Nervous System

Table Of Contents:
What’s included: Ready-to-study anatomy, physiology and pathology notes of the nervous system presented in
succinct, intuitive and richly illustrated downloadable PDF documents. Once downloaded, you may choose to either
print and bind them, or make annotations digitally on your iPad or tablet PC.
Anatomy & Physiology Notes:

- EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
- OVERVIEW & ORGANISATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
- SURFACE ANATOMY OF THE BRAIN
- BLOOD SUPPLY OF THE BRAIN
- CRANIAL NERVES
- THE SPINAL CORD
- NEURONAL PHYSIOLOGY
- NEUROTRANSMITTERS
- NEUROBIOLOGY OF MEMORIES
- NEUROBIOLOGY OF EMOTIONS
- SOMATOSENSORY PROCESSING
- MOTOR PROCESSING
- THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
- PAIN & NOCICEPTION
- SPECIAL SENSES - VISION
- THE TONGUE & GUSTATION (TASTE)
- OLFACTION (SMELL)
- HEARING AND EQUILIBRIUM
- REGIONAL ANATOMY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
- IMPORTANT CLINICAL NEUROLOGICAL THINGS
Pathology Notes:
- STROKES
- INTRACRANIAL HAEMORRHAGES
- ISCHAEMIC ENCEPHALOPATHY
- RAISED INTRACRANIAL PRESSURE
- SPINAL CORD SYNDROMES
- TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURIES
- EPILEPSY
- GUILLIAN-BARRE SYNDROME
- HUNTINGTONS DISEASE
- MOTOR NEURONE DISEASE (MND)/AMYELOTROPHIC LATERAL SCLEROSIS (ALS)
- POLIOMYELITIS
- MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS
- LEUKODYSTROPHIES
- MYASTHENIA GRAVIS
- PARKINSON’S DISEASE (“Shaking Palsy”)
- BRAIN TUMOURS
- DEMENTIAS
- PERIPHERAL NEUROPATHIES
- INFECTIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
- EAR PATHOLOGIES
- VISION DISORDERS
EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
General Embryonic Development is Described as Either:

• Trimesters (3x 3-Month Periods):
o First: - Foundations of Major Organs
o Second: - Development of Organs
o Third: - Rapid Growth & Fully Functional Organs.
• OR... Anatomical Stages: **(These are more relevant)
o Pre-Embryonic Period: 0-2 Weeks
§ Fertilisation
§ Blastocyst Formation & Implantation
§ Gastrulation
o Embryonic Period: 3-8 Weeks
§ Development & Differentiation of 3 Germ Layers into foundations of Organs.
o Foetal Period: 9 Weeks → Birth.
§ Period of Growth, NOT Differentiation.
Source: Unattributable
Some Useful Terminology:

- “Rostral” = Head
- “Caudal” = Tail
- “Dorsal” = Back
- “Ventral” = Front
- “Ganglia” = Groups of Nerve-Cell Bodies
- “Gyrus” = Elevations (Crests) of the folds on the Cerebral Cortex.
- “Sulcus” = Grooves / Furrows between the Gyri on the Cerebral Cortex.
Embryonic Development of the Nervous System:
1. Blastocyst: (Pre-Embryonic Period)
a. A fertilised egg reaches the Morula stage (Day 3), differentiates into a Blastocyst (Day 7) and then
im plants in the endom etrium .
b. The implanted Blastocyst consists of an ‘Inner-Cell Mass’ surrounded by Trophoblasts.
c. This ‘Inner-Cell Mass’ differentiates to form the ‘Bilaminar Disc’ (2 layers of cells)
i. Epiblast Layer: The top layer of Columnar Cells.
ii. Hypoblast Layer: The bottom layer of Cuboidal Cells.
Ttrue12, CC BY-SA 3.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons
OpenStax College, CC BY 3.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons

2. Gastrulation: (Embryonic Period [wk 3+])
a. Gastrulation = the process that establishes the 3 Primary Germ Layers in the Embryo.
b. Begins with formation of the Primitive Streak (a shallow midline groove) along the caudal/tail half of
bilaminar disc.
c. At the cephalic/head end of the Primitive Streak is the Primitive Node which surrounds the small
Primitive Pit. Cells of the Epiblast proliferate & migrate through the Primitive pit into the gap
between the Epiblast & the Hypoblast. This is known as Invagination
d. The Epiblast then becomes the Ectoderm, the invaginated cells become the Mesoderm and the
Hypoblast becomes the Endoderm.
3. Neurulation:
a. Neurulation = Where the ectoderm around the midline thickens to form an elevated Neural Plate.
b. This Neural Plate invaginates to form a Neural Groove down the midline, flanked by 2 Neural Folds.
The Notochord, a flexible rod of mesoderm-derived cells, defines the primitive axis of the embryo.
c. The outer edges of the 2 Neural Folds continue folding towards the midline where they fuse
together to form the Neural Tube. (Note: Initially this happens around the centre of the embryo,
leaving open Neural Grooves at both the Cephalic & Caudal ends. However, these Neural Grooves,
aka Neuropores, close off by around wk 6 of development. Failure of a Neuropore to close can result
in Neural Tube Defects such as Spina-Bifida )
d. The hollow part inside the Neural Tube is called the Neurocoele
e. The Neural Tube then separates from the Ectoderm and sinks down to the level of the Mesoderm.
i. The Mesoderm that flanks the sunken Neural Tube develops into The Somites, which
eventually become the Skin, Skeletal Muscle & Vertebrae+Skull.
f. Next, some cells on the top of the Neural Tube differentiate and separate to form the Neural Crest.
Cells of the Neural Crest eventually migrate & give rise to Peripheral Sensory Neurons, Autonomic
Neurons & Sensory Ganglia of the spinal nerves.
The Somites:
• Somites = The Mesoderm Tissue directly adjacent to Neural Tube.
o The Mesoderm that flanks the sunken Neural Tube develops into The Somites, which eventually
become the Skin, Skeletal Muscle & Vertebrae+Skull.
• Somites grow in association with the developing nervous system → establish early connections.
• Somites differentiate into 3 regions:
o Sclerotome: Becomes the Vertebral Column & Skull
o Myotome: Becomes Skeletal Muscle
o Dermatome: Becomes Skin
• Hence, the Somites determine the distribution of Nervous Supply to all Mesoderm-Derived Tissue.
Homme en Noir, CC BY-SA 4.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons
Development of the Neural Tube Into the Spinal Cord:

1. Once the Neural Tube closes, the cells differentiate into Neuroblasts
2. These Neuroblasts give rise to 2 concentric layers, The Mantle Layer (Inner) and The Marginal Layer (Outer).
a. Mantle Layer: Later forms the Grey-Matter of the Spinal Cord. (Ventral & Dorsal ‘Horns’)
b. Marginal Layer: Later forms the White-Matter of the Spinal Cord.
3. The Dorsal & Ventral regions of the Mantle Layer thicken forming 2xBasal Plates, and 2xAlar Plates.
a. Basal Plates: (Motor Plates) Develop into Motor Neurons innervating skeletal muscles.
i. Become the Ventral Horns
b. Alar Plates: (Sensory Plates) Develop into Sensory Neurons.
i. Become the Dorsal Horns
- Note: The Lateral Horns in the Thoracic & Lumbar Regions of the Spinal Cord are Autonomic Motor Neurons
and their Axons exit via the Ventral Roots.
Developing Spinal Cord vs Adult Spinal Cord
Development of the Neural Crest cells Into the Sensory (‘Dorsal-Root’) Ganglia of PNS:
1. Neural Crest Cells also differentiate into Neuroblasts which become the Sensory (‘Dorsal-Root’) Ganglia.
2. The Neuroblasts of the Dorsal-Root Ganglia develop 2 processes:
a. Penetrates into the Alar Plate of the Neural Tube AND/OR into the Marginal Layer & up to brain.
b. Grows distally (outwards) and integrates with the Ventral Motor Root, forming the Trunk of the
Spinal Nerve. These neurons eventually terminate in the sensory receptors in skin/muscle/tendons.
Note: These Dorsal-Root Ganglia Processes form the ‘Sensory PseudoUnipolar’ Nerve-Type.
Note: By Wk 7 we have a Nearly-Functional Nervous System very similar in Organisation to Adult Anatomy.
Development of the Head & Brain:
1. Neural-Tube Enlargement (Cephalic End):
a. At around 3-4wks, the Cephalic portion of the Neural Tube enlarges to form 3 regions; the Primary
Brain Vesicles:
i. Prosencephalon (Fore Brain)
ii. Mesencephalon (Mid Brain)
iii. Rhombencephalon (Hind Brain)
Note: The Cephalic Flexure between the Prosencephalon & Mesencephalon – important in humans
fo r B ip e d a lism (B ra in @ 9 0 0 to S p in a l C o rd ).
b. By around 4-5wks, the Primary Brain Vesicles develop further:
i. Prosencephalon (Fore Brain) develops into:
1. Telencephalon (Future Cerebral Hemispheres)
2. Diencephalon (Future Thalamus & Hypothalamus)
ii. Mesencephalon (Mid Brain)
iii. Rhombencephalon (Hind Brain) develops into:
1. Metencephalon (Future Pons & Cerebellum)
2. Myelencephalon (Future Medulla)
https://open.oregonstate.education/aandp/chapter/14-1-embryonic-development/
2. Brain Formation:
a. At around 11-13wks, there is massive Proliferation of Neuroblasts in Cephalic Neural Tube, causing
folding due to lack of space within the cranium.
Source: Jonathan Dimes for BabyCenter; https://www.babycenter.com/pregnancy/your-baby/fetal-development-

your-babys-brain_20004924
3. Pharyngeal Arches & Cranial Nerves:
a. Pharyngeal Arches = Similar to the Somites in lower parts of embryo. Each Pharyngeal Arch consists
of:
i. Ectoderm Tissue → Cranial Nerves & Skin of Face.
ii. Mesenchyme (Mesoderm) Tissue → Musculature of Face & Neck
iii. Endoderm Tissue → Pharyngeal Epithelium.
b. Note: Essentially, this results in Segmental Development of the Head & Neck, similar to Somites.
Loki austanfell, CC BY-SA 3.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons

4. Formation of Ventricles:
a. The Neurocoele of the Neural Tube becomes the Ventricles of the Adult Brain.
i. Lateral Ventricles (Vent. 1 & 2):
1. Sits in the Cerebral Hemispheres (Telencephalon)
2. Are shaped due to folding of brain during development.
3. Each Consists of:
a. An Frontal (Anterior) Horn
b. A ‘Body’
c. An Occipital (Posterior) Horn
d. A Temporal (Inferior) Horn
ii. Third Ventricle:
1. Sits in the Diencephalon
2. Lateral Walls formed by Thalamus & Hypothalamus
3. Connects with the 4th Ventricle via the Cerebral Aqueduct.
iii. Fourth Ventricle:
1. Sits in the Brainstem
2. Is Continuous with the Spinal Canal (Central Canal).
Creative Commons: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Neurulation-and-formation-of-the-cerebral-vesicles-a-

neural-tube-at-the-end-of-the-3_fig2_335125768
BruceBlaus, CC BY 3.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons

OVERVIEW & ORGANISATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
OVERVIEW & ORGANISATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
The Nervous System - Overview:

• Macro Structures:
o Brain
o Spinal Chord
o Peripheral Nerves
o Sense Organs
§ Eyes
§ Ears
§ Tongue
§ Olfactory bulbs
§ Skin
• Functions:
o Detection of stimuli (external/internal)
o Response to stimuli
o Coordinates activity of other organs & systems
Organisation of the Nervous System:

• Central Nervous System (the “CPU” & “Motherboard”)
o Brain
o Spinal Cord
• Peripheral Nervous System (the “Cables”)
o Cranial Nerves & Spinal Nerves
o Communication between CNS & rest of body
Nervous
System
Central Nervous Peripheral

System Nervous System
(Brain & Spinal (Cranial Nerves
Cord) & Spinal Nerves)
Afferent
Efferent
(Incoming
(Out-going)
) - Sensory
Somatic
(Voluntary) Autonomic
(Involuntary
- Motor Function )
Sympathetic NS Parasympathetic NS
(Fight/Flight) (Rest & Digest)
The Neuron - Structural Features:
a) Receptive Field: Dendrites
o Stimulated by inputs
b) Cell Body: Soma
o Responds to graded inputs
c) Efferent Projection: Axon (and Axon Hillock)
o Conducts nerve impulses to target
o Myelinated and unmyelinated
d) Efferent Projection: Myelin Sheath
e) Efferent Projection: “Nodes of Ranvier”
f) Output: Synaptic Terminals (Axon Terminals)
BrunelloN, CC BY-SA 4.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons
Supporting Cells: “Neuroglia” (Glia)

o Smaller support cells of NS
o Outnumber neurons 10:1
o Structural & mechanical support
o Roles in maintaining homeostasis & Myelination
o Immune responses via phagocytosis.
• Neuroglia of the Central Nervous System (CNS):
o Astrocytes
§ Nutrient bridge between neuron & capillaries
§ Guide migrating young neurons
§ Synapse formation
§ Mop up excess K+ ions + neurotransmitters
o Microglia
§ Long thorny processes
§ Monitors neuron health
§ Senses damaged neurons
§ Migrates to damaged neuron
§ Phagocytoses microbes & debris (immune cells are denied access to CNS)
o Oligodendrocytes
§ Myelin formation in CNS
o Ependymal Cells
§ Lines central cavities of brain + spinal chord
§ Blood-brain barrier
§ Beating cilia circulates cerebrospinal fluid
• Neuroglia of the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS):
o Schwann Cells
§ Myelin Formation – wrap around axon
§ Regeneration of damaged neurons
o Satellite cells
§ Surround neuron bodies
§ Structure, nutritional support & protection.
Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014". WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2). CC BY 3.0
<https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons
Connective Tissue Sheaths on Peripheral Nerves:

• Endoneurium
o Delicate connective tissue layer
o Surrounds each axon
• Perineurium
o Coarser connective tissue layer
o Bundles groups of fibers into fascicles
• Epineurium
o Tight, fibrous sheath
o Bundles fascicles into a single nerve.
o Houses blood vessels
https://www.tamiapland.com/blog/2018/8/7/fascial-layers-part-2-anatomy-of-a-nerve
G ray M atter & W hite M atter:
• Gray Matter
o Made up of Neuron bodies (Soma)
o Imbedded in Neuroglial cells
o Eg:
§ Cortex of Brain
§ Centre of Spinal Chord
§ Ganglia/nuclei
• White Matter
o Neuron fibers (axons & dendrites
o White due to myelin
o Eg:
§ Peripheral Nerves & Plexuses
§ Central fiber tracts
Ms. Emma Vought, CC BY 4.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons
OpenStax, CC BY 4.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons

Ganglia
• = Collections of neuron cell bodies in PNS
o Afferent Spinal Nerves:
§ Cell bodies of sensory neurons
§ ‘Dorsal root ganglion’
o Efferent Spinal Nerves:
§ Cell bodies of autonomic nerve fibers
§ ‘Sympathetic trunk ganglion’
o In Central Nervous System:
§ Called: Basal Nuclei / Nuclei
o Important for BOTH Motor & Autonomic Nervous Systems

Spinal Nerves:
• Dermatomes - Innervation of the Skin:
o A portion of the mesoderm (skin, sensory receptors, sebaceous glands, blood vessels) innervated by
the cutaneous branches of a single spinal nerve.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Dermatomes_and_cutaneous_nerves_-_posterior.png
SURFACE ANATOMY OF THE BRAIN
Surface Anatomy of the Brain:
- Dorsal Landmarks:
o Fissures:
§ Longitudinal Fissure: Separates Left & Right Hemispheres
§ Transverse Cerebral Fissure: Separates Occipital Lobe from Cerebellum
o Sulci:
§ Central Sulcus: Separates the Frontal & Parietal Lobes.
§ Lateral Sulcus: Separates the Temporal Lobe from the Other Lobes.
§ Parieto-Occipital Sulcus: Separates Parietal Lobe & Occipital Lobe
o Lobes:
§ Occipital Lobe: Most Caudal Lobe (Visual Cortex)
§ Temporal Lobe: Most Lateral Lobe
§ Frontal Lobe: Most Anterior Lobe

- Ventral Landmarks:
o Olfactory Bulbs: Responsible for sense of smell
o Optic Chiasm (“Optic Crossing”): ‘X’-shaped crossing-over of Optic Nerves.
o Infundibulum: Connection between Pituitary & Hypothalamus.
o Hypothalamus: Responsible for many autonomic homeostatic functions
o Pituitary: Important neuroendocrine organ.
o Mammillary Bodies: Form part of the Limbic System & are important for recollective memory.
o Pyramids (Pyramidal Tracts): Carry motor fibres from the cerebral cortex to the spinal cord.
https://etc.usf.edu/clipart/53100/53182/53182_brain.htm
- M edial Landm arks (Ie: O n Sagittal Section):
o Cingulate Gyrus: Part of the Limbic System. Involved in emotion and behaviour regulation.
o Corpus Callosum: Thick bundle of connecting nerve fibres connecting left and right hemispheres.
o Lateral Ventricle: Holds Cerebrospinal Fluid
o Pineal Body: Involved in Circadian Rhythm (night/day body clock)
o Thalamus: Multiple physiological roles including sensory, motor, & consciousness regulation.
o Hypothalamus: Regulates hunger, thirst, temperature control, memory & stress responses.
o Pituitary Gland: Controls metabolism, growth, sexual function, blood pressure & others.
o Colliculi: Nestled in between the Cerebrum & Cerebellum.
§ 2x Superior: Controls eye movements
§ 2x Inferior: Part of Auditory Pathway
o Cerebellum: Important for coordination, precision & timing of movements.
o Pon: Critical for respiratory rhythm & breathing.
o Medulla Oblongata: Relays messages between the brain and spinal cord. Also regulates
cardiorespiratory functions.
o Fourth Ventricle: contains CSF.
Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica; https://www.britannica.com/science/superior-colliculus#/media/1/574381/93859

- Coronal Section Landmarks:
o Cortex (Grey Matter): Key roles in attention, perception, awareness, thought, memory, language,
sensation, and motor functions.
o White Matter: Mostly axons & myelin – Relays action potentials to their destinations.
o Lateral Ventricle: Contains CSF
o Caudate Nucleus: Important in planning & executing movement. Also has learning, memory, reward,
motivation & emotional functions.
o Corpus Striatum: Reinforcement circuit of the brain.
o Thalamus: Multiple physiological roles including sensory, motor, & consciousness regulation.
o Massa Intermedia: The Bridge between the Left & Right Thalamus.
o Hippocampus: Major role in learning and memory.
https://anatomyinfo.com/corpus-callosum/
BLOOD SUPPLY OF THE BRAIN
BLOOD SUPPLY OF THE BRAIN
W hy Does the Brain Need Blood?

- Consumes 15-20% of the body’s total energy needs, (and receives 15% of Cardiac Output), despite being
only 2% of total body mass.
- Neurons require high ATP to:
o Maintain Ion Gradients across Plasma Membrane
o Regulate Neurotransmitter synthesis/re-uptake.
- Neurons have NO ANAEROBIC CAPACITY → Therefore the brain absolutely depends on Oxygenated Blood.
o Hence, any deficit in blood supply is detrimental (≈30+sec lack of blood/O2 to brain → unconscious)
Blood Supply to the Brain is an ANASTOMOSIS:

- Anastomosis: Where Multiple Arteries Supply the Same Region of Tissue. Ie: A Dual Blood-Supply.
- The Advantage: If one of the arteries becomes blocked/damaged, the other artery will compensate for it.
Arterial Supply of the Brain:

- Brain is Supplied by 2 Arterial Systems:
o 2x Vertebral Arteries → 1x Basilar Artery → Circle of Willis
o 2x Internal Carotid Arteries → Circle of Willis
- ‘Circle of Willis’, The Anastomosis of the Brain:
o (The ‘Roundabout’ of Arteries on the underside of the Brain with multiple ‘Roads’ coming off it)
o (Encircles the Optic Chiasma, The Pituitary Gland & the Mammillary Bodies.)
o The ‘Roads’: (Anterior → Posterior)
§ 2x Anterior Cerebral Arteries
§ 1x Anterior Communicating Artery
§ 2x Internal Carotid Arteries
§ 2x Middle Cerebral Arteries
§ 2x Posterior Communicating Arteries
§ 2x Posterior Cerebral Arteries
§ 1x Basilar Artery
o Note: Communicating Arteries are always patent, but generally not functional (no blood flow) when
blood flow from both Carotids & Basilar Arteries is normal. However, if blood flow from one of the
major arteries is impeded, blood is shunted through the Communicating Arteries to compensate.

Distribution of Cerebral Arteries:

- Anterior Cerebral Arteries:
o (Travels up and over the Corpus Callosum, sprouting branches outwards towards the cortex)
o Medial Portion of Frontal Lobe (Incl. Cortex)
o Medial Portion of Parietal Lobe (Incl. Cortex)
o Corpus Callosum
- Middle Cerebral Arteries:
o (Travels through the Lateral Fissure/Sulcus and emerges onto the Lateral Surface of the Brain)
o Lateral Portion of the Frontal Lobe (Incl. Cortex)
o Lateral Portion of the Parietal Lobe (Incl. Cortex)
o Entire Temporal Lobe (Incl. Cortex)
- Posterior Cerebral Arteries:
o (Travels along the Inferior brain surface between the Cortex and the Cerebellum)
o Inferior Portion of Temporal Lobe (Incl. Cortex)
o Posterio-Medial Portion of Parietal Lobe (Incl. Cortex)
o Entire Occipital Lobe (Incl. Cortex)
derivative work: Frank Gaillard (talk)Brain_stem_normal_human.svg: Patrick J. Lynch, medical illustrator, CC BY-SA
3.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons
The Blood-Brain Barrier:
- Isolates Brain from Blood to provide a Stable Environment, necessary for control & function of CNS Neurons.
- How?:
o 1. The Endothelial Cells of the CNS Capillaries are seamlessly joined by Tight Junctions.
§ This prevents diffusion of most materials except dissolved gasses & lipid-soluble compounds.
§ Therefore, any required water-soluble compound must be transported across the BBB.
o 2. Thick Basement Membrane of Capillary
- Note: In the 2 Choroid Plexuses, the BBB is formed by Tight Junctions between Glial (Ependymal) Cells as
the capillaries in this region are Fenestrated & highly leaky.
- The BBB exists everywhere except:
o Hypothalamus – (Monitors chemical composition of blood. Ie: Hormone levels, water balance, etc)
o Vomiting Centre - (Monitors poisonous substances in blood)
(Diagram over page)

Credit: NIH Medical Arts; https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
Venous Drainage of the Brain – Via “Dural Sinuses”:
- Venous Drainage begins with venous blood collecting in small venous channels known as “Dural Sinuses”.
- Sinuses Sit Within The Dura-Mater:
o The Dura-Mater is the thickest & outermost of the 3 Meninges of the brain. It extends deep into the
brain in 2 locations, the Falx Cerebri & the Tentorium Cerebelli:
§ 1. Falx Cerebri:
• The Dura Mater folds deep into the Longitudinal Fissure (Falx Cerebri) of the brain,
where it forms 2 Sinuses:
o 1. A Triangular ‘Superior Sagittal Sinus’ at the top of the dural fold.
o 2. A lower ‘Inferior Sagittal Sinus’ at the bottom of the dural fold.
§ 2. Tentorium Cerebelli:
• The Dura Mater folds deep into the Transverse Cerebral Fissure (Tentorium
Cerebelli) of the brain, where it forms a pair of sinuses:
o The R.&L. “Transverse Sinuses”.
o Note: All blood from Sup. & Inf. Sagittal Sinuses and the Straight Sinus
empties into these Transverse Sinuses.
Rabjot Rai, Joe Iwanaga , Gaffar Shokouhi, Rod J. Oskouian, R. Shane Tubbs, CC BY 3.0
o The L.&R. Transverse Sinuses then become the L.&R. Sigmoid Sinuses (Respectively).
o These Sigmoid Sinuses turn Inferiorly and become the Internal Jugular Veins.
Regulation of Blood Flow to the Brain:

- Blood Flow to the Brain is AUTOREGULATED:
o Ie: BP in the Brain is kept constant, despite systemic BP fluctuations.
o It also means different areas of the brain control their blood flow depending on metabolic activity.
- The Myogenic Autoregulation of Blood Flow to the Brain:
o When Mean Arterial Pressure rises, the SNS constricts the larger arteries of the brain to prevent
dam aging high pressures in the sm aller, m ore delicate vessels. (Im portant for preventing Stroke)
- The 3 Metabolic Autoregulatory Factors Affect Blood Flow to the Brain:
o **1. Blood [CO2]:
§ ↑[CO2] → Vasodilation (to ↑ Blood Flow)
§ ↓[CO2] → Vasoconstriction (to ↓ Blood Flow)
o 2. Blood/CSF pH:
§ ↑[CO] → ↑[H+2] via carbonic anhydrase → ↓pH → Vasodilation (to ↑ Blood Flow)
§ ↓[CO] → ↓[H+2] via carbonic anhydrase → ↑pH → Vasoconstriction (to ↓ Blood Flow)
o 3. Blood/CSF [O2]:
§ ↓[O2] → Vasodilation (to ↑ Blood Flow)
§ ↑[O2] → Vasoconstriction (to ↓ Blood Flow)
Intracranial Pressure:
- What is it?
o The pressure within the cranium created by the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), and exerted on the brain
tissue & the brain's blood circulation vessels.
- Determinants:
o CSF Production/Resorption (Eg: ↑Production + ↓Resorption)
o Brain Tissue (Eg: Tumour / Inflammation)
o Blood (Eg: Haemorrhage)
- High Intracranial Pressure:
o Compresses the Cerebral Arteries → Decreased Blood Supply → Brain Damage
o Can also displace the brain.
- Symptoms of High ICP:
o Altered Consciousness
o Changes in BP & HR
o Changes in Eye Responses
o Changes in Motor Function
Cerebral Blood Flow And Intracranial Pressure:

• Cerebral blood flow is carefully regulated under normal conditions.
• Cerebral Blood Flow:
• What percentage of cardiac output goes to the cerebral circulation at rest?
• 750ml/min (15% of cardiac output)
• Relationship Between Cerebral Blood Flow & Arterial Pressure:
https://derangedphysiology.com/cicm-primary-exam/required-reading/cardiovascular-
system/Chapter%20474/cerebral-blood-flow-autoregulation
• Kelly-Monroe Doctrine:
• States that the Cranial Compartment is Incompressible, and the Volume is Fixed.
• The Cranial Constituents (Blood, CSF, and Brain Matter) create a state of Volume Equilibrium:
• Any increase in Volume of one of the constituents must be compensated by a decrease in
volume of another.
• Volume Buffers:
• Both CSF and, to a lesser extent, Blood Volume
• (Eg: In Extradural Haematoma → CSF & Venous Blood Volumes are Decreased)
• → Maintain normal ICP
• Buffer Capacity ≈ 100-120mL
Flow & Production of CSF
Reabsorption of CSF into the Dural Sinuses:

- Note: CSF is constantly being produced, and therefore must also be constantly drained to prevent a rise in
intracranial pressure. Therefore:
- CSF is Reabsorbed into the Venous System via diffusion through Arachnoid Villi (Arachnoid Granulation).
o Arachnoid Villi are invaginations of Arachnoid Mater through the Dura Mater and into the Superior
Sagittal Sinus.
Mysid, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Cerebral Oedema:
- What is it?
o An excess accumulation of water in the intracellular and/or extracellular spaces of the brain.
- Types of Cerebral Oedema:
o Vasogenic:
§ (Extracellular Oedema)
§ Due to a breakdown of tight endothelial junctions which form the BBB.
§ Eg: Hydrostatic Cerebral Oedema – where acutely high cerebral capillary pressure results in
fluid m oving from Capillary to ECF .
o Cytotoxic:
§ (Intracellular Oedema)
§ Due to a defect in cellular metabolise → inadequate functioning of the Na/K-ATPase in the
cell m em brane → cellular retention of H 2O
o Osmotic:
§ (Extracellular Oedema)
§ Where a drop in Plasma Osmolality (compared to CSF Osmolality) causes water to flow from
the Venous Sinuses back into the Sub-Arachnoid Space.
M igraines:
- What are They?
o Incapacitating Neurovascular disorder characterized by unilateral, throbbing headaches,
photophobia, phonophobia, nausea & vomiting.
- What Causes Them?
o Decrease in Serotonin Levels → ↑Sensitivity to Migraine Triggers + Cerebral Vasoconstriction →
↓ cerebral blood flow → Raphe N uclei in Brain-Stem release Serotonin → Cerebral Vasodilation +
Release of Proinflammatory Mediators from Trigeminal Nerve & Spinal Nerves → Perivascular
Cerebral Inflammation → Pain.
- Classic Vs. Common:
o Classic:
§ Associated with ‘Aura’. (A visual symptom, such as an arc of sparkling (scintillating) zig-zag
lines or a blotting out of vision or both)
o Common:
§ Migraine without ‘Aura’ (Only 20% of sufferers experience aura. Most bypass the aura
phase)
- Migraines as a Risk Factor:
o ↑ Risk of Silent Post. Cerebral Infarcts.
o ↑ Risk of Stroke & CVD (Women)
o ↑ Risk of MI (Men)
CRANIAL NERVES
CRANIAL NERVES:
Similarities Between Spinal Nerves & Cranial Nerves:

- Cranial Nerves develop similar to Spinal Nerves, & hence have a similar structural Organisation:
o Sensory Cranial Nerves:
§ Similar to Afferent Spinal Nerves – Sensory Cranial Nerves’ Dendrites are associated with
peripheral sensory receptors & their Cell Bodies are located in a Sensory Ganglia (Similar to
the Dorsal Root Ganglion in the spinal cord). Their axons then terminate in the Sensory
Nuclei of the Brainstem (Similar to Dorsal Horn of Spinal Cord), and synapse with one of the
Ascending Pathways (Depending on the type of stimulus):
• Touch → Posterior Pathway
• Pain → Spinothalamic
• Proprioception → Spinocerebellar
o Somatic Motor Cranial Nerves:
§ Similar to Efferent Spinal Nerves – Motor Cranial Nerves (Both Somatic & Branchial) have
their Cell Bodies in grey-matter Motor Nuclei in the Brainstem (Similar to Ventral Horn of
Spinal Cord). Their axons leave the brainstem & directly innervate the Skeletal Muscles.
o Visceral Motor Cranial Nerves:
§ Similar to Autonomic Spinal Nerves – Visceral-Motor Cranial Nerves have their cell bodies in
the Grey-Matter Visceral Nuclei in the Brainstem (Similar to Lateral Horn of Spinal Cord).
Their axons then synapse with a 2nd-Order Neuron in an Autonomic Ganglion, where the 2nd
neuron innervates the smooth muscle.
o Eg: Just as spinal nerves grow in association with their Somites, some Cranial Nerves grow in
association with The 6 Pharyngeal Arches: (See Next Page)
The Pharyngeal (Branchial) Arches:
- Note: There are 6 pharyngeal arches, but the 5th only exists transiently during embryonic growth
- (No structures result from the 5th arch)
- Appear ≈4-5 weeks of development
Pharyngeal Arch Nerve Muscular Contributions

1st – “Mandibular” Trigeminal (V) Muscles of Mastication:
- Ant. Digastric
- Mylohyoid
- Tensor Tympani
- Tensor Veli Palatini
2nd – “Hyoid Arch” Facial (VII) - Muscles of Facial Expression
- Post. Digastric
- Stylohyoid
- Buccinator
3rd - Stylopharyngeus Glossopharyngeal (IX)
4th -VCricothyroid
a g Muscleu
- Soft Palate Muscles s (X )
6th - Intrinsic Laryngeal Muscles
Vagu
s (X )
https://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/mandibular+arch
THE 12 CRANIAL NERVES – Basic Overview:
I. Olfactory
• Smell
II. Optic
• Vision (Visual Acuity)
III. Oculomotor (‘eye-mover’)
• Controls 4 of the 6 eye muscles
IV. Trochlear (‘pulley’)
• Controls 1 of the extrinsic eye muscles – pulley shaped
V. Trigeminal
• 3-branched (Ophthalmic, Maxillary, Mandibular) sensory fibers to the face & cornea + Mastication
VI. Abducens (‘abduct’)
• Controls the extrinsic eye muscle that abducts the eyeball (lateral rotation)
VII. Facial
• Facial expression (Furrow Brow, Shut Eyes, Smile)
VIII. Vestibulocochlear
• Hearing and balance (formerly the auditory nerve)
IX. Glossopharyngeal (‘tongue & pharynx’)
• Sensory Tongue and pharynx (Gag reflex)
X. Vagus (‘the wanderer’)
• Mouth motor + parasympathetic effects in the thorax & abdomen.
XI. Accessory
• Neck and shoulder muscles
XII. Hypoglossal (‘under-tongue’)
• tongue movement – Poke tongue out

Functional Components of Cranial Nerves:
- Cranial Nerves carry one/more of the following 5 Functional Components:
1. Voluntary (Somatic) Motor:
a. Somatic Motor: “General Somatic Efferents” (GSE)
i. Innervate striated skeletal muscle derived from embryonic somites, not
pharyngeal arches. (Incl. Ocular Muscles, Tongue, External Neck Muscles –
Sternocleidomastoid & Trapezius)
b. Branchial Motor: “Special Visceral Efferents” (SVE)
i. Innervate striated skeletal muscle derived from embryonic pharyngeal arches.
(Incl. Muscles of the Face, Palate, Pharynx, Larynx & Mastication)
(Oculomotor, Trochlear, Trigeminal, Abducens, Facial,

Glossopharyngeal, Vagus, Accessory & Hypoglossal)
2. Involuntary (Visceral) Motor: “General Visceral Efferents” (GVE)

i. Innervate Smooth Muscle in vessels/glands/etc. Via a 2-neuron approach;
(Presynaptic fibres emerge from the brain as cranial nerves, which then synapse
in a parasympathetic ganglion. The postsynaptic neurons then innervate the
smooth muscles & glands etc.)
ii. Constitute the Cranial Outflow of the Parasympathetic Nervous System.
(Oculomotor, Facial, Glossopharyngeal, Vagus)
3. Somatic Sensation: “General Somatic Afferents” (GSA)

i. (Touch, Pressure, Heat, Cold, etc)
(Trigeminal, Facial, Glossopharyngeal & Vagus)
4. Visceral Sensation: “General Visceral Afferents” (GVA)

i. (Blood Pressure & Blood-O2/CO2 from Carotid Sinus & Body, plus Visceral
Sensation from Pharynx, Larynx Trachea, Bronchi, Lungs, Heart & GI Tract.)
(Oculomotor, Trigeminal, Facial, Glossopharyngeal, Vagus)
5. Special Sensation: “Special Somatic/Visceral Afferents” (SSA/SVA)

i. (Vision, Taste, Smell, Hearing & Balance)
(Olfactory, Optic, Facial, Vestibulocochlear, Vagus)
- Note: YOU NEED TO KNOW WHICH NERVES CARRY EACH TYPE OF INFORMATION – See Table Overleaf:
Nerve Functional Location of Nerve Cranial Exit Functions (major)
Components Cell Bodies Point
I Olfactory nerve Special Sensory Olfactory Cribriform Plate Sm ell
Epithelium of The Ethmoid
Bone
II Optic nerve Special Sensory Retinal Ganglion Optic Canal Vision and associated reflexes
III O culom Som atic M M idbrain Movements of eyes
otor nerve otor Superior Orbital (Superiorly, Inferiorly &
Fissure M edially)
Visceral Motor Presynaptic: Pupillary constriction and lens
(parasympathetic) Midbrain accommodation
Postsynaptic: (parasympathetic)
Ciliary Ganglion
IV Trochlear nerve Somatic Motor Midbrain Superior Orbital Movements of eyes
Fissure (Inferolaterally)
V Trigeminal nerve
General Sensory Trigeminal Ganglion Superior Orbital Sensation from Cornea, & V1
Dermatome
- V1
Ophthalmic Fissure
Division
- V2 Maxillary Foramen Sensation from Maxillary

Division Rotundum Teeth, Nasal Mucosa,
Maxillary Sinuses, Palate, & V2
Dermatome
- V3 Foramen Ovale Sensation from Mandibular

Mandibular Teeth, Mucosa of Mouth,
Division Tongue & V3 Dermatome
M uscles of M astication &

Branchial Motor Pons
Swallowing
VI Abducens nerve Som atic M otor Pons Superior Orbital Lateral Rectus Muscle -
Fissure Abduction (Lateral Rotation)
of the Eye
VII Facial nerve Branchial Motor Pons Internal Facial Muscles + Some
Acoustic M uscles of M astication
Special Sensory Geniculate Ganglion Meatus; Facial Taste (Anterior 2/3 of Tongue)
Presynaptic: Canal; Stimulation of Submandibular
Visceral Motor
Pons Stylomastoid & Sublingual Salivary Glands,
(Parasympathetic)
Postsynaptic: Foramen & Lacrimal Glands.
Pterygopalatine
Ganglion;
Submandibular
Ganglion
VIII Vestibulocochlear
- Vestibular Special Sensory Vestibular Ganglion Internal Position of the Head &
Division Acoustic Balance (The body’s Gyro)
- Cochlear Special Sensory Spiral Ganglion Meatus Hearing (Via Spiral Organ)
Division
IX Branchial Motor M edulla Jugular Stylopharyngeus Muscle
Glossopharyngeal Foramen (Assists with swallowing)
Visceral Motor Presynaptic: Stimulates Parotid Salivary
M edulla Gland
Postsynaptic:
Otic Ganglion
Visceral Sensory Superior Ganglion Visceral Sensation from
Parotid Gland, Carotid Sinus,
Pharynx & Middle Ear
Special Sensory Inferior Ganglion Taste(Posterior 1/3 of Tongue)
General Sensory Cutaneous Sensation of
Inferior Ganglion External Ear
X Vagus Jugular Constrictor Muscles of
Branchial Motor Foramen Pharynx, Muscles of Larynx,
M edulla Palate & Upper 2/3 Esophagus
Visceral Motor Presynaptic: M aintains Sm ooth M uscle
M edulla Tone in Trachea & Bronchi,
Postsynaptic: Peristalsis in GIT & ↓HR.
Viscera
Visceral Sensory Superior Ganglion Visceral Sensation from Base
of Tongue, Pharynx, Larynx
Trachea, Bronchi, Heart,
Esophagus, Stomach &
Intestine → L-Colic Flexure.
Special Sensory Inferior Ganglion Taste (Epiglottis & Palate)
General Sensory Superior Ganglion Sensation from the External
Ear.
XI Spinal Jugular Sternocleidomastoid &
Accessory Som atic M otor Spinal Cord Foramen Trapezius Muscles
XII Hypoglossal Hypoglossal Intrinsic & Extrinsic Muscles of
Som atic M otor M edulla Canal the Tongue.
Cranial Nerve Nuclei:
- Location:
o CN I (Olfactory) & II (Optic) = Are both extensions of the Forebrain.
o CN III – XII (All others) = They originate from Nuclei located in the Brainstem.
- Organisation:
o Nuclei of similar Functional Components (Ie: General Somatic/Visceral Motor or General
Somatic/Visceral Sensory) are generally aligned into functional columns in the brainstem.
Sensory Ganglia of Cranial Nerves:

Cranial Nerve: Receptor Types: Sensory Ganglia:
Olfactory Olfactory (Smell) Olfactory Epithelium
Optic Retinal (Vision) Retina of the Eye
Trigeminal Somatosensory Trigeminal Ganglion
Facial Somatosensory Geniculate Ganglion
Vestibulocochlear Equilibrium Vestibular Ganglion
& Hearing & Spiral Ganglion
Glossopharyngeal Somatosensory, Visceral & Taste Inferior Ganglion
Vagus Somatosensory, Visceral & Taste Superior & Inferior Ganglion
Parasympathetic Ganglia of Cranial Nerves:

Cranial Nerve Ganglion Location Main Distribution
Oculomotor Ciliary Between the Optic Nerve & the Lateral Ciliary Muscle & Pupillary
Rectus Muscle of Eye Sphincter of Eyes
Facial Pterygopalatine In Pterygopalatine Fossa; Just anterior to Lacrimal (Tear) Gland
the opening of the Pterygopalatine
Canal.
Submandibular Just inferior to Submandibular Salivary Sublingual & Submandibular
Duct Salivary Glands
Glossopharyngeal Otic Between Tensor Veli Palatini & Parotid Salivary Gland.
Mandibular Nerve (Just anterior to
Foramen Ovale of Sphenoid Bone)
Note: Sympathetic Input is important for the Dual Innervation setup of the Autonomic NS. The Sympathetic Fibres
ascending from the Superior Cervical Sympathetic Ganglion hitch a ride with the Parasympathetic Cranial Nerves and
fo llo w th e m to th e ir ta rg e ts .
The Cranial Nerves – In More Detail:
I. Olfactory:
a. Function:
i. Purely Special Sensory; Carry Afferent Impulses of Smell (Olfaction)
b. Origin & Course:
i. Olfactory Nerves arise from Olfactory Receptors in the Olfactory Epithelium. They pass up
through the Cribriform Plate of the Ethmoid Bone & synapse with the Olfactory Bulb.
ii. Olfactory Bulb Neurons run posteriorly as the Olfactory Tract & terminates in Primary
Olfactory Cortex.
Patrick J. Lynch, medical illustrator, CC BY 2.5 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.5>, via Wikimedia

Commons
II. Optic:
a. Function:
i. Purely Special Sensory; Carry Afferent Impulses of Vision
b. Origin & Course:
i. Fibres arise from the Retina and form the Optic Nerve
ii. The Optic Nerve passes through the Optic Canal of the Orbit.
iii. The Optic Nerves converge to form the Optic Chiasma where half of each nerve’s fibres cross
over & continue on as Optic Tracts
iv. The Optic Tracts synapse in the Thalamus, & Thalamic fibres extend to the Visual Cortex

III. Oculomotor:
a. Function:
i. Somatic Motor– Voluntary Movement of 4 of the 6 of the Extrinsic Eye Muscles
(Inf. Oblique, Sup. Rectus, Inf. Rectus, Med. Rectus & Upper-Eyelid Muscle)
Note: Proprioceptive Afferents exist for each muscle.
ii. Visceral Motor – Parasympathetic control of Pupillary Sphincter (Constriction) & Ciliary
Muscle (Lens Accommodation)
b. Origin & Course:
i. Fibres arise from the Midbrain and pass through the Superior Orbital Fissure to the eye.
Trochlear:
IV.
a. Function:
i. Purely Somatic Motor – Voluntary Movement of 1 of the 6 Extrinsic Eye Muscles
(The Superior Oblique)
b. Origin & Course:
i. Fibres arise from the Midbrain and pass through the Superior Orbital Fissure to the Eye.
File:Eye orbit anterior.jpg: Patrick J. Lynch, medical illustratorderivative work: Shyhedgehoginlabcoat, CC BY 2.5
V. Trigeminal:
Note: Has 3 Divisions (Ophthalmic, Maxillary & Mandibular), each with different specific functions &
courses through the skull.
a. Function:
i. Mostly Somatosensory (From Face)
ii. Some Branchial Motor
b. Origin & Course:
i. Ophthalmic – Fibres run from Face → Through Superior Orbital Fissure → Pons.
ii. Maxillary – Fibres run from face → Through the Foramen Rotundum → Pons.
iii. Mandibular – Fibres pass through the Foramen Ovale
BruceBlaus, CC BY-SA 4.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons

VI. Abducens:
a. Function:
i. Purely Somatic Motor – Voluntary Movement of the Lateral Rectus Muscle of the Eye.
(Abducts the eye – hence the name)
Note: Proprioceptive Afferents exist as well.
b. Origin & Course:
i. Fibres arise from the Pons and pass through the Superior Orbital Fissure to the Eye.
(See diagram for IV Trochlear)
VII. Facial:
a. Function:
i. Branchial Motor – Voluntary Movement of Muscles of Facial Expression
1. Has 5 Branches (See Picture) – KNOW THESE & Their Myotomes.
ii. Special Sensory – Taste Buds of Anterior 2/3 of Tongue
iii. Visceral Motor – Parasympathetic control of Lacrimal (Tear) Glands, Nasal & Palatine Glands,
& Submandibular & Sublingual Salivary Glands.
b. Origin & Course:
i. Fibres arise from the Pons & enter the Temporal Bone via the Internal Acoustic Meatus and
emerge through the Stylomastoid Foramen to run through lateral face.
Adapted from: Patrick J. Lynch, medical illustrator, CC BY 2.5 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.5>, via

Wikimedia Commons
VIII. Vestibulocochlear:
a. Function:
i. Special Sensory:
1. Vestibular Branch – Sense of Equilibrium/Balance.
2. Cochlear Branch – Sense of Hearing.
b. Origin & Course:
i. Fibres arise from the Vestibule & the Cochlear of the Inner Ear of the Temporal Bone & pass
through the Internal Acoustic Meatus and enter the brainstem @ the Pons-Medulla Border.
Blausen.com staff (2014). "M edical gallery of Blausen M edical 2014". W ikiJournal of M edicine 1 (2), CC BY 3.0
IX. Glossopharyngeal:
a. Function:
i. Somatic Motor – Voluntary Movement of the Stylopharyngeus
(Elevates the Pharynx in Swallowing)
ii. Visceral Motor – Parasympathetic control of Parotid Salivary Glands
(Nerve Cell Bodies locate in the Otic Ganglion)
iii. Special Sensory – Taste Buds of Posterior 1/3 of Tongue
iv. SomatoSensory – Touch/Pressure/Pain from Pharynx, Posterior Tongue & External Ear
v. Visceral Sensory – Chemoreceptors in Carotid Body (Blood O2 / CO2) & Baroreceptors in
Carotid Sinus (BP)
b. Origin & Course:
i. Fibres arise from Medulla, leave skull via the Jugular Foramen & run to the Throat.
Gutierrez Gomez, Santiago & Iwanaga, Joe & Pękala, Przemysław & Yilmaz, Emre & Clifton, William & Dumont, Aaron
& Tubbs, R.. (2021). The pharyngeal plexus: an anatomical review for better understanding postoperative dysphagia.
Neurosurgical Review. 44. 1-10. 10.1007/s10143-020-01303-5.
X. Vagus:
a. Function:
i. Visceral Motor – Parasympathetic Control of:
1. Heart (HR)
2. Lungs (Breathing)
3. Abdominal Organs (GI Activity)
ii. Visceral Sensory – Visceral Sensation from:
1. Thoracic Viscera
2. Abdominal Viscera
3. Aortic Arch Baroreceptors (BP)
4. Carotid & Aortic Bodies (Chemoreceptors)
iii. Special Sensory – Taste Buds from Posterior Tongue
iv. Somatic Motor – Voluntary control of Muscles of Pharynx & Larynx involved in swallowing.
b. Origin & Course:
Note: Vagus – the only cranial nerve to extend beyond the head & neck.
i. Fibres arise from Medulla, pass through the skull via the Jugular Foramen & descend
through the Neck into the Thorax & Abdomen.
Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014". WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2), via Wikimedia
Commons
https://socratic.org/questions/does-the-vagus-nerve-belong-to-the-sensory-somatic-or-autonomic-system
XI. Accessory:
a. Function:
i. Somatic Motor – Voluntary Movement of Sternocleidomastoid & Trapezius Muscles
b. Origin & Course:
i. Unique in that it is formed by union of a Cranial Root & a Spinal Root.
1. Cranial Root – Arises from Medulla of Brainstem
2. Spinal Root – Arises from Cervical Region of Spinal Cord (C1-C5) & Enters the Skull via
the Foramen Magnum where it joins with the Cranial Root.
ii. The Resulting Accessory Nerve exits the skull through the Jugular Foramen, where it
bifurcates to either 1) Join the Vagus Nerve; or 2) Run down to the Neck Muscles.
XII. Hypoglossal:
a. Function:
i. Somatic Motor – Voluntary Movement of the Tongue (Food Mixing/Manipulation, Speech &
Swallowing)
b. Origin & Course:
i. Fibres arise from the Medulla & exit the skull via the Hypoglossal Canal to travel to the
underside of the Tongue.
https://www.earthslab.com/anatomy/accessory-nerve/
Cranial Foramina That Carry Cranial Nerves:
Cranial Foramina Cranial Nerves

Cribriform Foramina in Cribriform Plate Olfactory Nerves
Optic Canals Optic Nerves
Superior Orbital Fissure Oculomotor
Trochlear
Abducens
Trigeminal (Ophthalmic Division)
Foramen Rotundum (“Round Foramen”) Trigem inal (M axillary D ivision)
Foramen Ovale (“Oval Foramen”) Trigeminal (Mandibular Division)
Groove of the Greater Petrosal Nerve Petrosal Nerve (Branch of the Facial Nerve)
Internal Acoustic Meatus Facial (And exits the skull via the Stylomastoid Foramen)
Vestibulocochlear
Jugular Foramen Glossopharyngeal
Vagus
Accessory (Both Roots Exit the Skull Here)
Hypoglossal
Hypoglossal Canal
Accessory (Spinal Root Enters the Skull Here)
Foramen Magnum
Creative Commons: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK535432/figure/article-

36256.image.f1/?report=objectonly
THE SPINAL CORD
THE SPINAL CORD
General Info:
• Extends from Foramen Magnum
• Resides in the vertebral canal
• Bathed in cerebrospinal fluid
• Terminates at the ‘conus medullaris’ (cone of medulla) – approx L1 in adults.
• Transmits Motor Information Distally from the brain
• Transmits Sensory Information back up to the brain
• Emits spinal nerves at the level of each vertebrae.
• Cauda Equina:
o Nerve rootlets of lower-lumbar & sacral regions extend further down vertebral canal.
• Filum Terminale:
o Connective Tissue anchors Cauda Equina to the base of vertebral canal.
Internal Structure: External Structure:

• Grey Matter: • Spinal Nerves:
o All neuronal cell bodies o Merging of the Dorsal & Ventral root
o 2 Dorsal Horns fibres
§ Nerve cells that receive sensory
o Carry mixed sensory & motor info to
information from body relevant body area
§ Via the dorsal root fibres. • Branches of Spinal Nerves:
o 2 Ventral Horns o Ventral Rami: “ventral branch”
§o Contain motor“dorsal
Dorsal Rami: nerve branch”
cells
§ Cell axons leave through ventral • Sympathetic Chain
root fibres. • Sympathetic Ganglia:
o Lateral Horns:
§ Present in thoracic & upper
lumbar regions
§ Autonomic motor nerves from
sympathetic nervous system
§ Exit spinal cord through the
• ventral roots
White Matter:
o Ascending and descending fibre tracts.
Inform ation Pathw ays: Central → Peripheral
Somatic:
• Afferent (Sensory Info) • Efferent (Skeletal Muscle)
o Receptor cells in periphery o Neuronal cell bodies in ventral horn of grey
o Info conveyed along peripheral axon → Soma matter.
(in dorsal root ganglion)
o Cell axon leaves spinal cord through ventral
o Info conveyed along proximal axon → spinal root → spinal nerve
cord (CNS)
o Axon flows out of Ventral Rami
o Info → ascending fibres (white matter) → brain o Directly innervates muscle @ neuromuscular
for processing junction
Visceral:
• Afferent (Sensory Info) • Efferent (Smooth Muscle)
o Receptors in viscera o Neuronal cell bodies in lateral horn of grey
o Info conveyed along peripheral axon → Soma matter.
(in dorsal
o Cell axonroot ganglion)
leaves spinal cord through ventral
o Info conveyed along proximal axon → spinal root → spinal nerve
cord (CNS)
o Axon flows out of Ventral Rami
o Info → ascending fibres (white matter) → brain o Axon synapses with peripheral ganglia
for processing o Peripheral ganglia innervates internal viscera:
§ smooth muscle/glandular tissue/cardiac
muscle
NEURONAL PHYSIOLOGY
NEURONAL PHYSIOLOGY
W hat is N eurotransm ission?:

- Neuron → Neuron/Cell/Organ/Muscle/Etc. Communication
- Point of ‘Communication’ = The “Synapse”
Terminology:
- Pre-Synaptic Neuron: The ‘Sender’ Neuron
- Synaptic Cleft: The ‘Gap’ Between cells
- Post-Synaptic Cell: The ‘Receiver’ Cell
- Synaptic Potential: The ‘Drive’ for Transmission (that mobilizes the synaptic vesicles to pre-synaptic
membrane).
Neuron-Neuron Neurotransmission:
- Note: Neurons Synapse with Each Other in 3 Ways
- 3 Types of Synapses:
o 1. Axo-Somatic: Axon → Cell Body (For Modulatory Effects)
o 2. Axo-Axonic: Axon → Axon (For All/Nothing Signals)
o 3. Axo-Dendritic: Axon → Dendrite (For Multiple Inputs to a Neuron)
Creative Commons: ‘Chemical Synapse Types’ by Casey Henley;

https://openbooks.lib.msu.edu/neuroscience/chapter/synapse-structure/
Key Ions Involved in Neurotransmission:

- Na+: - Influx - To depolarise membrane to initiate/propagate an Action Potential
- K+: - Efflux - To repolarise the membrane to resting potential once the Action Potential has passed.
- Ca+: - Influx - To trigger the Exocytosis of Neurotransmitter into Synaptic Cleft.
Neuronal Action Potentials:
1. Resting potential: all voltage-gated channels closed
2. At threshold, Na+ activation gate opens and [Na+] rises.
3. Na+ enters cell, causing explosive depolarization to +30 mV, which generates rising phase of action
potential.
4. At peak of action potential, Na+ inactivation gate closes and [Na+] falls, ending net movement of Na+ into
cell. At the same time, K+ activation gate opens and [K+] rises.
5. K+ leaves cell, causing its repolarization to resting potential, which generates falling phase of action
potential.
6. On return to resting potential, Na+ activation gate closes and inactivation gate opens, resetting channel to
respond to another depolarizing triggering event.
7. Further outward movement of K+ through still-open K+ channel briefly hyperpolarizes membrane, which
generates after hyperpolarization.
8. K +activation gate closes, and membrane returns to resting potential.
Güler and Linaro et al Model in an Investigation of the Neuronal Dynamics using noise Comparative Study - Scientific
Figure on ResearchGate. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Phases-of-action-potential-
12_fig2_334605708 [accessed 17 Jan, 2022]
Refractory Periods During the Action Potential:

• Basically, the total time between a stimulus creating an action potential and the MP returning to rest.
o Determines how soon a neuron can respond to another stimulus.
• Divided into 2 sub-periods:
o Absolute Refractory Period – no additional stimulus (no matter how large) can initiate a further
action potential.
o Relative Refractory Period – If an additional stimulus is to initiate another action potential during
this time, it must be larger in order to reach threshold.
2 Factors That Influence the Speed of an Action Potential:
- 1. Axon Diameter → Larger = Quicker
- 2. Presence of Myelin (white matter) → Impulse jumps from exposed axon-region to the next instead of
having to open & close ion channels across the axon’s entire length (which would be slow)
Phases of Neurotransmission:
1. Action potential reaches axon terminal, opens voltage-gated Ca+ channels
- Influx of Ca+ into axon terminal causes vesicles of neurotransmitter to migrate to the axon terminal.
- ‘Neurotransmitter’ released by exocytosis from the sending (pre-synaptic) neuron.
- Neurotransmitter (acetylcholine/nor adrenaline/dopamine/glutamate/gaba/etc) diffuses across synaptic
cleft between 2 neurons.
CNX OpenStax, CC BY 4.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons

2. Neurotransmitters bind to ligand-gated ion channels, causing change in Membrane Potential of post-synaptic
neuron (dendrite) → creating Graded Potentials.
• Graded Potentials can either Excite, or Inhibit the Post-Synaptic Neuron.
o If GP depolarises membrane, it is excitatory
o If GP hyperpolarises membrane, it is inhibitory
Characterizing Neurotransmitter Receptor Activation with a Perturbation Based Decomposition Method - Scientific
Figure on ResearchGate. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Different-cases-of-IPSP-and-EPSP-
summation-12_fig4_308369018 [accessed 17 Jan, 2022]
3.Sum of Graded Potentials may cause Membrane Potential to reach threshold, triggering action potential.
Neurotransmitter Inactivation by enzymes (eg. ACh-Esterase) or reabsorption prevents continued stimulation.
2 Types of Post-Synaptic Receptors:
- Ionotropic: (Ligand-Gated Ion Channels)
o Mechanism: Binding of Neurotransmitter → Opening of Ion Channel → Excitation/Inhibition of Cell.
§ Excitatory: Na+/Ca+ Channel – opening → Na+/Ca+ Influx → Depolarisation of Membrane →
→ “Excitatory Post-Synaptic Potential” (EPSP)
§ Inhibitory: Cl- Channel – opening → Cl- Influx → Hyperpolarisation of Membrane →
K+ Channel – opening → K+ Efflux → Hyperpolarisation of Membrane →
→ “Inhibitory Post-Synaptic Potential” (IPSP)
- Metabotropic: (G-Protein Linked Receptors)

o Mechanism: Binding of Neurotransmitter → Activates G-Protein → Activates ‘Effector’ Proteins →
Activate secondary Messengers (Eg: cAMP) → Regulates Ion Channels/Activates Enzymes/Alters
M etabolism .
Ionotropic Receptors Vs. Metabotropic Receptors:
https://ib.bioninja.com.au/options/option-a-neurobiology-and/a5-neuropharmacology/neuromodulators.html
Actions of Neurotransmission:
- Direct Physiological Action:
o Eg: Neuromuscular Junction → Muscle Contraction
o Eg: Sympathetic Synapse @ SA-Node → ↑Heart Rate
- Links in a Chain:
o Eg: Peripheral Sensory Neuron → Spinal Cord → Ascending Sensory Pathways → Thalamus → Cortex
- Modulation:
o Ie: Exerting a +ve/-ve influence on transmission by another neuron.
NEUROTRANSMITTERS
For a Chem ical to be a ‘N eurotransm itter’, it m ust have:
1. Dedicated Synthesis
a. Note: Amine & Amino-Acid Neurotransmitters are synthesized in the Axon-Terminal, HOWEVER,
Peptide Neurotransmitters are synthesized in the Cell Body & Transported to the Axon Terminal.
(This is because Peptide Synthesis requires Gene Transcription & Translation which require a Nucleus
& Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum.)
b. Note: There is a Rate-Limiting Step for all Neurotransmitter Synthesis.
(Eg: Activity/Amount of an Enzyme, Substrate Availability)
2. Active Packaging
a. Amine & Amino-Acid NT’s Actively Packaged Into Vesicles, Driven by H+ Gradient within Vesicle.
(Ie: H+-Filled Vesicles exchange H+ for Neurotransmitter)
b. Peptide NT’s Packaged by Golgi Apparatus & transported to Axon Terminal
3. Controlled Release:
a. Various Proteins involved in Vesicle Mobilisation are activated by Ca+ Influx
(Note: Many such proteins are destroyed by Botox, giving Botox recipients expressionless faces)
b. Vesicle-Membrane fuses with Presynaptic-Membrane, Creating a Release-Pore → NT Diffuses across
Synaptic-Cleft. Often some NT’s end up in other neighbouring synapses.
4. Receptive Post-Synaptic Cell
a. Neurotransmitter Activates either:
i. Ionotropic Receptors: (Ligand-Gate Ion Channels)
ii. Metabotropic Receptors: (G-Protein Linked Receptors → Secondary Messengers)
5. Signal Termination Mechanism
a. To Prevent Over-Release of NT, Autoreceptors exist on Pre-Synaptic Membrane.
i. Provide –ve feedback by inactivating Adenylate Cyclase → ↓cAMP → Closes Ca+ Channels
→ Stops Vesicle M obilisation & Release
b. To Prevent On-Going Stimulation, a NT’s signal is terminated by either:
i. Synaptic Enzyme: (Destroys the NT in the Synapse)
ii. Rapid Re-Uptake: (Transport of NT Back into Pre-Synaptic Cell)
Note: For NT’s taken back up, there are 2 fates:
1. Recycling (Repackaged into Synaptic Vesicles)
2. Enzymatic Degradation (NT is broken down into Metabolites)
http://what-when-how.com/neuroscience/neurotransmitters-the-neuron-part-1/
Regulation of Receptor Response:
- If NT is Over-Released and/or Not Terminated → On-Going Stimulation → Receptor Activity is Altered:
o Desensitisation: ↓Response to NT due to ↓Sensitivity of the Receptor.
o Down-Regulation: ↓Response to NT due to ↓# of Receptors.
Note: This functions to block out “Noise”.
- If NT is Under-Released or if Antagonist is Administered for Too Long → Receptor Activity is Altered:
o Supersensitisation: ↑Response to NT due to ↑Sensitivity of the Receptor.
o Up-Regulation: ↑Response to NT due to ↑# of Receptors.
Neuromodulation:
- Ie: The Fine-Tuning (“Volume Control”) of a signal.
- A Neuromodulator can be conceptualized as a neurotransmitter that is not reabsorbed by the pre-synaptic
neuron or broken down into a metabolite. Such neuromodulators end up spending a significant amount of
time in the CSF (cerebrospinal fluid), influencing (or modulating) the overall activity level of the brain.
- Hence creates a Broad Signal across the brain → Synchronous activation of Separate Regions → Elicits
markedly different level of responses from Synaptic Activity.
- Neuromodulators may either be released into a Synaptic Cleft, or Extracellular Fluid.
- Types of Neuromodulators:
o Metabolic Products (Eg: Adenosine, ATP, H+)
o Hormones (Eg: Oestrogen)
o Gases (Eg: Nitric Oxide, CO2)
o Amines (Eg: Dopamine, Serotonin, Histamine, Acetylcholine)
o Proteins
o Prostaglandins
o Etc.Etc. (ie. There are loads!)
The M ajor N eurotransm itters (Classified by Structure):

- **Amines (“Classical Neurotransmitters”):
o Acetylcholine (ACh)
o Dopamine
o Noradrenaline/Norepinephrine (NA/NE)
o Serotonin/5-Hydroxyl Tryptamine (5-HT)
- Amino Acids:
o Glutamate (#1 Excitatory Neurotransmitter of the Brain)
o GABA (γ-Amino Butyric Acid) (#1 Inhibitory Neurotransmitter of the Brain)
o Glycine
- Peptides:
o Cholecystokinin
o Encephalins (Eg: Endorphins, Opioids) (Turn off Nociceptive/pain Pathways)
o Neuropeptide Y (Regulates Food Intake/Hunger)
o Somatostatin
o TRH
o Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide (VIP)
Acetylcholine/ACh (Cholinergic Nerves):
- Roles:
o Brain Functions:
§ Voluntary Motor Control
§ Memory & Learning Pathways
§ Arousal
§ Sleep/Wake Cycles
o Peripheral Functions:
§ Contraction of Skeletal Muscle
§ Parasympathetic Activity in the Heart/GI/Eye/Salivary Glands/Lacrimal (Tear) Glands
1.BruceBlaus, CC BY-SA 4.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons

2.Smedlib, based on original work by Pancrat, CC BY-SA 4.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via
Wikimedia Commons
- ACh Synthesis:
o Choline + Acetyl-CoA are combined by Choline-Acetyl-Transferase (CAT) to form Acetylcholine + CoA
§ (Hence, Choline & the Acetate group from the Acetyl-CoA combine → ACh)
§ Note: This occurs in the cytosol of the Neuron at the Axon-Terminal.
- ACh Packaging:
o ACh is concentrated into Vesicles by an ACh-Transporter
- ACh Release:
o Via Ca+ Mediated Vesicular Exocytosis
- Cholinergic Receptors (2 Types):
o 1. Muscarinic: - G-Protein Linked/Metabotropic Receptors (Parasympathetic NS)
o 2. Nicotinic: - Ligand-Gated Ion Channels/Ionotropic Receptors (Neuromuscular Junction/CNS/PNS)
- ACh Signal-Termination:
o ACh is degraded within the synapse by Acetyl-Choline Esterase → Choline + Acetate
o The Choline released is Actively Transported back into the Pre-Synaptic Cell by a Choline Transporter
- Rate-Limiting Step:
o The Reuptake of Choline; Because the availability of Choline determines the amount of ACh synthesis
Catecholamines (Dopamine/Nor-Epinephrine(Nor-Adrenaline)/Epinephrine(Adrenaline):
- Dopamine:
o Roles:
§ Brain Functions:
• Voluntary Motor Control
• Cognition
• Reward Centre
• Emotions & Behaviour
• Vomiting
§ Peripheral Functions:
• Cardiovascular Function (↑HR & Contraction)
• Renal Vasodilation @ JG Apparatus (↑Filtration)
o Synthesis:
§ Starts with Tyrosine (Amino Acid)
§ Tyrosine is converted to Dopa by Tyrosine-Hydroxylase
§ Dopa is converted to Dopamine by Dopa-Decarboxylase
o Packaging:
§ Dopamine is packaged into vesicles in Axon Terminal.
o Release:
§ Via Ca+ Mediated Vesicular Exocytosis
o Dopaminergic Receptors:
§ - Are Metabotropic (G-Protein Linked Receptors)
Note: All Catecholamine Receptors are Metabotropic.
o Dopamine Signal-Termination:
§ Active Re-Uptake into the Axon via Na+-Dependant Transporters → Repackaged/Destroyed.
• Note: If Destroyed – Via enzymatic degradation by Mono-Amine Oxidase (MAO).
o Rate-Limiting Step?:
§ Conversion of Tyrosine → Dopa by Tyrosine-Hydroxylase
§ Hence, the activity of Tyrosine-Hydroxylase is ‘rate-limiting’ for All Catecholamine Synthesis.
1.Smedlib, CC BY-SA 4.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons

2.Original: NIDA / Derivative work: Quasihuman, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons
- Nor-Epinephrine:
o Roles:
§ Brain Functions:
• Attention/Arousal (Fight/Flight Response)
• Sleep-Wake Cycle
• Learning & Memory
• Anxiety
• Pain
• Mood
• Sympathetic Responses
• ↑HR + BP
• ↑Glycolysis + Gluconeogenesis + Fat Metabolism
• ↑Blood flow to Muscles
• ↑Blood Flow to Coronary Circulation
o Synthesis:
§ Starts with Tyrosine (Amino Acid)
§ Tyrosine is converted to Dopa by Tyrosine-Hydroxylase
§ Dopa is converted to Dopamine by Dopa-Decarboxylase
§ Dopamine is packaged into vesicles in Axon Terminal.
§ Dopamine is converted to Nor-Epinephrine (Nor-Adrenaline) by Dopamine-Hydroxylase
inside the Vesicles.
o Packaging:
§ Dopamine is packaged into vesicles in Axon Terminal before conversion to Nor-Epinephrine.
o Release:
o Adrenergic Receptors:
§ - Are Metabotropic (G-Protein Linked Receptors)
Note: All Catecholamine Receptors are Metabotropic.
o Signal-Termination:
§ Conversion of Tyrosine → Dopa by Tyrosine-Hydroxylase
§ Hence, the activity of Tyrosine-Hydroxylase is ‘rate-limiting’ for All Catecholamine Synthesis.
Creative Commons: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Norepinephrine_Part_1.png#file

Source: http://what-when-how.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/tmp1474_thumb1.jpg
- Serotonin:
o Roles:
§ Brain Functions:
• Pain
• Wakefulness/Arousal
• Sleep-Wake Cycle
• Mood & Emotions
• Vomiting
• Circadian Rhythm (Indirectly by conversion to Melatonin)
• GI Tract
• Platelet Function
o Synthesis:
§ Starts with Tryptophan
§ Tryptophan is converted to 5-HTP by Tryptophan Hydroxylase
§ 5-HTP is converted to 5-HT (Serotonin) by 5-HTP-Decarboxylase.
o Packaging:
§ Serotonin is packaged into vesicles in Axon Terminal.
o Release:
o Serotonergic (5-HT) Receptors:
§ “5-HT” Receptors (Can have Ionotropic & Metabotropic Types)
§ Availability of Tryptophan in the Extracellular Fluid. (Tryptophan is an Essential Amino Acid)
§ Hence, a dietary deficiency of Tryptophan → Depletion of Serotonin in the brain.
https://www.brainfacts.org/diseases-and-disorders/mental-health/2019/rethinking-serotonins-role-in-depression-
030819
Amino Acid Neurotransmitters:
- Glutamate:
o Roles:
§ Most common neurotransmitter in the brain.
o Synthesis:
§ Begins with conversion of Glucose → α-KetoGlutarate Via Glycolysis & TCA-Cycle.
§ Then conversion of α-KetoGlutarate → Glutamate via a Transaminase Reaction.
o Packaging:
§ Active Packaging in Vesicles
o Release:
§ Ca+ Dependant Exocytosis
o Receptors:
§ Ionotropic:
• NMDA Receptor
• Kainate Receptor
• AMPA Receptor
§ Metabotropic:
• mGluR Receptor
§ K+ Dependant Re-Uptake into Pre-Synaptic Neuron → Repackaged into Vesicles.
Haroon, E., & Miller, A.H. (2017). Inflammation Effects on Brain Glutamate in Depression: Mechanistic Considerations
and Treatment Implications. Current topics in behavioural neurosciences, 31, 173-198 .
- GABA (Gamma Amino Butyric Acid):
o Roles:
§ Inhibitory Neurotransmitter in Brain
o Synthesis:
§ Begins with conversion of Glucose → α-KetoGlutarate Via Glycolysis & TCA-Cycle.
§ Then conversion of α-KetoGlutarate → Glutamate via a Transaminase Reaction.
§ Then conversion of Glutamate → GABA by Glutamic-Acid-Decarboxylase (+ VitB6).
o Packaging:
§ Packaged into vesicles by the Vesicular GABA Transporter (VGAT)
o Release:
§ Ca+ Dependant Exocytosis
o Receptors:
§ GABA: ---A Ligand Gated Cl Channels (Ionotropic)...Stimulation → Cl Influx → Hyperpolarises.
§ GABA: -+B G-Protein Linked (Metabotropic)...Stimulation → K Efflux → Hyperpolarises.
§ K+ Dependant Re-Uptake into Pre-Synaptic Neuron → Destruction by GABA-Transaminase.
Miresaa, CC BY-SA 4.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons

- Glycine:
o Roles:
§ Inhibitory Neurotransmitter in the Fore-Brain, Brain-Stem & Spinal Cord
• Motor Functions
• Sensory Functions
Synthesis:
o
§ Begins with Glucose → 3-Phospho Glycerate → Serine → Glycine
Packaging:
o
§ Vesicles
Release:
o
§ Ca+ Dependant Release
Receptors:
o
§ Ionotropic Cl- Receptors → Cl- Influx → Hyperpolarisation.
Signal-Termination:
o
§ Re-Uptake of Glycine into Pre-Synaptic Neuron
Source: https://n.neurology.org/content/77/7/677
NEUROBIOLOGY OF MEMORIES
NEUROBIOLOGY OF MEMORIES
Process of Memory Creation:

1. External Stimuli:
a. Sensory input bombards the brain & is sent to Cerebral Cortex.
2. Temporary Storage (Cerebral Cortex):
a. Sorts & Evaluates the Information.
b. Depending which inputs you focus on, determines what info is sent to Short Term Memory.
i. Input not focussed on is Forgotten.
3. Short Term Memory:
a. In Medial Temporal Lobe (Hippocampus, Amygdala & Surrounding Cortical Areas).
b. Excitement/Rehearsal/Association/Emotion → Transfer to Long Term Memory.
i. Input not subjected to the above is Forgotten.
4. Long Term Memory:
a. Requires: ACh – for Declarative; or Dopamine – for Non-Declarative.
i. Declarative – Stored in ≈ Prefrontal Cortex
ii. Non-Declarative – Stored in ≈ Premotor Cortex.
The parts of the brain involved in memory (Illustration by Levent Efe); https://qbi.uq.edu.au/brain-
basics/memory/where-are-memories-stored
Short-Term Memory (STM):
- Based in Hippocampus.
o However, small links are established with Cortex (Visual/Auditory/Olfactory/Gustatory)
o These Links are made by Changes to Neuron Signalling that don’t require protein synthesis (Quicker)
- Lasts Seconds → Several Hours MAX. (AKA: “Crammers” Memory)
o Ie: Changes to Neurons are Transient (Temporary)
- Limited to ≈7-8 “Chunks” of Info.
- Amnesia ≈ Damage to Connection between STM & LTM.
W orking M em ory:
- Note: Often Grouped with STM.
- Temporary Retention, Integration (With other brain areas) & Manipulation of Sensory Info...
TO FACILITATE A RESPONSE.
o Eg: Crossing the Road:
§ 1. Look Left – Remember position of cars
§ 2. Look Right
§ 3. Look Left Again – Compare position of cars to the initial look → Is it safe to cross??
- Associated with Prefrontal Cortex:
o Closely tied to STM.
- Neurotransmitter:
o Dopamine
Noushad, Babu & Khurshid, Faraz. (2019). Facilitating student learning: An instructional design perspective for health
professions educators. 8. 69-74. 10.15171/rdme.2019.014.
Long-Term M em ory (LTM ):
- Based in Hippocampus.
- Limitless Capacity: The amount we can remember depends on Access rather than Capacity
- Usually Requires STM Input:
o Generally LTM-Creation requires the info to pass through STM first.
o However, some info can bypass STM by ‘hijacking’ existing LTM links
§ (Eg: Tying a fact to a Previously-Learned Fact)
- LTM Creation - Influenced by 4 Factors:
o 1. Genetics
o 2. Age
o 3. Trauma
o 4. Malnutrition
- LTM Creation – Improved by:
o Positive/Powerful Emotional State
o Rehearsal
o Association of New data with Old Data.
o The Belief that the Memory is Important
- Requires Remodelling the Neuron/Synapse via “Long Term Potentiation” & “Long Term Depression”.
Long-Term Potentiation (LTP):

- Definition: “A Long-Lasting Post-Synaptic Depolarisation, induced through Repetitive Stimulation &
Summation of Excitatory Post-Synaptic Potentials.”
o Simply – “A Persistent Increase in Synaptic Strength”
- Calcium, The #1 Mediator of LTP:
o NMDA-mediated Ca+ Influx → Activation of Enzymes that cause:
§ ↑Neurotransmitter Release
§ Or Changes in Post-Synaptic Receptors
- The #1 Neurotransmitter: Glutamate → binds to NMDA and/or AMPA Receptors
o NMDA Receptors:
§ Act as Coincidence Detectors (Simultaneous Signals)
§ Ie: Detects coupling of occurrences.
§ Is essentially a Ligand(Glutamate)-Gated Ca+ Channel
§ Has a Voltage-Dependant Mg+-Block → Acts as a Voltage-Gate.
§ Therefore, NMDA Receptor is Ligand & Voltage-Gated.
o AMPA Receptors:
§ Is a Ligand-Gated Na+ Channel
§ When Glutamate Binds → Channel Opens → Depolarisation → AP.
§ Action Potential ‘Kicks’ out the Mg+ Block on the NMDA Receptor.
- 3 Phases of LTP:
o 1. Induction - (Synaptic Plasticity)
§ Alleviating of the NMDA-Receptor’s Mg+ Block
• This may be done by:
o AMPA-Receptor mediated Action Potential.
o Metabotropic-Receptor linked to Ion-Channel → AP
o 2. Expression - (Synaptic Augmentation)
§ NMDA-Mediated Ca+ Influx → Activation of Enzymes that:
• 1. Modify Proteins in Post-Synaptic Terminal or ↑in Pre-Synaptic Neurotransmitter
Release → Strengthens response to subsequent Stimuli.
• 2. Activation of Genes in Post-Synaptic Neuron’s Nucleus → Synthesis of Synaptic
Proteins → ↑Synaptic Strength
o 3. Maintenance - (Long Term Loss/Continuation of LTP)
§ Rise in mRNA Levels → Augmented Synthesis of Proteins linked to Memory.
• This ↑in Protein Synthesis is regulated by a (+)Transcription Factor: “cAMP Response
Element Binding” protein (CREB).
• This perpetual ↑Protein-Synthesis → Long-Lasting ↑Synaptic Strength that is
believed to underlie memory.
OpenStax. Located at: http://cnx.org/contents/[email protected]. License: CC BY:
Attribution. License Terms: Access for free at https://openstax.org/books/biology-2e/pages/1-introduction
Long Term Depression (LTD):
- Definition: “The Weakening of a Neuronal Synapse that lasts from hours-days.
- Calcium, The #1 Mediator of LTP:
o NMDA-mediated Ca+ Influx → Activation of Phosphatases that cause:
§ De-phosphorylation of AMPA-Receptors.
• → In Hippocampus → AMPA Dephosphorylation → ↓Amplitude of Post-Synaptic
Potential to the Normal Level (Prior to LTP).
• → Can also remove receptors from post-synaptic membrane & place them in
reserve.
- Results From:
o Strong Synaptic Stimulation (Cerebellum)...Or
o Persistent Weak Synaptic Stimulation (Hippocampus)
- Function in:
o Overall:
§ Plays a role in modulating impact of formed memories to prevent overload
o Hippocampus:
§ Thought to return LTP’d synapses back to a normal level so they will be available to store
new information.
o Cerebellum:
§ Thought to promote Motor Learning.
OpenStax. Located at: http://cnx.org/contents/[email protected]. License: CC BY:

Attribution. License Terms: Access for free at https://openstax.org/books/biology-2e/pages/1-introduction
2 Types of Long-Term Memory:
- 1. Declarative (EXPLICIT):
o Brain Regions:
§ Hippocampus
§ Para-Hippocampal Regions (Medial Temporal Lobe)
§ Areas of Cerebral Cortex
§ Thalamus + Hypothalamus
o Learning “WHAT”:
§ Facts/Words/Ideas/Concepts/Events
- 2. Non-Declarative (IMPLICIT):
o Learning “HOW”: - How to do things/How to recognise things.
§ Procedural:
• Walking
• Driving a car
• Doing Algebra
• How to get Home
§ Priming (Anticipation): - ie. The use of a trigger to pull out a memory.
• Ache in gut if you get a letter from Tax Office – Due to Previous Association.
• Reaction to seeing your Partner.
§ Classically-Conditioned:
• Emotional:
o Eg: Fear when seeing a Shark.
o Eg: Ringing Bell → Dog Salivates
• Motor
§ Non-Associative:
• Isolated events not linked to anything
Circuit of Declarative Memory:
1. Outside Stimuli:
a. Afferent Sensory Info → Sensory Nerves → Spinal Cord → Medulla → Brain (Somatosensory Cortex)
2. Somato-Sensory Cortex:
a. Sensory Info is Sorted & Evaluated.
b. Whatever is the main focus of your attention is Prioritised → Sent to Short-Term Memory
In Medial Temporal Lobe (Hippocampus, Amygdala & Surrounding Cortical Areas).
3. Medial Temporal Lobe Areas:
a. Role: Memory Consolidation & Retrieval Via Communication with Thalamus & Prefrontal Cortex.
b. Basal Forebrain:
i. Primes the Medial-Temporal Lobe & Prefrontal Cortex with Acetylcholine → Triggers LTP in
Hippocampus
ii. → Enables Long-Term Memory Formation.
(N o te : L o ss o f A C h in p u t in A lzh e im e r’s → ↓ M e m o ry F o rm a tio n & R e trie va l.)
4. Feedback to Association Cortices:
a. Facilitates Retrieval of Memories.
Published by Cecily Houston: https://slideplayer.com/slide/13703013/

Circuit of Non-Declarative (Procedural) Memory:
1. Sensory & Motor Input:
a. Afferent Sensori-Motor Info→ Spinal Cord → Medulla → Brain (Association Cortices)
2. Association Cortices:
a. (Somatosensory/Visual/Auditory/etc)
b. Relay Sensori-Motor Inputs to the Basal Nuclei.
3. Basal Nuclei:
a. Relays Sensori-Motor Inputs through the Thalamus to the Premotor Cortex.
b. Substantia-Nigra:
i. Releases Dopamine onto Basal Nuclei → primes this circuit.
(Note: Loss of Dopamine Input – Ie: Parkinson’s – Interferes with Procedural Memory)
4. Premotor Cortex:
a. Plans & Organises learned Actions.
Published by Cecily Houston: https://slideplayer.com/slide/13703013/

Common Memory Disorders:
- Alzheimer’s:
o What?:
§ Progressive memory loss (“Mild Cognitive Impairment”), Dementia & overwhelming
Retrograde & Anterograde Amnesia.
§ No real diagnostic tests.
o Genetic Aetiology: (Autosomal Dominant)
§ Amyloid Precursor-Protein Gene.
§ Presenilin 1 Gene
§ Presenilin 2 Gene
o Symptoms Due To:
§ Loss of ACh Innervation onto Prefrontal Cortex & Medial-Temporal Lobe (hippocampus) by
Basal Forebrain.
o Affects:
§ Basal Forebrain Cholinergic System (Ie: Loss of ACh innervation)
§ Striatum (Caudate & Putamen) – Part of Basal Ganglia.
§ Thalamus
§ Cerebellum
o Inability to:
§ Define simple words
§ Understand use of common items
§ Comprehend numbers
• Ie: A Loss in Declarative Memory.
o Emotional Disturbances:
§ Confusion
§ Agitation
§ Delusion
§ Paranoia
Am nesia:
- o Typically Declarative Memory Loss. (Therefore Hippocampal Damage)
o Commonly caused by Temporal Lobe Damage (Hippocampus and/or Thalamus)
§ Note: L-Hippocampus = Language
R-Hippocampus = Spatial Memory
o Anterograde:
§ - Inability to form new memories from time of Injury/Damage Onwards
§ Non-Declarative Memory is Unaffected
o Retrograde:
§ - Inability to recall memories from time of Injury/Damage Backwards
Korsakoff:
o Anterograde & Retrograde Amnesia
- o Caused by severe Thiamine Deficiency (Alcoholics & severe Malnutrition)
o →Loss of connection between Temporal Lobes (Hippocampus) & Frontal Cortex.
Seven ‘Sins of M em ory’ – (Types of M em ory D eficits):

o 1. Transience – Memory ‘Fade’
- o 2. Absent-Mindedness – Brushing teeth when already brushed them
o 3. Blocking – When a memory is on the ‘Tip of the tongue’.
o 4. Misattribution – Where you Misremember where you saw/heart something, or even if.
o 5. Suggestibility - Where someone suggests that you saw/heard something (when you didn’t) and
you ‘remember’ seeing/hearing it.
o 6. Bias (Negative Bias) - Tend to recall only the Negative Things.
o 7. Persistence - Remember a Single Failure rather than multiple successes (eg. Post Exam Briefings)
o ...8. Confabulation - When you elaborate on a memory.
NEUROBIOLOGY OF EMOTIONS
NEUROBIOLOGY OF EMOTIONS
D e fin itio n s:
- Affect: “The Experience of a Feeling/Emotion that’s NOT Related to Bodily Changes.”
- Emotion: “A Mental And Physiological reaction to stimuli, experienced as Affect plus Physiological Changes
in the Body.”
- Feelings: “A partly mental, partly physical response to a person, thing or situation, marked by pleasure,
pain, attraction or repulsion.”
- Arousal: “The Visceral (Body’s) Response to stimuli; Including Autonomic Nervous System & Neuro-
Endocrine Activity.”
- Cognition: “The process of knowing, including both awareness & judgement.”
- Behaviour: “The Active Response to Stimuli (Posture, Facial Expression, Speed, Eye Movement, Vocalisation,
etc)”
Em otion:
- Why does it Exist?
o Critical To Survival:
§ Both the ability to Experience Emotion and to Recognise Other’s Emotions
§ Gut Reactions
§ Recognising Danger, Friend/Foe
§ Vital to Decision Making
§ Important role in learning.
- Theories of Emotion:
o A link exists between Physiological Responses to Stimuli & Effect of Emotion, but which comes first?
§ Cannon-Bard Theory:
• Conscious Awareness of Emotion comes first, then the Visceral Reactions.
§ James-Lange Theory:
• Visceral Reactions comes first, then the Conscious Emotional Experience follows.
https://www.brainkart.com/article/The-Many-Facets-of-Emotion_29432/
o Currently, the most Plausible Theory:
§ Visceral Reaction (Physiological Responses) comes first, causing the Emotional Experience
(Feelings & Thoughts)
§ However, the Emotional Experience can Influence and/or Perpetuate the Visceral Response.
- 3 Phases/Components/Types of Emotion:
1. Primary Emotions:
§ “What is Felt 1st” – The 1st Instantaneous Emotion - (Usually the Simplest/Primitive Emotions)
§ Generally independent of culture (Universal)
• Joy
• Sadness
• Fear
• Anger
• Surprise
2. Secondary Emotions:
§ “What is Felt 2nd” – What the Primary Emotion Leads to – (Slightly more Complex Emotion)
§ Generally a Combination of Primary Emotions + Context.
• Affection/Love
• Lust
• Contentment
• Disgust
• Envy
• Guilt
3. Tertiary Emotions:
§ An Aggregate of Primary and/or Secondary Emotions – (The most Complex Emotions)
§ Generally the result of a Decision, taking into account Many Factors.
• Satisfaction
• Hope
• Frustration
• Gloom
• Contempt
Physiological Context of Emotion:

- o The physiological state of a person & body can influence resulting emotions & emotional reactivity.
§ Well-being
§ Depression
§ Calm
§ Tense
§ Fatigue
Brain Regions Involved in Recognition, Induction & Regulation of Emotions:
- Thalamus:
o Funnels Sensory info to Amygdala, and the Cerebral & Cingulate Cortices.
o Important in Fact-Based (Explicit) Memory.
- Cingulate Gyrus:
o Regulates Attention
o Emotional ‘Colouring’
- Ventromedial Prefrontal Cortex:
o Conscious Recognition of Emotions
- Cerebral Hemispheres:
o R-Brain → More Associated with Negative Emotions
o L-Brain → More Associated with Positive Emotions
- Sensory Cortices & Association Areas:
o Recognition of Stimuli.
o Sensory Cortices: (Visual, Auditory, Olfactory, Gustatory, Tactile)
o Sensory Association Areas: (Novel Vs. Familiar)
- Insula:
o Involved with Recognition & Feeling of Disgust
The Papez Circuit:

o 1. Thalamus relays Sensory Input to Cingulate Cortex.
o 2. Cingulate Cortex - gives you the Emotional Experience
- also relays to the Neocortex, which gives Context/Colouring to the Emotion.
- also relays to the Hippocampus →
o 3. Hippocampus Relays to the Hypothalamus – Causes the Emotional Expression (Visceral Response)
The Limbic System:
- ***Amygdala***:
o #1 Structure involved in Emotion → The “Heart” of the Limbic System.
o “The Fight/Flight Centre”
o Linked to all but 8 areas of the Cortex → :. Thought to be #1 integrator of Cognitive & Emotional Info.
o Afferents (Receives Input From...):
§ Brainstem – inputs associated with Physical States (BP/HR/etc)
§ Hypothalamus - inputs associated with Physical States (BP/HR/etc)
§ Thalamus – Sensory Info
§ Hippocampus – inputs associated with Explicit Memory
§ Cortex – Sensory Inputs & Decisions related to Perceived Threats
o Efferents (Sends Output to...):
§ Brainstem – influences Visceral Fear-Driven, Fight/Flight Responses.
§ Hypothalamus – Influence on Memory & Aggression
§ Thalamus – Influences processing of new sensory info
§ Hippocampus – Fear is an important driver for learning & memory
§ Pre-Frontal Cortex – Fear is important in Decision Making & Cognition
o Regulates:
§ Fear & Aggression
§ Vigilance & Attention
§ Recognition of Emotion (in Self & Others)
§ Emotional Contribution to Memory. (Emotional Implicit Memory)
- Hypothalamus:
o Visceral Responses to Emotion
o Aggression
o Sex Drive
- Brain Stem:
o Visceral Responses to Emotion
Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014". WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2). via Wikimedia
Commons
Neurotransmitters & Emotion:
- *Noradrenaline: (A Target for Antidepressants):
o Activated By:
§ Novel, Unexpected Stimuli
o Released By:
§ Locus Coeruleus (A Nucleus
In the Pons involved with
physiological responses to
stress & panic.)
o Regulates:
§ Mood/Arousal
§ Anxiety
§ Pain
§ Motor Activity
- *Serotonin: (A Target for Antidepressants):

o Activated By:
§ General activity/arousal
o Released By:
§ Raphe Nuclei (A group of
Nuclei In the brainstem)
o Regulates:
§ Mood
§ Emotions
§ Dominance/Aggression
§ Anxiety
- *Dopamine:
o Activated By:
§ Pleasurable Activities
o Released By:
§ Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA)
§ Substantia Nigra
o Regulates:
§ Somehow plays a role in Regulation of Perception of Emotion
§ Involved in Reward Centre
- Glutamate & GABA:

o Reduces Anxiety
- Acetylcholine:
o Released By:
§ Basal & Septal Nuclei of Meynert
o Regulates:
§ Cognitive Processing
§ Arousal & Attention
The Em otion of Fear:
- Brain Structures Involved:
o Thalamus →
§ Amygdala
o Thalamus →
§ Primary Sensory Cortex
§ Association Cortices
- Long & Short Pathways:
o Long:
§ Info processed by higher brain centres & Hippocampus.
§ Results in a more complex response
o Short:
§ Info sent straight to Amygdala
§ Results in a basic response (Recoil from stimulus/Freeze)
§ Advantage = No cortical processing means quicker reaction times → ↑Survival.
- Process of Fear:
o 1.Sensory Info enters brain → Thalamus
o 2.Thalamus Sends info to Amygdala (Via Long/Short Route)
o 3.Amygdala activates Visceral Responses through Hypothalamus
o 4.Amygdala Activates Ventromedial Pre-Frontal Cortex (Allows conscious recognition of the Emotion)
o 5.Visual Cortex also inform Prefrontal Cortex about the Threat.
https://thebrain.mcgill.ca/flash/a/a_04/a_04_cr/a_04_cr_peu/a_04_cr_peu.html
Aggression:
- Affective Aggression Vs Predatory Aggression:
o Predatory aggression is related to feeding behaviour & isn’t accompanied by sympathetic
physiological response with which affective aggression is associated.
- Associated Structures:
o Cerebral Cortex
o Amygdala
o Hypothalamus
o Periaqueductal Grey-Matter (PAG)
o Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA)
IE. “Aggression is controlled by a neural pathway from the Amygdala through the Hypothalamus, PAG &
VTA.
- Neurotransmitter:
o Serotonin
- Possible Hormonal Link:
o Adenosine
Pleasure & Reward: The ‘Reward Circuit’:
- Brain Structures Involved:
o *Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA)
o *Nucleus Accumbens
o Amygdala
o Pre-Frontal Cortex
o Thalamus
- Neurotransmitters Involved:
o *Dopamine - VTA & Nucleus Accumbens
https://thebrain.mcgill.ca/flash/a/a_03/a_03_cr/a_03_cr_que/a_03_cr_que.html
SOMATOSENSORY PROCESSING:
SOMATOSENSORY PROCESSING
Sensation Types: Note: Sensations are initiated by RECEPTOR ACTIVATION

- Tactile:
o Touch
o Vibration
o Stretch
o Pressure
o Itches
- Temperature:
o Hot/Cold
- Pain:
o AKA: ‘Nociception’
- Proprioception:
o Sensing the position of the body in space.
- Visceral:
o Blood Pressure
o pH
o O2
o CO2
W hat Are Sensory Receptors?

- Specialized Nerve Endings that monitor & respond to the Environment.
Classification of Sensory Receptors – Based on 3 Things:

- 1. Physical Location:
o Exteroceptors - Located in Skin (Respond to External Stimuli)
o Interoceptors - Located Viscerally (Respond to Internal Stimuli)
o Proprioceptors - Located in Muscle/Bone/Tendon
- 2. Type of Stimulus:
o Mechanoreceptors - Respond to Physical Forces
o Thermoreceptors - Respond to Temperature
o Nociceptors - Respond to Damaging Stimulus
o Chemoreceptors - Respond to Chemicals (Smell/Taste OR Blood O+2/CO2/H)
o Photoreceptors - Respond to Light (Eyes)
- 3. Receptor Structure
o Simple - Naked (“Free”) Nerve Endings (Pain & Temperature)
o Complex - Structurally Elaborate Nerve Endings (Pressure, Vibration, Stretch)
(Enhances Specificity)
Q – Why are Pain Receptors ‘Simple’?
- A – Pain, a basic survival mechanism would have been first to evolve and its receptors have been sufficient
since. Hence there has been no need for pain receptors to evolve further.
Creative Commons: By Cristina Sala Ripoll; University of Dundee;
https://www.flickr.com/photos/dundeetilt/29923768703
Receptor Transduction:
- Receptors respond to Stimuli by Transducing them into Electrical Signals
- These ‘Electrical Signals’ = Ion Movements across the Membrane → Changes Membrane Potential
o These Changes in Membrane Potential are Graded – IE. Stimulatory or Inhibitory (Depol/Hyperpol)
o These Graded Potentials at the Receptor Level = “Receptor Potentials”
- “Receptor Potentials” may summate to Threshold → Initiating an Action Potential

o These Action Potentials at the Receptor Level = “Generator Potentials”
Receptors: Nature of Activity:

- When Are They Active?
o Tonic Receptors:
§ Continually Firing – Eg: Proprioceptors
o Phasic Receptors:
§ Fire only with a Change in the Environment. – Eg: Thermoreceptors
- When Do They Inactivate? (How Quickly do they “Adapt”?):

o Note: “Adaptation” = Time Taken for receptor to Stop Firing during Sustained Stimulation
§ RARs – Rapidly Adapting Receptors:
• Receptor quickly stops firing under continuous stimulus
• - Eg: Touch Receptors (Can’t feel clothes after a while)
§ SARs – Slowly Adapting Receptors:
• Receptor maintains firing under continuous stimulus
• - Eg: Muscle Stretch Receptors (Proprioceptors)
Receptive Fields:
- A Receptive Field: The Area Monitored by 1x Receptor.
o Ie: Touch anywhere in that field, the sensation will come from the entire receptive field.
Receptive fields. This work by Cenveo is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unitied States
(http://creativecommmons.org/licenses/by/3.0/us/).
- Large Receptive Fields:

o Low Receptor Density
o Poor Localisation
o – Eg: Skin on your Back
- Small Receptive Fields:

o High Receptor Density
o Good Localisation
o – Eg: Skin on your Fingertips
o Note: 2 Point Discrimination is best with Small, Dense Receptor Areas
Receptor Types:
Receptor Speed:
- Varies by Diameter & Myelination – Affects Speeds of Conduction & Therefore type of Sensory Info:
o Larger + Myelinated = Fastest
o Smaller + Non-Myelinated = Slowest
- Note: Proprioceptors are FAST to Ensure FINE MOTOR CONTROL.
- Note: There are 2 Types of Pain Receptors – The Fastest is responsible for the Initial (Sharp) Pain
o – The Slowest is responsible for the Dull Ache that follows.
http://www.eng.ucy.ac.cy/cpitris/courses/ECE471/presentations/English/Lecture%2012.pdf
Initial Processing by the Thalamus:
- Once sensory input enters CNS, it travels to the Thalamus (sorting station of the brain)
o Impulses are sorted on the basis of where they came from and the type of sensation
o They are then sent to their relative functional areas on the cortex (brain surface).
- Response: If a response is required, then a discrete area of the brain will activate it.
o Primary motor cortex: voluntary motor
o Language & Speech Centres: vocalisation
o Hypothalamus & Brain Stem: visceral responses (chest/abdominal – pulse/sweat/BP)
CNX OpenStax, CC BY 4.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons
Functional Sensory Areas of the Brain:

- Primary visual area – receives visual information from the retina of the eye.
- Primary motor area – controls voluntary skilled movements of our skeletal muscles
- Pre-motor cortex – controls learned motor skills (musical instruments/typing/etc)
- Primary auditory area – sound energy stimulates hearing receptors and is interpreted as pitch/vol/location.
- Primary somatosensory area – receives information from the general (somatic) sensory receptors.
- Primary gustatory area – perception of taste stimuli.
- Primary Olfactory area – info from smell receptors
Anatomy & Physiology, Connexions Web site. http://cnx.org/content/col11496/1.6/

Somatosensory Association Area:
- The Somatosensory Cortex has Connections to the Somatosensory Association Areas
- Gives meaning to the received information, store it in memory, relate it to past experiences & decide on plan
of action
Somatosensory Cortex:
- Roles:
o Detection of Sensation & Conscious Awareness of Sensation
o Feature/Quality Recognition (ie. Texture/Size/Shape)
- Exhibits ‘Somatotopy’ (Body Mapping)
o – ie. Specific Cortical Areas responsible for Particular Body Regions
- Receptor Density in a Body Region determines the Size of the respective Cortical Area. – See Below:
Creative commons: https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology/pages/14-2-central-processing
Somatosensory Pathways:
- First Order Neurons (Peripheral Afferent Nerves):
o (Eg: Dorsal Root of Spinal Nerves & Sensory Cranial Nerves)
o Sensory info is “Frequency Coded”.
o Enter Spinal Cord via Dorsal Nerve Root → Terminate in Dorsal Horn.
o Note: Cell-Bodies of the Pseudounipolar-Neuron Receptors culminate in the Dorsal Root Ganglion
- Second Order Neurons (Ascending Pathways of Spinal Cord):

o Once inside the Spinal Cord, 1st-Order Neurons → Synapse with 2nd-Order Neurons
o 2nd-Order Neurons:
§ Often responsible for Decussation (Crossing of Fibre-Tracts to the Other Side of the Body)
• Different Sensory Info takes Different Ascending Pathways to the Brain.
- Third Order Neurons:
o Note: 3rd-Order Neurons are only Relevant to the Dorsal Column & The SpinoThalamic Pathways.
§ The SpinoCerebellar Pathway terminates in the Cerebellum with 2nd-Order Neurons.
o Carry Sensory Info from Thalamus → to Primary Somatosensory Cortex in Parietal Lobe.
§ Thalamus – Sorts incoming Sensory Info → Sends it to Cortex.

The 3 Ascending Pathways:
- Dorsal Column Pathway:
o Synapses with 2nd-Order Neurons in Medulla
o Decussate in the Medulla
o Neurons Are:
§ Large & Myelinated
§ Rapidly Adapting
o Sensory Info:
§ Touch
§ Vibration
§ 2-Point Discrimination
§ Proprioception
- SpinoThalamic Pathway:
o Synapses with 2nd-Order Neurons in Spinal Cord @ Level of Spinal Root
o Decussate in Spinal Cord @ Level of Spinal Root.
o Neurons Are:
§ Small & Myelinated
§ Slowly Adapting
o Sensory Info:
§ Crude Touch & Pressure
§ Pain
§ Temperature
- SpinoCerebellar Pathway:
o Synapse with 2nd-Order Neurons in Spinal Cord
o Doesn’t Decussate – Remains Ipsilateral
§ (“On the Same Side of the Body”)
o Neurons Are:
§ Large & Myelinated
§ Slowly Adapting
o Sensory Info:
§ Proprioception from:
• Muscle Spindles
• Golgi Tendon Organs
• Joint Capsules
§ → Coordinate Skeletal Muscle Activity
Neurotransmitters (NTs) & Receptors:
- NTs/Receptors @ The Sensory Nerve:
o *TRPV-Receptor (Ca+ 1Channel)(“TRP Vanilloid Receptor1”). Opened by:
§ Capsaicin (from hot chillies)
§ Heat
§ Mechanical (Mechanism unclear)
§ H+ (Acid)(Often a result of inflammation)
o Bradykinin Receptors:
§ Bradykinin Receptor Activates TRPV1-Receptor → Depolarisation → Nociception
o Prostanoid Receptors:
§ Sensitive to Prostaglandins.
§ Open Na+ Channels →
§ Inhibit K+ Channels → → ↑MP → :. Lowers Threshold → ↑Sensitivity
§ Open TRPV1-Receptors →
o ASIC – (“Acid Sensitive (gated) Ion Channel”):
§ Acid →ASIC-Stimulation → Depolarisation of Cell → Nociception
o Opiate/Cannabinoid Receptors:
§ Sensitive to Opioid & Cannabinoids.
§ Open K+ Channels → K+-Efflux → ↓MP (Hyperpolarises Cell) → ↓Sensitivity
- NTs/Receptors @ The Dorsal Horn:
o Afferent Pathway:
§ *Substance-P
§ *Glutamate (AMPA & NMDA Receptors)
o Efferent Pathway – Sensory Modulation Via Pain-Gate Mechanism:
§ *OPIOIDS*:
• Activate Descending Inhibitory Pathways & Directly inhibit Dorsal Horn Synapse.
§ *Noradrenaline
• Directly Inhibits Dorsal-Horn Synapse
§ *Serotonin (5-HT):
§ *Encephalins:
§ Note: Low-Dose Tri-Cyclic Anti-Depressants can treat Neuropathic pain by blocking re-uptake
of NE, 5-HT, & Encephalins in Dorsal Horn Synapse.
MOTOR PROCESSING:
MOTOR PROCESSING
M otor Processing Hierarchy of Structures - The Levels of M otor Control:

- 1. Ready (Strategy) – Deciding ‘What to do’:
o Prefrontal Cortex
o Somatosensory Association Cortex (Area 5)
o Basal Ganglia (Note: Basal Ganglia are the interface between ‘Strategy’ & ‘Tactics’.)
- 2. Set (Tactics) – Deciding ‘How to do it’:
o Basal Ganglia
o Pre-Motor Area (PMA)
o Supplementary Motor Area (SMA)
- 3. Go (Execution) – ‘Action’:
o Primary Motor Cortex (M1)
o Cerebellum
o Brainstem
o Descending Tracts
o Spinal Nerves
o Peripheral Motor Neurons
Berg-Johnsen, J., Høgestøl, E.A. Supplementary motor area syndrome after surgery for parasagittal
meningiomas. Acta Neurochir 160, 583–587 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00701-018-3474-3
Roles of these Brain Regions (In Motor Processing):

- Pre-Frontal Cortex:
o Consciously Decides ‘what movement’ is required for the desired outcome. (Managerial Function)
- Somatosensory Association Areas:
o Tells the brain where the body is in space (Proprioception)
- Pre-Motor Area & Supplementary-Motor Areas:
o Plans ‘how to do the movement’.
o Is also the memory bank of Complex, Patterned & Highly Skilled Learned Movements.
- Primary Motor Cortex (M1):
o ‘Initiates the movement’ (Typically precise or skilled voluntary movement)
o Note: M1 also exhibits Somatotopy – The Bigger the Cortical Area, The More Precise the Movements
o Receives Direct & Indirect Inputs:
§ Direct – From: Prefrontal Cortex, SMA/PMA, Somatosensory Areas
§ Indirect – From: Cerebellum (Via Thalamus)
o Broca’s Area – Area of M1 that controls the Muscles responsible for speech (Tongue/Jaw/Lips/Face)
https://medicoapps.org/m-functional-areas-of-cerebral-cortex/
- Basal Ganglia:
o Involved in Action-Selection & Initiation of Voluntary & Patterned Movements (Eg: Walking)
§ Motor Control & Motor Learning
• Note: Also has a role in Cognition & Memory
o A Loop Exists between the Cortex → Basal Ganglia → Thalamus → Pre-Motor Cortex → Cortex
§ Receives inputs from the Entire Cortex. (SMA/Prefrontal Cortex/Sensory Cortex/M1)
• Info travels through Basal Ganglia in This Order: Striatum→Globus Pallidus.
§ Sends info to the PMA & *SMA via the (Ventro-Lateral Nucleus of the) Thalamus (VLo)
Note: The GLOBUS PALLIDUS is Spontaneously Active:

Globus Pallidus → Thalamus (Inhibits Thalamic-SMA Activity → Keeps the SMA ‘Quiet’)
o Basal Ganglia Consists of:
§ Striatum:
• Caudate Nucleus: Cognition & Behaviour
• Putamen: Motor (Automatic performance of previously learned movements.)
§ Globus Pallidus
& Other Associated Structures:
o
§ Subthalamic Nuclei
§ Substantia Nigra: Eye Movement, Motor Planning, (Reward Seeking, Learning, & Addiction)
Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014". WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2).
DOI:10.15347/wjm/2014.010. ISSN 2002-4436., CC BY 3.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0>, via
Wikimedia Commons
- Cerebellum:
o Functions:
§ Precise Timing & Appropriate Patterns of Skeletal Muscle Contraction – Required for Smooth,
Coordinated movements & agility needed for daily living (Driving/Typing/Playing Music/etc)
§ Involved in the Correct Sequencing & Coordination of Muscle Contractions.
§ Involved in Motor Learning – Compares intention with result & corrects for next time.
§ Balance & Posture
o Note: Cerebellar Activity is Subconscious (Ie: We have no awareness of its functioning.)
o A Loop exists between the Cortex → Pons → Cerebellum → Thalamus → M1 → Cortex.
§ Receives inputs from the Cerebral Cortex (M1, PMA, *Somatosensory Areas) via the Pons.
• Also receives Proprioceptive Feedback
§ Sends info to the Primary Motor Cortex (M1) via the VentroLateral Nucleus of the Thalamus.
• Informs Primary Motor Cortex (M1) about Direction, Force & Timing of Movements.
o Output into Descending Pathways:
§ Vermis → Ventromedial Pathways
§ Hemispheres → Lateral Pathways
o Cerebellar Processing:
§ 1. Cortical Motor Areas Notify the Cerebellum (via ‘relay nuclei’ in the brainstem) of their
intent to initiate voluntary muscle contractions.
§ 2. Constant Proprioceptive Input (Muscle/Tendon Tension, Joint Position, etc) enables the
cerebellum to evaluate the body’s position & momentum.
§ 3. Cerebellum calculates optimum Force, Direction & Extent of Muscle Contraction to ensure
Smooth, Accurate & Coordinated Movements.
§ 4. Cerebellum sends its “Blueprint” for coordinating movement to the Cerebral Motor Cortex
via the Superior Peduncles. It also sends info to Brainstem Nuclei → Influences Motor
Neurons of the Spinal Cord.
Analogy:
o § Just as an ‘Autopilot’ compares a plane’s instruments with its planned course, the
Cerebellum continually compares the higher brain’s intention with the body’s performance
& makes appropriate corrections.

Descending Tracts Involved in Motor Function:
Descending Motor Pathways:

- Lateral Pathways:
o Roles:
§ Both Tracts – Voluntary Movement of Distal Extremities (Particularly Hands & Feet)
o 2 Divisions:
§ Corticospinal Tract:
• Originates in Primary Motor Cortex
• Run through the Internal Capsule to the Brainstem.
• Decussate in Medullary Pyramids (Medulla)
§ Rubrospinal Tract:
• Originates in Red Nucleus of Midbrain.
• Decussate immediately below Red Nucleus (In the Pons)
→→
• Continue down the spinal cord in the Lateral White Matter.
• Terminate in Ventral Horn of Spinal Grey Matter

- Ventromedial (Indirect/Extrapyramidal) Pathways:
o Tectospinal (AKA: Colliculospinal) Tract:
§ Begins in the Superior Colliculus
§ Decussates between Midbrain & Pons
§ Function: Visual Tracking (Head/Eye Coordination)
o Vestibulospinal Tract:
§ Begins in the Vestibular Nuclei of the Medulla.
§ Does not decussate.
§ Function: Maintain Balance During Standing & Moving
o Pontine & Medullary Reticulospinal Tracts:
§ Begin in the Pontine Reticular Formation
§ Do not decussate
§ Function: Maintains Muscle Tone & Visceral Motor Functions
https://healthjade.net/upper-motor-neuron/
- Note: These Descending ‘Upper Motor Neurons’ Terminate in the Ventral Grey Horns of the Spinal Cord
Grey Matter by Synapsing with either:
o Spinal Interneurons – Enabling info to be sent to multiple outputs.
§ Some Interneurons are ‘Central Pattern Generators’ → generate timing for patterned
m ovem ents (Eg: W alking)
o Or Lower Motor Neurons – That directly innervate skeletal muscle.
Som atic Reflexes:
- Rapid, automatic responses to stimuli.
- Occur over neural pathways called reflex arcs.
- Components of a reflex arc:
• Receptor → Sensory neuron → CNS integration centre→ Motor neuron→ Effecter
Zhang MJ, Zhu CZ, et.al, CC BY-SA 4.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons
Visceral Reflexes:
- Similar to the Somatic-NS, the ANS also has reflex arcs;
- Visceral Reflex Arcs Components:
o Visceral Sensory Neurons (Chemical Changes/Stretch/Irritation of Viscera) → Ganglionic Neuron
(Integration Centre) →Motor Neuron → Effector
https://open.oregonstate.education/aandp/chapter/16-2-autonomic-reflexes-and-homeostasis/
https://www.austincc.edu/apreview/PhysText/PNSefferent.html
THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM:
THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM:
Divisions of the Autonomic NS:
- The 2 Divisions of the ANS (Sympathetic & Parasympathetic) serve the same visceral organs, but cause
Opposite Effects. This Dual Innervation counterbalances each division’s activities → Maintains Homeostasis.
- Sympathetic:
o “Fight/Flight”
o Mobilizes the body during activity
o Effects are Widespread
- Parasympathetic:
o “Rest/Digest”
o Conserves Body Energy & Promotes Maintenance Functions.
o Has relatively Short-Lived Effects (Due to short-acting nature of Acetylcholine)
o Effects are relatively Localised
Overview of the Effects of the Autonomic Nervous System on Various Organs:
Efferent Pathways & Ganglia:
- As opposed to the Somatic-NS which uses a mono-synaptic system (& Hence Lacks Ganglia), the Autonomic-
NS uses a 2-Neuron-Chain system.
- 1. The Pre-Ganglionic Neuron:
o The Cell-Body of the first neuron
o Resides in the Brain or Spinal Cord
o Synapses with a Ganglionic Neuron.
- 2. The Ganglionic Neuron:
o Resides in an ‘Autonomic Ganglion’ outside the CNS.
o Extends from the Ganglion to the Effector Organ.
Sympathetic & Parasympathetic Divisions Differ Anatomically in 3 Ways:

- 1. Site of Origin
- 2. Fibre Lengths
- 3. Location of Ganglia
Geo-Science-International, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons

Anatomy: The Parasympathetic (Craniosacral) Division:
- Fibres originate from: Brain Stem & Sacral Region of Spinal Cord
o Preganglionic Fibres – Extend nearly all the way to the structures to be innervated.
o Postganglionic Fibres – Very Short; Extend from the Terminal Ganglia & synapse with Effector Cells.
- Ganglia Location: located Very Close To or Within the Target Organs.
- The Cranial Outflow:

o Fibres Originate From Cranial-Nerve Nuclei in the Brain Stem.
o Fibres Extend to their Terminal Ganglia via 4 of the paired Cranial Nerves:
§ III – Oculomotor Nerves → Pupil Constriction & Lens Accommodation (close sight)
§ VII – Facial Nerves → Stimulate large Glands in the head
(Nasal/Lacrimal/Submandibular & Sublingual Salivary)
§ IX – Glossopharyngeal Nerves → Stimulate Parotid Salivary Glands
§ X – Vagus Nerves → Serves virtually all organs of the thoracic & abdominal
Cavities (Except Distal Large Intestine)
- The Sacral Outflow:
o Fibres Originate from Neurons in the Lateral Gray Matter of Spinal Cord Segments S2-S4.
o Fibres Extend to their Terminal Ganglia via Splanchnic Nerves of the Pelvic Plexus.
o Serve Distal Large Intestine & the Pelvic Organs (Bladder, Ureters, Repro. Organs)

Anatomy: The Sympathetic (Thoraco-Lumbar) Division:
- Note: Sympathetic-NS innervates more organs than the Parasympathetic, and its effects are longer-lasting.
- Fibres originate from:
o Cell bodies of Preganglionic Neurons in the Lateral Horns Spinal Cord Segments T1 → L2.
- Fibre Lengths:
o Preganglionic Fibres – Exit the Spinal Cord via the Ventral Root → Then pass through a White Ramus
Communicans → Synapse adjoining Sympathetic Trunk (Chain) Ganglion.
(Note: These fibres are short)
o Postganglionic Fibres – Exit the Sympathetic Ganglion at/below/above their spinal level via a Gray
R a m u s C o m m u n ica n s → T h e n e n te rs th e V e n tra l S p in a l N e rv e a t th a t le v e l →
Effector Organs.
NOTE: The Colour of the Rami Communicans reveals whether or not their fibres are myelinated.
Preganglionic Fibres = Myelinated Postganglionic Fibres = Unmyelinated
- Ganglia Location:
o Sympathetic Trunks (Chains of Ganglia) Flank each side of the Vertebral Column from the Neck to
Pelvis.
NOTE: Although the Sympathetic Trunks exist along the length of the spinal cord, the Fibres arise
only from Thoracic & Lumbar cord segments.
Blausen.com staff (2014). "Medical gallery of Blausen Medical 2014". WikiJournal of Medicine 1 (2), via Wikimedia
Commons
Creative Commons 3.0:
https://med.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Anatomy_and_Physiology/Human_Anatomy_(OERI)/14%3A_Autonomic_Ne
rvous_System/14.02%3A_Divisions_of_the_Autonomic_Nervous_System
Physiology of the Autonomic NS:
Neurotransmitters of the PNS:

- Afferent (Sensory): *Glutamate*/Calcitonin-Gene-Related Peptide/Substance P
- Efferent (Motor):
o Somatic/Voluntary (Skeletal Muscle): Acetylcholine (ACh)
o Autonomic:
§ Sympathetic:
• Preganglionic: Acetylcholine (ACh) →Stimulates Ganglia & Adrenal Medulla
• Postganglionic: Norepinephrine
• →Adrenal Medulla: Stimulated by Acetylcholine (ACh) to release Epinephrine &
NE into Blood.
§ Parasympathetic:
• Preganglionic: Acetylcholine (ACh)
• Postganglionic: Acetylcholine (ACh)
Somatic Division: Axons extend from CNS to their Effectors (Skeletal Muscle). They are typically Thick & Heavily
Myelinated and have a High Conduction Speed.
Their Neurotransmitter is Acetylcholine, and its effect is always Stimulatory.
Autonomic Division: Pre-Ganglionic Axons extend from CNS & synapse with either: (1) Peripheral Autonomic Ganglia,
or (2) Cells of the Adrenal Medulla; and release Acetylcholine.
(1) Post-Ganglionic Axons extend from Ganglia to Effectors & Release Either:
ACh (Parasympathetic)
or NE (Sympathetic)
(2) Adrenal Medullary Cells Release NE & Epinephrine into the Blood.
(Note: Pre-Ganglionic Fibres are Thin & Lightly Myelinated & Post-Ganglionic Fibres are Thinner & Unmyelinated.
Hence Conduction Speed within the Autonomic Neurons is Slow – Much slower than Somatic NS)
Receptors of the ANS:
- Parasympathetic - Cholinergic (ACh) Receptors:
o Nicotinic:
§ Found on:
• (Motor End-Plates of Skeletal Muscle - Somatic)
• Receptive Regions of All Ganglionic Neurons (Both Sympathetic & Parasympathetic)
• Hormone-Producing Cells of the Adrenal Medulla
§ Action:
• Binding of ACh → Directly Opens Ion Channels (:.Ionotropic) → Depolarises the
Postsynaptic Cell → Stim ulatory.
o Muscarinic:
§ Found on:
• All Effector Cells stimulated by Postganglionic Cholinergic Fibres
(Ie: All Parasympathetic target organs & some Sympathetic Targets [eccrine sweat
glands & some skeletal-muscle blood vessels])
§ Action:
• Binding of ACh → Activates the receptor’s G-Protein, which detaches from the
receptor → Causes an intra-cellular signalling cascade (:.M etabotropic).
→ May be Stimulatory OR Inhibitory Depending on the Subclass of Muscarinic
Receptor on the target organ.
§ Tissue-Specific Receptor Subtypes:
• M1 – Brain
• M2 – Heart
• M3 – Smooth Muscle & Glands
- Sympathetic - Adrenergic Receptors:
o – Receptors that respond to Norepinephrine/Epinephrine.
o – May be Excitatory OR Inhibitory depending on which Subclass of receptor Predominates in that
organ. (Organs responsive to NE/Epi often have more than one receptor subclass)
o Alpha: α1/2
o Beta: β1/2/3
Clinical Manipulation of the Peripheral NS:
- Aim: To Use the Nervous System to regulate Organ Function.
- Drugs: Mimic/Enhance/Block messages sent along the nerves.
- Problem: Side Effects – Because the PNS only uses 2 Neurotransmitters, Side effects can be widespread.
o Eg: Some Elicit Drugs have Sympathomimetic side effects:
§ Cocaine & Amphetamines → ↑↑Cardiovascular Stimulation (Tachycardia & Hypertension)
- Can Reduce Side Effects by:
o Topical Application
o Targeting specific receptor subtypes with more specific drugs.
o Targeting Tissue-Specific Differences in Receptor Subtypes.
- Examples of PNS Manipulation:
o Somatic NS:
§ Acetylcholinesterase Inhibitors (→↓Deactivation of ACh in Synapse → ↑ACh Action)
§ Neuromuscular Blockers (Eg: Nicotinic Antagonists)
o Autonomic NS:
§ Sympathetic:
• Agents that affect Release/Reuptake of Catecholamines (NE, Epi & Dopamine)
• Adrenergic Agonists & Antagonists
§ Parasympathetic:
• Acetylcholinesterase Inhibitors (→↓Deactivation of ACh in Synapse→ ↑ACh Action)
• Muscarinic Agonists & Antagonists
- Ganglionic Blockers:
o Drugs which block chemical transmission at autonomic ganglia – Essentially Denervates the entire
Autonomic Nervous System. (Main effect – Vasodilation [Loss of vasomotor tone])
o Effects vary from tissue to tissue, depending on whether Sympathetic/Parasympathetic nerves are
usually dominant in that tissue:
§ If Sympathetic usually dominates, Ganglionic Blockers mimic Parasympathetic Stimulation.
§ If Parasympathetic usually dominates, Ganglionic Blockers mimic Sympathetic Stimulation.
Unattributable
https://basicmedicalkey.com/neurotransmission-2/
Sympathetic & Parasympathetic Tone:
- Sympathetic (Vasomotor) Tone:
o The continual state of Partial Constriction of the Vascular System that Maintains BP (even @ rest)
o During Activity, a Higher BP is needed → the Vasomotor Fibres fire more rapidly → Vasoconstriction.
o Note: Alpha-Blockers dull the effects of the Sympathetic/Vasomotor Tone → Control Hypertension.
- Parasympathetic Tone:
o Slows the heart, sets the Normal activity levels of the Digestive & Urinary Systems, & Stimulates
Glandular Secretion (Except Adrenal Glands & Skin Glands)
o Note: The Sympathetic division an override this during times of stress.
o Note: Drugs that block Parasympathetic Responses → ↑HR, Faecal/Urinary Retention & ↓Glandular
Secretion.
Unique Roles of the Sympathetic NS:

- Note: The Sympathetic Division is more Wide-Spread than the Parasympathetic Division – Because it
innervates more organs.
o Eg: Adrenal Medulla, Sweat Glands, Hair-Follicle Muscles of the Skin, the Kidneys & Most Blood
Vessels Only Receive Sympathetic Fibres.
- There are other Uniquely Sympathetic Functions:
o Thermoregulatory Response to Heat:
§ Cutaneous vasodilation.
§ Activation of sweat glands.
o Thermoregulatory Response to Cold:
§ Cutaneous vasoconstriction.
o Release of Renin from the Kidneys:
§ Sympathetic impulses Stimulate Renin Release → Promotes ↑BP
o Metabolic Effects:
§ Sympathetic Stimulation → Release of Adrenal Medullary Hormones →
• ↑metabolic Rate of body cells
• ↑Blood Glucose Levels
• Mobilises fats for use as fuels.
• Puts skeletal muscle on ‘red alert’ – Contract more strongly & quickly.
Central Control of the Autonomic NS:

- ANS Activity is regulated by a hierarchy of CNS controls:
o Hypothalamus
o Brain Stem
o Spinal Cord
- Note: Subconscious Cerebral inputs via Limbic Lobe influences Hypothalamic Functioning.
Disorders of the Peripheral Nervous System:
- Categories:
o Inflammation (Eg: Guillain Barre Syndrome – Immune mediated demyelinating neuropathy)
(Eg: Myasthenia Gravis – Antibody attack on Nicotinic ACh Receptor in NMJ)
o Trauma (Eg: Spinal Injuries)
o Metabolic (Eg: Diabetic Neuropathies – Macro/Micro-vascular)
(Eg: Vitamin Deficiencies – B12, B6 & E)
o Toxicity (Eg: Urea/Alcohol/etc.)
o Genetics
o Infection (Eg: Shingles / Diphtheria / Leprosy)
Examples of Homeostatic Imbalances of The ANS:

- Hypertension – Results from overactive sympathetic vasoconstriction promoted by chronic stress.
Can be treated with β-Blockers / other Adrenergic Antagonist.
- Raynaud’s Disease – Characterised by intermittent attacks of peripheral cyanosis, provoked by exposure to
cold or emotional stress. It is an exaggerated vasoconstriction response.
- Autonomic Dysreflexia – Uncontrolled activation of Autonomic Neurons (Mechanism Unclear) in patients
with quadriplegia → ↑Arterial BP, Headache, Flushed Face, Sweating.
- Is Life Threatening.
PAIN & NOCICEPTION
PAIN & NOCICEPTION
Overview of Nociceptive Nerves:

- = Sensory nerves that carry “Pain” information (Nociception)
o → Tells the brain that tissues have been injured – Important for survival.
- 2 Types of Nociceptive Nerves:
o Type-C Fibres:
§ Very Thin, Un-Myelinated Fibres :. Slow Conduction :. Dull, Achy, Burning Pain
§ Poorly-Localised
o Type-Aδ Fibres:
§ Relatively Thin, Myelinated Fibres :. Faster (-than C-Fibres) :. Sharp (Acute), Searing Pain
§ Well-Localised
- Note: Conduction Speed increases with ↑Myelination & ↑Diameter.
- Note: Both Fibres are sensitive to the same stimuli
- Note: Both Fibres Respond to the Multiple Stimuli – Ie: Are Polymodal
http://www.eng.ucy.ac.cy/cpitris/courses/ECE471/presentations/English/Lecture%2012.pdf
Nociceptors Are Polymodal:
- Ie: Respond to a wide variety of stimuli:
o Eg: Mechanical
o Eg: Chemical
o Eg: Thermal
- However, the stimulus must be sufficiently intense to stimulate Nociception. (Due to High Threshold)
o Nociception is stimulated by Opening of cation channels → Brings nerve to threshold → Voltage-
Gated Na+ Channels open → Depolarisation (Action Potential).
- Note: Much of this polymodality is due to the TRPV1-Receptor’s ability to respond to various stimuli.
(Explained Later)
Nociceptor Neurotransmitters:
- Predominantly Peptide NT’s (Neuropeptides):
o *Substance-P
o Neurokinin-A (NKA)
o CGRP (Calcitonin-Gene Related Peptide)
o – and the Amino Acid: *Glutamate
- Synthesised in Cell Bodies:
o Peptides = Proteins :. Requires DNA for Synthesis :. Synthesis occurs close to the Nucleus.
o Note: Neuropeptides are stored & transported in Vesicles.
Organisation of Nociceptors:
- 1. Nociceptive Nerve:
o Distal Nerve Terminals = Simple, Un-encapsulated Nerve-Endings in Viscera/Periphery.
o Cell Body is in Dorsal Root Ganglia
(Nociceptors are Free Nerve Endings here= ‘A’)
Shigeru23, CC BY-SA 3.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons

- 2. Dorsal Horn of Spinal Cord:
o Proximal (Central) Nerve Terminal Synapses in Dorsal Horn of Spinal Cord.
o The Substantia Gelatinosa Modulates Nociceptive Transmission – A whitish gelatinous mass at the
apex of the dorsal horn – Plays a role in inhibiting the communication between Nociceptive Nerves &
Ascending Pathways → Suppress Pain.
- 3. Ascending Spinal Pathways:
o Nociceptive Nerves synapse with 1 of 2 Ascending Pathways transmits to the Brain:
§ Spinothalamic Pathways
• Neospinothalamic
• Paleospinothalamc
§ Reticulospinal Pathway
Source: http://what-when-how.com/acp-medicine/pain-part-1/
Process of Nociception:
- 1. Noxious Stimulus @ Distal Nerve Terminal:
o A Potentially Damaging Stimulus (Or summation of multiple different potentially damaging stimuli)
brings the Nerve to Threshold → Action Potential, leading to→
§ 1. NT release in Dorsal Horn (Glutamate & Substance P)→ Transmits to Ascending Pathways
§ 2. Bilateral Neuropeptide Transport to Central & Peripheral Nerve Terminals.
o “PRODUCTIVE PAIN” – Pain Associated with Initial Activation of Nociceptive Nerves :
§ Via opening of Cation Channel Receptors in Distal Nerve Terminals → Depolarisation.
§ Examples of Receptors & Their Stimulators That Stimulate/Modulate Nociception:
• *TRPV-Receptor (Ca+ 1Channel)(“TRP Vanilloid Receptor1”). Opened by:
o Capsaicin (from hot chillies)
o H+ (Acid)(Often a result of inflammation)
o Heat Hence, Polymodal.
o Mechanical (Mechanism unclear) →Nociception
o Eicosanoids (Lipid mediators of inflammation)
• Bradykinin Receptors:
o Sensitive to Bradykinin.
o Bradykinin Activates TRPV1-Receptor → Depolarisation → Nociception.
• Prostanoid Receptors:
o Sensitive to Prostaglandins.
o Open Na+ Channels →
o Inhibit K+ Channels → → ↑MP → :. Lowers Threshold → ↑Sensitivity
o Open TRPV1-Receptors →
• Opiate/Cannabinoid Receptors:
o Sensitive to Opioid Peptides Cannabinoids.
o Open K+ Channels → K+-Efflux → ↓MP (Hyperpolarises Cell) → ↓Sensitivity
o Note: This is one of the targets of Opioid Analgesics.
• ASIC – (“Acid Sensitive (gated) Ion Channel”):
o Sensitive to H+ Ions
o Stimulation → Depolarisation of Cell → Nociception
• Also Exhibits Receptors for a Wide Range of Mediators (Most not shown):
o Glutamate
o GABA
o ACh
o Serotonin
o ATP
o Noradrenaline
o Histamine
o Somatostatin
- 2. Bilateral Neuropeptide Transport:
o The Nociceptor Releases Neuropeptides (Substance-P, Glutamate, Neurokinin-A & CGRP) at both
ends:
§ Release @ Dorsal Horn → Nociceptive Transmission
§ Distal-Terminal Release → ‘Neurogenic Component of Inflammation’ → Lowers Threshold →
Ie: M akes the Nociceptor Hypersensitive → Potentiates Further Nociception.
o “NON-PRODUCTIVE PAIN” – Pain Associated with Ongoing Chemical Stimulation (Potentiation):

§ (Pain persists long after the initial noxious stimulus – particularly with Inflammation/Injury)
• Note: Non-Productive Pain should dissipate as the injury heals.
§ Chemical Factors Responsible:
• *Nociceptor Neuropeptides (Potentiators):
o *Substance-P
o Neurokinin-A (NKA)
o CGRP
o – And *Glutamate (Amino Acid)
• *Prostaglandins (Potent Pain-Enhancing Substances)
o Released during Inflammation & Ischaemia → Enhance the actions of other
mediators (Esp. Bradykinin & Serotonin) → Hyper-sensitising Distal
Nociceptive Nerve Terminals.
o How? – By 1) Inhibiting K+ Ion Channels,
And 2) Hypersensitising TRPV1-Receptors to noxious stimuli.
• Kinins (Potent Pain-Producing Substances):
o *Bradykinin
§ 1. Produces Pain - Triggers Action Potential in Nociceptive Neuron by
activating TRPV +1R Receptors (Ca Influx → Depolarisation)
§ 2. Triggers Prostaglandin & Bradykinin Release → enhances its own
action on the Nerve Terminal
o Kallidin
• Neurotransmitters (Mediators):
o Serotonin
o Histamine
o ACh
• Metabolites:
o Lactic Acid (eg. Ischaemic pain if stimulus damaged the tissue’s blood supply)
o K+
o H+
o ATP Released by damaged/lysed cells
o ADP
§ Non-Chemical Factor:
• Primary Nociceptive Afferents inhibit the Substantia Gelatinosa → Inhibit Pain
Suppression → Potentiate Pain.
§ Note: NSAIDs (Non-Steroidal Anti Inflammatory Drugs) – eg. Ibuprofen & Aspirin, elicit their
effect by Reducing Prostaglandin Synthesis → Therefore preventing Sensitisation of
Nociceptive Terminals.
- 3. Synaptic Transmission @ Dorsal Horn (Nociceptors Synapse with Ascending Fibre-Tracts in Spinal Cord):
o The 2 Primary Neurotransmitters:
§ *Substance-P
§ *Glutamate
o Other less-important NT’s:
§ VIP
§ Somatostatin
§ Serotonin
§ CCK
§ GABA
§ Opioids
https://tmedweb.tulane.edu/pharmwiki/doku.php/overview_of_cns_neurotransmitters
o Nociceptive Nerves synapse with 1 of 2 Ascending Pathways that transmit to the Brain:
§ 1. Spinothalamic Pathways (Spine → Thalamus):
• Neospinothalamic (Lateral):
o Somatotopical
o Small Receptive Fields → Good Localisation
o Aδ-Fibres = Main Afferents
o Function = Localizing & Discrimination of Pain.
o Projections from the Thalamus Lead to:
§ *Primary Somatosensory Cortex
• Palaeospinothalamic (Medial):
o Not Somatotopical
o Broad Receptive Fields → Poor Localisation
o C-Fibres = Main Afferents
o Function = ‘Alerting’ – “We’ve been Injured”
o Projections from the Thalamus lead to:
§ *Primary Somatosensory Cortex
§ Somatosensory Association Areas
§ Prefrontal Cortex
§ Cingulate Cortex
§ 2. Spinoreticular Pathway (Spine → Reticular Formation [RAS] in Brainstem) :
• Lacks Somatotopy.
• Broad Receptive Fields → Poor Localisation
• Function = ‘Alerting’ – “We’ve been Injured”
• RAS Function:
o Arousal/motivation/consciousness/circadian rhythms/HR/Respiration/etc.
o Is also the FILTER between the Conscious & Unconscious mind, ignoring
background ‘Noise’ & only bringing the ‘Important’ stimuli to Consciousness.
• RAS Projects to many brain regions:
o Including Thalamus & Hypothalamus → Changes body state
§ Note: Both decussate at the spinal cord level & ascend on the Contralateral side.
§ Note: Thalamus receives ALL SENSORY INPUTS – only ≈10% is Nociceptive.
§ (3.) Trigeminal Nerve:
• Responsible for Nociceptive Info from Head & Face
• Projects to Thalamus (Similar to Spinothalamic)
Source: http://what-when-how.com/acp-medicine/pain-part-1/
- Regulating Nociceptive Transmission - “The Pain-Gate Mechanism” & “Descending Inhibitory Pathways”:
o The Substantia Gelatinosa (Spinal Regulation of Nociceptive Transmission):
§ A whitish gelatinous group of neurons at the apex of the dorsal horn
§ When Active → Suppresses Pain.
§ Pain-Modulation @ the level of the Spinal Cord:
• →Inhibiting Nociceptive Transmission → Suppressing Pain:
o Afferent Mechanoreceptors (Aβ-Fibres) & Descending Inhibitory Pathways →
Stimulates the SG → Decreases Nociceptive Transmission → Decreases Pain.
o Note: Exploited in Narcotic Analgesics
• →Potentiating Nociceptive Transmission → Potentiating Pain:
o Afferent Nociceptive Signals (C & Aδ-Fibres) → Inhibiting the SG → Increased
Nociceptive Transmission → Increased Pain
User:Polarlys, CC BY-SA 3.0 <http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/>, via Wikimedia Commons
o Descending Inhibitory Pathways (Central Regulation of Nociceptive Transmission):

§ Pathway: A Neuronal chain from the PAG (‘Periaqueductal gray matter; Midbrain) → NRM
(Rostro-Ventral Medulla) → Substantia-Gelatinosa & Dorsal Horn of the Spinal Cord.
§ Functions to Temporarily Inhibit Nociceptive Transmission between Nociceptors & Spinal
Cord (A few hours max).
§ CNS Regions Involved:
• PAG – Periaqueductal Grey matter (Midbrain):
o Receives Inputs from:
§ *Locus Coeruleus*
§ Reticular Formation (Aka: Reticular Activating System – RAS)
§ Amygdala
§ Hypothalamus
§ Prefrontal Cortex
§ Insula
o Projects to – ‘Nucleus Raphe Magnus’ (Raphe Nuclei) in the Rostro-Ventral
M edulla.
o Note: It is Disinhibited (Activated) by Opioids & GABA-Antagonists →
Activates NRM → Inhibits Dorsal Horn Synapse.
• NRM – Nucleus Raphe Magnus (Rostro-Ventral Medulla):
o Projects to Dorsal Horn of Spinal Cord & acts in 2 Places:
§ 1. Directly Inhibits Nociceptive Transmission @ the Synapse.
§ 2. Stimulates Substantia Gelatinosa → Inhibits Pain Transmission.
• Substantia Gelatinosa (Dorsal Horn of Spinal Cord):
o When activated, it directly suppresses Nociceptive Transmission @ the
Synapse.
De Vrij, Edwin. (2022). Acupuncture and pain relief.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/45677305_Acupuncture_and_pain_relief/citation/download
§ Neurotransmitters Involved:
• *OPIOIDS*:
o 1. Remove Inhibition of PAG (Activates PAG) → Stimulate NRM → Inhibits
Dorsal Horn Synapse
o 2. Directly Inhibit Dorsal-Horn Synapse
o – Hence, opioid analgesics work by activating Descending Inhibitory
Pathways & Direct inhibition of Dorsal Horn Synapse.
• *Noradrenaline – (From Locus Coeruleus – Directly Inhibits Dorsal-Horn Synapse)
• *Serotonin (5-HT) – (From NRM – Directly Inhibits Dorsal-Horn Synapse)
• *Encephalins – (From NRM – Directly Inhibits Dorsal-Horn Synapse)
• Note: Low-Dose Tri-Cyclic Anti-Depressants can treat Neuropathic pain by blocking
re-uptake of NE, 5-HT, & Encephalins in Dorsal Horn Synapse.
https://basicmedicalkey.com/pain-4/
o The Concept of “Wind-Up”:
§ = Potentiation @ Synapses between C-Fibres & Dorsal Horn Nerves (Spinal Cord).
§ Afferent Nociception → Release of Substance-P & Glutamate into Dorsal Horn Synapse →
Remodelling of the synapse → ↓Threshold → Super-Sensitivity (↑Excitability).
• Note: Temporary(Normal)/Permanent(Abnormal)
§ Remodelling Events:
• Presynaptic:
o ↑Presynaptic NT Release
o ↓Presynaptic Inhibition
• Postsynaptic:
o ↑Postsynaptic Facilitation (Lowered Threshold)
o ↓Postsynaptic Inhibition
§ Note: This ‘Remodelling’ is mediated by both:
• Phosphorylation of Proteins/Receptors → Changes Function.
• ↑Transcription due to Prolonged action of Second-Messengers (eg. cAMP)
triggering Transcription Factors → ↑Number of proteins/New Proteins.
§ Note: Very Similar To Long-Term Potentiation (LTP):
• A Long-Lasting Post-Synaptic Depolarisation, induced through Repetitive Stimulation
& Summation of Excitatory Post-Synaptic Potentials.”
• Simply – “A Persistent Increase in Synaptic Strength & Excitability”
§ Termination of “Wind-Up”:
• Phosphorylated receptors/enzymes will be de-phosphorylated by Phosphatases.
• The excess synaptic proteins will degrade (due to half-life) and be replaced by the
correct num ber & type of proteins by norm al transcription .
- 4. Processing of Nociceptive Signals by the Brain:
o We Don’t know much about Central Nociceptive Processing.
o We Do Know:
§ -that Thalamic neurons project to Limbic Structures & Hypothalamus (As well as Sensory
Cortex)
§ -Incoming Nociceptive Signals are “Weighted” in terms of importance.
§ -The brain’s “Response” depends entirely on comparison between the “Weight” of the signal
and all other sensory input
§ -Expectation/Anticipation of a painful event heightens the pain sensation after stimulus.
§ -Distraction is often effective in reducing pain.
o Pain = a decision made by the brain – Based on more than just Nociception:
§ Other Sensory Input
§ Context (Memory/Emotional/Danger (Survival)/Body Status/etc)
o There is no simple relationship between Nociception & Pain.

§ Nociception without Pain = eg. Firewalkers
§ Pain without Nociception = eg. Phantom Limb Pain/Neuropathic Pain
o Therefore Pain is SUBJECTIVE:

§ 2 equal injuries will affect 2 people differently.
§ 2 equal injuries @ different times affect the Same Person differently
• Therefore, pain cannot be directly measured. Instead, a patient’s rating of pain is the
only m easurem ent to go by (even if it is subjective).
Q: How does the brain distinguish between ‘Fast’ (Aδ-Fibre) & ‘Slow’ (C-Fibre) input given that
o
both fibres terminate in the dorsal horn?
§ A: Hypothesis = 2 Ways:
• 1. Although the different fibre types synapse in the same ‘place’ (Dorsal Horn), they
synapse on different ascending neurons – Therefore, their individual info is carried to
the brain along separate pathways.
• 2. The brain uses the delay in the signals coming from the 2 fibre types (as they
conduct at different speeds) to determine fibre-type origin.
Clinical Relevance:
Neural Regeneration:
- Body’s attempt to re-connect severed/damaged nerves:
o Mediated by Schwann Cells
o Growth Factors are essential
o Aim – to extend a new segment of Axon →Target.
o Rate – 1.5mm/day
- Process:
o 1. Axon is severed
o 2. Axon end seals & swells (as substances normally transported along the axon accumulate)
o 3. Axon distal to injury degenerates due to lack of nutrients & fragments are phagocytosed.
o 4. However, the Neurilemma in the Endoneurium remains Intact.
o 5. Schwann Cells Proliferate around site of injury, release growth factors & form a Regeneration-Tube
§ A) Growth Factors encourage Axonal Regrowth – “Sprouting”
§ B) Regeneration Tube guides these ‘Lamellopodia’ (Sprouts) to their original contacts.
o 6. Schwann Cells protect, support, and Re-Myelinate the Regenerating Axons.
o 7. Excess ‘sprouts’ are culled once a connection is re-established.
- Result:
o Never the same, but restores adequate sensitivity of sensory inputs
o Note: The CNS isn’t capable of Neural Regeneration.
Arslantunali Şahin, Damla & Dursun Usal, Tuğba & Yucel, Deniz & Hasirci, Nesrin & Hasirci, Vasif. (2014). Peripheral
nerve conduits: Technology update. Medical Devices, Evidence and Research.. 7. 405-424. 10.2147/MDER.S59124.
- Note: Neural Regeneration can become Corrupted:
o Disrupted Neural Regeneration 1 – Neuromas:
§ Sprout may overshoot the target, or the path forward may be blocked.
§ If no connection is made, sprouts can turn back on themselves → Forms a “Neuroma”.
• This can cause Sprout-ends to remodel→ changing subtypes of ion channels &
receptors → Changing Sensitivity to stimulation.
o Voltage-gated Na+ channels go from high to low-threshold → ↑Sensitivity.
• Note: Neuromas can be a source of Spontaneous Ectopic Discharge (Similar to
Heart)
§ Note: Thought to be a major cause of Phantom Limb Pain:
• Shooting/Stabbing/Pricking/Squeezing/Burning pains in distal portion of missing limb
o Disrupted Neural Regeneration 2 – Wrong Connection:

§ Relevant to Damaged Sensory Afferents close to DRG or Spinal Cord...
§ If Sprouts overshoot their target in the dorsal horn → they can synapse on the wrong
ascending fibres → Changes the Nature of the Innervation → Signals are misinterpreted by
the brain.
• Eg: A Damaged Aδ-Fibre (Mechano-afferent) synapses onto an Ascending Neuron
that is normally associated with C-Fibres.
• Result: Mechanical Sensory Input is now interpreted as Pain.
Types/Features of Pain:
- Altered Pain Sensitivity:
o Increased pain sensitivity to noxious/non-noxious stimuli → ↑Non-Productive Pain.
§ Hyperalgesia:
• Where a mild noxious stimulus results in a heightened sense of pain.
• Ie: Something that should only hurt a little, hurts a lot.
§ Allodynia:
• Where pain is provoked by a non-noxious stimulus.
• Ie: Something that shouldn’t hurt, does.
o Note: Both can be Associated with Either:
§ A Healing Injury (Normal):
• Potentiation @ distal nerve terminals – Substance-P, Neurokinin-A & CGRP.
• Pain Amplifiers – Prostaglandins & Bradykinin
• “Wind-Up”: Potentiation @ central nerve terminals – Substance-P & Glutamate –
Temporary Remodelling of the synapse → ↓Threshold.
§ Neuropathic Origin (Abnormal):
• “Wind-Up”: Potentiation @ central nerve terminals – Substance-P & Glutamate –
Permanent Remodelling of the synapse → ↓Threshold.
• Other potential causes of Permanent Nociceptive Synapse Remodelling:
o Injury (Mech. Damage)
o Stroke (Ischaemic Damage)
o Multiple Sclerosis
o Diabetic Neuropathy
o Shingles
- Altered Pain Sensation:

o Dysthesia:
§ Unpleasant, abnormal sensation – Burning/Wetness/Itching/Electric Shock/Incl.Paresthesia.
§ May be Spontaneous Or Evoked
o Paraesthesia:
§ Abnormal Tingling/Pricking/Numbness in Skin.
§ Eg: ‘Pins & Needles’
- Neuropathic Pain:
o Severe, Chronic Pain that isn’t associated with any current peripheral tissue damage. Rather, it is
caused by a primary lesion/dysfunction of the Nervous System that is often impossible to identify.
o Often results from Corrupted Neural Regeneration secondary to a past injury.
o Simply – Pain that doesn’t have an exogenous trigger.
o A Result of Permanent Synaptic Remodelling → Hypersensitisation:
§ Anatomical Malformations – Eg: Neuromas (Tangle of Nerves) due to mechanical nerve
injury & subsequent failed Neural Regeneration.
§ Molecular Alterations – Eg: Damaged nerve terminals begin to express α-Adrenergic
Receptors (Note: Abnormal) →Become sensitive to Adrenaline.
• Therefore, Sympathetic Activity → Systemic Adrenaline Release → Pain.
§ Cellular Alterations – Eg: Spontaneous Neuronal Discharges due to a change in
number/type/& Sensitivity of Na+ Channels.
§ Physiological Alterations – Eg: Permanent “Wind-Up” → ↓Threshold.
§ Other potential causes of Permanent Nociceptive Synapse Remodelling:
• Injury (Mech. Damage)
• Stroke (Ischaemic Damage)
• Multiple Sclerosis
• Diabetic Neuropathy
• Shingles
o Note: Low-Dose Tri-Cyclic Anti-Depressants can treat Neuropathic pain by blocking re-uptake of NE,
5-HT, & Encephalins in Dorsal Horn Synapse → Maintained Inhibition of Nociceptive Transmission.
- Chronic Pain:
o On-going pain associated with a Progressive Disorder or Non-Healing Injury.
§ Includes ‘Neuropathic Pain’
o Is often insensitive to Narcotic Analgesics (Opioids)
o Note: There is often Discordance between Pain-Experience & Self-Report of Pain.
- Visceral & Parietal Pain:

o Visceral Pain:
§ Note: Visceral Sensory Inputs are Primarily Nociceptive.
§ Note: Primarily Associated with C-Fibres (Dull, Aching Pain)
§ Main Causes of Visceral Pain:
• Ischaemia
• Chemical Stimuli (Eg: Gastric/Duodenal Ulcer Rupture)
• Muscle Spasms in Hollow Organ
• Over-Distension of Hollow Organ
§ Most Sensitive to Diffuse Organ Damage rather than Localised Organ Damage.
• Ie: Diffuse organ damage → causes severe pain.
§ Nature of Visceral Pain:
• Dull
• Achy
• Poorly Localised
o Parietal Pain:
§ Note: Primarily Associated with Aδ-Fibres (Sharp, stabbing pain)
§ Main Cause of Parietal Pain:
• Severely Diseased Organ → Spreads to Parietal Membranes:
o Peritoneum
o Pleura
o Pericardium
o Meninges (Note: Brain is impervious to pain, but Meninges & Vessels aren’t)
§ Note: Meningitis is one of the most severe headaches known.
o Etc
• These Parietal Membranes have large numbers of Nociceptors.
§ Nature of Parietal Pain:
• Sharp
• Well-Localised
Referred Pain:
- o = Pain experienced as being associated with a tissue/body part that isn’t the actual site of injury:
§ Typically, Visceral Pain is felt in the Dermatomes of the Spinal Roots that also receive the
Visceral Afferents.
o Occurs due to Convergence of Visceral & Cutaneous Nociceptive signals @ the Spinal Cord:
§ Visceral C-Fibres synapse onto (and activate) the same Ascending Neurons as
Cutaneous/Muscular Aδ-Fibres.
§ Therefore, Noxious Visceral Stimuli are felt as pain in the tissues covered by the Aδ-Fibres
synapsing on the same Dorsal Horn Neuron.
Reporting Pain:
- Paediatrics:
o Children experiencing pain may not be able to accurately report on that pain for many reasons:
§ May be Neonatal
§ May be unwilling to cooperate
§ May be incapable of understanding what you are asking when inquiring about their pain.
§ May be unable to describe their experience
§ They are afraid that if they report pain, they will get a needle (which they fear more)
§ May want to please Parents/Authority Figures (Docs/Nurses)
§ May be mentally/physically disabled
o This inability to accurately report on pain leads to “Discordance”, a feature of Paediatric Pain:
§ Where a child reports a certain degree (or lack) of pain that conflicts with observed
behaviour and activities.
§ The temptation is to attribute this to attention-seeking, malingering or psychological
problems.
§ However, discordance is simply a sign of a problem in pain evaluation
(measurement/assessment) and indicates the need to pursue further investigations.
o Measuring Pain in Children:
§ Neonates/Very Young Children/Disabled Children:
• Reports by Parents/Care-Givers
• ‘The Oucher’ Pain Scale – A ‘Visual Analogue Scale’ - Uses ethnically-specific photos
of young children in various stages of distress.
S o u r c e : w w w . o u c h e r . o r g
- Older Children & Adults:
o Self-Report Scales – Eg: The McGill Pain Questionnaire – Uses 78 Adjectives graded on a scale of 0-5.
Treatment & Pain Management:
- Effective Management ALWAYS STARTS with an Evaluation of the Pain Report:
o The Analgesic/Combination of Analgesics is Matched to the Pain Report.
- 3 Locations to Consider when Targeting Pain:
o 1. Peripheral Targets:
§ TRPVR Receptors (Vanilloid Receptors – Sensitive to H+1/Capsaicin/Heat/Mechanical):
• Capsaicin:
o Activates TRPV1R Receptors on C-Fibres → Causes Substance-P release
§ → Depletes the terminal of Substance-P (A Peptide)
§ → There will be a period of Analgesia while Sub-P is re-synthesised.
o Useful For:
§ Topical Arthritis Cream
§ Some Neuropathic Pain
§ Prostanoid Receptors (Sensitive to Prostaglandins):
• Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs) – (Aspirin/Ibuprofen)
o Mild Analgesic
o Anti-Inflammatory:
§ ↓Prostaglandin Production by inhibiting the enzyme Cyclo-
Oxygenase [COX]) → ↓Prostaglandin-Mediated Hypersensitivity of
Nociceptive Neurons.
o Useful For:
§ Mild-Moderate pain
§ Hyperalgesia
§ Allodynia
• COX-2 Inhibitors – (Celebrex)
o Mild Anti-Inflammatory Analgesic:
§ More specific than NSAID’s – Target COX-2 Enzyme – Less Side-
Effects)
§ ↓Prostaglandin Production by inhibiting the enzyme Cyclo-
Oxygenase-2 [COX-2]) → ↓Prostaglandin-Mediated Hypersensitivity
of Nociceptive Neurons.
o Useful For:
§ Mild-Moderate pain
§ Hyperalgesia
§ Allodynia
§ Opioid Receptors:
• Opioid Drugs – (Codeine, Morphine, Fentanyl):
o Strong Analgesics - Act at all 3 levels (Periphery, Spinal Cord, Brain)
o Activated Opioid Receptors on:
§ Distal Nerve Ending – (Periphery):
• Opens K+ Channels → K+-Efflux → Hyperpolarisation.
o May be used for Acute & Chronic Pain.
§ If used Acutely, a “Step-Down” Plan (to less potent agents) must be
used to prevent addiction.
§ Unknown:
• Paracetamol/Acetaminophen – (Panadol/Tylenol)
o Mild Analgesic:
§ Mechanism is unknown.
o WEAK Anti-Inflammatory:
§ Weak inhibit of Prostaglandin Synthesis
o Useful For Analgesia when Inflammation isn’t an issue.
o 2. Spinal Cord Targets:
§ Substantia Gelatinosa
§ Dorsal Horn Synapse
§ Effective Analgesics:
• Opioids – (Codeine, Morphine, Fentanyl):
§ Proximal Nerve Ending – (Spinal Cord):
• Mimic Autoreceptors → Closure of Ca+ Channels → ↓Ca+-
Mediated NT Release.
§ Periaqueductal Grey Matter (PAG) – (Brain):
• Remove Inhibition of PAG (Activates PAG) → Activates NRM
→ Inhibits Dorsal Horn Synapse.
• Tri-Cyclic Antidepressants:
o Low-Dose Tri-Cyclic Anti-Depressants can treat Neuropathic pain by blocking
re-uptake of NE, 5-HT, & Encephalins in Dorsal Horn Synapse → Maintained
Inhibition of Nociceptive Transmission.
• Massage Therapy:
o Aβ-Fibre Mechano-Afferents directly activate the Substantia Gelatinosa →
Inhibit Nociceptive Transmission @ Dorsal Horn Synapse.
3. Brain Targets:
o § Periaqueductal Grey Matter (PAG)
§ Whole Brain
§ Effective Analgesics:
• Opioids – (Codeine, Morphine, Fentanyl):
§ Proximal Nerve Ending – (Spinal Cord):
• Mimic Autoreceptors → Closure of Ca+ Channels → ↓Ca+-
Mediated NT Release.
§ Periaqueductal Grey Matter (PAG) – (Brain):
• Remove Inhibition of PAG (Activates PAG) → Activates NRM
→ Inhibits Dorsal Horn Synapse.
• General Anaesthesia:
o Knocks out the entire conscious NS.
SPECIAL SENSES - VISION
SPECIAL SENSES - VISION
Accessory Structures of the Eye:
- Eyebrows:
o Shade the eyes from sunlight
o Prevent water/perspiration trickling down the forehead into the eyes.
- Eyelids (‘Palpebrae’):
o Protect the eye when threatened by foreign objects
o Blinking prevents drying of the eyes
- Conjunctiva (“Joined Together”):
o Transparent mucus membrane lining the eyelids (‘Palpebral Conjunctiva’) & the anterior eyeball
surface (‘Bulbar Conjunctiva’).
o Produces lubricating mucus – Prevents drying out.
- Lacrimal Apparatus:
o Consists of:
§ Lacrimal Gland (Tear Gland):
• Located in the orbit above the eye.
• - Secretes dilute saline (Lacrimal secretion/tears)
§ Lacrimal Canaliculi:
• 2 openings on medial margin of each eyelid.
• - Drains tears into the Lacrimal Sac → Nasolacrimal Duct → Nose.
o Note: Lacrimal fluid contains Mucus, Antibodies & Lysozyme (an antibacterial)
By Cenveo; Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 United States (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/us/).

- Extrinsic Eye Muscles:
o Eyeball movement is controlled by 6 muscles
o The 4x Rectus Muscles originate from a common tendinous ring (Annular Ring) at the back of the
eye.
o The 2x Oblique Muscles take different paths through the orbit. They are required to cancel the
medial pull of the superior & inferior recti to allow purely vertical eye movement.
This work by Cenveo is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 United States
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/us/).
Eye Anatomy:
- 3-Layered Wall (Tunics):
o 1. Fibrous Layer: (Outermost layer)
§ Made of Dense Connective Tissue
§ 2 Regions:
• Cornea:
o The Clear, Anterior part of the eye that lets light in.
o Major role in the refractive apparatus of the eye.
• Sclera:
o The white/opaque, Posterior part of the eye.
o Protects & shapes the eyeball.
o It is continuous with the Dura Mater of the brain via the optic nerve sheath.
o 2. Vascular Layer: (Middle Layer)
§ 2 Parts:
• Choroid:
o Highly vascular, dark membrane (Posterior 5/6 of eye).
§ Supplies nutrition to all eye layers
§ Absorbs light, preventing it from scattering/reflecting within the eye.
o Anteriorly, it becomes the Ciliary Body:
§ A thickened ring of smooth muscle around the lens.
§ These Ciliary Muscles control lens shape.
§ The Ciliary Zonule (Suspensory ligaments) connects the Ciliary
M uscles to the lens.
• Iris (“Rainbow”):
o The Anterior, coloured portion of the Vascular Layer
o Lies between the Cornea & the Lens.
o Its round, central opening (The Pupil) allows light in.
o Consists of 2 Smooth Muscle Layers:
§ Sphincter Pupillae (Circular) → Pupil Constriction
§ Dilator Pupillae (Radial) → Pupil Dilation
o 3. Retinal Layer: (Innermost Layer)
§ 2 Sub-Layers:
• Pigmented Layer:
o Outer Retinal Layer
o Dark, Single-cell-thick lining adjacent to the Choroid.
o Absorbs light, prevents scattering/reflection within the eye.
o Also function as phagocytes, removing dead/damaged photoreceptor cells.
o Store Vitamin-A (needed by photoreceptor cells)
• Neural Layer:
o Inner Retinal Layer
o Transparent layer of Photoreceptors/Neurons/ & Glia
o Direct Role in Vision (Light Transduction)
§ Composed of 3 Types of Neurons:
• Photoreceptors:
o Light Transduction
o Blood Supply = The Choroid
o 2 Types:
§ Rods – Light Detectors (Dim & Fuzzy)
§ Cones – Colour Detectors (Bright & Sharp)
• Bipolar Neurons:
o Connect Photoreceptors to Ganglion Cells
o Blood Supply = The Central Artery/Vein of the Retina.
• Ganglion Cells:
o Generate & Conduct the Action Potentials → Brain
o Blood Supply = The Central Artery/Vein of the Retina.
§ Note: Also contains other types of neurons (Amacrine Cells & Horizontal Cells) which play a
role in visual processing.
§ The Optic Disc - Where the Ganglion Cells’ Axons exit the eye to form the optic nerve. (Aka:
Blind Spot)
§ The M acula Lutea (“Yellow Spot”):
• Oval region directly at the eye’s Posterior Pole.
• Contains mostly Cones
• The Fovea Centralis – a tiny pit in the centre of the Macula Lutea – Contains ONLY
Cones.
§ Note: Cone density decreases toward the retinal periphery.
§ Note: Rod density increases toward the retinal periphery.
Blausen.com staff (2014). "M edical gallery of Blausen M edical 2014". W ikiJournal of M edicine 1 (2). BY 3.0
- The Eye’s 2 Segments & Fluids:
o The Lens & its Ciliary Zonule (Suspensory Ligaments) Divide the eye into 2 segments:
o 1. Anterior Segment:
§ In front of the lens.
§ Filled with ‘Aqueous Humour’ – a clear, plasma-like substance:
• Features:
o Continually formed by capillaries of the Ciliary Processes in the posterior
chamber.
o Flows from the Posterior Chamber to the Anterior Chamber
o Drains from Ant. Chamber into venous blood via the Scleral Venous Sinus
(Canal of Schlemm) which encircles the Sclera-Cornea Junction
o Has the same refractive index as the Cornea
• Functions:
o Its pressure supports the eyeball internally.
o Supplies Nutrients & Oxygen to the Lens & Cornea
§ Subdivided by the Iris into 2 Chambers:
• Anterior Chamber:
o Between the Cornea & the Iris
• Posterior Chamber:
o Between the Iris & the Lens.
§ Contains:
• Cornea
• Iris
• Lens
• Ciliary Muscles (Lens accommodation)
• Ciliary Processes (Aqueous humour production)
• Aqueous Humour
• Ciliary Zonule (Suspensory Ligaments)
• Scleral Venous Sinuses (Canal Of Schlemm)
o 2. Posterior Segment:
§ Behind the lens.
§ Filled with a clear gel called ‘Vitreous Humour’ (“Glassy Fluid”):
• Features:
o Formed in the Embryo & Lasts a Lifetime
o Has the same refractive index as the cornea
• Functions:
o Transmits light
o Supports the posterior surface of the lens
o Holds the Neural Retina firmly against the Pigmented Layer
o Contributes to Intraocular Pressure
§ Contains:
• Vitreous Humour
• Retina
• Choroid
• Sclera
• Macula Lutea & Fovea Centralis
• Optic Disc
• Optic Nerve
Rhcastilhos. And Jmarchn., CC BY-SA 3.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0>, via Wikimedia

Commons
- The Eye’s Lens:
o Features:
§ Biconvex
§ Transparent
§ Flexible
§ Enclosed in a thin, elastic capsule
§ Held in place by the Ciliary Zonule (Suspensory Ligaments)
§ 2 Parts:
• Lens Epithelium:
o On the Anterior Lens Surface
o Cuboidal Cells
• Lens Fibres:
o Form the bulk of the lens
o Arranged in layers (like an onion)
o Lens Physics:
§ A lens of a certain ‘power’ has a certain Focal Point. The distance between the lens & the
focal point is the Focal Distance.
§ Note: The eye has a fixed Focal Distance, therefore the Lens ‘Power’ must be variable.
o Function:
§ Focuses light rays onto the retina.
§ Accommodation: Changes shape (& hence, lens ‘Power’) to maintain Focal Distance.
This work by Cenveo; Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 US (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/us/).
o Focal Disorders:
§ Emmetropia (Normal Vision)
§ Myopia (Short Sighted) – Eye is too long
§ Hyperopia (Far Sighted) – Eye is too short

- Photoreceptors:
o The cells that transduce light. (Rods & Cones)
o Contain an array of Visual Pigments (Photopigments) that change shape as they absorb light:
o These Photopigments are imbedded in areas of the Photoreceptor Membranes that form discs.
§ Note: Folding the PM into discs magnifies the surface area available for trapping light.
o Photoreceptor Anatomy:
§ Outer Segment:
• Contains the Membranous Discs embedded with Photopigments
§ Connecting Cilia:
• Joins the Outer & Inner Segments
§ Inner Segment:
• Contains the Photoreceptor Cell Bodies
o Differences (Rods Vs. Cones):
§ Have different thresholds for activation.
§ Contain different visual pigments - absorb different wavelengths of light.
§ Are “wired” differently.
o Rods:
§ High Sensitivity (Respond well to dim light)
§ Contain only 1 type of Photopigment (Therefore only send a ‘monochrome’ signal)
• Hence why things have no ‘colour’ in very dim light.
§ As many as 100 Rods may feed into a single Ganglion Cell → Fuzzy, indistinct vision.
o Cones:
§ Low Sensitivity (Requires bright light for activation)
§ Have 1 of 3 different pigments that respond to different colours. (Allow you to see colour)
§ Each Cone has its OWN Private Ganglion Cell → Detailed, High-Res vision.

- Phototransduction:
o Transforming light waves into electrical impulses.
o The light-absorbing molecule is called ‘Retinal’. (A derivative of Vitamin-A)
o Retinal combines with proteins called ‘Opsins’, to form 4-types of Photopigments.
o The wavelengths absorbed by the different Photopigments depend on the Type of Opsin contained.
o The Underlying Process:
§ In the Dark:
• Cyclic-GMP holds Na+ Channels open in the Outer-Segment Membrane (Na Influx)
• Na+ Flows from the Outer-Segment, through the Connecting Cilia, and into the cell
body. Na/K-ATPases pump Na+ out of the cell body. (This constant flow of current is
around -40mV, and is termed “Dark Current”)
• -40mV is a Depolarisation Potential (RMP ≈ -70mV) → Cell is Active
• Active Photoreceptors constantly release Glutamate.
• Glutamate Directly Inhibits the Bipolar Neurons → Indirectly inhibit Ganglion Cells.
§ W hen Light Strikes:

• Light strikes the inactive isomer of Retinal (“11-cis”), converting it to its active
isomer.
• The Active Retinal Isomer (“all-trans” Isomer) causes Opsin to change shape to its
activated form.
• The Retinal-Opsin combination breaks down, allowing Retinal & Opsin to separate.
• The “All-Trans”-Retinal activates an enzyme cascade → ↓cGMP levels → Closure of
Na+ Channels in Outer-Segment.
• Current Flow Ceases → “Dark Current” disappears → Cell is repolarised to ≈-70mV
• C e ll is In h ib ite d → S to p s re le a sin g G lu ta m a te → R e m o v e s B ip o la r C e ll In h
• Active Bipolar Cell → Stimulates Ganglion Cell → Action Potential along Optic Nerve.
- Light/Dark Adaptation:
o Light Adaptation:
§ Occurs when we move from Darkness into Bright Light. We are momentarily dazzled – as the
retina is still “set” for dim light. At this point, both Rods & Cones are strongly stimulated,
causing large amounts of Photopigment to be broken down → Floods the brain with signals
→ Glare.
§ To Compensate, the Rod system quickly desensitises and essentially turns off. The Cone
system rapidly adapts, and takes over. Hence, overall the retina Desensitises.
§ Can take up to 60sec.
o Dark Adaptation:
§ Occurs when we move from Brightness to Darkness. Initially we see nothing but black
because:
• 1. Cones stop functioning in low light. &
• 2. Because Rods have been ‘bleached’ out by the bright light & are still turned off.
§ Once rhodopsin accumulates in the Rods, their function slowly increases.
§ Can take more than 30mins.
- Retinal Processing:
o Most Direct Route of Info – Photoreceptor → Bipolar Cell → Ganglion Cell.
o However, Lateral Inputs (Horizontal & Amacrine Cells) – Provide a level of Processing @ the Retina.
- Pathways to the Brain:
o Ganglion Cell axons become the Optic Nerve.
o Some of the Optic Nerve Fibres cross @ the Optic Chiasm.
o After the Optic Chiasm, Optic Nerves become the ‘Optic Tracts’.
o Optic Tract fibres synapse in the:

§ Superior Colliculi of the Midbrain (Blue Circles):
• - Visual Reflex Centres controlling Extrinsic Eye Muscles
§ Lateral Geniculate Nucleus of the Thalamus (Red Circle):
• - Sorts/Relays info Via the Optic Radiation to the Primary Visual Cortex. (Pink Circle)
• Emphasis on Cone input
• Sharpens Contrast
§ Primary Visual Cortex (Pink Circle):
• Topographical map of the Retina (Similar to Homunculus)
• Basic Processing Tasks:
o Light Vs. Dark
o Orientation of Object
o Sends Info to Visual Association Areas – regarding Form, Colour & Motion.
§ More Complex Processing occurs elsewhere: (Temporal, Parietal & Frontal Lobes)
o Information Route/Pathway: Photoreceptor → Bipolar Cell → Ganglion Cell → Optic Nerve → Optic
Chiasm → O ptic Tract → Superior Colliculus / Lateral Geniculate Nucleus of the Thalam us → Prim ary
Visual Cortex → Visual Association Area → Perception.
THE TONGUE & GUSTATION (TASTE)
THE TONGUE & GUSTATION (TASTE)
Receptor Type:
- Chemoreceptors (Respond to chemicals dissolved in solution)
Gustation (Taste):
- Location of Taste Buds:
o Located primarily in the oral cavity:
§ Mainly on the Papillae of the Tongue
§ Also on Soft Palate
§ Inner surface of Cheeks
§ Pharynx
§ Epiglottis
o Most taste buds are found on the Papillae of the Tongue:
§ On the tops of the Fungiform Papillae
§ On the side-walls of the Circumvallate Papillae
- Structure of Taste Buds:
o Each taste bud consists of 50-100 epithelial cells. (3 Types of associated epithelial cells):
§ Supporting Cells:
• Form the bulk of the taste bud.
• Insulate the Receptor Cells from each other
§ Receptor Cells:
• Have Long Microvilli that project from their tips, through a taste pore to the surface.
• These Long Microvilli (Gustatory Hairs) are the sensitive portions of these cells.
• Taste fibres of the Facial/Glossopharyngeal/Vagus Cranial Nerves coil around the
Receptor Cells.
§ Basal Cells:
• Act as stem cells
• Divide & differentiate to replace the Receptor Cells every 7-10 Days

- Basic Taste Sensations:
o Sweet - Sugars, some Amino Acids, Lead Salts
o Sour - Acids
o Salt - Metal Ions (Particularly Sodium)
o Bitter - Alkaloids (Quinine, Caffeine, and Nicotine) – Note: Dislike for bitter is Protective.
o Umami - “Delicious” - Glutamate (Steak, Cheese) & MSG.
o Note: Most ‘tastes’ are a mixture of these basic taste sensations.
o Note: Taste ‘likes/dislikes’ have homeostatic values –
§ Umami → leads to intake of Proteins
§ Sweet → leads to carbohydrate & mineral intake
§ Salt → leads to electrolyte intake
§ Sour → many sour (naturally acidic foods) are a rich source of Vit.C
§ Bitter → Many natural poisons & ‘off’ foods are bitter – hence a natural dislike is protective.
Physiology of Taste:
- o Tasting requires a chemical to dissolve in the saliva, then diffuse through a Taste Pore, and contact
Gustatory Hairs.
o Binding of chemical induces a depolarising potential → Release of Neurotransmitter.
o Neurotransmitter → Triggers dendrites of sensory nerves → Action Potentials.
o Note: Different receptor cells have different thresholds (Eg: Bitter cells are very sensitive)
Taste Transduction:
- o Basic Overview:
§ Stimulation of Gustatory Cell → leads to an ↑in intracellular [Ca+] → Causes NT Release →
Stim ulates sensory nerves.
o Each taste-quality has its own way of stimulating the receptor cells:
§ Salty – due to Na+ influx → directly depolarises the Gustatory Cell.
§ Sour – due to H+ either: 1) Entering the cell, 2) Opening Ion Channels, or 3) Blocking K+
Channels
§ Bitter, Sweet & Umami – G-Protein Linked Receptors that produce depolarisation.
Gustatory Pathway:
o Afferent fibres from taste buds run in 3 Cranial Nerves:
-
§ Facial (first 2/3 of tongue)
§ Glossopharyngeal (last 1/3 of tongue)
§ Vagus (Epiglottis & Lower Pharynx)
o Afferent Fibres synapse in the Solitary Nucleus of the Medulla → Thalamus → Gustatory Cortex in
Parietal Lobes.
R a lli, M a ssim o & d 'A g u a n n o , V itto rio & A ltie ri, M a rta & D i S ta d io , A ria n n a & T u rc h e tta , R o sa ria & V i
di piero, Vittorio & Greco, Antonio. (2018). Ageusia, Hyposmia, Dizziness and Tinnitus as Presenting Symptoms of
Multiple Sclerosis. The international tinnitus journal. 22. 150-155. 10.5935/0946-5448.20180025.
OLFACTION (SMELL):
OLFACTION (SMELL)
O lfa ctio n (S m e ll):

- Note: ≈80% of taste is in fact smell.
- Location of Olfactory Receptors:
o Located in the ‘Olfactory Epithelium’ – a 5cm2 patch of Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium in the
roof of the Nasal Cavity.
o Between the olfactory epithelial cells are the Olfactory Receptor Cells.
- Olfactory Receptor Regeneration:
o Basal Cells in the basal side of the olfactory epithelium differentiate & replace Olfactory Receptor
Cells every ≈60 days.
- Structure of Olfactory Receptor Cells:
o They are Modified Bipolar Neurons
o Have a thin apical dendrite, terminating in the olfactory mucus as Olfactory Cilia. (↑Surface Area)
o Have thin, Unmyelinated Axons that collect to form the Olfactory Nerve (CN-I)
§ Filaments of the Olfactory Nerves project superiorly through the Cribriform Plate.
§ Axons Synapse in the Olfactory Bulbs.
Credit: Regents of University of Michigan Medical School © 2012

- Specificity of the Olfactory Receptors:
o Humans can distinguish ≈10,000 odours, but smell can’t be classified like taste can.
o Receptors are stimulated by different combinations of chemicals.
o There are thought to be ≈1000 “smell” genes that code for special “Odorant binding proteins”
(Special Receptor Proteins).
o It is though that each receptor cell has only 1 type of receptor protein → Specificity.
- Physiology of Olfactory Receptors:
o For an odorant to be smelt, it must dissolve in the olfactory mucus.
o Once dissolved, odorants:
§ Stimulate the olfactory receptors by binding to Odorant Binding Proteins in the membranes
of the Olfactory Cilia
§ Stimulated Odorant Binding Proteins → Activate G-Proteins → Activate Adenylate Cyclase
§ Active Adenylate Cyclase synthesises Cyclic AMP
§ cAMP → Opening Cation Channels → Depolarisation.
§ Depolarisation → Action potential → Stimulates the Olfactory Bulb.
Source: Rinaldi, 2007 and http://what-when-how.com/neuroscience/olfaction-and-taste-sensory-system-part-1/
- The Olfactory Pathway:

o Olfactory Receptors → Mitral Cells (in ‘Glomeruli’ – Each glomerulus receives only 1 type of odour)
→ M itral Cell Axons (O lfactory Tracts) → Either:
§ 1) The Thalamus → Olfactory Cortex & Frontal Lobe (conscious interpretation/identification).
§ 2) The Hypothalamus, Amygdala & other Limbic System regions – Elicit emotional responses
to odours.
- Desensitisation:
o In the Olfactory Bulbs, there are Granule Cells that release GABA (Inhibitory NT) → Inhibits Mitral
Cells.
o This inhibition of Mitral Cells ensures that only highly excitatory impulses are transmitted.
o This enables us to ‘shut out’ constant smells.
HEARING AND EQUILIBRIUM:
HEARING AND EQUILIBRIUM:
Functional Overview of the Ear:

- Ear is Responsible for 2 Special Senses:
o Hearing – Associated with Outer, Middle & Inner Ear (Cochlear) Structures.
o Equilibrium - Associated with just the Inner Ear (Vestibular Apparatus)
- Note: Receptors for both = “Hair Cells”: (Note: their functional differences are due to specialised anatomy)
o How they Work:
§ Hair Cells have ‘Cilia’ projecting from their apical surface into gelatinous masses:
• Ie: Otolithic Membrane (in the Maculae of the Cochlea)
• Ie: The Cupulae (in the Crista Ampullaris of the Vestibular Apparatus)
§ These ‘Cilia’ are distorted by movements in the gelatinous masses → Change in Membrane
Potential (:. Hair Cells are Mechanoreceptors)
• The Greater the distortion, the greater the change in Membrane Potential.
• Note: The Polarity of the Change in Membrane Potential is determined by the
Direction of the distortion.
o How Distortion of Cilia causes the Change in Membrane Potential:
§ At the top of each cilia, there are Mechano-Gated K+ Channels, joined together by ‘Tip Links’
§ At Rest: Half of the K+ Channels are open, maintaining RMP.
§ If Distorted & Tip Links are Stretched: All K+ Channels open → Depolarisation
§ If Distorted & Tip Links are Compressed: All K+ Channels are closed → Repolarisation
o Note: Neurotransmission from Hair Cells → Cochlear Nerve Dendrites is via Ca+-Mediated
Exocytosis.
Ear Anatomy:
- Outer Ear:
(Air-Filled)
o Pinna (Auricle):
§ The Outermost part of the ear
§ The bit that funnels sound waves into the External Auditory Canal
o External Auditory Canal:
§ The canal that conducts the soundwaves waves into the Tympanic Membrane (Eardrum)
§ Contains Ceruminous Glands – Secrete Cerumen (Earwax)
§ Abuts the Middle ear @ the Tympanic Membrane (Ear-Drum)
- Middle Ear:
(Air-Filled Cavity within the Temporal Bone)
o Tympanic Membrane (Eardrum):
§ Thin, translucent, connective Tissue Membrane (Skin on outside, mucosa on inside)
§ Connect to the 3 Auditory Ossicles
§ Soundwaves cause it to vibrate → Causes the Auditory Ossicles to Vibrate.
o The 3 Auditory Ossicles:
§ Malleus (“Hammer”/“Mallet”)
§ Incus (“Anvil”)
§ Stapes (“Stirrup”)
§ Note: 2 Skeletal Muscles (Tensor Tympani & Stapedius) Reflexively contract when ears are
assaulted by loud sounds – Reduces Sound Conduction.
o Oval Window of the Cochlea:
§ Transfers Vibration of the Stapes → Into the Cochlea.
o Eustachian (Pharyngotympanic) Tube:
§ Equalizes pressure between the Outer & Middle Ear

- Inner Ear –
(Cochlea & Vestibular Apparatus): (Fluid-
Filled Bony & Membranous Labyrinths)
o Cochlea - HEARING:
§ The Spiral-Shaped Organ
§ Begins @ the Oval Window:
• The Entry Point of the Cochlea.
• The hole covered by membrane
• Separates the air-filled middle ear from the fluid-filled inner ear.
§ Ends @ the Round Window:
• The Exit-Point of the Cochlea
• Also covered by membrane
• Also separates the air-filled middle ear from the fluid-filled inner ear.
§ Consists of 3 Coiled Ducts – Separated by 2 Membranes:
• Scala Vestibuli (Vestibular Duct):
o Begins @ the Oval Window
o Ends @ the apex of the Cochlea
o Filled with Perilymph.
o Separated from the Scala Media by the Vestibular Membrane.
• Scala Media (Cochlear Duct):
o Runs through the middle of the Cochlea.
o Separates the Vestibular Duct & Tympanic Duct.
o Filled with Endolymph.
o Separated from the Scala Tympani by the Basilar Membrane.
o Contains the Spiral Organ of Corti: (See Next Page)
• Scala Tympani (Tympanic Duct):
o Begins @ the apex of the Cochlea
o Ends @ the Round Window
o Filled with Perilymph.
Simplified Anatomy of the Cochlea. (Modelled as a long tube running from oval window, to the helicotrema, and
back. This work by Cenveo; Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 US (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/us/).
§ The Spiral Organ of Corti:
• Sits inside the Scala Media & runs along the Basilar Membrane.
• Composed of:
o The Tectorial Membrane (Overlying the Hair Cells)
o Hair Cells (Receptors for hearing) – Associated with cochlear nerve fibres:
§ 1x Row of Inner Hair Cells – Has several inputs to the Spiral Ganglion
- Sends most of the auditory info.
§ 3x Rows of Outer Hair Cells – Has Only 1 input to the Spiral Ganglion
- Plays a role in Signal Amplification
o Supporting Cells
o The Basilar Membrane
• Cochlear Branch of the Vestibulocochlear Nerve Originates Here.

Audiotransduction:
- Soundwaves are funnelled by the Auricle of the ear into the External Auditory Canal.
- → Soundwaves vibrate the Tympanic Membrane (Eardrum)
- → Eardrum vibration is passed through the Auditory Ossicles to the Oval Window.
o Note: This transfer of vibration from the Eardrum→Oval Window AMPLIFIES it by ≈20x (As the
eardrum surface area is ≈20x that of the Oval Window)
- → Oval Window vibration is transmitted into the Perilymph of the Scala Vestibuli.
- → Waves travelling through the Scala Vestibuli penetrate the Vestibular Membrane at different points
relative its Resonant Frequency & enter the Scala Media:
o High sounds resonate the Vestibular Membrane closer to the oval window
o Low sounds resonate the Vestibular Membrane away from the oval window
- → Waves exit the Scala Media by Penetrating the Basilar Membrane & enter the Scala Tympani:
o The waves penetrating the Basilar Membrane cause it to Vibrate.
o Vibration of the Basilar Membrane pushes the Hair Cells in the Organ of Corti up into the Tectorial
Membrane, Distorting the Cilia & Initiating Graded Potentials in the Cochlear Nerve.
- → Waves continue down the Scala Tympani & leave the Cochlea via the Round Window – This prevents
echoing of the sound waves within the Cochlea.
- Pitch & Volume:

o Pitch – is coded in the area of the basilar membrane which is distorted by the wave.
o Volume – is coded by the degree of distortion of the hair cells by the wave.
Pathway From the Cochlea to the Brain:
- Hair Cells → Cochlear Nerve (Incl. Spiral Ganglia) → Cochlear Branch of the Vestibulocochlear Nerve →
Cochlear N uclei of the M edulla →
- → Superior Olivary Nucleus → Lateral Lemniscal Tract → Inferior Colliculus → Medial Geniculate Nucleus of
the Thalamus →
o Primary Auditory Cortex – (Conscious Sound)
o Superior Colliculus – (Auditory Reflexes – Startle, Turning Head, etc.)
What-when-who, CC BY-SA 4.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons
- Deafness:
o Conduction Deafness:
§ Problem with Soundwave Conduction (Ie: Mechanical Structures)
• Eg: Earwax
• Eg: Perforated Ear Drum
• Eg: Fused Ossicles
o Sensorineural Deafness:
§ Problem with Soundwave Transduction (Ie: Neural Structures)
• Eg: Damaged Hair Cells
• Eg: Damaged Cochlear Nerve
• Eg: Damaged Auditory Cortex
Vestibular Apparatus - EQUILIBRIUM:
- Vestibular Branch of the Vestibulocochlear Nerve Originates Here.
- Consists of:
o A Vestibule, Containing:
§ 1x Utricle:
§ 1x Saccule:
o & 3 Semicircular Canals.
- The Vestibule: Note: Both the Utricle & Saccule have a Maculae:
o Maculae = Receptor Organs for Linear Acceleration (Static Equilibrium)
§ Provides Info about Orientation of the Head with respect to Gravity, Linear Acceleration &
Angular Acceleration.
o Composed of:
§ Hair Cells (Cilia Project into the Otolithic Membrane)
§ Supporting Cells
§ Otolithic Membrane - (Gelatinous Mass with ‘Otoliths’ – “Ear Stones” – of Calcium
Carbonate Crystals resting on top. These ‘Otoliths’ provide the inertia required to move the
Otolithic Membrane during head movement)

- The 3 Semicircular Canals: Note: At the end of each Canal is a Swelling = “Crista Ampularis”:
o Crista Ampularis = Receptors for Rotation (Dynamic Equilibrium).
o Composed of:
§ Hair Cells (Cilia Project into the Cupula)
§ Supporting Cells
§ Cupula – (Gelatinous Mass encircling the entryway of each Crista Ampularis. Rotation of the
head in the plane of the canal causes fluid movement over the Cupula, distorting the Hair
Cells)
o Note: There are 2 Semi-Circular Canals for each ‘Plane’ of Movement:

§ One on each side of the head
§ This allows you to determine the Direction of head motion.
o Note: Each Semi-Circular Canal is Responsible for a different Plane:

§ Anterior – (‘Ear-to-Shoulder’ Motion)
§ Posterior- (‘Nodding’ Motion)
§ Lateral - (‘Shaking’ (‘no’) Motion)
Equilibrium Pathways To the Brain:

- Equilibrium is Subconscious
- Info goes straight to the reflex centres in the Brainstem & Cerebellum:
o Vestibular Nuclei:
§ Integrates Balance + Receive some Visual & Somatic Inputs
§ Sends commands to Brainstem Motor Centres controlling Eyes & Neck/Limb/Trunk Reflexes.
REGIONAL ANATOMY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM:
REGIONAL ANATOMY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
Cervical Plexus Nerves:
https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/482b/1c2932843fb3178ea92280487c1347211479.pdf
Brachial_plexus.jpg:Mattopaedia at en.wikipediaderivative work: Captain-n00dle (talk), MissMJ, Public domain, via

Wikimedia Commons
• (Ant) Musculocutaneous Nerve
o Innervates:
§ Flexors of Arm:
• Biceps Brachii
• Brachialis
• Coracobrachialis
§ Skin of Anterio-Lateral Forearm
https://www.howtorelief.com/musculocutaneous-nerve-course-motor-sensory-common-injuries/
• (Ant) Median Nerve
o Innervates:
§ Flexors of Anterior Forearm:
• Palmaris Longus
• Flexor Carpi Radialis
• Flexor Digitorum Superficialis
• Lateral ½ of Flexor Digitorum Profundus
• Flexor Pollicis Longus
• Pronator Teres
• Pronator Quadratus
• Thenar Muscles (Intrinsic muscles of Lateral Palm)
• Lumbricals #1 & #2
• Digital Branches to Fingers
§ Skin of Lateral 2/3 of Hand, Palm Side & Dorsum of Fingers 2 & 3
https://www.raynersmale.com/blog/2016/7/30/carpal-tunnel-syndrome
• (Ant) Ulnar Nerve
o Innervates:
§ Flexors of Anterior Forearm:
• Flexor Carpi Ulnaris
• Medial part of Flexor Digitorum Profundus
• Majority of Intrinsic Muscles of Hand
o Adductor Pollicis
o Flexor Digiti Minimi Brevis
o Abductor Digiti Minimi
o Opponens Digiti Minimi
o Lumbricals #3 & #4
o Interossei
§ Skin of Medial 1/3 of Hand (Ant & Post).
1.Reproduced from Mundanthanam GJ, Anderson RB, Day C: Ulnar nerve palsy. Orthopaedic Knowledge Online
2009. Accessed August 2011.
2.Clker Free Vector Images, CC BY-SA 4.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia
Commons
• (Post) Axillary Nerve
o Innervates:
§ Deltoid
§ Teres Minor
§ Skin & Joint Capsule of Shoulder
• (Post) Radial Nerve
o ALL Posterior Upper-Arm & Forearm Muscles.
§ Extensor Muscles of Arm, Forearm & Hand:
• Triceps Brachii
• Anconeus
• Supinator
• Brachioradialis
• Extensor Carpi Radialis Brevis
• Extensor Carpi Radialis Longus
• Extensor Carpi Ulnaris
• Abductor Pollicis Longus
• Extensor Pollicis Brevis
• Extensor Pollicis Longus
• Extensor Indicis
• Extensor Digitorum
• Extensor Digiti Minimi
§ Skin of Entire Latero-Posterior Arm & Forearm & Hand (except dorsum of fingers 2 & 3)
https://i.pinimg.com/600x/ef/57/c2/ef57c24486e928cb11ad9623b6a16405.jpg
Source: http://www.dartmouth.edu/~humananatomy/figures/chapter_8/8-13_files/IMAGE001.JPG
Lumbar Plexus Nerves:
- The lumbar plexus is a network of nerve fibres that supplies the skin and musculature of the lower limb. It is
located in the lumbar region, within the substance of the psoas major muscle and anterior to the transverse
processes of the lumbar vertebrae
Gray822_es.svg: *Gray822.png: Grayderivative work: Ninovolador (talk)derivative work: Mcstrother, CC BY 3.0

• Femoral Nerve:
o Branches off L2, L3 & L4
o Runs between Psoas Major & Iliacus → beneath Inguinal Ligament → Thigh → Splits in 2:
§ Anterior Division
• Cutaneous Branches
• Muscular Branches → Pectineus & Sartorius
§ Posterior Division
• Cutaneous Branch – Saphenous Nerve
• Muscular Branches → Quadriceps Femoris
o Innervates:
§ Pectineus
§ Sartorius
§ Rectus Femoris
§ Vastus Lateralis
§ Vastus Intermedius
§ Vastus Lateralus
§ Skin of Anterio-Medial Thigh & Lower Leg + Medial Aspect of Foot
Kitkat0816, CC BY-SA 4.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons

• Obturator Nerve:
o Branches off L2, L3 & L4
o Runs medial to Psoas Major, down along the inside wall of lesser pelvis → through Obturator Canal
(in obturator membrane) through Obturator Foramen → Thigh
o Innervates:
§ External Obturator
§ Adductor Longus
§ Adductor Brevis
§ Adductor Magnus
§ Gracilis
§ Skin of medial aspect of thigh
Source: https://www.howtorelief.com/obturator-nerve-course-motor-sensory-innervation/
Sacral Plexus Nerves:
https://www.bjaed.org/article/S2058-5349(20)30062-7/fulltext
• Superior Gluteal Nerve:

o Branches off L4, L5 & S1
o Runs from Dorsal Roots → leaves pelvis through Greater Sciatic Foramen above Piriformis →
Gluteus Medius, Gluteus Minimus & Tensor Fasciae Latae.
§ Accompanied by Superior Gluteal Vein & Artery.
o Innervates:
§ Gluteus Medius
§ Gluteus Minimus
§ Tensor Fasciae Latae
Inferior Gluteal Nerve:
•
o Branches off L5, S1 & S2
o Runs from Dorsal Roots → leaves pelvis through Greater Sciatic Foramen above Piriformis →
Gluteus Maximus.
o Innervates:
§ Gluteus Maximus
Sciatic Nerve:
•
o Branches off L4, L5, S1, S2 & S3
o Runs from inside pelvis → through Greater Sciatic Foramen (below piriformis) → descends along the
p o ste rio r th ig h to a b o u t its lo w e r th ird → D iv id e s in to 2 B ra n ch e s: T ib ia l & C o m m o n F ib u la r N
(some variation)
o Innervates:
§ Hamstrings
§ ½ of Adductor Magnus
• Common Fibular (Peroneal) Nerve:
o Branches off Sciatic Nerve
o Runs obliquely along the lateral side of the Popliteal Fossa → Head of the Fibula Adjacent to the
M edial M argin of the Biceps Fem oris → W inds around neck of Fibula → divides into D eep &
Superficial Fibular (peroneal) Nerves
o Innervates: Skin of Lateral Aspect of Lower Leg & Skin of Dorsum of Foot
o Deep Fibular Nerve →Innervates:
• Tibialis Anterior
• Extensor Digitorum Longus
• Fibularis Tertius
• Extensor Hallucis Longus
o Superficial Fibular Nerve:
§ Innervates:
• Fibularis Longus
• Fibularis Brevis
§ Tibial Nerve:
• Branches off Sciatic Nerve
• Runs through Popliteal Fossa → Then follows the Tibia to the ankle → passes into
Foot (below medial malleolus) → Terminates as Medial & Lateral Plantar Nerves
• Innervates:
o Gastrocnemius
o Popliteus
o Soleus
o Plantaris
o Tibialis Posterior
o Flexor Digitorum Longus
o Flexor Hallucis Longus
Source: https://antranik.org/peripheral-nervous-system-spinal-nerves-and-plexuses/
IMPORTANT CLINICAL NEUROLOGICAL THINGS:
Important Clinical Neurological Things
Pattern-Recognition of Common Neuro Symptoms & Signs:
Headaches:
Pattern: Probable Diagnoses:
Isolated SEVERE Headache History: Acute Onset ?Subarachnoid Haemorrhage (Arterial)
Syx: “Thunderclap Headache”,
Pain 10/10, Vomiting,
Meningism, ALOC.
Headache Following Head Injury History: Acute Onset ?Extradural Haemorrhage (Arterial)
Syx: Acute LOC Following
Severe Head Trauma → Lucid
Interval → Rapid Deterioration
+ Vomiting + Seizures
History: Days-Weeks-Months ?Subdural Haematoma (Venous)
Syx: Worsening Headache
following Mild Head Trauma.
Subacute Onset Headaches History: Days ?Infective:
Syx: Headache + - ?Meningitis
Constitutional Syx (Fever, - ?Encephalitis
Rash, N/V/D, Fatigue), +
Meningism/Photophobia.
Chronic or Recurrent Headaches History: Months-Years ?Tension Headache (Muscular)
Duration: Hours-Days ?Migraine (Functional)
Syx: Vague Muscle Tension/ ?Sinusitis (Inflammatory/Pressure)
M igraine/Sinus.
Pressure Headaches History: Months-Years ?Intracranial Space-Occupying Lesion
Syx: Pain worse Lying Down, → ↑ICP
Coughing, Straining or
Sneezing. + Vomiting
Headaches with Scalp Tenderness History: Older Patient ?Temporal Arteritis (Giant Cell
Syx: Headache + Extreme Arteritis)
Tenderness over Scalp Vessels.
Dizziness, Vertigo & Blackouts

Dizziness Vague Unsteadiness, Light- ?Postural/Orthostatic Hypotension
Headedness. ?Panic/Anxiety
?Palpitations (Eg: Atrial Fibrillation)
?Anaemia
Vertigo The Illusion of Movement, ?Otolith
Sensation or Rotating/Tipping. ?Vestibulocochlear Disease
+ Nausea & Vomiting (Eg: Acoustic Neuroma)
Blackout Implies ALOC, Visual ?Syncope
Disturbance, or Falling ?Epilepsy
?Hypoglycaemia
?Anaemia
D iffic u lty W a lk in g & F a lls:
Spasticity Stiff, Jerky Walking ?Spastic Diplegia (Neonatal Asphyxia)
Toe-Scuffing and Catching ?M ultiple Sclerosis
Maintained Narrow Base ?Cerebral Palsy
?Bilateral Spinal Cord Injury
Hemiparesis Unilateral Spasticity (See ?Stroke (ACA)
Above) + Circumduction of ?Unilateral Spinal Cord Injury
Spastic Leg to prevent Toe
Dragging.
Parkinson’s Disease: Short Rapid Steps, Shuffling, ?Parkinson’s Disease
Shuffling Gait Maintained Narrow Base,
Stooping, Difficulty Turning
Quickly
Cerebellar Ataxia: Broad-Based Ataxia, Unstable, ?Lateral Cerebellar Lobe Disease
Broad-Based Gait Tremulous
Truncal Ataxia (Unsteady ?Midline Cerebellar (Vermis) Disease
Trunk without Limb Ataxia) +
Tendency to fall (*Remember Cpt. Jack Sparrow)
Back/Sideways
Sensory Ataxia: Broad-Based, High-Stepping, ?Polyneuropathy & Loss of
Stamping Gait Stamping Gait. Proprioception
(Worse with Eyes Closed)
(Romberg’s Test Positive)
Low er Lim b W eakness: Slapping Gait: Audible Sole- ?Distal Leg Weakness (Eg: Common
Slapping & Waddling Gaits Slap when returned to Ground Peroneal Nerve Palsy)
W addling G aits: D ifficulty ?Proximal Leg Weakness (Eg:
Rising from Sitting + Waddling Poliomyelitis, Muscular Dystrophy)
(*Remember Maggie Grant)

Gait Apraxia Failure to Initiate/Organize ?Frontal Lobe Disease
W alking, Shuffling Sm all Steps, (Tumour, Hydrocephalus, Infarction)
Undue Hesitancy.
(But Normal Leg Movements
when Sitting/Lying)
Visual Field Defects + Causes:
Lesion Location Visual Field Defect

Retinal Lesion (Eg: Retinal Haemorrhage) Paracentral Scotoma (Focal Visual Field Defect)
Unilateral Optic Nerve Lesion Mononuclear Field Loss
Optic Chiasm Lesion Bitemporal Hemianopsia
Unilateral Optic Tract Lesion Contralateral Homonymous Hemianopsia
Parietal Optic Radiation Lesion Contralateral Homonymous Upper Quadrantanopsia
(Lower Retinae; Upper Visual Field)
Temporal Optic Radiation Lesion Contralateral Homonymous Lower Quadrantanopsia
(Upper Retinae; Lower Visual Field)
Full-Thickness Optic Radiation Lesion Contralateral Homonymous Hemianopsia
Occipital Pole Lesion (Visual Cortex Lesion) Contralateral Homonymous Hemiscotoma
Dattilo, Michael et al. “Functional and simulated visual loss.” Handbook of clinical neurology 139 (2016): 329-341 .
By Urbi Mandal; https://medizzy.com/feed/26426356
Pupillary Defects + Causes:
Afferent Pupillary Defect:

- (Ie: An Optic Nerve/Optic Chiasm/Optic Tract Lesion)
- Eg: A Blind Left Eye:
o L-Pupil Unreactive to Light
o Present Consensual Reflex in L-Pupil
o R-Pupil Reactive to Light
o Absent Consensual Reflex in R-Pupil
Efferent Pupillary Defect:
- (Ie: Oculomotor Nerve/Ciliary Nerve Lesion)
- Eg: Left 3rd Nerve Palsy:
o L-Pupil Unreactive to Light
o Absent Consensual Reflex in L-Pupil
o R-Pupil Reactive to Light
o Present Consensual Reflex in R-Pupil
https://healthjade.net/pupillary-light-reflex/
https://healthjade.net/pupillary-light-reflex/
Clinical Features of Focal Brain Lesions:
Patterns of Motor Neuron Lesions:
Upper Motor Neuron Lesions:
- = Lesions of the Neural Pathway ABOVE the Anterior Horn of the Spinal Cord (Or the Motor Nuclei of the
Cranial Nerves)
- Causes:
o Stroke
o Traumatic Brain Injury
o Cerebral Palsy
- General Symptoms of UMN Syndrome:
o Muscle Weakness (‘Pyramidal Weakness’)
o Hyperreflexia (Due to ↓CNS Inhibition)
o Spasticity
o Babinski Sign (Extension of Big Toe rather than Flexion)
o Pronator Drift (Pt Flexes Arms to 90o, Supinates Forearms & Closes Eyes; Inability to maintain this
position = Pronator Drift) (SideNote: Drifting Upwards is a Sign of a Cerebellar Lesion)
- Specific UMN Lesion Locations & Their Consequences:
Unilateral Motor Cortex Lesion (Eg: Stroke) Contralateral Hemiplegia

Unilateral Internal Capsule Lesion (Eg: Tumour) Contralateral Hemiplegia
Laceration of Spinal Cord Between Medulla & Brachial Plexus Quadriplegia
Laceration of Spinal Cord Between Brachial Plexus & Sacral Plexus Paraplegia
Lower Motor Neuron Lesions:

- = Lesions of the Neural Pathways BELOW the Anterior Horn of the Spinal Cord (Or the Motor Nuclei of the
Cranial nerves)
- Causes:
o Injuries/Trauma to Peripheral Nerves
o Poliomyelitis (Virus Selectively Attacks the Anterior Horns of the Spinal Cords)
o Guillain-Barre Syndrome
o Botulism
- General Symptoms of UMN Syndrome:
o Flaccid Paralysis of the Affected Muscle
o Muscle Wasting of the Affected Muscle
o Fasciculations
o Areflexia
Source: Timothy Warner: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Species-divergent-organisation-of-motor-systems-A-

The-corticospinal-tracts-CSTs_fig1_337215634
Patterns of Loss of Sensation:
Background:
- 3 Conscious Sensory Pathways:
o Dorsal Column Medial-Lemniscal Pathway:
§ Vibration, Proprioception, 2-Point Discrimination
§ Ascends Ipsilaterally → Decussates in Medulla → Thalamus → Sensory Cortex
o Spinothalamic Pathway:
§ Pain & Temperature
§ Decussates @ Spinal Level → Ascends Contralaterally → Thalamus → Sensory Cortex
o Trigeminal Nerve:
§ All Facial Sensation
§ Decussates in Medulla → Thalamus → Sensory Cortex
- 1 Unconscious Sensory Pathway:
o Spinocerebellar:
§ Role in Proprioception & Balance.
Source: https://www.grepmed.com/images/3568/brownsequard-patterns-loss-diagnosis-bilaterality-neurology-
sensory
NERVOUS SYSTEM PATHOLOGY:
STROKES
Strokes:
- TIA vs. CVA vs. Stroke:
o TIA = TRANSIENT ISCHAEMIC ATTACK (“Mini-Strokes”) = A brief stroke (<24hrs)(episode of
neurologic dysfunction) due to a temporary focal cerebral ischemia NOT associated with cerebral
infarction.
§ Typically Thromboembolic
§ Clinical Course:
• Temporary Ischaemia, Resolves within 24hrs
o CVA = CEREBRO-VASCULAR ACCIDENT = Any cerebro-vascular pathology that leads to lack of blood
supply to the brain → Stroke >24hrs
§ Clinical Course:
• Evolving CVA = Increasing Ischaemia, Longer than 24hrs, Typically Thrombosis
• Completed CVA= Complete Ischaemia, No Change, Typically Embolism
o Stroke = “Rapid Loss of Brain Function(s) due to Disturbance in the Blood Supply to the Brain.”
§ (Stroke is the clinical syndrome of a CVA)
- Common Causes of Stroke:

o 1. Ischaemic Strokes – (Focal, Thrombo/Embolic):
§ Atherosclerosis –
• → Rupture → Thrombosis → Cerebral Ischaemia → Stroke.
• → Or Athero-Emboli in a Cerebral Artery → Cerebral ischaemia → Stroke
§ Heart Disease –
• Eg: Atrial Fibrillation →Thrombo-Emboli → Cerebral Ischaemia → Stroke
o 2. Haemorrhagic Strokes – (Global, ↑ICP → Hypoperfusion):

§ Hypertension –
• Blood vessel bursts under pressure → Bleeding → ↑ICP → Compresses other
Cerebral Arteries → ↓Blood Flow → Cerebral Ischaemia → Stroke.
§ Congenital Vascular Conditions –
• Eg: Congenital Berry Aneurysms → Rupture → Subarachnoid Haemorrhage
(A rte ria l) → ↑ IC P → C o m p re sse s o th e r C e re b ra l A rte rie s → ↓ B lo o d Flo w →
Cerebral Ischaemia → Stroke.
• Eg: Congenital AV Malformations → Rupture → Intracerebral Haemorrhage
(A rte ria l) → ↑ IC P → C o m p re sse s o th e r C e re b ra l A rte rie s → ↓ B lo o d Flo w →
Cerebral Ischaemia → Stroke.
§ Trauma –
• Eg: Skull Fracture → Extradural Haemorrhage (Arterial)
• Eg: Low-Force Trauma → Subdural Haemorrhage (Venous)
TRANSIENT ISCHAEMIC ATTACK (“Mini-Strokes”):
- Aetiology – Typically Transient Embolism:
o Thrombo-Embolism from Carotids
o Cardioembolism from a mural thrombus (Post-MI, AF, Valve disease, Prosthetic Valve)
- Pathogenesis:
o Thrombo-Emboli → Lodged in Cerebral Artery → Ischaemia → Temporary Neurological Deficit (TIA)
→ W hen Blood Flow Returns, Neurons are still Functional → Recovery
§ Note: Prolonged Ischaemia → Infarction → Stroke.
- Morphology:
o No Physical Changes – Only Metabolic.
- Clinical Features:
o Signs/Symptoms:
§ Mimic those of stroke (But <24hrs)
• Cerebral hemisphere → Contralateral Hemiplegia
• Brainstem → Quadriplegia, Vision Disturbances etc
• Lacunar (Basal Ganglia) → Pure Motor, Pure Sensory etc
§ Emboli in Retinal Artery → Amaurosis Fugax (Unilateral Descending Curtain of Blindness)
o DDX:
§ Hypoglycemia
§ Migraine Aura
§ Focal Epilepsy
§ Hyperventilation
§ Retinal Bleeds
- Investigations:
o Physical Examination:
§ Causes? – Carotid Bruit, HT, Murmur, ECG (AF?), Fundoscopy
o Lab:
§ FBC, ESR, U&Es, Glucose, Lipids,
o Imaging:
§ CT Brain – (Rule out Haemorrhagic – Since Rx Contradict Each Other)
§ Carotid Doppler +/- Angiography
- Management:
o Control CV risk factors
§ Lower lipids – (Simvastatin / Atorvastatin)
§ Stop smoking – (Champix)
§ Lower BP – (Perindopril/Candesartan +/- Atenolol)
§ Antiplatelet – (Aspirin)
o Anticoagulation – (Warfarin with Heparin Cover)
o +/- Carotid Endarterectomy
https://healthmatters.nyp.org/what-is-a-mini-stroke/
80% ISCHAEMIC STROKE (Thrombo/Embolic → Infarction):
- Aetiologies:
o 50% Thrombotic Infarct (Sudden Onset At Rest)
§ Eg: Rupture of Atherosclerotic Plaque
§ Eg: Hypercoagulable Syndromes (Eg: Oral Contraceptives, Clotting Disorders)
o 30% Embolic Infarct (Sudden Onset Following Exercise)
§ Eg: Embolus from Atherosclerosis (eg. From internal carotid)
§ Eg: AF → Blood Stasis in Atria → Thrombus Formation
§ Eg: Paradoxical Embolism (Embolus from DVT → Through ASD → CVA)
- Pathogenesis:
o Thrombosis/Embolism → Focal Ischaemia → Infarction → Focal Neurology
- Locations:
o MCA (Most Common)
o ACA (Common)
o PCA (Rare - 4% clinically)
- Morphology:
o Early: Oedema (Narrow Sulci, Flattened Gyri)
o Note: Thrombolytic Therapy can → Pin-point Haemorrhages around Capillaries
o 1wk: Liquefactive Necrosis & Cavitation
- Clinical Features – (Depend on which arteries/functional areas are affected/occluded):
o Middle CA Stroke (#1 Most Common):
§ Contralateral Whole Body Hemiplegia (Primary Motor Cortex) +/- Dysarthria
§ Generalised Reduced Sensation (Primary Somatosensory Cortex)
§ Homonymous Hemianopia (Or sometimes Homonymous Quadrantonopia)
§ Expressive Aphasia If on LEFT (Dominant) Side – Left. (Broca’s Area)
James Heilman, MD, CC BY-SA 3.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons
Marvin 101, CC BY-SA 3.0 <http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/>, via Wikimedia Commons

o Anterior CA Stroke (#2 Most Common)
§ Contralateral Lower-Limb Hemiplegia (Primary Motor Cortex)
§ Lower-Limb Numbness (Primary Somatosensory Cortex)
§ Dysexecutive Syndrome (“Abulia” = Slowness/Prolonged Delays to Perform Acts)
§ Cognitive Impairment (Frontal)
§ Flat Affect (Limbic System)
http://neuroanatomy.ca/stroke/aca.html
https://case.edu/med/neurology/NR/acerebralartery4.htm
o Posterior CA Stroke (#3 - Rare - 4% clinically)
§ Primarily Visual Defects
§ Memory Deficits (Short Term)
https://case.edu/med/neurology/NR/PCA%20Flair.htm
- Investigations:
o Clinical Examination
o FCB, Coags, Lipids
o CT Brain – (Rule out Haemorrhagic)
o Or MRI if further clarity required or if CT contraindicated.
- Treatment:
o Supportive – (O2, Fluids)
o Rapid Reperfusion – (Thrombolysis [Tissue Plasminogen Activator] +/- Thrombectomy)
o Anticoagulation – (Clopidogrel/Aspirin + Warfarin with Heparin Cover)
o Stroke Rehabilitation – (Speech Therapy, OT, Physio)
- Prognosis/Complications:
o 40% Mortality; 75% Morbidity (Eg: Hemiplegia, Aphasia, Dementia, Epilepsy, Mental Dysfunction)
20% HAEMORRHAGIC STROKES (Bleeds):
• INTRACEREBRAL HAEMORRHAGE (ICH) (“Haemorrhagic Stroke”/CVA):
o Aetiologies:
§ Head Trauma.
§ Congenital Arteriovenous Malformations
• = Tufts of Blood Vessels where they shouldn’t be
• Highly Susceptible to Rupture → Intracerebral Haemorrhage & Cystic Change
Source: https://radiopaedia.org/cases/arteriovenous-malformation-cerebral-3
Source: https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMcp067192
Source: https://www.rch.org.au/kidsinfo/fact_sheets/Cerebral_Arteriovenous_Malformation_AVM/
§ Hypertension
• Hypertension → Vessels Burst → Bleeding → ↑ICP → Compresses other Cerebral
Arteries → ↓ Blood Flow → Cerebral Ischaem ia → Stroke.
• Morphology:
o Slit Haemorrhages – Microhaemorrhages heal as slits with pigment
o Lacunar Infarcts in the Brainstem – Small cavity-like areas of pale infarcts
o Clinical Features:
§ Sudden onset Headache/Vomiting/Meningism
§ Anisocoria (Uneven Pupils), Nystagmus
§ Signs of ↑ICP (Hypertension, Bradycardia & Cheyne-Stokes Respiration)
§ + Potentially Fatal Herniation Syndromes (Cerebellar Tonsillar/Uncal/Subfalcine).
§ ALOC
§ +Focal Neurological Deficits
Investigations:
o
§ Head CT/MRI – (Bleeding within the Brain or Ventricles)
§ Transcranial Doppler
Management:
o§ Supportive – (Intubation, IV Fluids)
§ Medical:
• Antihypertensives – (B-Blocker, ACEi/ARB, Ca-Ch-Blocker)
• Coagulation Factor VIIa
• Mannitol (Osmotic Diuretic) → ↓ICP
• Paracetamol → ↓Hyperthermia
• FFP, Vit.K, Platelets (if Coagulopathy)
• Corticosteroids → ↓Swelling
§ Surgical (If Haematoma >3cm)
Prognosis:
o§ >40% Mortality
§ 75% of Survivors are Disabled
INTRACRANIAL HAEMORRHAGES
INTRACRANIAL HAEMORRHAGES:
- Aetiologies:
o Trauma:
§ Eg: Skull Fracture → Extradural Haemorrhage (Arterial)
§ Eg: Low-Force Trauma → Subdural Haemorrhage (Venous)
o Congenital Vascular Conditions:
§ Eg: Congenital Berry Aneurysms → Rupture → Subarachnoid Haemorrhage (Arterial)
§ Eg: Congenital AV Malformations → Rupture → Intracerebral Haemorrhage (Arterial)
o Hypertension:
§ → Hypertensive Intracerebral Haemorrhage (Arterial)
https://www.myupchar.com/en, CC BY-SA 4.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia

Commons
EPIDURAL/EXTRADURAL HAEMORRHAGE:
- Aetiology:
o Trauma/Cranial Fracture → Arterial Rupture →Separation of Dura from the Skull → Haematoma
- Pathogenesis:
o → High pressure bleed → Forced Splitting of the Dura Mata → ↑Intracranial Pressure
- Morphology:
o Dura Mata gets separated from the skull
o Extent of Bleeding is Limited by Attached Dura, :. Clearly Defined Margin.
o Lens-shaped area
o Brain Underneath is Compressed
o →Severe headache, vomiting and altered consciousness.
o Course:
§ Rapid progression (due to arterial source of blood)
§ 1. Acute Loss of Consciousness
§ 2. Then Lucid Interval (Temporary Improvement)
§ 3. Then Sudden Deterioration if Herniation (Vomiting, Ipsilateral Pupil Dilation, LOC)
o Signs:
§ Fixed & Dilated Pupil on side of injury.
§ Eye on side of injury may be down & out (CNIII Palsy)
§ Contralateral Weakness of Extremities
§ Contralateral Homonymous Hemianopsia (Loss of Contralateral Visual Field)
§ If ↑↑ICP → Cerebellar Tonsillar/Uncal Herniation → Respiratory Arrest
- Investigations:
o Head CT – (Biconvex Lens Appearance)
- Management:
o Good prognosis with Surgery – (Burrhole Craniotomy → Drainage)
§ Will ‘Cone’ & Die without surgery
Jpogi, CC BY-SA 3.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons

SUBDURAL HAEMATOMA (typically a venous bleed; happens slowly)
- Aetiology:
o Elderly + Low force trauma (Eg: Whiplash Injuries) → Slow Venous Bleed
- Pathogenesis:
o Bleeding between the Dura Mata and the Arachnoid Mater
- Morphology:
o Wide distribution – ie. Over the entire hemisphere
o Cerebral Oedema → Flattening of the gyri, narrowing of sulci, shift of midline
o Abnormal Brain underneath (Ie: Pt. Is often demented, or alcoholic, or have severe cerebral
atrophy)
o Acute Subdural Haematomas:
§ Typically Due to Mild Trauma
§ → Acute Neurologic Dysfunction (Within Minutes)
§ High Mortality Rate
o Chronic Subdural Haematomas:
§ Typically a Spontaneous, Slow Venous bleed (Days – Weeks)
§ → Gradual headache, Somnolence, Confusion, Focal Deficits, Seizures.
§ Common in Elderly.
§ Signs/Symptoms within Days-Weeks.
o Signs/Symptoms:
§ Gradually Increasing Headache and Confusion
§ Dizziness/Tinnitus/Numbness
§ Blurred Vision
§ Disorientation/Amnesia
§ Weakness/Lethargy/Ataxia
§ Nausea/Vomiting/Anorexia
§ Irritability/Seizures
- Investigations:
o Head CT:
§ Acute Subdural = Crescent-Shaped Density.
• Can compress lateral ventricle and cause midline shift
§ Chronic Subdural = Bleeding has Spread Throughout the Subdural Space → Follows the curve
of the brain.
- Management:
o If Severe Bleed: Drill & Drainage of Blood to ↓ICP
o If Small Bleed: Conservative Management and Monitoring
- Prognosis:
o Brain is typically Abnormal Underneath, Therefore the prognosis is worse
2007-06-24 17:16 Glitzy queen00, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

SUBARACHNOID HAEMORRHAGE
- Aetiology:
o Berry Aneurysm Rupture in Circle of Willis
o Hypertension is a Contributing Factor
- Pathogenesis:
o #Congenital Berry Aneurysm (Rupture of Saccular Aneurysm on circle of Willis)
§ MCA is Commonest, then ACA, then PCA rare
- Morphology:
o Blood in the sulci
o Blood pools around the Basal Cistern of the brain
o (Pre-Rupture):
§ Fatigue, Loss of perception/balance, Dysphasia
o Post-Rupture:
§ “Thunderclap Headache” – Sudden, Severe, Pulsating Headache
• + Vomiting
• + Meningism
• + Hemiparesis
• + Diplopia
§ →Followed by Confusion → Loss of Consciousness – (+/- Seizures)
- Specific Investigations:
o Head CT/MRI: Blood Within the Sulci & Fissures
o Lumbar Puncture: Blood in CSF
o CT Angiography: To Identify Aneurysms
- Management:
o Stabilise Patient (Ie: Intubate/Ventilation, ICU Admission)
o Urgent Neurosurgical Consult & Intervention
o Prevent/Rx ↑ICP
- Prognosis:
o <50% are Fatal.
Source: http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/dci/Diseases/arm/arm_types.html
https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMcp1605827
Mikael Häggström, M.D. - Author info - Reusing images- Conflicts of interest: NoneMikael HäggströmConsent Note:
Consent from the patient or patient's relatives is regarded as redundant, because of absence of identifiable features
(List of HIPAA identifiers) in the media and case information (See also HIPAA case reports guidance)., CC0, via
Wikimedia Commons
ISCHAEMIC ENCEPHALOPATHY
GLOBAL ISCHAEMIA – (IE. HYPOXEMIC ENCEPHALOPATHY):

- Aetiology:
o Impaired blood supply – Eg: Heart Failure, Hypotension, Shock, Carotid Thrombosis.
o Impaired O2 carrying – Eg: Anemia, Hypoxia.
o Impaired O2 utilization – Eg: Cyanide/Carbon-Monoxide Poisoning.
o Excessive Neuronal Activity – Eg: Epilepsy/Seizure
- Pathogenesis:
o Heart Failure, Anaemia, Hypotension, Hypoxia, Shock, Etc → Global Brain Ischaemia →
o Sensitive Areas:
§ Adults:
• Watershed Zone (Between ACA & MCA Perfusion Zones)
• 3rd, 5th, 6th Layers of Cortex
• Hippocampus
• Purkinje Cells – Cerebellum Border Zone (watershed areas)
§ Infants:
• Brainstem Nuclei
- Morphology:
o Watershed Zone Necrosis (Between ACA & MCA Perfusion Zones)
o Lamellar Necrosis – (Chronic – Short penetrating arteries) – the nuclear layers of the cortex
o Hippocampus
o Purkinje Cells of the Cerebellum
o Mild Transient Confusion → Severe Irreversible Brain Death (Flat EEG = Vegetative = Coma)
RAISED INTRACRANIAL PRESSURE
Intracranial Pressure (ICP) General Info:

• Normal ICP:
o 10mmHg
• ↑ICP leads to→:
o ↓Cerebral blood flow (Due to reduced perfusion pressure)
§ (Perfusion Pressure = Systolic BP – Intracranial Pressure)
§ (Note: Perfusion only occurs when Perfusion Pressure is Positive)
o ICP may = Arterial Pressure?
§ If Arterial Pressure = ICP…then Perfusion Pressure = 0.
§ Nil Perfusion
• Signs of Raised Intracranial Pressure:
o Cushings Response/Reflex (Cushing’s Triad):
§ Hypertension
§ Bradycardia
§ Irregular Breathing
• Treating Raised ICP:
o Osmotic Diuretics (Eg: Mannitol)
o Hyperventilation → Hypocapnia → Vasoconstriction of Cerebral Vessels
o Continuous CSF Drainage/Surgical CSF Shunt
• Note: DON’T do a Lumbar Puncture if Intracranial Pressure is High:

o If ICP is high, and you drain CSF → Can cause “Coning”:
§ Aka. “Cerebral Herniation” (Aka: Cistern Obliteration)
§ → Brain can herniated through the foramen magnum → Puts extreme pressure on parts of
the brain and thereby cuts off their blood supply.
§ Is often Fatal
o Signs:
§ ALOC (GCS 3-5)
§ Vomiting (Compression of Emetic Centre in Medulla)
§ Can cause 3rd Nerve (Oculomotor) Palsy:
• Ptosis = Unable to Open Eyelid (Levator Palpebrae Superioris)
• ‘Blown Pupils’ (Dilated) & Unresponsive to Light.
• Eye faces Downwards & Outwards
§ ‘Decerebrate’ Posturing (Abnormal Extension to Pain)
Source: https://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/decerebrate
CEREBRAL OEDEMA:
- Cerebral Oedema = Fluid Accumulation in the Intracellular and/or Extracellular Spaces of the Brain
- Aetiologies & Pathogeneses – 4 Types:
o Vasogenic - ↑Capillary Permeability – (Ie: Trauma, Ischaemia/Infarction, Infection/Inflammation)
o Cytotoxic – Na & H2O Retention in Injured Neurons– (Eg: From Hypoxia or Neurotoxin)
o Osmotic – CSF Osmolality > Plasma Osmolality – (Eg: Overhydration, Hyponatraemia)
o Interstitial – Obstructive Hydrocephalus
o (Features of Aetiology – Fever if Meningitis, Concussion if Trauma, Stroke if Infarction, etc)
o Features of ↑ICP:
§ Cushing’s Triad - (Hypertension, Bradycardia, Cheyne-Stokes Respiration)
§ Headache
§ ALOC
§ Vomiting
§ Pupil Dilation
- Management:
o Osmotic Diuretics (Eg: Mannitol)
o Hyperventilation → Hypocapnia → Vasoconstriction of Cerebral Vessels
Source: https://webpath.med.utah.edu/CNSHTML/CNS056.html
Chronic ↑Intracranial Pressure – Due to Space-Occupying Lesions:

- Aetiologies:
o *Space-Occupying Tumours
- Clinical Features of Raised Intracranial Pressure:
o Signs – (Cushings Response/Reflex/Triad):
§ 1. Hypertension
§ 2. Bradycardia
§ 3. Cheyne-Stokes Respiration
o Symptoms:
§ Headache; Drowsiness; Altered level of Consciousness (GCS 3-5)
§ Vomiting
§ Seizures
- Treating Raised ICP:
o Elevate Head 30-40o
o Hyperventilate → ↓Hypercapnia → Vasoconstriction of Cerebral Vessels
o Neurosurgery (if Trauma → Haemorrhage)
o Osmotic Diuretics (Eg: Mannitol)→↑Plasma Osmolarity → Extracts Water from Brain Tissue.
BRAIN HERNIATIONS:
- Aetiology – Anything that Causes ↑ICP:
o Eg: Cerebral Haemorrhage
o Eg: Cerebral Oedema
o Eg: Obstructive Hydrocephalus
o Eg: Space-Occupying Lesions
- 1. “Cerebellar Tonsil Herniation”/“Coning”:

o Pathogenesis:
§ General ↑ICP → Herniation of Cerebellar Tonsils through Foramen Magnum → Compresses
the Brainstem → Brainstem Ischaemia → Cardio/Respiratory-Centre Dysfunction → (Death)
o Specific Signs/Symptoms:
§ ‘Decerebrate’ Posturing (Abnormal Extension to Pain)
§ ALOC (GCS 3-5)
§ One/Both Pupils ‘Blown’ (Dilated) & Unresponsive to Light.
§ Vomiting (Compression of Emetic Centre in Medulla)
- 2. “Uncal Herniation”:
o Pathogenesis:
§ Unilateral Lesion → Lateral Herniation of the ‘Uncus’ (Inferomedial Temporal Lobe) against
the midbrain →Then, Inferior Uncal Herniation below the Tentorium Cerebelli.
§ May compress the Oculomotor Nerve → ‘Third Nerve Palsy’ →
• Ipsilateral Pupil Dilation & Unresponsive to Light
• Ptosis = Unable to Open Eyelid (Levator Palpebrae Superioris)
• Eye Down & Out
o Note: May Progress to Cerebellar Tonsil Herniation → Coning → Death
- 3. “Subfalcine Herniation”:
o Pathogenesis:
§ Frontal Lesion → Posterio-Lateral Herniation of the Cingulate Gyrus (Medial Frontal Lobe)
under the Rigid Falx Cerebri.
§ May compress the ACA → Stroke → Contralateral Para-Hemiplegia
§ Abulia (Frontal Dysexecutive Symptoms)
Creative Commons: https://radiopaedia.org/articles/tonsillar-herniation

SPINAL CORD SYNDROMES
• Revision of Spinal Cord Tracts:
• Changes in Motor Reflexes with Spinal Cord Injury:

o Immediate Consequences:
§ Reflexes are conserved since they aren’t mediated by the brain.
§ (Note: Reflexes are only lost if the lesion is @ the level of that reflex)
o Consequences Over Time:
§ Muscle movement diminishes over a period of time
§ Due to Progressive Muscle Atrophy (not Nerve Atrophy)
‘BROWN-SEQUARD’ (HEMICORD) SYNDROME:

• (seen if someone is stabbed in the back with a knife or shot with a handgun causing a hemi-transection of
the spinal cord)
• Pathways Affected & Clinical Consequences:
o Dorsal Column Medial Lemniscal Pathway
§ Loss of Discriminative Touch & Proprioception
§ (Ipsilateral to & below the level of the lesion)
o Spinothalamic Tract
§ Loss of somatosensation (Touch, Pain, Temperature)
§ (Contralateral to & below the level of the lesion)
o Lateral Corticospinal:
§ Loss of voluntary movements
§ (Ipsilateral to the side of the lesion. Because it decussates in the pyramidal tracts)
ANTERIOR CORD SYNDROME (ANTERIOR SPINAL ARTERY SYNDROME):

• (Due to Lesion of the Anterior Spinal Artery. Eg: Diving injury)
• Results in loss of function of the anterior two-thirds of the spinal cord.
o Doesn’t affect the Dorsal Column Medial Lemniscal pathway.
§ No loss of Vibration Sensation or Proprioception
o Affects the descending Corticospinal Tract
§ Complete motor paralysis below the level of the lesion.
o Affects the ascending Spinothalamic Tract
§ Loss of Pain & Temperature Somatosensation below the level of the lesion.
o Autonomic dysfunctions – eg. Hypotension, sexual dysfunction, bowel/bladder dysfunction.
CENTRAL CORD SYNDROME:
• (Usually secondary to spinal trauma and, affects the centre of the spinal cord.)
o Mainly Corticospinal Tracts
§ → Motor Impairment (Mostly in Upper Extremities)
§ (Why? Motor Fibres supplying Upper limbs tend to be more Central than those supplying the
lower limbs)
o Dorsal Column & Spinothalamic Tracts:
§ Variable sensory losses below the Lesion.
DORSAL COLUMN SYNDROME:

• (Very Unusual)
o Dorsal Column Medial Lemniscal Tracts:
§ Ipsilateral Loss of Vibration & Proprioception Below the Lesion
o Doesn’t Affect Spinothalamic Tract:
§ Somatosensation (Touch, Pain, Temperature) Unaffected.
o Doesn’t Affect Corticospinal Tract:
§ Motor Functions Conserved
Contributed by Rian Kabir, MD; https://www.statpearls.com/ArticleLibrary/viewarticle/19123

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 License
https://www.maimonidesem.org/blog/todays-pearl-spinal-cord-syndromes
TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURIES
FOCAL Primary Injuries:
- CONCUSSION:
o Aetiology:
§ Moderate-Force Blunt Trauma to Head
o Pathogenesis:
§ Brain Trauma → Metabolic/Ionic/Neurotransmitter Disruption → Impaired
Neurotransmission
o Morphology:
§ Macro:
• No structural damage
• No visible Bleed
§ Course = Acute, Temporary Unconsciousness (Secs-Mins)→ Normal Arousal
§ Symptoms:
• Temporary Loss of function
• Likely to fully recover (unless secondary injury)
• Anterograde & Retrograde Amnesia (↓Memory before & after Injury)
• Headache
§ “Post-Concussion Syndrome” <3wks Post injury
• Memory Problems
• Dizziness/Loss of Balance
• Visual Disturbances/Photophobia
• Tiredness
• Sickness
• Depression/Irritability/Restlessness
• Rarely, Post-Traumatic Seizures
o Investigations:
§ History (Mechanism & Duration of LOC)
§ Concussion Grading Systems:
• Grade I: Confusion, No LOC
• Grade II: Confusion, Amnesia, No LOC
• Grade III: Any LOC
§ Physical Examination
§ Neurological Examination
• Including GCS
§ If GCS is <14 → CT
o Management:
§ Usually Benign :. Just Supportive Treatment (Analgesics, Rest, Sleep, Avoid Drugs/Alcohol)
§ Avoid Further Head Trauma to Prevent “Second-Impact Syndrome” (Dangerous cerebral
oedema following second impact. Occurs days-weeks after an initial concussion)
Patrick J. Lynch, CC BY 2.5 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.5>, via Wikimedia Commons

- CONTUSION:
o Aetiology:
§ Higher-Force Blunt Trauma to Head
§ (Often a “Contre-Coup injury” = Brain Injury on the Opposite Side of Impact – Due to
Rebound of the Brain)
§ (Note: “Coup Injuries” = Brain Injury on the Side of Impact)
o Pathogenesis:
§ Higher-Force Trauma → Coup &/or Contre-Coup Injury → Bruising & Swelling of the Brain.
o Morphology:
§ Macro:
• Contusion = Local Injury + haemorrhage
• Some damage
• Localised, Visible Injury with Bleeding (Bruising)
§ Headache
§ Confusion/Sleepiness/Loss of Consciousness
§ Dizziness/Nausea/Vomiting
§ Cognitive Impairment
§ Sensory Impairment
§ Seizures
§ Ataxia
o Specific Investigations:
§ CT/MRI:
• Focal Cerebral Oedema and often Surrounding Brain tissue
• Transtentorial Herniation
o Management:
§ ICU management
§ Goal = Treat ↑ICP
• Prevent Hypotension, Hyponatraemia, Hypercapnia.
• May require surgical Intervention
§ Usually heal without other treatments.
o Prognosis:
§ Expect a reasonable recovery (but decreased memory, concentration; but still retain normal
function)
Patrick J. Lynch, medical illustrator, CC BY 2.5 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.5>, via Wikimedia

Commons
- LACERATION:
o Aetiology:
§ Penetrating Head Trauma
§ An incised wound of brain tissue (Eg: Bullet/knife/etc)
o Pathogenesis:
§ Mechanical Destruction of Brain Matter due to Invading Object
§ Usually SEVERE damage
o Morphology:
§ Macro:
• Visible tear in the tissue
• Haemorrhage
§ High Velocity:
• Instant Death due to “Blast Effect” → Immediate ↑Supratentorial Pressure →
Brainstem Herniation through Foramen Magnum.
§ Low Velocity:
• May have Lucid Interval and No LOC
• May have LOC as the laceration bleeds into the skull (↑ICP)
§ CT:
• Frequently Associated with Skull Fractures &/or Diffuse Axonal Injury
• Cerebral Laceration
• Large amounts of Blood
o Management:
§ Prevent ↑ICP
o Prognosis:
§ Typically a Poor Prognosis.
DIFFUSE Primary Injury:
- DIFFUSE AXONAL INJURY:
o Aetiology:
§ High-Force Blunt Trauma to Head
o Pathogenesis:
§ Shearing of neurons.
§ (Grey matter of whole areas of the brain have been sheared right off)
o Morphology:
§ Macro: Small Haemorrhagic Lesions – In the Corpus Callosum and Dorsolateral Brainstem
§ Unconsciousness
§ Persistent Vegetative State (Coma) – Note: 90% Never regain consciousness.
§ 10% Regain consciousness – BUT significant mental impairment.
§ Difficult – Doesn’t show up well on CT/MRI.
§ CT may appear normal initially
§ May see small bleeds in Basal Ganglia/Corpus Callosum/Cerebral Cortex on MRI.
o Management:
§ No Specific Treatment Exists
§ (Stabilise Patient, & Control ICP)
o Prognosis:
§ Poor (Brain Damage → GCS 3 → Organ donor)
1.https://radiopaedia.org/articles/diffuse-axonal-injury
2.Source: Neves M, Fernandes JP, Mendes V, Diffuse axonal injury, Postgraduate Medical Journal 2020;96:115.
EPILEPSY:
- Terminology:
o “Epilepsy” = A Recurrent Spontaneous Seizure Activity, NOT Attributable to External Cause.
§ (Clinical Dx Depends on the an arbitrary cutoff, usually 3/more seizures)
o “Seizures” = Spontaneous Abnormal Electrical Activity within the Brain.
- Aetiology:
o 70% Idiopathic (Often Familial)
o Others: Post-Injury, Developmental, Tumour, Stroke, Febrile Convulsion, Trauma, Stroke, ↑ICP,
A lco h o l W ith d ra w a l, M e ta b o lic, In fe ctio n , D ru g s .
Common Triggers (Among Epileptics):
-
o **Strobe Lights are most common → (Often used for Diagnosis)
Common Triggers (Among Non-Epileptics):
-
o Drug/Caffeine OD
o Fever
o Alcohol Withdrawal
o Toxins
o Head Injury
o Metabolic/Electrolyte Disturbances
o Note: The above triggers have to be eliminated before Epilepsy is Diagnosed.
§ (Epilepsy is an ‘Innocent until proven guilty’ disease.)
o Note: 1x Seizure ≠ Epilepsy.
Pathogenesis:
- o Hyperexcitable Neurons (Lower Threshold, Ion-Channelopathy, or Neurotransmitter Imbalance) →
Inappropriate, uncontrolled, spontaneous Electrical Activity within the Brain (Seizure)
Clinical Features:
- o Prevalence: 0.5 - 1% of Adults
o Age of Onset:
§ Generally before 20yrs.
§ 1st seizure before 10yrs
o Presentation:
§ 1. Pre-Seizure ‘Aura’: Eg: Deja-vu, Abdominal Discomfort, Flashing Lights, Strange Smells,
Sounds, Tastes.
§ 2. Seizure – Many Different Types
§ 3. Post-Ictal Symptoms: Eg: Headache, Confusion, Myalgia, Temporary Weakness
Diagnosis: a Clinical Diagnosis; Requiring:
o >2 Seizures, for which all external triggers have been eliminated.
- o Positive EEG
o Seizure Induction Test
o (+ Detailed History)
o (+ Detailed Description (or video) of the Seizures)
o (No single test is enough to diagnose.)
o Note: 1x Seizure ≠ Epilepsy.
Treatment:
(Note: Valproate should not be used in any pregnant woman. Counsel women on valproate against pregnancy.)
TYPES OF SEIZURES:
- ICES-Classified Seizures:
o “SIMPLE PARTIAL SEIZURE” – (Conscious & Localised):
§ Symptoms:
• Typically – Small, Rapid Muscle Movements
• May include - Focal Motor/Sensory/Autonomic/Psychic Symptoms
§ Duration: Very Short Duration (Less than 1min)
§ Note: Preservation of Consciousness & Memory is Key.
o “COMPLEX PARTIAL SEIZURE” – (ALOC & Localised):
§ Symptoms:
• ‘Impaired Consciousness’ = Dazed/Dopey.
• + Purposeless Movements – (Hand-Wring/Pill-Rolling/Face-Washing)
§ Duration: Less than 2 min
§ Note: Impaired Consciousness → Little/No Memory of Seizure.
o “PARTIAL WITH SECONDARY COMPLEX-GENERALISED SEIZURE” - (“Tonic-Clonic”):
§ A Simple or Complex Partial Seizure, That leads to a Complex Generalised Seizure.
§ 4 Phases:
• 1. Pre-Seizure Period – (Aura)
• 2. Tonic Phase – (Sustained Generalised Tonic Contraction)
• 3. Clonic Phase – (Repetitive Generalised Synchronous Jerks)
• 4. Post-Ictal Coma – (Sustained Post-Seizure Unconsciousness)
§ Duration:
• 1-2mins; However, can last for many minutes.
- Unique Seizure Types:
o “MYOCLONIC”:
§ Symptoms:
• Brief, Marked Contraction of Muscles (Ie: A “Shock-Like Jerk” or a “Startle”)
• Typically Upper Body
• Typically Bilateral
• (May be in a specific muscle group/s)
§ Duration:
• Typically 1-5sec
o “TEMPORAL LOBE EPILEPSY”:

§ Symptoms: Typically Behavioural Alteration:
• - Automatic Activity but Without Consciousness or Memory
• - Sexually Inappropriate Behaviour
• - Religiosity
• - Aggression
• - Relived Experiences
§ Duration:
• Can last for hours
§ Treatment:
• Carbamazepine (Tegretol)
o “ABSENCE SEIZURES” - (The Classic “Petit Mal”):

§ Symptom:
• Abrupt Onset of Impaired Consciousness + Amnesia
• Pt appears to “Zone Out”
• May → Purposeless Movements (Eg: Lip Smacking, Eye Blinking)
• Then Pt resumes Exactly where they left off (unaware of time lapse)
§ Duration:
• Up to 30sec
§ Treatment:
• Ethosuximide (Thalamic Ca-Channel Blocker)
Source: https://www.grepmed.com/images/3775/generalized-types-seizures-diagnosis-focal
https://www.health.harvard.edu/diseases-and-conditions/seizure-overview-a-to-z
“STATUS EPILEPTICUS” – (Unremitting Seizure; or Multiple Successive Seizures):
- = An Episode of Seizures of Any Type that Either:
o 1. Seizures Don’t Stop Spontaneously.
o 2. Seizures Occur in Rapid Succession Without Recovery.
- A Status Epilepticus Seizure = Absolute Neurological Emergency:
o High Risk of Cerebral Hypoxia
o High Risk of Permanent Brain Damage
o Often Results in Permanent Loss of Neurons due to Excito-Toxicity.
§ (Hippocampus & Pyramidal Tracts are Particularly Sensitive → ↓Memory & Motor)
o Surviving Neurons may exhibit Synaptic Reorganisation.
- The Problem = Cell Death:
o Seizures can Trigger Cell Death; How?:
§ ↑Intracellular Ca+ from ↑Ca-Mediated-NT-Release. → Release of Cytochrome-C from
M itochondria → Triggers Apoptotic Pathw ay.
§ Energy Depletion → ↑Free Radicals → Widespread Protein/Membrane/DNA Damage.
o Also, Attempts made by the brain to Restore Function favour The Excitatory Pathways → ↑Seizures.
- Occurs mostly in the Young and the Elderly (Typically not middle-aged)
o Note: Mortality is highest in Elderly Patients.
o Average Mortality Rate ≈20%
- Treatment:
o 1st Line: Benzodiazepines (GABA-Channel Agonist)
§ *Diazepam – (Generally #1; But Short Acting)
§ Lorazepam – (Some argue that it’s #1 due to Higher Seizure-Termination Rate)
§ Midazolam
o +/- Phenytoin – As an Adjunct to ‘Benzos’ (Usage Dependent VG-Na Channel Blocker):
§ (Unless Absence Seizures or TLE)
o If Refractory:
GENERAL MEDICAL TREATMENTS FOR EPILEPSY - ANTI-CONVULSANTS:
• The Jack of All Trades – (Valproate):
• 3 Mechanisms of Action - (Na+ Channel Blocker, Ca+ Channel Blocker & GABA Activator):
• → ↓Repetitive Firing of Neurons.
• → Prevents Spread of Signals from Epileptic Focus.
• → General Neuronal Inhibition of the Brain.
• ALL Seizure Types
• VG-Na+ Channel Blockers – (Carbamazepine[Tegretol], Lamotrigine, Phenytoin):
• Use Dependent VG-Na+ Channel Blockers
• Useful in All Seizures EXCEPT Absence Seizures
• VG-T-Ca+ Channel Blockers – (Ethosuximide):
• Blocks VG-T-Ca+ Channels in the Thalamus → Prevents Propagation of Seizure Activity.
• Used ONLY in Absence Seizures
• GABA Channel Modulators – (Benzodiazepines – Eg: Diazepam, Lorazepam, Clonazepam):
• Activate GABA Channel → ↑Cl- Influx → Hyperpolarises & :. Stabilises Neuron.
• Useful in All Seizures EXCEPT Absence Seizures
• Note: Benzodiazepines (Diazepam) = 1ST LINE FOR STATUS EPILEPTICUS
• GABA Analogues – (Gabapentin):
• Activate GABA Channel → ↑Cl- Influx → Hyperpolarises & :. Stabilises Neuron.
• Useful in Partial Seizures
SURGICAL INTERVENTIONS FOR EPILEPSY:

- Up to 30% of Epilepsies are Unresponsive to Pharmacological Treatment
- If the Epilepsy is Unresponsive to drugs, Surgery is Essential to prevent Permanent Progressive Brain Damage
o Risk of Brain Damage Increases the longer the condition continues.
o Seizures bring about More Seizures. (Ie: Untreated Seizures make Future Seizures more Likely)
- Options:
o 1. Resections:
§ Removal of Epileptic Focus.
§ Hemispherectomy (Removal of an entire Hemisphere)
§ Anteromedial Temporal Lobectomy
o 2. Disconnections:
§ Cut the Corpus Callosum (Bridge between Hemispheres)
§ Multiple Sub-Pial Transections (Small cuts made into cortex hoping to isolate neuronal
networks)
- Prognosis:
o ≈80% of Surgery Patients are Seizure-Free 10yrs later.
o (Note: Precise mapping of the Epileptic Focus is an Essential Prerequisite to Surgery to ensure that
removal won’t render the patient Paralysed/Unable to Speak/Other Serious Deficit.)
THEORETICAL DIETARY INTERVENTIONS FOR EPILEPSY: THE KETOGENIC DIET:

- What is the Ketogenic Diet?
o 1gram/KgBody-Weight of Protein.
o <5-10grams of Carbs/Day. (Ie: Virtually NO Carbs)
o Remainder of Calories is made up in Fats.
o Note: Side Effect – Bloating & Constipation (Lack of Fibre).
- Proposed Mechanism/s of Action:
o ↑GABA Availability:
§ Through ↑Metabolic Conversion of Ketone Bodies → GABA.
• ↑GABA Availability →General Inhibition of Neuronal Activity.
o Altered Metabolic Activity:
§ ↑Protein & ↓Carbs → Forced Re-Adaptation of Energy-Utilisation → ↓Glutamate
Availability.
• ↓Glutamate Availability → Decreased Stimulation of Neuronal Activity.
o ↑Activity of Na/K-ATPase:
§ → Drives Neurons Away from Threshold → Hyperpolarises.
GUILLIAN-BARRE SYNDROME
- Aetiology:
o Post-Viral Autoimmune
o An Acute Inflammatory Demyelinating Peripheral Polyneuropathy that occurs following an Acute
Viral Illness
- Pathogenesis:
o Typically an Acute infective Illness Triggers a Misdirected Immune Response
o → T-cell Mediated, Autoimmune Attack & Demyelination of Peripheral Nerves →
§ Motor: Ascending Paralysis (Weakness beginning in Feet & Hands → Migrating toward the
Trunk)
§ Sensory: Ascending Paraesthesia, ↓Proprioception & Areflexia (Altered Sensation in
Feet/Hands → Trunk)
o (Note: Distinct from Multiple Sclerosis since it does not affect the CNS)
Clinical Features:
- o Hx of Recent Viral Illness
o Acute – Progresses over Hours → Days
o Rapid, Symmetrical Ascending Paralysis & Paraesthesia (Initially Distal Limbs only, then Proximal
M uscles)
o Areflexia
o NO Fever
o Is Life threatening - Death usually due to respiratory paralysis
Diagnosis:
- o LP → ↑CSF Protein
o EMG (Electromyography) & Nerve Conduction Studies.
Treatment:
- o Hospitalisation
o **Ventilation
o Prompt IV-Immunoglobulins Or Plasmapheresis → Recovery
Diagnosis and management of Guillain–Barré syndrome in ten steps. Nat Rev Neurol 15, 671–683
(2019). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41582-019-0250-9
HUNTINGTONS DISEASE
- Aetiology:
o Genetic - Autosomal Dominant
o Defective Huntington Gene (Chromosome 4) – Excess CAG Tandem Repeats
o Onset Age & Severity depends on # of CAG Repeats in mutation.
- Pathogenesis:
o Excess CAG Tandem Repeats in Huntington Gene → Production of Mutant Huntingtin Proteins in the
Brain → Increases Decay Rate of Certain Types of Neurons →
§ →Selective Marked Degeneration of the Basal Ganglia (incl. The Striatum [Caudate +
Putamen], Globus Pallidus & Substantia Nigra).
• Note: Loss of Basal Ganglia → Dysfunctional Action Selection → Chorea
§ →Also loss of Cortical Tissue as well (Dementia as well as chorea)
- Morphology:
o Macro:
§ Atrophy of Basal Ganglia (Striatum [Caudate & Putamen], Globus Pallidus & Substantia Nigra)
§ Some Atrophy of Cortical Tissue as well.
§ Compensatory Hydrocephalus of Lateral Ventricles (Lateral Ventricular Dilatation)
Clinical Features:
-
o Onset in 40’s (Note: The more CAG repeats, the younger the onset & faster the progression)
o Huntington’s Triad:
§ Dementia (Intellectual Decline)
§ Depression
§ Coreiform Movement (Involuntary Jerking) → Unsteady Gait
o Late Stages:
§ Slurred speech
§ Difficulty swallowing.
Treatment:
- o Incurable
o Tetrabenazine, Neuroleptics, Benzodiazepines Can → ↓Chorea
Prognosis:
- o <20yr life expectancy after Symptoms Begin.
https://www.openaccessgovernment.org/huntingtons-disease-hd-research/107601/
Frank Gaillard, CC BY-SA 3.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons
MOTOR NEURONE DISEASE (MND)/AMYELOTROPHIC LATERAL SCLEROSIS (ALS):
- *Remember:
o Skeletal Muscles are Innervated by Lower Motor Neurons (Ventral Spinal Root → Muscle)
o LMN’s are innervated by Upper Motor Neurones (From the Corticospinal Tract)
- Aetiology:
o 90% Sporadic; 10% Genetic
- Pathogenesis:
o Progressive Degeneration of LMN’s & UMN’s in the Spinal Cord
§ (+ Cranial Nerve Nuclei in the Spinal Cord)
o UMN & LMN Degeneration → Progressive Weakness, Muscle Wasting, Fasciculations,
Spasticity/Stiffness & Hyperreflexia.
§ → Affects Voluntary Muscles (Ie: Walking, Speaking, Breathing, Swallowing)
Morphology:
- o Macro:
§ Degeneration of the Ventral Horns of the Spinal Cord (Ie: LMN)
§ Degeneration of the Ventral Spinal Roots (Ie: LMN)
§ Degeneration of Ventral & Lateral Corticospinal Tracts in Spinal Cord (UMN)
o Micro:
§ Neurons may show Spongiosis
§ Higher #s of Astrocytes
§ Neuronal Inclusions – “Skein-like” Inclusions, Bunina Bodies & Vacuolisation.
Clinical Features:
- o Highly Aggressive (Normal → Severe within 1yr)
o Voluntary Motor Only; Sensory System is Spared
§ LMN Signs:
• Progressive Muscle Weakness
• “Amyotrophy” (= No Muscle Growth) = Muscle Atrophy/Wasting
• Fasciculations & Cramps
• Hyporeflexia – if Mostly LMN’s are Affected (↓ Muscle Innervation)
§ UMN Signs:
• Spasticity/Stiffness/Rigidity
• Hyperreflexia - if Mostly UMN’s are Affected (Due to ↓Cortical Inhibition)
o (+ Up-Going Plantars (Babinski Sign))
o Clinical Diagnosis
Treatment:
o Supportive (Ventilation, Parenteral Nutrition)
-
Prognosis:
- o Incurable
o Death within 3yrs
https://www.mndandme.com.au/what-is-mnd/what-is-mnd/
POLIOMYELITIS:
- Aetiology:
o Poliovirus Infection
- Epidemiology:
o Non Existent in many first world countries (A single case would be an epidemic)
- Prevention:
o Vaccination Available
§ Live Attenuated (Oral Polio Vaccine):
• Advantages:
o Easy Administration - Given Orally
• Disadvantage:
o Rarely causes paralysis (1 in 2.5million)
§ Inactivated Polio Vaccine (IPV):
• Advantages:
o Carries NO risk of Vaccine-Associated Polio Paralysis
• Disadvantage:
o Difficult Administration - Has to be injected
Pathogenesis:
-
o Transmission:
§ Faecal-Oral
§ or Respiratory
o Initially Enteric Infection → Spreads to Bloodstream → Spinal Cord → Preferentially Infect & Destroy
Motor Neurons
Clinical Features:
- o 90% Asymptomatic
o <10% Minor Viral Illness:
§ Headache
§ Neck/Back pain
§ Abdominal Pain
§ Fever, Lethargy, Vomiting
o 1% CNS Infection → Paralysis
§ Acute Asymmetrical Flaccid Paralysis + Areflexia
§ If ‘Spinal Polio’ → Paralysis of Legs(unilateral)
§ If ‘Bulbar Polio’ → Cranial Nerve Paralysis (eg. Dysphagia, Dysphasia, Dyspnoea)
§ Or Combination of Both.
Treatment:
- o Self-Limiting, but Lasting Disability – Only Supportive Rx (Eg: Ventilation, Physiotherapy)
o But Vaccine Preventable
MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS:
- = CNS Demyelinating Disorder

- Aetiology:
o Chronic Autoimmune Inflammatory Disease of the CNS
o Some Genetic Concordance
- Pathogenesis:
o Precise Mechanism Unknown.
o Autoimmune Demyelination (Myelin destruction) within the CNS (Brain & Spinal Cord only)
§ Like Stripping Wires of Insulation → Defective Impulse Transmission & Short-Circuits.
o Affects the CNS ONLY!!
Morphology:
- o Macro:
§ Patches/islands of Grey-matter-like material in the white matter (Demyelination)
§ Multiple Soft Pink plaques of Demyelination (Periventricular) (Seen as white periventricular
patches on MRI)
o Micro:
§ Areas of Loss of Myelin Firstly Around the blood vessels, extending outwards.
§ Perivascular Inflammation: T-Lymphocytes, Macrophages & Plasma Cells
§ Reactive Gliosis
Clinical Features:
- o Onset @ 20-40yrs
o Affects White Matter Only
§ Limb weakness
§ Ataxia
§ Paraesthesia
§ Optic Neuropathy
§ Vertigo + Nystagmus, but Without Tinnitus or Deafness.
o Relapsing & Remitting
o Progressive → Spastic Quadraparesis → Death in years (Typically due to paralysis of chest muscles →
pneumonia)
Diagnosis:
o MRI – Visible Plaques around the Ventricles in the White Matter.
- o CSF Examination – Oligoclonal IgG
Treatment:
o Currently Incurable
- o Home Care & Supportive Therapy
https://www.northshore.org/healthy-you/dr.-susan-rubin-on-what-you-might-not-know-about-ms/
LEUKODYSTROPHIES
- = Myelin Production Disorder (Insufficient Production of Myelin)

o Many, Many Types
- Aetiology:
o Genetic Defects
- Pathogenesis:
o Insufficient Production of Myelin (Insufficient Insulation around Wires) → Defective Impulse
Transmission & Short-Circuits.
Clinical Features:
-
o Gradual Decline in a Previously-Well Infant/Child:
§ ↓Body Tone
§ ↓Movements
§ ∆Gait
§ Dysphasia
§ Dysphagia
§ Sensory Impairment (Vision/Hearing)
§ Behaviour ∆
§ Slowed Mental/Physical Development
Treatment:
- o As yet Incurable
MYASTHENIA GRAVIS
- MYASTHENIA GRAVIS = “Severe Muscle Weakness”

o Myo(Muscle)
o Asthenia (Weakness)
o Gravis (Grave/Severe)
- Pathophysiology:
o MG is an Antibody-Mediated Autoimmune Disease which attacks the ACh-Receptors @ the NMJ,
leading to Failure of Neuromuscular Transmission.
o How? By 3 Mechanisms:
A) Complement Binding & Activation @ the NMJ:
§ Ab-Binding to the AChR activates the Complement Cascade.
• → ↓Receptor Density & Changed Physical Architecture of the Muscle
o → Failure of Neuromuscular Transmission.
B) ‘Antigenic Modulation’:
§ Ab-Binding → Cross-Links AChRs on NMJ.
• → Causes Endocytosis & Destruction of the Cross-Linked AChRs.
• → Leads to a Reduced Number of AChRs on the NMJ.
C) Functional AChR-Block by Antibodies: (Relatively Rare)
§ Ab-Binding to AChR @ the ACh-Binding Sites.
• → Causes functional block of the AChR by preventing ACh binding @ the NMJ.
- 2 Types of Myasthenia Gravis:
o Ocular MG:
§ Fatigable Muscle Weakness limited to Extrinsic Ocular Muscles of the Eye.
§ In 75% of Cases, Ocular MG is the Initial Manifestation of Generalised MG.
• Ocular Muscles are susceptible due to constant rapid neuronal stimulation.
§ Symptoms:
• Double Vision (Diplopia)
• Drooping Eyelids
https://n.neurology.org/content/67/8/1524
o Generalised (Whole Body) MG:

§ Fatigable Muscle Weakness involving Other Muscle Groups Including the Eye Muscles.
§ As mentioned above, Generalised-MG typically begins as Ocular-MG, and then progresses to
the rest of the body.
§ Symptoms (In addition to Ocular MG):
• Unstable/Waddling Gait
• Weakness in Arms/Hands/Fingers
• Weakness in Legs
• Weakness in Facial Muscle
• Difficulty Swallowing
• Shortness of Breath
- Diagnosis of M yasthenia Gravis:

o Clinical (Pharmacological) Test:
§ Edrophonium (Short-Acting ACh-Esterase Inhibitor):
• → Repeated stimulation of remaining receptors.
• If symptoms improve, then it’s MG.
o Serology Testing:
§ Test for Antibodies Against:
• AChR (Acetylcholine Receptors)
• MuSK (MuSK = Muscle-Specific Tyrosine Kinase)
• Anti-Muscle (eg. Actin) Antibodies
o Electrophysiological Tests:
§ Repetitive Stimulation of Peripheral Nerves
§ Single-Fibre Electromyography
- Treatm ent of M yasthenia Gravis:
o Acetyl-Cholinesterase Inhibitors:
§ Drugs that Inhibit the Cholinesterase Enzyme from degrading ACh in the Synapse.
§ Eg: Physostigmine/Organophosphates
§ Mechanism of Action:
• → Prolonged Action of ACh in the Synapse
• → ↑[ACh] in the Synapse
§ Side Effects:
• Short Term → Excessive ACh-Signalling:
o Increases Mainly Parasympathetic Activity:
§ Increased Secretions (Salivary/Lacrimal/Bronchial/Intestinal)
§ Increased Peristaltic Activity
§ Bronchoconstriction
§ Bradycardia & Hypotension
§ Pupillary Constriction (→ Fall in Intraocular Pressure)
• Long Term → Desensitisation of AChRs:
o Decreased Parasympathetic Activity.
o In Cholinergic Crisis →Muscle & Respiratory Paralysis:
§ (Cholinergic Crisis = AChR Desensitisation due to ↑ACh-Stimulation)
§ ACh-E-Inhibitors Potentiate further Desensitisation.
• In Myasthenic Crisis → Original Dose is Ineffective:
o (Myasthenic Crisis = Disease Progression →↓Number of ACh-Rs )
o → Requires higher Dose for Therapeutic Effect.
o Immunomodulation:
§ Goal – To Remove the Source of the Antibodies or the Antibodies Themselves.
§ Variety of Options:
• Thymectomy
• Plasma Exchange
• Intravenous-Ig
• Immunoadsorption
o General Immunosuppression:
§ Goal – To dial down the whole immune system → slow progression of disease.
§ Immunosuppressive Drugs:
• *Prednisone:
o Prednisone = A Corticosteroid = Powerful Anti-Inflammatory
• *Azathioprine:
o A Purine-Analogue → ↓ DNA Synthesis in Clonally Dividing Cells (B/T-Cells).
Complications of Myasthenia Gravis:

- o Cholinergic & Myasthenic Crises:
§ Cholinergic Crisis:
• Rapid Desensitisation of the AChRs due to ↑↑ ACh-Stimulation.
• → Requires Instant Cessation of Acetyl-Cholinesterase Inhibitors.
§ Myasthenic Crisis:
• The point at which the Disease Progression has rendered the current ACh-E-Inhibitor
Useless
• Often causes Paralysis of Respiratory Muscles → Pt. Requires Assisted Ventilation.
• → Ie: Requires a higher dose of ACh-E-Inhibitor to Maintain Therapeutic Effects.
o Rectifying these Complications:
§ Cholinergic Crisis:
• Cessation of ACh-E-Inhibitors.
§ Myasthenic Crisis:
• ↑Dose of ACh-E-Inhibitors.
PARKINSON’S DISEASE (“Shaking Palsy”)
Aetiologies:
- Parkinsonism “Shaking Palsy” = The Clinical Syndrome
o (Drugs/Toxins/Post Encephalitis)
- PARKINSON’S DISEASE = Primary Atrophy of Substantia Nigra (Dopaminergic System)
o (Idiopathic)
Pathogenesis:
- Loss of Substantia Nigra (Dopamine makers) Neurons → Dopamine Deficiency in the Basal Ganglia →
Basal Ganglia Dysfunction.
o Dopamine is required by the basal ganglia to coordinate complex movements, therefore, a loss of
the basal ganglia’s function → symptoms of Parkinson’s.
o These neurons project to the striatum (Caudate & Putamen) – Part of the Basal Nuclei – Normally
involved in coordinating movements.
o 50-60% loss of Nigral neurons are required for symptoms.
o Dopamine is required by the basal ganglia to coordinate complex movements, therefore, a loss of
the basal ganglia’s function → symptoms of Parkinson’s.
- Secondary Causes – eg. Illicit drug
- More Specifically:
o Without input from the Substantia Nigra, there’s no activation of Inhibitory Neurons of the Putamen,
meaning there’s No Inhibition of Inhibitory Neurons of the Globus Pallidus, Meaning Inhibitory
Neurons of the Globus Pallidus are unopposed in inhibiting Neurons of the VL-Thalamus that usually
activate the SMA (Supplementary Motor Area).
o → Supplementary Motor Area isn’t activated to Fine-Tune Movement.
Morphology:
- Macro: Loss of Pigment Neurons (Melanin) in the Striatum
Clinical Features:
- 2nd most common neuro-degenerate disease after Alzheimer’s
- Prevalence:
o 1/1000 non-elderly
o 1/200 in elderly
- Onset: In second half of life (mean age of onset = 55yrs)
- Parkinson’s Triad:
o 1. Resting Tremor (May be a ‘Pill-Rolling’ tremor)
o 2. Rigidity (Hypertonia → ↑Resistance to Passive Joint Movements)
§ May be “Lead-Pipe Rigidity” (Constant) or “Cog-Wheel Rigidity” (Fluctuating)
o 3. Brady/Akinesia (Slowness/Inability to Initiate/Execute Movement)
- Other Symptoms:
o +Diminished Facial Expressions
o +Stooped Posture
o +Shuffling/Hurried Gait
o +Declined intellectual function
o +Depression
o + Inability to pick up small objects, cups, do up buttons, write in small font etc.
https://www.narayanahealth.org/blog/what-is-parkinsons-disease/
Treatment:
- Aim: To ↑ Dopamine Levels in the Brain, or to mimic the effect of Dopamine.
- Oral Levodopa: (L-Dopa can cross the bbb → Converted to Dopamine in the Brain)
o However, if taken orally, less than 5 % reaches the brain as most is converted to dopamine
systemically. Therefore, it is usually administered with decarboxylase inhibitors to prevent
conversion in systemic.
- Dopamine Agonist: Drugs that mimic Dopamine, binding to Dopamine receptors.
- Side effects:
o By ↑Dopamine in the Basal Ganglia, Dopamine is ↑Globally → Side Effects
o “On Off Phenomenon” – Symptomatic Relief is Random & Fluctuating
o Over time, Levodopa’s Efficacy Decreases, But Side Effects Increase.
https://tmedweb.tulane.edu/pharmwiki/doku.php/treating_parkinson_s_disease
Note: Remember, The Dopamine Deficit is only in the Striatum. Other Dopamine pathways are Unaffected. Hence
this poses a problem of side-effects with Dopamine supplementation & Dopamine Agonist drugs.
- Anticholinergic drugs – to prevent competition in the brain.

o (Loss of Dopamine release in Striatum creates a Neurotransmitter Imbalance that favours ACh :.
Anticholinergic Drugs are used to treat Parkinson’s Disease)
- Surgery
o Stereotactic – using instruments to make a lesion to the brain resulting in decreased symptoms.
o Today – rather than making a physical lesion, an electrical probe is inserted into the brain → ‘lesions’
the brain → stimulates response.
o However, the aim is to 1. Find the area of the brain you want to target, & 2. Find a way to get there
safely while minimising the damage to the brain.
o Benefits – Good control of tremor and on/off phenomenon – stimulator inhibits the sub-thalamic
nuclei (can also be used in some severe OCD’s and other psychiatric disorders)
o Disadvantage – dangerous, and only beneficial for a small subgroup of Parkinson’s patients.
- Physical Therapy
- Side effects:
o On off phenomenon – Symptoms range from either well controlled or poorly controlled at random
tim e s
o Over time, Levodopa decreases in Efficacy & Side effects Increase.
o Increased severity of symptoms after a while of DOPA administration
o Therefore, treatment is delayed until symptoms are sufficient to impact on the person’s life.
BRAIN TUMOURS
- General Features:
o Adults – Most are Cerebral/Supratentorial
o Children – Most are Infratentorial (Cerebellum & Brainstem)
o Note: CNS tumours NEVER Metastasise to Outside the CNS.
o Aetiologies:
§ Typically Secondary (Ie: Mets – Breast, Lung, GIT, Melanoma)
§ Some are Primary (Gliomas are the Most Common) – NOT from Neurons!
o Types of Primary CNS Tumours – Only Covering 3 Types:
§ Adults – (Note: Most are Supratentorial – Cerebral):
• 1. Meningioma
o From the Arachnoid Layer
• 2. Gliomas (Astrocytoma [& Glioblastoma Multiforme], Oligodendroglioma)
§ Children – (Note: Most are Infratentorial – Cerebellum & Brainstem):
• 2. Gliomas (Specifically Pilocytic Astrocytomas)
• 3. Medulloblastoma (Germ Cells)
Ogunleke, Abiodun. (2019). 3D chemical imaging of brain tumors. https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Brain-tumor-

classification-based-on-tumor-location-29_fig1_333338321
§ Slow, Progressive
§ Crescendo, Chronic, Morning Headache
§ Local Damage → Nerve & Tract deficits, Paralysis, Blindness, Anosmia, Seizures
§ Raised ICP → Headache, vomiting, papilloedema & bradycardia.
§ Irritation → Seizures
Clinical Features Depend on Tumour Location → Focal Deficits:
o § Brain stem Compression → Drowsiness, Obtundation
§ Frontal Lobe → Personality, Memory, Executive, Intelligence
§ Temporal Lobe → Speech, Language & Hearing
§ Motor Cortex → Limb weakness
§ Cerebellum → Balance/Stumbling
§ Occipital → Vision, Eye Movements
Primary CNS Tumours:
Adult CNS Tumours:

- MENINGIOMAS:
C e ll o f O rig in : - Meningothelial Cells (Cells of the Arachnoid Granulations)

M orphology – M acro: - Well Demarcated
- Attached to the Dura
- Hard, Fibrous Tumour with Calcification
Clinical Features: - Very Common, But Clinically Benign
- Non-Invasive, but Compresses the Brain → Symptoms (Headache)
- Chronic, Gradually Increasing Morning Headache (Years).
- Oestrogen-Responsive :. Worse in Pregnancy/Menstruation.
Treatment: - Surgical Removal
- Benign
Prognosis: - Good Survival with Surgery
- Adulthood Gliomas – LOW-GRADE ASTROCYTOMA & GLIOBLASTOMA MULTIFORME:

o ASTROCYTOMAS:
Cell of Origin: - Astrocytes

- Low-Grade ASTROCYTOMA:
Morphology – Macro: - Usually Cerebral (Supratentorial)
- Solid Tumour
Clinical Features: - Space-Occupying Syx – Chronic Worsening Morning Headache,
Vomiting, Altered Mental Status, Personality Change, ALOC.
- + Focal Neurology depending on Location in the Brain.
Treatment: - Surgical Resection of Tumour
Prognosis: - Benign
- Good – 90% 5yr Survival
Keating, Steven. (2014), CC0, via Wikimedia Commons

- High-Grade Astrocytoma = “GLIOBLASTOMA MULTIFORME”:
Morphology – Macro: - Usually Cerebral (Supratentorial)
- Solid Tumour – May see some Cystic Degeneration
- Grows so fast, it looks encapsulated, but it is not.
Clinical Features: - ↑Morning Headache, Nausea/Vomiting, Seizures, Hemiparesis
- + Memory Loss & Personality Changes.
- + Focal Neurology (Language & Executive Fx)
Treatment: - Palliative: Surgery + Chemo/Radiotherapy
- + Anticonvulsants – To ↓Seizures
- + Corticosteroids – To ↓Peri-Tumoural Oedema → ↓ICP
- (Note: Total Surgical Resection Impossible due to diffuse Infiltration.)
Prognosis: - Malignant – (Fast-Growing & Infiltrative)
- Poor Prognosis - <1yr Survival Rate
Christaras A, CC BY-SA 3.0 <http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/>, via Wikimedia Commons

Childhood CNS Tumours:
- Childhood Glioma – PILOCYTIC ASTROCYTOMAS:
Morphology – Macro: - Usually Cerebellar (Infratentorial) – (Rather than Cerebral in Adults)

- Cystic Tumour full of Mucoid Fluid- (Rather than Solid in Adults).
- Well-Circumscribed
Clinical Features: - Gait Abnormality (Wide Gait), Uncoordination, & Nystagmus
- Nausea, Vomiting, Irritability
- Failure to Thrive - Anorexia
- (Note: Associated with Neurofibromatosis)
Treatment: - Surgical Resection
Prognosis: - Benign – (Low-Grade, Slow-Growing)
- Good: >90% 10yr Survival Rate.
Jto410, CC BY-SA 3.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons

- MEDULLOBLASTOMA:
C e ll o f O rig in : - Neuroblast Cells (Ectoderm Cells of Neural Crest = Neuroectoderm)

M orphology – M acro: - Cerebellar (Infratentorial)
- Usually Form in the 4th Ventricle
Clinical Features: - Initial: Hydrocephalus (&↑ICP) due to 4th Ventricle Obstruction →
- Listlessness, Morning Headache, Vomiting.

Treatment: - Later: Cerebellar → Stumbling Gait, Falls, Diplopia, Nystagmus
- Maximal Surgical Excision + Radiation + Chemotherapy High-
Prognosis: Grade, Malignant Tumour → CSF Seeding (Unique to
- Medulloblastoma) & Infiltration through Meninges is Common.
Poor: 70% 5yr Survival, 50% 20yr Survival
https://www.cancer.gov/rare-brain-spine-tumor/tumors/medulloblastoma
Other CNS Tumours:
- Acoustic Neuroma (AKA: “Vestibular Schwannoma”):
Cell of Origin: - Schwann Cells

Morphology – Macro: - Schwannoma of the Vestibular Nerve (Part of CN8).
- Usually in the Internal Auditory Canal
- → May Cerebellopontine Angle → CN 5,7,9 & 10 Compression
Morphology – Micro: - Homogenous Tumour – Only Schwann Cells
- Tumour cells always stay on outside of Nerve, but may compress it
against a bony structure → Damage.
Clinical Features: - Typically 50-60yrs
- → Sensorineural Hearing Loss/Deafness, Tinnitus
- → Vertigo, Ataxia, Nausea & Vomiting
- Cerebellopontine Syndrome:
o CN 5 (Trigeminal) Palsy: Ipsilateral ↓Corneal Reflex,
Trigem inal Neuralgia, ↓ Sensation
o CN 6 (Abducens) Palsy: Diplopia, Ipsilateral Inward-Facing Eye
o CN 7 (Facial) Palsy: Ipsilateral Facial Weakness
o (CN 8 (V/C): Ipsilateral Deafness, Tinnitus, Vertigo)
o Ipsilateral Cerebellar Signs: Nystagmus, Ataxia
Malignant/Benign: - Benign, Slow-Growing
Treatment: - Surgical + Radiotherapy (Note: Risk to Facial Nerve)
- Conservative Monitoring if Elderly.
Prognosis: - 100% Survival with Treatment.
- But some morbidity.
https://healthcare.utah.edu/skull-base-tumors/acoustic-neuroma/
- PITUITARY ADENOMAS:
C e ll o f O rig in : - Pituitary Gland Embryonic Tissue

M orphology – M acro: - Partially Cystic with Solid Areas
Clinical Features: - Compression of Optic Chiasm: 1. Bitemporal Inferior
Quadrantanopsia → 2. Bitemporal Hemianopsia
- Headaches
- + Any Pituitary Endocrine Failure Symptoms
M alignant/Benign: - Benign – but hard to Treat & → Compressive Neurology
Treatment: - Surgical Resection → Hormone Replacement
Prognosis: - Benign but often recurrence.
- Good Survival, but Morbidity.
https://eyewiki.aao.org/Pituitary_Adenoma
- NEUROFIBROMATOSIS – Type 1 & 2
Cell of Origin: - Neural Fibroblasts

Morphology – Macro: - Encapsulated, Solid Nodular Tumours (Neurofibromas)
Morphology – Micro: - Whorls of Fibroblasts Within Nerves
- Well-Differentiated
Clinical Features: - NF1 – Familial & Sporadic
- NF2 – Autosomal Dominant
- Associated with Acoustic Neuromas (Vestibular Schwannomas)
o Tinnitus, Vertigo, Hearing Loss
- Also Associated with Meningiomas & Juvenile Cataracts
Malignant/Benign: - Benign
Treatment: - Surgical Resection of Individual Lesions – But Recurrence is common
Prognosis: - Benign – But can → Extreme Morbidity/Disfigurement
JFVelasquez Floro, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons

- CNS Lymphoma:
C e ll o f O rig in : - B-Cell Non-Hodgkin Lymphomas

M orphology – M acro: - M ultiple areas of tum our
Clinical Features: - Caused by EBV + Immunocompromise (Ie: HIV)
- Symptoms: Headache, Seizures, Cranial Nerve Palsies, ∆Mental
Status, Focal Neurology.
- + Constitutional B-Syx: Fever, Night Sweats, Weight Loss
M alignant/Benign: - M alignant
Treatment: - Chemo/Radiotherapy + Corticosteroids (Surgery is Impossible)
Prognosis: - Poor – Due to High Grade + Concomitant Immunosuppression
- Median survival = 10mths
I, Tdvorak, CC BY-SA 3.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons

DEMENTIAS
Global Degeneration – Dementias (Age-Related (Senile), Alzheimer’s, Lewy-Body, & Fronto-Temporal/Pick’s):

- Dementia:
o = Acquired Global Impairment of Intellect, but with no ALOC.
- Epidemiology:
o 5% of >55yrs have dementia
o 20% of >80yrs have dementia
o Prevalence Doubles every 5yrs Beyond Age:60.
o 50% of dementia pts have clinically significant behavioural/psychological symptoms.
- Common Symptoms: (In order of prevalence):
o Early – Cognitive:
§ **Memory loss
o Later – Non Cognitive:
§ Apathy/Depression
§ Delusions (False Beliefs)
§ Anxiety
§ Agitation/Aggression
§ Hallucinations
- Types of Primary Dementias:
o Alzheimer’s Disease
o Lewy-Body Dementia
o Fronto-Temporal Dementia (“Pick’s Disease”)
o Age-Related (Senile) Dementia
- Clinical Diagnosis:
o Timeline of Symptom Progression (Memory Loss → Agitation/Aggression, Wandering, Apathy)
o Impact on ADLs (Especially Medications & Financials)
o MMSE (Mini-Mental State Examination)
ALZHEIMERS DISEASE:
- Commonest Cause of Dementia

- Aetiology:
o Exact Aetiology Unknown
o Genetic & Environmental Components
o (Note: Inevitable in Down-Syndromes)
- Pathogenesis:
o Excess β-Amyloid Protein Formation (A Degradation product of Amyloid Precursors)
§ → β-Amyloid Protein Deposition around Neurons → Neuritic Plaques
§ → β-Amyloid Protein Deposition in Blood Vessels → Amyloid Angiopathy
Morphology:
- o Severe Cortical Atrophy (Widened Sulci, Narrow Gyri)
§ Typically Starts around Broca’s Area + Frontal Area → Extends to the rest of the brain
(Affecting motor and sensory areas – may even have paralysis)
o Secondary Ventricular Dilation (Compensatory Hydrocephalus)
Clinical Features:
- o May be as young as 50yrs old
o SLOW Insidious Onset (Years) – (Cf. Lewy-Body Dementia)
o Early Signs: (Neuronal Atrophy Starts in the Hippocampus)
§ → Memory Loss is :. the First Sign
o Progressive Signs: (Neuronal Atrophy Progresses to the Cortex)
§ Mild Cortical Atrophy:
• →Increased Memory Loss
• →Confusion, Apathy, Anxiety
• →Difficulty Handling Money
§ Moderate Cortical Atrophy:
• →Difficulty Recognising People
• →Difficulty with Language
• →Wandering & Disorientation
o Late Signs: (Extreme Global Cortical Atrophy)
§ →Seizures, Incontinence
§ →Groaning/Moaning/Grunting
Treatment:
o Acetylcholine-Esterase Inhibitors
- Prognosis:
o Mean Survival = 7yrs from Onset.
- o →Death Typically From Aspiration Pneumonia or Other Infections.
https://www.nia.nih.gov/health/alzheimers-disease-fact-sheet
Histopathology of Alzheimer's disease, in the CA3 area of the hippocampus (coronal section shown), showing an
amyloid plaque (top right), neurofibrillary tangles (bottom left) and granulovacuolar degeneration (bottom center)
Mikael Häggström and brainmaps.org, CC BY 3.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0>, via Wikimedia
Commons
DIFFUSE LEWY-BODY DEMENTIA:
- 3rd Most Common (Behind Alzheimer’s & Vascular)

- Aetiology:
o Unknown – But Genetic Link.
- Pathogenesis:
o Development of Abnormal Proteins (Alpha-Synuclein) in Neurons throughout the Brain → Impair the
Functioning of Neurons → Rapid Decline in Cognition, Memory, Attention & Motor
Morphology:
-
o Significant Cortical Atrophy
o Typically Starts around Broca’s Area → Extends to the rest of the brain
Clinical Features:
- o Rapid Onset (within few months) – (Cf. Alzheimer’s Disease)
o Early:
§ Fluctuating Cognition/Dementia (↓STMemory, Confusion, Language Problems)
§ Vivid Visual Hallucinations (Eg: Strange Faces, Frightening Creatures, or Children)
§ Impairment in Attention
o Later:
§ Parkinsonism – with shuffling gait & cog-wheel rigidity..
§ Delusions
§ Transient ALOC’s.
Treatment:
- o Pharmacological – Cholinesterase Inhibitors are promising.
https://www.njmemorycenter.com/post/cognitive-problems-in-lewy-body-dementia
FRONTO-TEMPORAL DEMENTIAS (Incl. Pick’s Disease):
- 4th most common dementia after Alzheimer’s, Vascular & Lewy-Body

- Aetiology:
o Other Fronto-Temporal Dementias = Genetic
o “Pick’s Disease” = Unknown
- Pathogenesis:
o Selective Build-up of Tau Proteins within Frontal & Temporal Lobe Neurons →
§ Frontal Lobe Dysfunction → ↓Executive Function, ∆Personality, Disinhibition.
§ Temporal Love Dysfunction → Aphasias (Expressive & Receptive)
Morphology:
-
o Selective Atrophy of Frontal & Temporal lobes
o Sparing of the Parietal & Occipital Lobes
Clinical Features:
- o Younger Patients (40-65yr olds)
o Dysexecutive Syx: Inability to Coordinate & Execute Tasks
o **Behaviour Changes: Behaviour & Personality Change & Disinhibition
§ (Note: A Defining feature of Pick’s Disease is that Behaviour/Personality Changes occur
PRIOR to Memory Loss. Cf. Alzheimer’s, where Memory Loss occurs First.)
o Language Changes: Progressive Aphasia (Expressive & Receptive)
o Note: Memory is Preserved until Late Stages.
This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license
VASCULAR DEMENTIA (Multi-Infarct Dementia):
- Epidemiology:
o 2nd Most Common (behind Alzheimer’s); 25% of All Dementias.
- Aetiology:
o Cumulative Ischaemic Brain Damage
§ (Mostly due to Hypertension & Atherosclerosis)
- Pathogenesis:
o Either Sudden Onset Following a CVA
o Or Gradual Deterioration after Successive (often unnoticeable) CVAs.
§ → Generalised Intellectual Loss → Dementia
Morphology:
- o Macro:
§ May have Necrotic/Fibrotic Foci (If Multi-Infarct) – Often Visible on MRI/CT
§ May have a single, large Necrotic/Fibrotic Focus (Single, Large Infarct)
§ May have Hypertensive Lacunar Lesions
Clinical Features:
- o Memory Loss
o ↓Cognitive Function
o Confusion
o Mood Changes (Depression/Irritability)
o Language Problems
o Executive Dysfunction → ↓ADLs (Eating, Dressing, Shopping, etc)
o Rapid Shuffling Gait (Sometimes called ‘Atherosclerotic Parkinsonism’)
o Hx of Vascular Pathology (Past Hx of CVA, TIA, HTN & Focal Neurology)
Treatment:
- o No Cure, but Preventable
Prevention:
- o Control Hypertension
o Reduce Cholesterol
o Control Diabetes
o Stop Smoking
o Antiplatelet Drugs (Aspirin/Clopidogrel)
DEMENTIA PUGILISTICA = “Punch Drunk Syndrome”:
- Aetiology:
o Repetitive Trauma/Concussion
- Pathogenesis:
o Repeated Concussive/Sub-Concussive Blows to the Head → Cumulative Loss of Neurons, Fibrosis,
Hydrocephalus, Diffuse Axonal Injury & Cerebellar Damage.
- Morphology:
o Hydrocephalus
o Thinning of Corpus Callosum
Clinical Features:
-
o Slow Progression (Over Decades)
o Dementia (↓Memory, ↓Cognition, ∆Personality)
o Parkinsonism (Tremors, ↓Coordination)
o Unsteady Gait
o Dysphasias
- WERNICKES-KORSAKOFF SYNDROME (Alcoholic Encephalopathy):

o Aetiology:
§ Alcohol Abuse → Vit B1[Thiamine] Deficiency
o Pathology:
§ Alcohol Abuse → Vit B1[Thiamine] Deficiency
§ Vit B1[Thiamine] is a cofactor for Glucose Metabolism :. Deficiency → Neuronal ATP →
Neuronal Atrophy (Particularly Cortex & Mammillary Bodies)
§ (Vit B1[Thiamine] Deficiency) → Ataxia
o Morphology:
§ Cortical Atrophy
§ Mammillary Body Atrophy & Haemorrhages
§ Cerebellar Atrophy
§ Cortical Atrophy → Impaired Memory (Anterograde & Retrograde) + Confabulation
§ Mammillary Body Damage → Vision Changes, Nystagmus, Unequal Pupils
§ Cerebellar Atrophy → Ataxia
o Treatment:
§ Supplemental Thiamine + B12
• (Note: B12 to prevent subacute degeneration of the cord)
o Prognosis:
§ By the time Amnesia & Psychosis are apparent, complete recovery is unlikely.
AGE-RELATED (SENILE) DEMENTIA:
- Aetiology:
o Old Age
- Pathogenesis:
o Old-Age → Neuronal Atrophy (Particularly Cortex & Hippocampus) → Progressive Neuronal Loss with
Tim e →
§ →↓Brain Mass & ↓Dendritic Branches
§ →Neurons are replaced by glial cells
- Morphology:
o Macro:
§ Cortical atrophy
§ Enlarging of ventricles (“Compensatory Hydrocephalus”)
§ Thickening of Leptomeninges (Pia Mater & Arachnoid Mater) (The “Thin” Meninges)
o Dementia: All Spheres of Intellect affected
A M N ESIA :
- Typically Declarative Memory Loss. (Therefore Hippocampal Damage)
- Commonly caused by Temporal Lobe Damage (Hippocampus and/or Thalamus)
o Note: L-Hippocampus = Language
R -H ip p o c a m p u s = S p a tia l M e m o ry
- Anterograde:
o - Inability to form new memories from time of Injury/Damage Onwards.
o Non-Declarative Memory is Unaffected
- Retrograde:
o - Inability to recall memories from time of Injury/Damage Backwards.
PERIPHERAL NEUROPATHIES
DIABETIC NEUROPATHY:
- Aetiology:
o Chronic Hyperglycaemia →
§ Demyelination
§ & Arteriolosclerosis
- Pathology:
o 1. Hyperglycaemia → Focal Osmotic Demyelination of Axons → Exposure of axon →
§ Affects SENSORY nerves first – because they are the ones covered with myelin. (Remember
Motor neurons aren’t covered in myelin)
o 2. Hyperglycaemia → Arteriolosclerosis in Vasa-Nervorum (Nerve Blood Supply) →Ischaemic
Neuropathy
- Morphology:
o Arteriolosclerosis (Amyloid Thickening of the Basement Membrane of Capillaries)
o Myelin Loss in Nerve – Seen on Myelin Stain (Myelin Stains Black)
Diabetic Neuropathy Normal
o Distal, Symmetric Sensory Neuropathy (Paraesthesia, Loss of Sensation)
o Autonomic Neuropathy
o Progression:
§ 1.Sensory Neuropathy
• “Glove & Stocking” Paraesthesia/Pain/Night-Time Pain
• Loss of Proprioception
• → Risk of Ulcers due to Chronic Painless Injuries.
• Note: Bilateral, Symmetrical
§ 2. Motor Neuropathy
• Muscle Atrophy
• 3rd Nerve Palsy (Eye is Down & Out)
§ 3. Autonomic Neuropathy
• Postural Hypotension
• ↓GI Motility (Constipation/Diarrhoea)
• Urine Retention/Urgency/Incontinence
• Erectile Dysfunction
Modified diabetic neuropathy classification first proposed by Thomas. N, normal. Reference: Jirousek et al.
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Modified-diabetic-neuropathy-classification-first-proposed-by-Thomas-N-
normal_fig3_320954114/actions#reference
B12 DEFICIENCY:
- Aetiology:
o B12 Deficiency – Due to:
§ ↓Dietary Intake (↓Eggs, meat, milk, shellfish – Ie: Vegetarian/Vegan)
§ Malabsorption (Eg: Pernicious Anaemia/GI Surgery/Coeliac/Crohn’s)
§ ↑Loss
- Pathogenesis:
o B12 is necessary for Maintenance of the CNS
o :. B12 Deficiency → Demyelination, Axonal Oedema, Neuronal Sclerosis
o Particularly Affects Spinal Cord:
§ Dorsal Column ML Pathway (Sensory → Paraesthesia)
• (↓Vibration, Proprioception, & [fine touch])
§ Corticospinal Pathway (Motor → Weakness)
o Weakness and Paraesthesia in the Lower Limbs
o Loss of Balance
o Megaloblastic Anaemia
- Treatment:
o Supplemental B12
https://fitnessleague.co.za/what-everyone-should-know-about-vitamin-b12-deficiency/
INFECTIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
M EN IN G ITIS:
- Aetiology:
o Bacterial/Septic Meningitis – Neisseria meningitides, Haemophilus influenza, Group B Streptococci.
§ Adults = Neisseria meningitides (Note: Vaccine preventable – Meningococcal A & C)
§ Children = Haemophilus influenza (Vaccine Preventable – HIB Vaccine)
§ Neonates = Group B Streptococci (or E.coli)
o Viral/Aseptic Meningitis – HSV, Enteroviruses (Echo/Coxsackie), Influenza, Mumps, HIV
o Chronic Meningitis – Miliary Tuberculosis
o Fungal Meningitis - Typically in immunosuppressed Pt’s.
- Pathogenesis:
o Meningeal Infection → Inflammation & Oedema → ↑ICP → Vomiting, Drowsiness.
o Note: Meningococcal Sepsis can → Thrombocytopenia → Maculopapular Rash ... →DIC
- Morphology:
o Bacterial → Exudate within Meninges (Pus beneath the meninges)
o Viral → No pus
o Engorged Meningeal Vessels
o ***Meningism:
§ *1. Neck Stiffness (Due to Inflammation of the Meninges)
• :. Brudzinski’s Sign Positive (Flex the Neck → Pt bends knee)
• :. Kernig’s Sign Positive (Flex the hip and attempt knee extension → Pain
§ *2. Photophobia
§ *3. Headache
o <1% Papilloedema = Swelling of the Optic Disc secondary to the ↑Intracranial Pressure
o + Constitutional Syx:
§ Fever/Malaise
§ Nausea/Vomiting
§ May eventually have loss of consciousness. (Rare)
§ Irritability
§ Poor Feeding
o Features Suggestive of Aetiology
§ Non-Blanching Maculopapular Rash → Suggests Meningococcus
§ CSF Rhinorrhoea/Otorrhoea - basal skull fracture → Suggests Pneumococcus, HiB, Strep.
- Diagnosis:
o **Clinical Suspicion: (Meningism +/- Rash +/- Fever/Malaise/Vomiting +/- Headache/ALOC
§ +/- (Brudzinski’s Sign +, Kernig’s Sign +)
o Blood Cultures BEFORE IV Antibiotics!!
o L3-L5 Lumbar Puncture → CSF Examination:
§ LP can → Coning if ↑ICP :. DO NOT do LP if:
• 1. Papilloedema
• 2. Cushing’s Response (Triad – ↑BP, ↓HR, Irregular Breathing)
• 3. Unresponsive Pupils
§ Can → “Cerebral Herniation” (Aka: Cistern Obliteration) → Often Fatal
o CSF Samples (Take 3):
§ Sample 1 → Serology (or PCR)
§ Sample 2 → Biochemistry (Glucose, Protein)
§ Sample 3 → Bacteriology – Most Precious (Gram Stain + Culture)
o CSF Interpretation:
Normal Bacterial Meningitis Viral/Aseptic Meningitis
(Usually Herpes Virus)
CSF Pressure Normal Normal-Raised Normal-Raised White Cell Count Normal Raised (Polymorphs)
Raised (Lymphocytes)
Glucose Same as Serum Lower than Serum (Hungry Bacteria) Normal
Protein Normal Raised (produced by the organisms) Raised (produced by the organisms) Gram Stain None
Presence of Bacteria Nothing (“Aseptic Meningitis”)
- Treatment:
o (Bacterial Meningitis = Emergency – Can be Fatal)
o (Viral Meningitis = Usually Self-Limiting & Less Fulminant Clinically)
o ***Treat on Suspicion!! – (Don’t wait for lab results!)
o 1. Blood Cultures BEFORE IV Antibiotics!!
o 2. Early Antibiotic Therapy is Essential for Good Outcome!!!
§ IV Benzylpenicillin G, or IV Cephtriaxone (why? – Because they can enter the BBB)
o 3. Corticosteroids (Dexamethasone) WITH the Antibiotics →↓CNS Inflammation:
§ →Improves Neurological Outcome of bacterial meningitis.
o 4. Fundoscopy, Then Lumbar Puncture – (Check for Papilloedema before doing LP)
§ CSF – MCS
o (+ Prophylactic Measures for Close Contacts):
§ Meningitis Prophylaxis: Rifampicin, Ceftriaxone or Ciprofloxacin:
§ Offered to Household, child care and CLOSE CONTACTS.
Prognosis:
- o Good prognosis with Aggressive Treatment.
§ :. Treatment on Suspicion: Empirical Antibiotics (or Antivirals).
Com plications:
- o Acute:
§ Encephalitis
§ Cerebral infarction
§ Oedema
§ Herniation
§ Waterhouse-Frederichson Syndrome (Acute Adrenal Infarction)
• (→Petechial Haemorrhages, DIC, Septic Shock)
o Late:
§ Abscess
§ Subdural Empyema
§ Epilepsy
§ Leptomeningeal Fibrosis & Consequent Hydrocephalus
https://medlineplus.gov/ency/imagepages/19069.htm
https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-07-21/sa-meningococcal-case/100311578
ENCEPHALITIS:
- Aetiology:
o Almost Always Viral – (**Herpes Simplex Virus, VZV, CMV, Poliovirus, Rabies [Rhabdovirus], JEV)
o Parasites such as Toxoplasma gondii and Plasmodium falciparum
o Fungi such as Cryptococcus neoformans
o Bacteria such as Treponema pallidum
- Pathogenesis:
o Viraemia → Crosses BBB → CNS Infection →→ Cerebral Oedema → ↑ICP → Neurological Signs
o Infective Syx – Fever, Nausea, Vomiting
o + Cerebral Syx – Encephalopathy – (Altered Mental State/Abnormal Behaviour/ALOC/Drowsiness)
§ +/- Seizures
- Treatment:
o Treat on Suspicion – (Acyclovir + Dexamethasone)
- Prognosis:
o Poor - Once symptomatic, rapid inflammation & necrosis → Brain-Death or Neurological Deficit
o 70% Mortality Untreated
- Investigations:
o FBC – (Lymphocytosis)
o LP – (↑Lymphocytes, Normal Glucose, ↑Protein, Negative Cultures)
Normal Bacterial Meningitis Viral Meningitis Encephalitis

(Usually Herpes Virus) (typically viral)
CSF Pressure Normal Normal-Raised Normal-Raised Markedly Raised
White Cell Count Normal Raised (Polymorphs) Raised (Lymphocytes) Raised
(Lymphocytes)
Glucose Same as Serum Lower than Serum Normal Normal
(Hungry Bacteria)
Protein Normal Raised (produced by the Raised (produced by Raised
organisms) the organisms)
Gram Stain None Presence of Bacteria Nothing (“Aseptic Nothing
M eningitis”)
MRI shows high signal in the temporal lobes and right inferior frontal gyrus in someone with HSV encephalitis:
dr Laughlin Dawes, CC BY 3.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons

Novel Organisms:
Rabies Encephalitis:
• Organism: Rhabdovirus (A Bat Virus)
• Transmission:
o by the bite of an infected animal
o The virus is present in the saliva of the infected animal (Dogs, foxes and other wild species)
Flavivirus Encephalitis:
• Japanese Encephalitis (JEV) is the most common cause of this infection:
o A vaccine is available for this virus
o This virus is common throughout Asia
• Other members of the encephalitic subgroup of the Flaviviruses include:
o Kunjin, Murray Valley encephalitis, West Nile virus & St Louis encephalitis
Togavirus Encephalitis:
• Some of the togaviruses in the Americas (Eastern and Western encephalitis) can produce encephalitis
• These viruses usually infect various animal species and occasionally infect humans
• Vaccines are available for the animal species
• No vaccines are available for humans
POLIOVIRUS:
• Epidemiology:
o Mostly eradicated in many parts of the world (A single case would be an epidemic)
• Prevention:
o Vaccination Available
§ Live Attenuated (Oral Polio Vaccine):
• Advantages:
o Easy Administration - Given Orally
o Cheap
o Induces intestinal local immunity
o More Robust Immune Response
• Disadvantage:
o Rarely causes paralysis (1 in 2.5million)
§ Inactivated Polio Vaccine (IPV):
• Advantages:
o Carries NO risk of Vaccine-Associated Polio Paralysis
o Very Robust Immune Response
• Disadvantage:
o Difficult Administration - Has to be injected
o Confers little Mucosal Immunity in the Intestinal Tract.
o 5 Times more expensive than OPV.
o (Note: 1 in 2.5Mil recipients develop paralysis)
3x Serological Types:
• o PV1, PV2, PV3.
o Have little cross-reaction :. Vaccination must contain ALL 3 Serotypes for Full Immunity.
o (Note: Serotype 1 causes most of the problems – Ie: Paralysis)
The m ajor lesion results in a flaccid paralysis
• Transm ission:
• o **Faecal Oral
o Respiratory
Pathogenesis:
• o Poliovirus Acquired Faecal-Orally or Respiratory Route.
o Virus Replicates in Lymphoid Tissue in the Pharynx and Gut.
o Viraemia follows → Extension to the Nervous System
o → Lytic Infection of Neurons → Paralysis
§ Anterior Horns of Spinal Cord are Most Affected.
Clinical features:
• o The incubation period = 7 to 14 days
o A minor illness with malaise, fever and a sore throat may occur
o Paralysis may extend from a single muscle to virtually every skeletal muscle
o There may be involvement of respiratory muscles → Lifelong Assisted Ventilation
BRAIN ABSCESSES:
• Encapsulated pus within the brain occurring after an acute focal purulent infection.
o Sites of Focal Infection that could lead to brain abscesses:
§ Otitis Media
§ Sinusitis
§ Penetrating trauma
§ Haematogenous dissemination
o Given the Possible Sites of Entry, Which Organisms are Most Likely to be Involved?
§ Otitis Media – Strep Pneumoniae
§ Sinusitis – Strep Pneumoniae
§ Penetrating Trauma – Probably Staph Aureus
o Diagnosis:
§ Blood culture should be performed, but often is not diagnostic
§ CT or MRI are Essential for Diagnosis.
§ Lumbar Puncture is Contraindicated (Due to ↑ICP)
§ Inflammatory Markers WBC, CRP & ESR are raised.
OTHER INFECTIOUS DISEASES AFFECTING THE CNS:
• Toxins produced by bacterial infections can affect the CNS:

o Eg: Tetanus
§ Organism:
• Clostridium tetani
• Found in Soil & Faeces of Domestic Animals
• Like Anaerobic Conditions
§ Pathogenesis:
• → Toxin → Tetanic Spasms (Acts on the nerves)
• (Acts by binding to Ganglioside Receptors → Blocking Release of Inhibitory NTs →
Convulsive Contractions of Voluntary Muscles)
§ Prevention:
• Tetanus Vaccine
o Eg: Botulism
§ Organism:
• Clostridium Botulinum
§ Pathogenesis:
• → Toxin → Flaccid Paralysis
o Most commonly absorbed in the gut.
• (Blocks Acetylcholine Release from Peripheral Nerves → Paralysis)
§ Presentation:
• Weakness and paralysis
• Dysphagia
• Diplopia
• Vomiting
• Vertigo
• Respiratory muscle failure
§ Treatment:
• Antibodies (Antitoxins)
• Respiratory Support
PARASITIC INFECTIONS OF THE BRAIN:
Helminthic & Protozoal Organisms Capable Of Causing CNS Infections:
Helminth Reservoir Neurological Method of diagnosis Treatment

symptoms
Tapeworm Eating uncooked Cysts in Brain → Detection of specific Albendazole or
Pork Convulsions antibody in serum or
praziquantel
CSF
+ Corticosteroids
Visual detection of
cysts by M RI
Roundworm Cats and dogs Serum can be tested
Cysts in Brain → Antihelmentic
for Antibodies by
Convulsions therapy (But not in
ELISA
Retinal Detachment ocular)
→
Blindness
Protozoan
M alaria People + Convulsions RDT Antigen Test Artemesinin
Mosquitoes Coma
Toxoplasma Gondii Cats and mice Hydrocephalus PCR of blood samples Antibiotics
Inctracerebral Immunostaining Antimalarials
calcification Atovaquone → Kills
Cysts
Trypanosome Kissing bug Abnormal gait M M elarsoprol
Abnormal speech icroscopy of: Eflornithine
Mental state change Blood Smears
Other abnormal CSF
movement Lymph Node
Sleep Disturbance Aspirates
RDT Antibody
Detection test.
PRION INFECTIONS OF BRAIN:
- Eg: Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease, Gertsmann-Straussler Syndrome, Fatal Familial Insomnia, Kuru Kuru:
o Aetiology:
§ Prion Infection of the Brain
§ “Prions” = Proteinaceous, Infectious + ‘on’
• = Abnormally folded Host-Proteins that accumulate in the brain
• NO DNA or RNA!! (Important for Exams)
§ Prion Proteins (PrP):
• Normal Form = PrPc (Cellular)
o Normal α-Helix form. (Functional & Denaturable)
o Found throughout the body (Also in mammals).
• Abnormal Form = PrPsc (Scrapie)
o Abnormal β-Sheet form. (Non-Functional & Non-Denaturable)
o Accumulates in plaques in the brain → Tissue Damage & Cell Death.
o EXTREMELY STABLE – Resists denaturation :. Difficult disposal.
o Pathogenesis:
§ Prions cause Neurodegenerative Disease by aggregating Extra-Cellularly in the CNS → form
amyloid plaques → Plaques are Internalised → Vacuole formation in Neurons → Spongy
Architecture.
§ Accumulation in Neurons → Death of Neurons
§ Propagation: Conversion of Normal Proteins (α-helix → β-sheet):
• Prions propagate by transmitting a Mis-Folded Protein State, not replicating.
• Ie: They convert Pre-Existing, Normal forms of the protein to the Abnormal Form.
o Morphology:
§ Macro:
• Empty cystic lesions in the brain → Spongiform Encephalopathy
§ Micro:
• Neuronal Vacuolation & Plaque Formation
§ Initially Subtle Memory & Behavioural Changes → Then Rapidly Progressive Dementia
§ Convulsions (Myoclonus)
§ Dementia
§ Ataxia, Dysarthria, Dysphagia, Nystagmus
§ Behavioural/Personality Changes
o Prognosis:
§ All known Prion Diseases affect the Brain and are currently Untreatable & Universally Fatal
§ 7mths life expectancy
Source: https://joelwattslab.org/prions/
NEUROSYPHILIS:
- Aetiology:
o Infection of the Brain/Spinal Cord by Bacteria: Treponema pallidum.
- Pathogenesis:
o Chronic, Untreated Syphilis – Usually after 10-20yrs → Tertiary Syphilis → Brain/Spinal Cord
o Weakness, Abnormal Gait
o Blindness, Argyll-Robertson Pupils (Bilateral Miosis, responsive to accommodation, but not to light)
o Confusion, Dementia, Irritability
o Depression
o Headache
o Paraesthesia in Toes/Feet/Legs
o Seizures
Treatment:
- o 2wk Course of IV/IM Penicillin.
https://middle-east.better2know.com/blog/2019/11/01/what-are-the-three-stages-of-syphilis/
N Engl J Med 2020; 382:845-854; DOI: 10.1056/NEJMra1901593;
https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMra1901593
HERPETIC NEURALGIA (“SHINGLES”):
- Aetiology:
o Herpes Zoster Virus Infection in Neural Ganglia
- Pathogenesis:
o Trigger (Stress/Sunlight/Immunocompromise) → Reactivation of Latent HZV Infection in Neural
Ganglia → HZV Migrates down the Axons → Painful Vesicular Lesions in the Sensory Dermatome
(Often Trigeminal Nerve)
Morphology:
-
o Vesicular Lesions over Sensory Dermatome
Clinical Features:
-
o Initially just paraesthesia & burning pain over Sensory Dermatome
o Then Painful Vesicular Lesions over Sensory Dermatome
Treatment:
- o Antivirals:
§ Famciclovir → Shortens course of disease.
o Pain Management:
§ Antidepressants / Anticonvulsants (For Neuropathic Pain)
§ Topical Anaesthetics (Lidocaine Patches / Capsaicin Lotion)
§ Opioid Analgesics
https://www.practicalpainmanagement.com/patient/conditions/postherpetic-neuralgia/empowered-patients-guide-
postherpetic-neuralgia-phn
Preston Hunt ([email protected]), CC BY 3.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0>, via Wikimedia

Commons
EAR PATHOLOGIES
Deafness:
- CONDUCTIVE DEAFNESS:
o Due to a condition that blocks the conduction of sound through the Outer & Middle Ear.
§ Originating in the Outer Ear:
• External auditory canal obstruction. (Wax/Foreign Bodies/Infection/Pus)
§ Originating in the Tympanic Membrane:
• Perforation or Scarring due to Infection or Trauma.
§ Originating in the Middle Ear:
• Otitis Media → Fills the Tympanic Cavity with pus.
• Otosclerosis → Ossicles become fused together
https://www.attune.com.au/2020/12/22/why-cant-i-hear-types-and-causes-of-hearing-loss-you-need-to-know/
- SENSORINEURAL DEAFNESS:
o Due to a disorder of the inner ear, the cochlear nerve, or its central connections to the brain.
§ Noise-Induced Damage to Cochlear Hair Cells.
§ Stroke in the Auditory Cortex causing hearing loss.
§ Acoustic Neuroma (tumour of CN8) causing deafness on the affected side.
§ Ototoxic Drugs → Damage to Cochlea Nerve
§ Meningitis
§ ‘Presbycusis’ – Progressive age-related hearing degradation.
https://www.attune.com.au/2020/12/22/why-cant-i-hear-types-and-causes-of-hearing-loss-you-need-to-know/
Tinnitus:
- A ‘Perceived’ Ringing in the ears. (Or buzzing, hissing, clicking, roaring, etc)
- Commonly occurs immediately after Acoustic Trauma (Eg: Clubbing)
- Is a problem of the Peripheral auditory system (Not the brain)
- Common Cause: Damaged hairs inside he cochlea
https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/tinnitus/symptoms-causes/syc-20350156
Vertigo (A symptom not a disease):
- Sensation of ‘Spinning’. (Distinct from faintness)
- Usually a problem of the Vestibular Apparatus or the Vestibulocochlear Nerve (CN8)
o Benign Paroxysmal (sudden onset) Positional Vertigo
o Vestibular Neuronitis
o Drugs (Eg: Alcohol)
o Brainstem Lesions, Multiple Sclerosis, Migraine.
- Some Causes:
o MOTION SICKNESS:
§ Mismatch between visual & vestibular information.
o LABYRINTHITIS or VESTIBULAR NEURITIS
§ (subsequent to viral/bacterial infection/metabolic disturbance – eg. hypoglycaemia)
o Elderly patients – due to reduced blood supply to the labyrinth.
Labyrinthitis Vestibular Neuritis
https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/labyrinthitis
o MENIERE’S SYNDROME:
§ Labyrinthine disorder – affects both semicircular canals & cochlea:
• Repeated attacks of vertigo, nausea & vomiting
• Tinnitus is common & hearing is impaired
https://www.hearinghealthassoc.com/hearing-health-associates-va-blog/2017/10/9/menieres-disease
o POSITIONAL VERTIGO:
§ May be due to Otolith Crystals
§ May often follow trauma
§ May follow drug overdose
§ Anxiety & depression may contribute (psychogenic)
https://www.impactphysicaltherapy.com/vertigo-explained/
Otalgia: “Pain of the Ear”
- Most often caused by some form of Otitis:
o ACUTE OTITIS MEDIA – (Acute Middle Ear Infection).
§ Caused by Respiratory Pathogens which enter via Eustachian Tube.
§ Can Present with:
• URTI; Rhinitis; Cough; Fever
• Ear ache; ‘Ear-pulling’
§ Otoscopy may show:
• Swollen, bulging, red Ear-drum.
• Fluid behind drum (fluid in middle ear)
Michael Hawke MD, CC BY 4.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons
o CHRONIC OTITIS MEDIA – (Chronic Middle Ear Infection):

§ Caused by:
• Chronic Respiratory Infections
• Nasopharyngeal colonisation in early infancy.
• Eustachian tube dysfunction
• Chronic ear discharge.
• Hearing loss
• Developmental delay/poor school performance.
§ Can result in a variety of Conditions:
• Retraction or Perforation of Eardrum.
• Loss of Eardrum Elasticity
• Fluid behind an intact eardrum.
• Scarring of ossicles.
• Erosion of the bony cavity of the middle ear.
• Cholesteatoma (Keratinizing Squamous epithelioma in middle ear or eardrum)
§ Grommets can relieve middle ear pressure and allow draining of exudate.
Welleschik, CC BY-SA 3.0 <http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/>, via Wikimedia Commons

o OTITIS EXTERNA – (External Ear Infection):
§ Caused by:
• Humidity/Swimming → Bacterial/Fungal Infection.
• Itch; Pain; Ear Pulling
• Fever
• Discharge
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK556055/figure/article-26422.image.f1/
Otorrhoea:
- “Runny Ear”
- Can be Caused by:
o OTITIS MEDIA:
§ Acute – with perforation
§ Chronic
o OTITIS EXTERNA
o FOREIGN BODY
o CHOLESTEATOMA → Chronic Infection/Erosion
https://www.rch.org.au/clinicalguide/guideline_index/Acute_otitis_media/
Ear-Related History:
- Past Medical:
o Ear Infections?
o Ear Trauma?
o Diabetes?
o MS?
- Past Surgical:
o Ear Surgery?
- Medication?
o Note: Some are ototoxic.
- Noise Exposure:
o Occupational
o Recreational
Ear Examination:
- External Ear:
o Inspection
o Palpation (tenderness) + Cervical & Occipital Lymph Nodes.
- Otoscopy:
o Inspection of Tympanic Membrane & Middle Ear
- Hearing Tests:
o Whisper Test
o Tuning Fork Tests
o Testing for Nystagmus (Involuntary eye movement due to head movement)
o Romberg’s Test (standing, feet together, then closing eyes. Loss of balance = positive)
o Tympanometry (tests the eardrum & ossicle mobility)
o Audiometry (tests a person’s responses to different pitches & volumes.)
VISION DISORDERS
Review of Visual Acuity:

- The ability to discriminate fine detail in a visual image.
- Refers to the ability of one cone to be stimulated without its neighbour being stimulated
- Disorders are typically due to imperfections in lens/eyeball shape.
- Measured Using Snellen’s Charts @ 6m distance (See lecture notes for full description)
o 20/20 (20ft) (6m) = Normal Acuity
o 20/15 = Better than Normal Acuity
o 20/60 = Less than Normal Acuity
Focal Disorders:
- MYOPIA (Short Sighted) – Eye is too long
- HYPEROPIA (Far Sighted) – Eye is too short
https://www.aao.org/image/refractive-errors-2
- ASTIGMATISM:
o The lenses are not perfectly round (more football shaped)
o Corrected by a ‘Toric’ (Football shaped) lens which is oriented in the opposite direction
- PRESBYOPIA:
o As you get older, the ability to Accommodate gets less → “Presbyopia”
§ Ie: A progressively diminished ability to focus on near objects with age.
§ Why? – Because the lens loses its elasticity with age.
o → Inability to focus on Near Objects (Similar to Hyperopia, but different aetiology)
o Corrected by Corrected by Plus lenses

GLAUCOMA:
- = A State of Increased Intraocular Pressure
- Aetiology:
o Imbalance between Aqueous Humour Production & Drainage (via Canal of Schlemm)
- Pathogenesis:
o Imbalance between Production & Drainage → ↑IOP → Damages Optic Nerve & Causes Retinal
Ischaemia → Loss of Vision (Typically Peripheral Vision First)
- 3 Categories:
o (Depends on the “Angle” between the Cornea & The Iris – Which determines patency of the Canal of
Schlemn)
o Open Angle Glaucoma:
§ The ‘angle’ is fine, But the Canal of Schlemm is Blocked for another reason → obstruction to
drainage → ↑IOP
§ Note: Progresses slower and vision loss may be insidious until the disease has progressed
significantly.
o Closed Angle Glaucoma:
§ The ‘Angle’ is too acute → Blocks Canal of Schlemn → ↓Drainage → ↑IOP
§ Note: Acute onset - Often Painful; visual loss can progress quickly but the discomfort often
leads patients to seek medical attention before permanent damage occurs.
o Congenital/juvenile
§ Hereditary
§ Infections can do it too.
- Acute Glaucoma Symptoms:
o Sudden onset headache, nausea, vomiting
o Loss of vision
o Red Eye
o Commonly Unilateral
o Pupils are Dilated
- Treatment:
o Pupillary Constrictors
o Note: Pupillary Dilation will make glaucoma worse; or precipitate glaucoma in predisposed
individuals. (Eg: At night)
This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 International license.
https://www.myupchar.com/en/disease/glaucoma
“RED EYE”
- Common Causes:
o Foreign bodies
o Conjunctivitis(baterial,viral,allergic)
o Sub-conjunctival haemorrhage
o Corneal abrasion
o Corneal ulcer(bacterial/viral)
o Uveitis
o Acute Glaucoma
- Questions to ask:
o Ascertain History of Injury:
§ Have you been welding
§ Have you been using contact lenses (notorious for causing problems)
§ Have you been handling acids/alkalines?
o Is it Uniocular or Binocular?:
§ If Binocular – Probably conjunctivitis
§ If Monocular – These are the ones to be concerned about:
• Uveitis
• Glaucoma
o Watery or Sticky?
§ If watery – More concerning – Eg: Uveitis, Glaucoma, corneal ulcer
§ If Sticky - Less concerning – Probably Conjunctivitis
o Painful/Sensitive to light OR Just uncomfortable?
o (If Vision is Blurred & Painful, Fluorescein is used to determine corneal staining)
- Red Flags:
o Unilateral
o Blurred vision
o Severe pain
o Photophobia
o Haloes
- Common Causes of Red-Eye:
o FOREIGN BODY:
§ Must know the mechanism of injury
§ Requires drill-burr removal under topical anaesthetic followed by topical antibiotics to
prevent infection.
E van Herk, CC BY-SA 3.0 <http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/>, via Wikimedia Commons

o SUBCONJUNCTIVAL HAEMORRHAGE:
§ Just a simple bruise – Harmless.
§ Common Causes
• Coughing fit
• Hypertensive
• Anticoagulants
§ Requires no treatment – but check BP & whether they’re on anticoagulants.
o CONJUNCTIVITIS:
§ Inflammation of conjunctiva
§ Sticky eyes common due to exudates (sometimes purulent)
§ Note: The cornea is nice and clear
§ Common Causative Organisms
• Staph epidermidis
• Staph aureus
• Strep
• adenovirus
Tanalai at English Wikipedia, CC BY 3.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons

o CORNEAL ABRASION:
§ Caused by physical scratch/injury to the cornea
§ Diagnosed by Fluorescein + Blue Light → Stains areas of epithelial loss
§ Must be able to distinguish between a simple corneal abrasion & a corneal ulcer
§ Superficial abrasions Heal within 24hrs and don’t scar.
CC BY-SA 4.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons
o CORNEAL ULCERS:
§ Require Urgent Specialist Care
§ Viral:
• Commonest is Herpetic (Herpes Simplex Virus)
• Characteristic feature = has branches :. A Dendritic Ulcer.
Imrankabirhossain, CC BY-SA 4.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons
§ Bacterial:
• More concerning
• Most dangerous organism is Gonorrhoea (Can penetrate the eye even without break
in the epithelium)
• Pseudomonas – Spreads Very Quickly→ Opaque (Most sight-threatening)
Yoanmb, CC BY-SA 4.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons

o UVEITIS:
§ Very common cause of Red Eye
§ Inflammation of the entire uveal tract
§ Different from iritis
§ Very sensitive to light
§ Watery Eyes
§ There is pus collecting in the anterior chamber.
§ Typically responds to Steroid Eye Drops, but may require systemic steroids/chemo drugs.
1.EyeMD (Rakesh Ahuja, M.D.)., CC BY-SA 2.5 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.5>, via Wikimedia

Commons
2.https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1521694206000386
DIABETIC RETINOPATHY:
- Change in basement membranes of the retinal capillaries:
o Microaneurysms
o Microvascular obstruction
o Non-perfusion of capillaries
o Narrowing of arterial walls
https://neoretina.com/blog/diabetic-retinopathy-can-it-be-reversed/
CATARACTS:
- Opacity in the crystalline lens
- Causes are multifactorial:
o Metabolic disease (eg. Diabetes)
o UV Light
o Smoking
o Ocular diseases (eg. Glaucoma)
o Skin diseases (eg. Dermatitis)
o Drug induced (Eg: Corticosteroids)
o Ageing (Idiopathic – unknown cause)
- Prevention is important –
o Improving nutrition
o Reducing diarrhoea
o Wearing sunglasses with UV filters.
- Commonly treated with surgical removal + lens implant.

CHALAZION:
- A cyst in the eyelid that is caused by inflammation of a blocked Meibomian gland, usually on the upper
eyelid.
- Treatment:
o Warm compresses
o Antibiotics
o Surgical Drainage
o (Do not squeeze)
https://www.aboutkidshealth.ca/Article?contentid=961&language=English
STRABISMUS:
- Where eyes are not properly aligned with each other.
- Very important to treat in children because it can cause Amblyopia (Where the brain ignores input from the
deviated eye. Can also be a cosmetic problem)
KLN55, CC BY-SA 4.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons

Ocular Complaints Quiz Cases: - What is Most Likely in Each Patient?
1.A 23 yr old male presented to A&E with a red left eye .He was grinding metal at work.
- Foreign Body
2.A 13 yr old girl presented with complaints of a red right eye and blurred vision. She has also noticed some cold
sores around her lips.
- Herpetic ulcer
3.A 65yr old male presents with a painless red right eye following a coughing fit. He happens to be on
anticoagulants for a heart condition.
- Subconjunctival Haemorrhage
4.A 35yr old lady who wears contact lenses comes with a 2 day history of a painful red left eye. Her vision is
blurred and her eye is watery.
- Acanthomeba or Pseudomonas infection
5.A 27 yr old male comes with a 2 day history of red eyes. Both eyes are affected. He tells you that his vision
appears OK but they are sticky. He has recently had a sore throat.
- Conjunctivitis (Probably Bacterial)
6. 78 yr male presents with sudden loss of vision in the right eye. Over the past few months he has episodes of loss
of vision lasting for a couple of minutes. He has raised cholesterol.
- transient ischaemic attacks due to embolic atherosclerotic lesions lodging in the eye.
7. 80 yr old woman presents with blurring of central vision. She complains that when she looks at your face she
can’t see anything clearly but can see around it. She tries to read but all the letters are wavy and distorted.
- Age Related Macular Degeneration

Nervous System

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Table Of Contents:

Anatomy & Physiology Notes:

General Embryonic Development is Described as Either:

Some Useful Terminology:

Ttrue12, CC BY-SA 3.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons

OpenStax College, CC BY 3.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons

OpenStax College, CC BY 3.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons

Homme en Noir, CC BY-SA 4.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons

Development of the Neural Tube Into the Spinal Cord:

Developing Spinal Cord vs Adult Spinal Cord

Source: Jonathan Dimes for BabyCenter; https://www.babycenter.com/pregnancy/your-baby/fetal-development-

Loki austanfell, CC BY-SA 3.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons

Creative Commons: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Neurulation-and-formation-of-the-cerebral-vesicles-a-

BruceBlaus, CC BY 3.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons

The Nervous System - Overview:

Organisation of the Nervous System:

Central Nervous Peripheral

BrunelloN, CC BY-SA 4.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons

Supporting Cells: “Neuroglia” (Glia)

Connective Tissue Sheaths on Peripheral Nerves:

Ms. Emma Vought, CC BY 4.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons

OpenStax, CC BY 4.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons

OpenStax College, CC BY 3.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons

OpenStax, CC BY 4.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons

Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica; https://www.britannica.com/science/superior-colliculus#/media/1/574381/93859

W hy Does the Brain Need Blood?

Blood Supply to the Brain is an ANASTOMOSIS:

Arterial Supply of the Brain:

OpenStax College, CC BY 3.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons

Distribution of Cerebral Arteries:

(Diagram over page)

OpenStax, CC BY 4.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons

OpenStax College, CC BY 3.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons

Regulation of Blood Flow to the Brain:

Cerebral Blood Flow And Intracranial Pressure:

OpenStax, CC BY 4.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons

Reabsorption of CSF into the Dural Sinuses:

Mysid, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Similarities Between Spinal Nerves & Cranial Nerves:

Pharyngeal Arch Nerve Muscular Contributions

OpenStax, CC BY 4.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons

(Oculomotor, Trochlear, Trigeminal, Abducens, Facial,

2. Involuntary (Visceral) Motor: “General Visceral Efferents” (GVE)

(Oculomotor, Facial, Glossopharyngeal, Vagus)

3. Somatic Sensation: “General Somatic Afferents” (GSA)

(Trigeminal, Facial, Glossopharyngeal & Vagus)

4. Visceral Sensation: “General Visceral Afferents” (GVA)

(Oculomotor, Trigeminal, Facial, Glossopharyngeal, Vagus)

5. Special Sensation: “Special Somatic/Visceral Afferents” (SSA/SVA)

(Olfactory, Optic, Facial, Vestibulocochlear, Vagus)

- V2 Maxillary Foramen Sensation from Maxillary

- V3 Foramen Ovale Sensation from Mandibular

M uscles of M astication &

Sensory Ganglia of Cranial Nerves:

Parasympathetic Ganglia of Cranial Nerves:

Patrick J. Lynch, medical illustrator, CC BY 2.5 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.5>, via Wikimedia

OpenStax, CC BY 4.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons

OpenStax College, CC BY 3.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons

BruceBlaus, CC BY-SA 4.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons

(See diagram for IV Trochlear)