transfer electrical current from
a source to a destination, and to regulate the voltage of that current before it reaches the
intended destination.

18
 Fig 2.11 Power transformer

Tap changer

A tap changer is a device fitted to power transformers for regulation of the output voltage to
required levels. This is normally achieved by changing the ratios of the transformers on the
system by altering the number of turns in one winding of the appropriate transformer/s.
Supply authorities are under obligation to their customers to maintain the supply voltage
between certain limits. Tap changers can be on load or off load. On load tap changers
generally consist of a diverter switch and a selector switch operating as a unit to effect
transfer current from one voltage tap to the next. On load tap changers were introduced to
power transformers as a means of on load voltage control.

Isolator (Disconnector)

A switching device which can be opened or closed only under no current condition it
provides isolation of a circuit for maintenance. A disconnector, disconnect switch or isolator
switch is used to ensure that an electrical circuit is completely de-energized for service or
maintenance. High-voltage isolation switches are used in electrical substations to allow
isolation of apparatus such as circuit breakers, transformers and transmission lines, for
maintenance. The disconnector is usually not intended for normal control of the circuit, but
only for safety isolation. Disconnector can be operated either manually or automatically
(motorized disconnector). Unlike load break switches and circuit breaker, disconnectors lack
a mechanism for suppression of electric arc, which occurs when conductors carrying high
currents are electrically interrupted. Thus, they are off load devices, intended to be opened
only after current has been interrupted by some other control device. Safety regulations of the
utility must prevent any attempt to open the disconnector while it supplies a circuit. Standards
in some countries for safety may require either local motor isolators or lockable overloads
(which can bepadlocked). Substation class group operated air disconnect switches can be
defined quite simply as mechanical devices which conduct electrical current and provide an
open point in a circuit for isolation of one of the following devices: circuit breaker, circuit
switcher, power transformer, capacitor bank, or other. The most important functions that
disconnect switches must perform are: -

19
a. To open and close reliably when called upon to do so,

b. To carry current continuously without overheating

Depending upon the position in power system, the isolators can be categorized as

1. Bus side isolator: - the isolator is directly connected with main bus.

2. Line side isolator: - the isolator is situated at line side of any feeder.

Fig 2.12 Disconnector

Circuit breaker

Electrical Circuit Breaker is a switching device which can be operated manually as well as
automatically for controlling and protection of electrical power system respectively. It is a
device capable of making, breaking and electric circuit under normal and abnormal
conditions such as short circuits. The circuit breaker can protect the circuit from a high
current short circuit and through its thermal trip it can protect the circuit from overload
condition. Working Principle of Circuit Breaker,the circuit breaker mainly consists of fixed
contacts and moving contacts. In normal "on" condition of circuit breaker, these two contacts
are physically connected to each other due to applied mechanical pressure on the moving
contacts. There is an arrangement stored potential energy in the operating mechanism of
circuit breaker which is realized if switching signal given to the breaker.

20
 Fig 2.13 Circuit Breaker

Types of Circuit Breaker

According different criteria there are different types of circuit breaker. According to their arc
quenching media, the circuit breaker can be divided as;

 Oil circuit breaker

 Air blast circuit breaker
 SF6 circuit breaker
 Vacuum circuit breaker

Oil Type Circuit Breaker

The switch contacts are immersed in oil to quench (to minimize) any spark that might occur
when the current is interrupted. The oil used as dielectric materials insulating the current
conducting parts. •Low-oil content circuit breakers: - which operate with minimum amount of
oil used only for arc extinction. •Bulk oil breakers: - these types of breaker use a large
quantity of oil used for arc extinguishing and insulating the current conducting part.

SF6 (Sulphur hexafluoride) Type Circuit Breaker

In most substations SF6 circuit breakers work through arc interruption. The main function of
SF6 circuit breakers is to interrupt power during faults, which work through arc interruption.
When electrical current exceeds a certain level (called a rating), the breaker will trip and
contacts within the circuit breaker will open to interrupt the circuit. When the current is
interrupted, an electrical arc is created. An arc contains heat and voltage, so it must be
contained and extinguished. The SF6 circuit breaker uses compressed sulfur hexafluoride
(SF6) gas to cool the arc and absorb free conducting electrons. The electrons captured by the
gas form mostly immobile negative ions, creating dielectric insulation and extinguishing the
arc.Advantages of SF6 gas are extremely efficient at extinguishing or "quenching" electrical
arcs.This ensures shorter arc times, allowing less damage to occur. The dielectric strength of
sulfur hexafluoride gas is also much higher than air, so SF6 breakers can interrupt much

21
larger currents than other types of breakers. Sulfur hexafluoride is inflammable, so there is no
danger of fire.Additionally, SF6 circuit breakers are completely enclosed and sealed so they
may be used in many environments.

Bus bar

Bus bars receive power from incoming circuits and deliver power to outgoing circuits. It is
made of copper bar, Aluminum tube etc.Bus bars may be used to carry phase voltage in
which case they must be suitably insulated. Such insulation may either surround the bus bar,
or alternatively the bus bar itself may be un insulated but physically mounted using an
insulating material to keep it electrically separate from its support.

Fig 2.14 Bus Bar

Relays

The function of relays is to discriminate between normal operation and fault conditions. The
OC relay has an operating coil, which is connected to the CT secondary winding, and a set of
contacts. When / I’/ exceeds a specified “pick up” value, the operating coil causes the
normally open contacts to close. When the relay contacts close, the trip coil of the circuit
breaker is energized, which then causes the circuit breaker to open. Note that the circuit
breaker doesn’t open until its operating coil is energized, either manually or by relay
operation. Based on information from instrument transformers, a decision is made and
“relayed” to the trip coil of the breaker, which opens the power circuit-hence the name relay.

Different types of relay

Over Current Relay

The CT secondary I’ is the input to the over current relay operating coil. Instantaneous over
current relays respond to the magnitude of their input current. If the current magnitude I=/I’/
exceeds a specified adjustable current magnitude Ip, called the pickup current, then the relay
contacts close “ instantaneously ” to energize the circuit breaker trip coil. If I’ is less than the
pickup current Ip, then the relay contacts remain open, blocking the trip coil. Time-delay over
current relay also respond to the magnitude of their input current, but with an intentional time

22
delay. The time delay depends on the magnitude of the relay input current. If I’ is a large
multiple of the pickup current Ip, then the relay operates (or trips) after a small-time delay.

Differential Relay

Is a current operated relay that responds to the difference between two or more current above
a set value. Differential relays are commonly used for protecting generators, buses, and
transformers. And there are many relays used in a transmission substation. Such as: -

 Over voltage relay

 Under voltage relay
 Power relay
 Directional relay
 Thermal relay
 Auxiliary relay…etc.
2.5 Control and Protection Room
The Purpose of an electrical power system is to generate and supply electrical energy to
consumers. But during this time the safety should be concerned. This safety concerning is
known as protection. The purpose of Protection is to minimize the adverse effects of
faults on a power system. Protection does this by detecting faults and causing appropriate
power switch devices to isolate the faulted system elements from the healthy system as
quickly as possible. The detection of a fault and disconnection of a faulty section or
apparatus can be achieved by using relays in conjunction with circuit breakers. Common
terms used in protections
 Protection system: - All those devices and components needed to detect and
isolate a faulted system element including instrument transformers.
 Protection Relay: - Thus an electronic or electro-mechanical device that decides
if there is a fault and then initiate’s action to clear that fault.
 Protection Zone: -That portion of the power system of system elements protected
by a protection system as defined by the location of the sensing devices, usually
CTs.
 Power System Zone: - A System element or group of elements protected by a
particular Protection system as defined by the location of the isolating device,
usually circuit breakers.
 Differential Protection: - This is a way of protection based on the principle that
under normal conditions and neglecting internal losses, the power entering a
protection zone must be equal to the power leaving that protected zone. Any
difference in these quantities indicates a fault within the protected zone. Because
of its simplicity and selectivity, differential protection is the most common form
of equipment protection. Over current Protection:- his is a protection which
mainly used as a back-up protection for transmission lines and transformers and
main protection for distribution lines. It mainly analyzes the current on the system
and act when the current is above the setting value. In substations, there are

23
 various panels such as protective panels, measuring panels, SCADA system,
Central unit panel, AC panel and DC panels as well as batteries. Substations
control room has following functions.

1. Protection

2. Metering

3. Communication with the neighbor substation and generation

4. Controlling

5. Monitoring and operating 6. Tap-Changer control

7. Control of shunt reactor for voltage control in control panel

Generally, protection, Control, monitoring and operation are performed in the control
room automatically or manual. The control panels, Protection panels etc. are housed
in the control room building of the substation. The protection functions are performed
automatically by protective relaying system and the circuit breakers.

Fig 2.15 Control room

Rectifiers and Batteries

In substation, the electric power is required for the auxiliaries such as lighting circuit such
that Indoor and outdoor light, battery charging sets, and emergency lighting. The auxiliary
battery of rated voltage is 125V (DC) and AC voltage is 380V. If there is no AC voltage,
battery works in floating system. When the power is available the batteries are charged and
they used to supply to the substation compound during power supply off or when sudden
power shut down is occurred. The rectifier is a device that can converts AC into DC current
at the time of power available. DC Auxiliary system Low voltage DC sources is essential in a
substation for the following purpose for control, communication, Protection, Remote
indication, operation of CB Signaling and emergency lighting.

24
 Fig 2.16 Batteries

2.6 How good we have been in performing in our tasks

In our perspective we tried our best to perform our work tasks satisfactorily. Our
supervisor also followed us in day to day activities from the first day to the last minute of
work.

2.7 Challenges we Face in Performing Tasks

 Fearing to ask formals, technicians and operators.
 Unable to identify specific functions of electrical instruments.
 Slow speed and lack of efficiency in performing tasks due to absence of
experience.
 Electric shock and other injuries due to absence of safety.

2.8 Measures Taken to Overcome Challenges

 Harmonious relationship with staff members.

 Reading instructions of electrical equipment’s.
 Reading and asking about faults that one electrical engineer must have knew.
 Following senior and formal electricians before we have done something.
 Taking the right data after measurement and from the devices name plate.

25
 CHAPTER THREE

BENEFITS GAINED FROM THE INTERNSHIP

Internship provides real world experience to those looking to explore or gain the relevant
knowledge and skills required to enter a particular career field. Internships are relatively short
term in nature with the primary focus on getting some on the job training and taking what’s
learned in the classroom and applying it to the real world. An experience should enhance a
student’s academic career and personal development.

3.1 Improving our practical skill

Since from elementary our mind loaded with theoretical concepts even in campus. Having a
good practical skill is not that much available due to lack of materials but, in this internship
program we have got lots of practical skills and experiences. Also, it can assist students to
bridge the gap between the academic learning process and the Practical world. There are
many benefits that we get from our internship program. These includes: -

 Site selection.
 General design consideration.
 Substation drawing reading.
 Arrangement of equipment in the substation.
 How to use working materials.
 Develop the habit of safe working.We have improved our practical skills on:
 How to select which major equipment are available for the given substation.
 How to read the incoming voltage at the voltage transformer and current at the
Current transformer. If 400KV is generated from the generation station the voltage
transformer should read 66KV and the current transformer should read 5A, because
66KV is set by5A. But if it is greater or less than the given voltage there is a problem
either at the transmission line or the generation station.
 How to control all substation equipment automatically in control room.
 How to control all substation equipment manually and Substation rehabilitation.

3.2. Improving our theoretical skill

The internship program is also beneficial to improve our theoretical skill. We upgrade lots of
our theoretical knowledges about voltage drop, short circuit, faults in circuits with their
solutions, types and uses of major equipments that we have never seen, and mainly the
concepts of the courses that we have learnt in class especially power system, installation,
electrical machine, energy conversion and rural electrification and modern control. We have
been thought so many things beyond the course we have taken during our four-year program.

26
Among these theoretical skills: -

 Understand how the formulas do work and when to use them.

 We understand how transformers do work
 Understand transformer loses like eddy current loose and core loose
 Realize transformer cooling mechanisms.
 How the corona effects occur.
 How to solve problems.
 How to do feasibility study.

3.3 Improving our team playing skill

In addition to specialized skills of our field, transferable skills are generally required at any
job. This can be called inter personal communication or team work. As a result, our
internship Improves team playing, work ethics, respect for each other and working with the
engineers for the common goal. We learn our strengths and weaknesses by creating learning
objectives and receiving feedback from our supervisor. Ask question, observe, take ideas and
experiences from others and take risks. This often leads to increase our creativity, and an
inspiring sense of collaboration and cooperation.

3.4 Improving my leadership skills

Leading a team or an organization holds the most basic and key place of profession, hence
requires well trained person. We have learned a good leading skill from our supervisor and all
be responsible and trusted. The engineers that we work together Some of the leader ship skills
that we have performed are: -

 To share our problems openly and get the team involved in solutions whenever there
is a setback.
 As a leader to be clear, active by working, to have goals, mission and vision in our
ability.
 During our working time, always ready to show smiley face for the workers and
supervisor.
 Respecting differences of all team members.
 Listening and accepting the ideas of our supervisor.
 To recognize, tell and solve mistakes and problems.

3.5 Understanding about work ethics

Work ethic is a value based on hard work and diligence. During our internship period, we
have learnt about work ethics. Through the last few months we hardly able to know the
following things: -

27
  Possess a positive attitude at our working place.
 Responsibility and able to respond appropriately to any given situation without having
to be constantly monitored.
 Putting on work clothes, safety shoes and helmet before entering in to the construction
site or the substation.
 We try to adapt hard things at construction sites, like sun and dust.
 Self-motivation to solve problems and to create new ideas.
 Strong self-confidence
 Willingness to do what our profession asks to do without complain.

3.6 Entrepreneurship skill

Entrepreneur means undertake the risk of new enterprises. This creation called
entrepreneurship. Being an intern student built an individual’s knowledgeable in Selection of
the effective way of doing work and develops entrepreneurship skills. Some of these
includes: -

 Risk taking ability.

 Increasing efficiency of work.
 Able to invent new ideas.
 Creative mind in solving the problem of company.
 Work discipline.
 Invent short methods.

3.7 Interpersonal Communication Skills

Communication is a bridge among persons. It is a basic skill to live with your friend, families
and company bosses.I have had the chance to meet with all employers. In order to understand
how the machines work, you have to ask operators. During this time, it is expected from you
to make a gentle communication with them unless you can’t extract he information needed.
Additionally, in each day, we have a meeting with our supervisors and foreman’s. Therefore
we try to make a communication in respect of them; hence it improves our skill very well.
Problem solving, decision making and personal stress management are also things to be
considered when we talk about interpersonal skills.

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 CHAPTER FOUR
PROJECT
Load Forecasting For Sululta Town To Expand The Existing Substation
Abstract: Currently, due to economic development of the country the electrical energy
demand of Ethiopia increases by 30% yearly. Perrier to planning and expansion of existing
system to satisfy customer demand proper load forecasting must be employed. Due to this
demand forecasting is a vital and integral process for planning periodical operations and
facility expansion in the electricity sector. However, long term demand forecasting is
complex task due to system uncertainty.Therefore, finding an appropriate forecasting model
that will generalize the exact demand pattern for a specific electricity network may not be an
easy task.even if appropriate data is limited, this paper presents a realistic methodology that
can be used as a guide to construct Sululta town Load Forecasting model based on obtained
data. Trending methodology statistical analyses are involved to study the load features and
forecasting precision, such as linear regression, compound growth model and quadratic
regression. Real four year load data from Sululta substation is used as a case study. By using
the best optimal value of the rank correlation coefficient and mean absolute percentage
error, the compound growth model is used in the coming five years load forecasting. By
forecasting of Sululta town load demand will result in proper utilization of energy and for
planning of any electricity related projects it will use as a baseline to be applied cost wise.
The main objective of this study is to assess the future energy demand of customers so that
supplying of power and using that without shortage will be optimized.

Keywords: Energy, Forecasting, Long term, Trend analysis, Customers

4.1. Introduction

Sululta Substation is located in Oromia regional state around Oromia special zone at Sululta
city. Where the city is around 15 km away from Addis Ababa.This substation was built by
China company in 2011.Substation has incoming of 400KV from Bahir Dare Substation,
400KV from Holeta Substation, 230KV from Gefersa Substation, 400KV from Sebeta
Substation, outgoing of 230KV to Legatafo and Chancho Substation. This substation also has
six 15KV and five 30KV outgoing line to different areas with overhead distribution lines
around the substation.In addition there is an outgoing of 132KV to Dangote cement factories.
This substation has one 50MVA transformers with three winding, two 65MVA transformer
with two winding and three 256MVA transformer with two winding.

29
 Fig 4. 4View Of Sululta 400/230/132/33/15KV Substation

Fig 4. 5 Single Line Diagram Of Sululta 400/230/132/33/15KV Substation

Fig 4. 6 Sululta town 15KV and 33KV feeder lines

30
Electric power is the vital part in the development of any country. In order to supply power to
the customers based on their demand the generation system, transmission system and
distribution systems must be designed by considering load demand forecasting. Among these,
the distribution system is the essential link to the customers. When electric power distribution
systems are designed and operated it shall to be considered long term and short term demand
forecasting.Electric Power Load Forecasting (EPLF) is a vital process in the planning of the
electricity industry and the operation of electric power systems. Accurate forecasts lead to
substantial savings in operating and maintenance costs, increased reliability of power supply
and delivery system, and correct decisions for future development.

Long-term demand forecasts span from years up to decades. They have an important role in
the context of generation, transmission and distribution network planning in a power system.
The main objective of power system planning is to determine an economic expansion of the
equipment and facilities to meet the customers' future electricity demand with an acceptable
level of reliability and power quality [3].

Accurate long-term demand forecasting plays an essential role in electric power system
planning. It corresponds to load demand forecasting with direct times enough to plan for
long-term maintenance, construction scheduling for developing new generation facilities,
purchasing of generating units, developing transmission and distribution systems. The
accuracy of the long-term load forecast has a significant effect on developing future
generation and distribution planning. An expensive overestimation of load demand will result
in substantial investment, for the construction of excess power facilities, while
underestimation will result in customer discontentment. Unfortunately, it is difficult to
forecast load demand accurately over a planning period of several years. This fact
is due to the uncertain nature of the forecasting process.

There are a large number of influential that characterize and directly or indirectly affect the
underlying forecasting process [4]. However, neither the accurate amount of needed power
nor the preparation for such amounts of power is as easy as it looks.

The reasons are:

1) Long-term load forecasting is always inaccurate as the

years increase

2) Peak demand is very much dependant on weather

condition

3) Unavailability of weather and economical data

4) It is very difficult to store electric power with the present

technology,

5) It takes several years and requires a great amount of investment to construct new power
generation stations and transmission facilities [4]. Therefore, any long-term load demand
forecasting, by nature, is inaccurate.

31
4.2 Problem Statement and Justification
Due to rapid population growth and establishment of new factories and industries, Sululta
town will face alarming growth of load demand. This necessities expansion planning of
existing substation. In order to commerce expansion planning, proper load forecasting of
Sululta town must be employed. Load forecasting is usually tied to reliability analysis and
distribution transformer load management.

4.3 Objective

4.3.1 General Objective

The major aim of this project is to display load forecasting for sululta town in order to expand
the existing substation in the future.

4.3.2 Specific objective

 To develop appropriate Sululta town load forecasting models.
 To assess the future energy demand of customers so that supplying of power without
shortage will be optimized.
 To eliminate (to avoid as much as possible) the occurrence of substation overloading
in future.
 To sustain the delivery of power to customers around Sululta substation and nearby
factories
 To alleviate the system demand supply imbalance that could be happened around
Suluta Substation.

4.4 Review of Literature

Svetlana.C, Paulo. S and Mário.V [2]: Due to many factors electric power systems are
tremendously complex. It consists of uncounted numbers of facilities and structures, systems
and subsystems, components and equipment, and the complex physical, Administrative and
operational interactions. Physical interactions are interaction between parts of the facilities,
systems, and components, whereas operational interactions are the interactions where the
equipment electrically, magnetically, or mechanically interacts with other equipment.
Administrative interactions are the interactions where the facilities and structures, systems
and subsystems, components and equipment are subjected to management and administrative
procedures, which include a wide set of documents [1]. So if the electric power system has
those characteristics and since the energy once generated cannot be stored efficiently or
effectively in large quantities, then the complexity unpredicted system behavior at one point
of the system can have a major impact at large if planning is not done properly.

N. Phuangpornpitak and W. Prommee [4]: Considering the benefits that energy forecasting
may bring to the security, economics and resource management fields, the scientific
community is now beginning to take some interest in this area. The control of the
performance prediction represents the premise of a good global performance. As load
forecasting is highly related to the quality of system planning, attention has been paid to the
impact of load forecasting on system design and economics. Optimization software and

32
techniques are applied to load forecasting as well as planning. There is an array of methods
that are available today for forecasting demand in the short term, medium term and long term.
Some of these methods are simplistic; others are more sophisticated and require detailed and
very accurate input data and information.

An appropriate method is chosen based on the nature of the data available and the desired
nature and level of detail of the forecasts. Due to a lack of accurate and reliable input data,
sometimes forecasters must employ more general approaches and consider various cases or
scenarios in order to evaluate the sensitivity of results. Even though there are various
methods, algorithms, computer codes/programs in use for load forecasting, all fall into two
categories namely parametric and artificial intelligence methods. Parametric load forecasting
methods are based on statistical techniques and historical data of loads and factors affecting
on loads. The parametric load forecasting method has three types: trending method, end use
method and econometric approach method.

Trending methods look for some function to fit the past load growth patterns and estimate the
future load based on the function. The trending method uses a single to multivariate
regression to fit a polynomial function to load history data. The underlying notion of this
analysis is that time is the factor determining the value of the variable under study, or, the
pattern of the variable in the past will continue in the future. Therefore, it does not offer any
scope to internalize the changes in factors such as the effects of government policy (pricing
or other) underlying institutional structure, regulatory regimes, demographic trends,
aggregate and per capital growth in incomes and technological developments. The advantages
of the trending method include ease of use, simplicity, and a short-range response to recent
trends of load growth patterns. However, it often fails to have a useful estimate of the long-
range load.

The end-use approach makes load forecasts based on the statistical information by
considering the impact of energy usage patterns of various devices and systems. It focuses on
various uses of the residential, commercial, agriculture and industrial sectors of the economy
based on the principle that electricity demand is de-rived from customer’s demand for
light, heating, cooling, etc. This model use extensive information on end users, for instance,
customer size and size of houses. The approach demands a high level of detail on each of the
end-users. One criticism raised against the method is that it may lead to a mechanical
forecasting of demands, without adequate regard for behavioral responses of consumers. It
also does not give variations in the consumption patterns due to demographic,socioeconomic,
or cultural factors.This approach combines economic theory with statistical methods to
produce a system of equations for forecasting energy demand. The demand for electricity is
expressed as a function of various economic factors such as population, income per capita,
price of electric power, prices of alternative fuels (that could be used as substitutes) and
capture technology effect in the case of industries etc. The econometric methods require a
consistent set of information over a reasonably long duration. This requirement forms a
prerequisite for establishing both short-term and long-term relationships between the
variables involved. The price effect will have an important role to play in the years to come.

33
In such a case, one may have to broaden the set of explanatory variables apart from relying
on more rigorous econometric techniques to get around the problem.

Systems approaches, including the use of extensions of the aforementioned methods can
provide an organized framework for resources management and for estimating the
important geographical, ecological, social and economic impacts and trends over relevant
scales of space and time. The load is multi-dimensional variable so the methods used to
forecast includes deep mathematics and modeling. Now a day, fuzzy logic, artificial
intelligence and neural network are added the last generation methods for load forecasting.

4.5 Methodology

For this study the load history of Sululta town in the years from 2017 to 2020 G.C is used.
The five years actual monthly peak load is collected from Sululta substation.

Trending load forecasting is used for doing this research. The reasons were due to lack of
necessary data that will use as input for other types of parametric load forecasting. This
methodology predicts future power demand by assuming that the factors that influenced
demand in the past will continue to do so in the same way in the future. The most common

functions are linear trend regression, compound growth trend regression and quadratic trend
regression [6, 7, and 8].

The Linear Model Approach: This simple model is used based on the linear relationship
between the dependent variable y which is the peak load of the year and independent
variable x which is the year as shown in Equation (1). This is the equation of a straight line
which intercepts y axes at α with a slope of 𝛽 [7]. In order to get the value of α and 𝛽,
equations (2) and (3) used which are derived from the equation (1). The number of years is
represented by n in all the trending method used here.

𝑦=α+𝛽𝑥…………………………………………...…Equation 1

∑ 𝑦 = 𝛼n + 𝛽 ∑ 𝑥 ……………………………………...Equation 2

∑ 𝑥𝑦 𝛼∑ 𝑥 𝛽∑ 𝑥i2 ………………………….....Equation 3

The Compound-Growth Model: - This is one of the trending load forecasting methods and
it is expressed as equation (4).

𝑦= antilog(𝑟+ 𝑠𝑥)………………………………..………..Equation 4

Where the constants r and s can be found by solving equation (5) and (6) simultaneously.

∑ 𝑦 = nr + s∑ 𝑥 ……………………………………….Equation 5

∑ 𝑥 𝑦 𝑟∑ 𝑥 𝑠∑ 𝑥i2………………………...Equation 6

34
The quadratic regression model: - This relates peak load (y) and the years (x) in the form
given in equation (7).

𝑦= a0 + a1 𝑥+ a2 𝑥2………………………………………...Equation 7

While the constants a₀, a₁ and a₂ can be solved from the equations (8, 9 and 10);

∑ 𝑦 = a 0n + a 1 ∑ 𝑥 +a2 ∑ 𝑥i2…………………....Equation 8

∑ 𝑥 𝑦 = a0 ∑ 𝑥 +a1 ∑ 𝑥i2 + a2 ∑ 𝑥i3 …………Equation 9

∑ 𝑥i2yi = a0 ∑ 𝑥i2 + a1 ∑ 𝑥i3 + a2 ∑ 𝑥i4 ……..Equation 10

Table 1 :The value of actual peak load.

Year Actual Linear trend Compound growth Quadratic regression

peak load Forecasted Forecasted peak model Forecasted peak
(MW) peak load (MW) load (MW) load (MW)
2017 28.75 26.56 27.99 26.98
2018 30.42 29.45 26.88 29.76
2019 32.56 30.67 28.87 31.43
2020 34.96 33.12 32.38 32.69

Load Forecast Models

40
PEAK LOAD IN MW

30

20

10

0
2016.5 2017 2017.5 2018 2018.5 2019 2019.5 2020 2020.5
YEARS

Actual peak load (MW)

Linear Trend Forcasted peak load (MW)
Compound growth
Quadratic regression model Forecasted peak

Fig 4. 7 Load Forecast Models

Based on the above mentioned trending load forecasting methods; in order to select the best
one the rank of the correlation coefficient 𝑟𝑥𝑦 and Mean absolute percentage error (MAPE)
are used. Rank correlation coefficient 𝑟𝑥𝑦 is a statistical tool that helps to measure and
analyze the degree of relationship between the two variables x and y. It tells how truthful the
model can be in its forecast. Its optimal value is unity.
∑
rxy=

35
Where 𝑥 and 𝑦 are the mean values of x and y and 𝑠𝑥 and 𝑠𝑦 are the standard deviation of x
and y respectively.

Mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) is a measure of accuracy in a fitted time series value
in statistical trending. It usually expresses accuracy as a percentage and is expressed
as equation (12).

𝑀𝐴𝑃𝐸 = 𝑀 = ∑ …………………………………………………….Equation 12

Where At is the actual value and Ft is the forecast value. The least value of M is optimal
unlike highest value of rank r.

4.6 Results and Discussion

In order to forecast Sululta town distribution system; linear trend, compound growth and
quadratic regression methods are used. Using these methods the best rank correlation
coefficient (𝑟𝑥𝑦) and mean absolute percentage error (mape) was selected.

From table 1 the starting year 2017 acts as 1 value of X and the last year 2020 will be the X
value of 4.

Based on this when the linear trend method is applied.

∑ 𝑦 = 𝛼n + 𝛽 ∑ 𝑥

∑ 𝑦 = 4𝛼 + 𝛽 ∑ 𝑥

28.75+30.42+32.56+34.96 = 4𝛼 + (1+2+3+4)

126.69 = 4𝛼 𝛽………………………………………………………..Equation 13

∑ 𝑥𝑦 𝛼∑ 𝑥 𝛽∑ 𝑥i2

∑ 𝑥𝑦 𝛼∑ 𝑥 𝛽∑ 𝑥i2

28.75*1+30.42*2+32.56*3+34.96*4 = 10 𝛼 + 30 𝛽

327.11 = 10𝛼 𝛽………………………………………………………..Equation 14

Solving the two equations simultaneously the value of 𝛼 = 26.48 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 = 2.077 so that the
equation will be

𝑦 = 26.48 + 2.077 ∗𝑥…………………………………………………………………….Equation 15

In case of Compound-Growth Model when the values of x and y are substituted in equation
(5) and (6).

36
 6 = 4r + 10s

10.535 = 10r + 30s

Solving the two equations simultaneous will give r= 3.73 and s= 0.893 so that equation 4 will
be written as

y = antilog(3.73 + 0.893 ∗x)……………………………………...Equation 16

In case of the quadratic regression model, by substituting the values of x and y in equation (8)
to (10) it will be

126.69 = 4a0 + 10a1 +30a2.....................................................................Equation 17

327.11 = 10a0 + 30a1 +100a2……………………………………………….Equation 18

1002.83 = 30a0 + 100a1 +354a2…………………………………………….Equation 19

Solving these three equations simultaneous will give us a value of

a0 = 28.94; a1 = 11.5214; a2 = 10.1214

𝑦= 28.94 + 11.5214 ∗𝑥+ 10.1214 ∗𝑥…………………………………………………….Equation 2

By using the derived equations (15), (16) and (17) the respective forecasted peak load is
shown in table 1. The rank of correlation coefficient (𝑟𝑥𝑦) and Mean absolute percentage
error (MAPE) values will be calculated based on equation 11 and 12. The mean and standard
deviation of y is calculated by using the respective forecasted peak load values.
∑ | |
rxy= 𝑀𝐴𝑃𝐸 = 𝑀 = ∑

. . . .
Mean,𝑥̅ . 𝑦̅ .

̅
Standard deviation , Sx= √

. . . .
=√

= 2.37

̅
Sy= √

. . . . . . . .
=√

= 2.35

37
Correlation coefficient (𝑟xy) using linear trend lorecasting.
∑
𝑟xy =

∗ . ∗ . ∗ . ∗ .
= ∗ . ∗ .

=0.798

Mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) using linear trend lorecasting.

| |
𝑀𝐴𝑃𝐸 = 𝑀 = ∑

| . . | | . . | | . . | | . . |
= + + + )
. . . .

=0.018

Table 2 :Mean absolute percentage error and rank correlation coefficient values of three
trends are summarized below.

Using Linear trend Using Compound Using quadratic

Forecasting growth regression
Forecasting Forecasting
MAPE 0.018 0.25 0.019
𝑟𝑥𝑦 0.798 0.8 0.795

High value of 𝑟𝑥𝑦 and low value of MAPE is best for load forecasting. So from table 2
Linear trend forecasting is best suited. Based on this the next five years load demand of
Sululta town can be forecasted as follows.

From equation (15) 𝑦 = 26.48 + 2.077 ∗𝑥

For the year 2021 (x=5) to 2025 (x=10) the load forecast of these years based on Linear trend
forecasting method is listed in table 3.

Table 3 : The peak load forecasted using Linear trend forecasting model for the year 2021 to
2025 G.C.

Year (X) Linear trend forecasting peak load demand (MW)

2021(x=5) 36.865
2022(x=6) 38.942
2023(x=7) 41.019
2024(x=8) 43.096
2025(x=9) 45.173

38
 Linear trend forecasting peak load demand (MW) LINEAR TREND FORECASTING
Column1

50 45.173
43.096
45 41.019
38.942
40 36.865
33.12
35 29.45 30.67
30 26.56
25
20
15
10
5
0
2017 2018 2019 2 02 0 2 02 1 2 02 2 2 02 3 2 02 4 2 02 5
Years

Fig 4. 8 Linear trend forecasting

As it is seen from table 3; after five years ahead the peak load demand of Sululta town will be
45.173MW. Since the rating capacity of the present 132/33/15KV transformer exist in the
substation is 50MVA and this transformer is become overloaded after five years.. So to avoid
shortage of power due to the capacity of the of the transformer in the substation; in the
coming year’s expansion of the present distribution power system must be done in addition to
functionalizing of the newly installed 132/33/15KV transformer in the substation.

Factors contributing to this high demand growth rate include:-

The Town High GDP growth rate.

 Expansion of the national grid to rural towns and villages, raising the electricity access of
the town.

 Industrial consumption enhancement due to the high industrial development of the town.

 Household energy consumption in the town shifted from wood‐fuel and kerosene to
electricity

Long-term peak load forecasts drives various plans and decisions on investments in modern
power systems. In this project, the ultimate focus of forecasting Sululta town peak load by
using different trending methods is achieved. The load forecasting of the next five years is
done based on the historical data collected from Sululta substation. The linear regression,
compound-growth and quadratic regression were tested and based on the values of mean
absolute percentage error and rank correlation coefficient the most suitable is chosen. Finally
i conclude that the installation of new transformer to meet the growth of demand of electricity
in the town.

39
4.7 Limitation of the project

It is difficult to obtain appropriate data like the population number of Sululta Town, number
of consumers connected, and the gross domestic product (GDP). Thus all the data collected
are preprocessed for the model.If those data are properly given for me the project is done
effectively as much as possible but, this project also have a great contributions for load
forecasting of Sululta town and expansion of existing substation.

CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 Conclusion

Internship provides many benefits not only for interns, but also for hosting companies. Since
the interns could be parts of the employment, they could be an additional man power. And
accepting interns for internship could able to the company to get short-term support from
interns on many tasks. On my internship period, i knew what real world looks like and how i
could relate and practice our theoretical knowledge to the profession. Furthermore, it helped
me to improve my different skills such as leadership skills, inter communication skills,
industrial problem solving capability, and it was very helping even for the future. In the last
two months of my internship period in EEP company, i have been working on transmission
engineering department under supervision and design sub department, i have gained a hint
about substations, transmission, and each equipment of substations and how it be constructed
and how it operates. And this was very mandatory and helpful to relate my theoretical
knowledge with practical. In my stay of internship, i could have met many professions and
workers, engineers and this was very important and helping to get more knowledge and to
improve my practical skills and to understand work ethics.

Generally, my internship period was very interesting and we are satisfied in the program.And
it was successful on achieving its goal.

5.2 Recommendations

The rapid socio-economic growth and development of the Ethiopian economy needs
sufficient supply of Electrical Energy. Which means the EEP plays very great role on the
development of the country.

5.2.1 Recommendations for EEP

As i have clearly put the problems i observed on this internship period, i strongly
Recommend the EEP to:

 Implement safety rules. For instance, supply of safety shoes and clothes for substation
Operators and guards.
 Make the profile of the office with full data available
 Make a contract deal with Ethiopian contractors for the construction of substations so
That it helps the country on many aspects.

40
  REFERENCES
[1]. Ghods L., Kalantar M., Methods for Long-Term Electric Load Demand Forecasting; a
Comprehensive Investigation. IEEE. 2014

[2]. Patrick Hilbert, maintenance optimization for power distribution systems, royal institute
of technology, Stockholm Sweden, 2017

[3]. A.K.Theraja, Textbook of Electrical technology, volume 1, S.J.Tarnekar, 2013

[4]. The Distribution system mentors also support us necessary materials to our report.

[5].Smith,Anthony M., Reliability Centered Maintenance, New York:McGraw-

Hill,1993.ISBN 0-07-059046-X.”

[6]. Company manuals how to operate and the working principles of equipments.

[7]. B.L. Theraja, A.K. Theraja; “A textbook of electrical technology volume 2”

[8].IEEE std. C57.106,”Guide for Acceptance and Maintenance of insulating oil in

Equipment.”

[9]. V.K Mehta, R. Mehta; “principle of power system 2”

[10].IEEE std.P1266,”Trial-Use Guide for Evaluation and Development of Substation Life

Extension Programs.”

41