EC-306 – Unit I

Course Branch Subject Subject Name Semester Unit No.

Name Code

B. Tech. Electronics & EC-306 Broadband Networks 6th 1

Communication

Unit-1
Overview of Internet
(Fig: Internet Map)
EC-306 – Unit I
What is Internet?

➢ The network formed by the co-operative interconnection of a large number of

computer networks.
▪ Network of networks
▪ No one owns the internet
•Every person who makes a connection owns a slice of the internet.
▪ There is no central administration to the internet.

➢ Earlier Computer Networks:

▪ Started in late 1960s – as clusters of few computers in organizations
▪ Goal: connect several computers together to
•Exchange messages
•Share information and so on…
▪ At that time, network was proprietary!
▪ small networks popped up like small islands.
▪ felt necessity of communicating between these networks!
▪ BUT how to make sure they’re compatible with each other!??
EC-306 – Unit I
Network of Networks

Network

Network
Network

Network
Network

Network
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So, what is it actually?

➢ A community of people
▪ who use and develop the networks.

➢ A collection of resources
▪ that can be reached from these networks.

➢ A setup to facilitate collaboration

▪ among members of the research and educational communities world-wide.

➢ The connected networks use the TCP/IP protocol:

▪ Transmission Control Protocol
▪ Internet Protocol
▪ Example – message exchanges that go on in use the syntax and format of
the TCP/IP message packets.
▪ TCP/IP is a set of rules that describe how computers can communicate over
a network.
EC-306 – Unit I
Key Milestones in Internet History
➢ 1950’s
▪ ARPA (Advanced Research Projects Agency)
▪ networks in different parts of the country were connected together.
➢ 1970
▪ ARPANET created as a precursor to the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
▪ preliminary protocol which went through refinements & modification.
➢ 1971
▪ Universities added to the net
▪ Telnet and FTP made available
➢ 1972
▪ First electronic mail (e-mail) message sent
➢ 1973
▪ ARPANET connected to England and Norway.
➢ 1974
▪ TCP starts being used for communicating across a system of networks.
EC-306 – Unit I
Key Milestones (contd.)
➢ 1982
▪ US DoD starts building defence data networks based on ARPANET
Technology
➢ 1983
▪ ARPANET splits into ARPANET and MILNET (MILitary NETwork)
▪ Internet now in place, TCP/IP standarized
➢ 1986
▪ National Science Foundation (NSF) implements NSFNET
▪ A system of regional network of routers connected over a backbone
network.
➢ 1991
▪ New applications like Archie & Gopher released
▪ Applications like FTP were very popular
• huge amount of resources on various FTP servers.
• Archie – developed as a tool for indexing FTP Servers – 1st Search Engine!
▪ Gopher was a more intelligent version of Archie
• Showed documents in a category & sub-category view.
• allowed users to browse through those categories.
• more general – covered FTP sites and non-FTP sites
EC-306 – Unit I
Key Milestones (contd.)
➢ 1992
▪ Internet links > 17,000 networks in 33 countries
▪ 3 million hosts
➢ 1993
▪ World Wide Web is launched

➢ 1995
▪ Interconnected network
providers start offering
service
▪ About 30 million users
EC-306 – Unit I
Important Internet Applications
➢ Telnet (remote computing)

➢ File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

➢ Electronic Mail (Email)

➢ Gopher

➢ Internet Relay Chat (IRC)

➢ Usenet News

➢ World Wide Web (WWW)

EC-306 – Unit I
Limitations of Internet
➢ Theft of Personal Information:
▪ messages sent over internet can be easily snooped/tracked
▪ personal information can be accessed by unauthorized persons
▪ banking details can also be ‘stolen’.
➢ Negative effects on family communication:
▪ more the time spent on internet, lesser the feeling of togetherness
➢ Internet addiction:
▪ people try to escape their real-world problems in an online world.
➢ Children using the Internet:
▪ children are unaware if they’re talking to a harmful person.
▪ pornography is a serious issue, especially among young children.
➢ Virus Threat:
▪ Computers get Viruses! – can crash your whole hard disk.
▪ It’s a program that disrupts the normal functioning of your computer
system.
➢ Spamming:
▪ unsolicited email; needlessly obstruct the system
▪ are mostly advertising for dubious products and quasi-legal services.
▪ Spam costs are paid by the recipient or the carrier service.

Due to its vast size and complexity, Internet is difficult to regulate & control!
EC-306 – Unit I
Request for Comments (RFC)
➢ As Internet evolves, new protocols come up. How can we make sure they are
compatible with all operating systems?
▪ Some kind of standardization is a must!
▪ BUT there is no central agency/administration to govern internet…
▪ Well-accepted & practiced way – Request for Comments (RFC)
▪ Who is responsible for the standardization and publication of these RFC
documents?
➢ The Internet Society
▪ Internet Architecture Board (IAB)
▪ Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
▪ Internet Engineering Steering Group (IESG)
➢ Request for Comments (RFC) Publication
▪ The actual development of new standards is carried out by working groups
chartered by the IETF
▪ Membership is voluntary.
▪ RFC is a standard document. Out of 1000s of RFCs, only a few have been
implemented and become popular.
➢ Where to find RFC documents – Google Them!
▪ http://www.faqs.org/rfcs/
▪ http://www.ietf.org/rfc.html
▪ http://www.rfc.net
EC-306 – Unit I
Data Transmission
➢ Data Transmission is essentially same as Digital Communication
▪ implies physical transmission of a message as a digital bit stream
▪ Data communications include computer networking, networking protocols
Communication channel can be point-to-point or point-to-multipoint
▪ Example of such channels – Physical wires, optical Fibers, wireless channels,
storage media.
➢ Computer Communication
▪ short messages – to check if another computer is available.
▪ medium messages – eg: Image or long email message
▪ long message – lot of information – movie or some software that may take
from minutes to hours to download.
➢ Data Transfer Rate (DTR) is the amount of digital data moved from one place to
another in a given time.
▪ DTR is usually measured in bits per second.
▪ low-spee connection: ~33.6 Kbps
▪ Ethernet Local Arean Network (LAN): 10Mbps

➢ Bandwidth is synonymous to DTR; measured in Bps.

▪ The greater the bandwidth of a given path, the higher the data transfer rate.
▪ Bandwidth Bottleneck
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Components of Data Communication
➢ Message – information (data) to be communicated.

➢ Sender – device that sends the data message.

➢ Receiver – device that receives the message.

➢ Transmission medium – physical path by which a message travels from sender to

receiver.

➢ Protocol – set of rules that govern data communications.

➢ Computer Networks:
▪ A set of nodes connected by communication links.
▪ Nodes can be any device capable of sending and/or receiving data
generated by other nodes on the network.
EC-306 – Unit I
Data Transmission
➢ Data Transmission is essentially same as Digital Communication
▪ implies physical transmission of a message as a digital bit stream
▪ Data communications include computer networking, networking protocols
Communication channel can be point-to-point or point-to-multipoint
▪ Example of such channels – Physical wires, optical Fibers, wireless channels,
storage media.
➢ Computer Communication
▪ short messages – to check if another computer is available.
▪ medium messages – eg: Image or long email message
▪ long message – lot of information – movie or some software that may take
from minutes to hours to download.
➢ Data Transfer Rate (DTR) is the amount of digital data moved from one place to
another in a given time.
▪ DTR is usually measured in bits per second.
▪ low-spee connection: ~33.6 Kbps
▪ Ethernet Local Arean Network (LAN): 10Mbps

➢ Bandwidth is synonymous to DTR; measured in Bps.

▪ The greater the bandwidth of a given path, the higher the data transfer rate.
▪ Bandwidth Bottleneck
EC-306 – Unit I
Data Transmission Media
➢ To carry data packets, some sort of media must be employed.
➢ Transmission media is the path in which electrical signals travel from one place to
other.
➢ Internet is a combination of different transmission media
➢ Transmission Impairment = Attenuation + Distortion + Noise.
➢ Choosing the type of media is based on the protocol, topology of the network,
distance, security and speed.
➢ Speed of the internet also depends on the type of media used for internet access -
The greater the bandwidth of a medium, the higher the Data transmission rate.
EC-306 – Unit I
Components of Data Communication
➢ Message – information (data) to be communicated.

➢ Sender – device that sends the data message.

➢ Receiver – device that receives the message.

➢ Transmission medium – physical path by which a message travels from sender to

receiver.

➢ Protocol – set of rules that govern data communications.

➢ Computer Networks:
▪ A set of nodes connected by communication links.
▪ Nodes can be any device capable of sending and/or receiving data
generated by other nodes on the network.
EC-306 – Unit I
Categories of Computer Network
➢ Three primary categories: LAN, MAN, WAN
▪ Local-Area Network (LAN)
▪ Metropolitan-Area Network (MAN)
▪ Wide Area Network (WAN)

➢ Category is determined by:

▪ Size
▪ Ownership
▪ Distance it covers
▪ Physical Architecture.

➢ Local-Area Network (LAN)

▪ Privately Owned – links devices in a single office, building or campus.
▪ limited to a few kilometres
▪ LANs are designed to allow resources to be shared between PCs and
workstations
▪ use a single transmission media.
▪ Most Common Topologies are Ring, Bus, Star.
▪ Typical speed is 10 Mbps to 100 Mbps, , speed decreases as distance
increases.
EC-306 – Unit I

Categories of Computer Network (contd.)

➢ Metropolitan-Area Network (MAN)
▪ designed to extend over an entire city, span up to 50 km range.
▪ Can be either a single network OR connecting number of LANs in to a
larger network.
▪ can be either wholly-owned and operated by a private company OR it may
be a service provider by a Public Company. OR it may be owned and
operated as public utilities.
▪ Communication channels have moderate-to-high data rates.

➢ Wide-Area Network (WAN)

▪ provides long-transmission of data over large geographic areas, country
or continent.
▪ uses routers and public communication links – connect systems indirectly.
▪ If it’s wholly owned and used by a single company, it’s referred to as an
enterprise network.
▪ WAN is a combination of more than one topology.
EC-306 – Unit I
Network Topology

➢ Physical Architecture of the network.

➢ Geometrical representation of the relationship of all the links and nodes to one
another
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Mesh Topology
➢ Every device has a dedicated point-to-
point link to every other device.
➢ For n devices, there are n(n-1)/2 physical
channels
➢ Every device should have (n-1) I/O ports
to connect to the rest (n-1) stations.
➢ Not only responsible for sending their
own signals but can also relay for other
nodes.

➢ Advantages:
▪ Eliminates traffic issues.
▪ A Robust topology
▪ Privacy & Security
▪ Fault identification/isolation is easy.
➢ Disadvantages:
▪ Installation and reconnection are difficult.
▪ Bulky wiring.
▪ Expensive set-up
EC-306 – Unit I
Star Topology
➢ Every device has a dedicated point-to-
point link only to a central controller
➢ Devices are not linked to one another.
➢ Doesn’t allow direct traffic between
device – the hub behaves like servers, and
the devices connected as clients.
➢ All the bandwidth of a single node is
shared with all other connections.
➢ Advantages:
▪ Less expensive than a mesh topology, buts till needs a lot of wire.
▪ Easy to install and reconfigure (and troubleshoot)
▪ Robust topology.
▪ Speed is very high, can handle a bandwidth, from 10Mbps up to 100Mbps.
▪ Multiple stars can be created to extended the network’s reach.
➢ Disadvantages:
▪ The whole network depends on a single point – the hub. If hub goes
down, the whole system is dead.
▪ Being the central system, the hub requires regular maintenance and more
resources.
▪ When managing heavy loads, there’s a risk of bottleneck.
EC-306 – Unit I
Bus Topology
➢ It is multipoint connected – one long cable acts as a backbone to link all devices in
a network.
➢ Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines (bi-directional connections)
and taps.
➢ Used to build small networks; can support upto 10 Mbps.
➢ 5-4-3 rule: five segments, four repeaters, 3 populated segments

➢ Advantages:
▪ Ease of installation
▪ Bus uses less cabling – 1 backbone cable and n drop lines.
➢ Disadvantages:
▪ Non-robust because if the backbone fails, the whole system crashes.
▪ Reconnection and fault isolation is difficult.
▪ Signal reflection at the taps can cause degradation in quality.
▪ Low security.
▪ Adding new devices would slow down the network.
EC-306 – Unit I
Ring Topology
➢ Each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with only the two devices
on either side of it.
➢ Signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to device, until it
reaches its destination.
➢ Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater – on receiving a signal intended for
some device, its repeater regenerates the bits and passes them along.

➢ Advantages:
▪ Relatively easy to install and configure.
▪ Fault isolation is simplified.
➢ Disadvantages:
▪ Unidirectional traffic can be a disadvantage; slower.

➢ Dual-Ring topology – 2 connections between each node to make data flow

bidirectional.
EC-306 – Unit I
Internet Connectivity
➢ Modem: device that modulates or demodulates the signal; acts a bridge between
Internet and the computer.
➢ Router: distributes the internet connection from modem to all networking devices.

Modem Router
Brings Internet to home Brings Internet to your device
Public IP address Assigns local IP address
Uses a WAN Creates a LAN
No Security Creates a Firewall
EC-306 – Unit I
Circuit Switching
➢ A dedicated communication path is
established between two stations.
▪ The path follows a fixed F
B D
sequence of intermediate node
& links. A
▪ A logical channel gets defined
on each physical link
▪ This logical channel gets C E G H
dedicated to the connection.

➢ In circuit switching, three steps are required for communication:

▪ Connection Establishment
• Required before data transmission
▪ Data Transfer
• Can proceed at maximum speed.
▪ Connection Termination
• Required after data transmission is over.
• For deallocation of network resources.
EC-306 – Unit I
Advantages of Circuit Switching
➢ Dedicated Communication Path
▪ Guaranteed data Rate
▪ No delay in data flow
➢ Reliability
▪ Transmitted without any loss or corruption
➢ Prioritization allowed
➢ Network can prioritize certain types of traffic – voice/video over email etc.
➢ Security
➢ Ease of Management
➢ Compatible with wide range of devices and protocols.
EC-306 – Unit I
Limitations of Circuit Switching
➢ Inefficient use of resources:
▪ Channel capacity gets dedicated during the entire duration of
communication.
• Acceptable for voice communication.
• Very inefficient for bursty traffic
➢ There is an initial delay and latency:
▪ can impact the real-time performance of applications.
➢ Limited Scalability:
▪ not suited for large-scale networks with many nodes
• high degree of complexity and difficulty in managing the network.
• high cost due to reservation of resources quickly adds up.
➢ Vulnerability to failures:
▪ The dedicated path can go down because of cable cuts or switch failures.
▪ Re-establishment of the communication path can result in delays and/or
data loss.
➢ Lack of flexibility:
▪ allows only one type of communication at a time.
▪ not well-suited for mobile devices or nodes that move frequently.
EC-306 – Unit I
Packet Switching
➢ Modern form of long-distance data communication
▪ Network resources are not dedicated.
▪ A link can be shared
➢ The basic technology has evolved over time., basic concept has remained the
same.
➢ Data is transmitted in short packets (~ Kbytes).
▪ A longer message is broken up into Message
smaller chunks.
▪ The chunks are called packets.
▪ Each packet is sent one at a time.
H H H
▪ Each packet contains a header.
• Relevant information for routing
etc.
➢ Packet switching is based on store-and-forward concept.
▪ Each intermediate network node receives a whole packet.
• Decides the route.
• Forwards the packet along the selected route.
EC-306 – Unit I
Packet Switching (contd.)
➢ Advantages:
▪ Links can be shared; more efficient utilization of the link.
▪ Suitable for computer-generated traffic
• Typically bursty in nature.
▪ Buffering and data rate conversion can be performed easily.
▪ Some packets may be given priority over others, if desired.
➢ Two alternative approaches to packet transmission:
▪ Virtual Circuits
▪ Datagram

➢ The abstract network model: B D F

A

C E G H
EC-306 – Unit I
Virtual Circuit Approach

➢ Similar in concept to circuit switching

▪ A route is established before packet transmission starts.
▪ All packets follow the same path.

➢ Different from circuit switching

▪ The links comprising the path are not dedicated.

➢ Analogy: Telephone System

➢ How it works?
▪ Route is established a priori.
▪ Packet forwarded from one node to the next using store-and-forward
scheme.
▪ Only the virtual circuit number need to be carried by the packet.
• Each intermediate node maintains a routing table.
• Created during route establishment.
• Used for packet forwarding.
▪ No dynamic routing decision is taken by the intermediate nodes.
EC-306 – Unit I
Datagram Approach
➢ Basic concept:
▪ No route is established beforehand.
▪ Each packet is transmitted as an independent entity.
▪ Does not maintain any history.
➢ Analogy: Postal System
➢ Every intermediate node has to make routing decisions dynamically.
▪ Makes use of a routing table.
▪ Every packet must contain source and destination addresses.

➢ Problems:
▪ Due to unequal delays, packets may be delivered out of order.
▪ If a node crashes momentarily, all of its queued packets are lost.
▪ Duplicate packets may also be generated.

➢ Advantages:
▪ Faster than virtual circuit for smaller number of packet.
• No route establishment and termination phase.
▪ More flexible.
▪ Can handle congestion/link failure.
• Packets between two hosts may follow different paths.
EC-306 – Unit I
Comparisons
➢ Three types of delays must be considered:
▪ Propagation Delay
• Time taken by a data signal to propagate from one node to the next.
▪ Transmission Time
• Time taken to send out a packet by the transmitter.
▪ Processing Delay
• Time taken by a node to “process” a packet.
➢ Circuit Switching –
▪ After initial circuit establishment, data bits sent continuously without
any delay.
➢ Virtual Circuit Packet Switching –
▪ Call request packet sent from source to destination.
▪ Call accept packet returns back.
▪ Packets sent sequentially in a pipelined fashion.
• Follow store-and-forward approach.
• Each node will have a delay equal to the propagation time plus the
transmission time.
➢ Datagram Packet Switching –
▪ No initial delay.
▪ Packets are sent out independently.
• May follow different paths.
• Follow store-and-forward approach.
EC-306 – Unit I
Layered Network Architecture
➢ Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model:
▪ Seven layer model.
▪ Communication functions are partitioned into a hierarchical set of
layers.
▪ Allows a structured development of network software.
➢ Objective:
▪ Systematic approach to design.
▪ Changes in one layer should not require changes in other layers.
➢ The 7-layers:
Application

Presentation
Host-to-Host
Session

Transport

Network

Datalink Point-to-point

Physical
EC-306 – Unit I
OSI - Layer Functions
➢ Physical
▪ Transmit raw bit stream over a physical medium.
▪ Some encoding can be done before sending data.
➢ Data Link
▪ Reliable transfer of frames over a point-to-point link.
▪ Flow control, error control
➢ Network
▪ Establishing, maintaining and terminating connections.
▪ Routes packets through point-to-point links.
➢ Transport
▪ End-to-end reliable date transfer, with error recovery and flow control.

➢ Session
▪ Enables two systems to enter into dialogue – Manage Sessions.
➢ Presentation (also known as syntax layer)
▪ Provides data independence.
➢ Application
▪ Interface point for user applications.
EC-306 – Unit I
Data Flow in OSI Model

Application Application

Presentation Presentation

Session Session

Transport Transport

Network Network Network Network

Datalink Datalink Datalink Datalink

Physical Physical Physical Physical

S 1 2 D
EC-306 – Unit I
TCP/IP Model
➢ TCP/IP is the first set of protocols used in Internet.
➢ It allows computers to communicate/share resources across a network.
➢ Work on TCP/IP started in the 1970s.
▪ Funded by the US military.
▪ Advanced Research Project Agency (ARPA)
▪ Network protocols of ARPANET were upgraded.
➢ The modern Internet sits on top if the TCP/IP technology.
▪ Used as a standard.
▪ All computers connected to the Internet understands TCP/IP.
▪ To bridge the gap between non-compatible platforms.
➢ Network Layering in TCP/IP -
▪ OSI model was proposed in 1978 for network services and protocols.
▪ TCP/IP does not strictly follow this 7-layer model.
▪ TCP/IP follows a simplified 4-layer model.
➢ The protocols are built on top of connectionless technology.
▪ Data sent from one node to another as a sequence of datagrams.
▪ Minimum header size is ~ 20 bytes (compared to ~ 5 bytes in OSI)
▪ The datagrams corresponding to the same message may follow different
routes.
• Variable delay, arrival order at the destination.
EC-306 – Unit I
The simplified 4-layer Model
Application Runs on top of layers 1, 2 and 3.
Allow access to network resources.

Transport Reliable End-to-end message transfer.

Network Packet delivery across Internet

Datalink Frame transmission over link on the same network.

A B C
Application Application

Transport Transport

Network Network Network

Datalink Datalink Datalink

EC-306 – Unit I
TCP/IP Family

User
FTP TFTP SMTP SNMP DNS
Process

Transmission Control User Datagram Protocol

Protocol (TCP) (UDP)

Internet Protocol (IP) ICMP IGMP ARP RARP

Datalink and Hardware Layer

(e.g., Ethernet)
EC-306 – Unit I
Internet Protocol (IP)
➢ IP transports datagrams (packets) from the source node to the destination node.
▪ Responsible for routing the packets.
▪ Breaks a packet into smaller packets (or fragments), if required.
▪ Unreliable service – no error control!
▪ A packet may be lost in transit.
▪ Packets may arrive out of order.
▪ Duplicate packets may be generated.
EC-306 – Unit I
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
➢ TCP provides a connection-oriented reliable service for sending messages.
▪ Split a message into packets.
▪ Reassemble packets at destination.
▪ Request to resend packets that were lost in transit.
➢ Interface with IP:
▪ Each packet forwarded, individually, to IP for delivery.
▪ Error control is done by TCP.

User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

➢ UDP provides a connectionless, unreliable service for sending datagrams (packets).
▪ Messages small enough to fit in a packet (e.g., DNS query)
▪ Simpler (and faster) than TCP.
▪ Never split data into multiple packets.
▪ Does not care about error control.
➢ Interface with IP:
▪ Each packet sent to IP for delivery.
EC-306 – Unit I
Addresses in TCP/IP

User User
Process Process

TCP UDP Port Address (16 bits)

IP Internet Address (32 bits)

Ethernet Layer Physical Address (48 bits)

EC-306 – Unit I
Encapsulation
➢ Basic Concept:
▪ As data flows down the protocol hierarchy, headers (and trailers) get
appended to it.
▪ As data moves up the hierarchy, headers (and trailers) get stripped off.
➢ Example:
TFTP Client TFTP Server
▪ Trivial file transfer protocol (TFTP).
▪ TFTP client transfers 200 bytes of data.
▪ 4 bytes of TFTP gets added. UDP UDP

IP IP

Ethernet Ethernet
Data

H-TFTP Data TFTP Message

H-UDP H-TFTP Data UDP packet

H-IP H-UDP H-TFTP Data IP packet

H-Eth H-IP H-UDP H-TFTP Data T-Eth Ethernet Frame

14 20 8 4 200 4
EC-306 – Unit I
IP Datagram
➢ IP layer provides a connectionless, unreliable delivery system for protocols.
➢ Each packet is independent of one another.
▪ IP layer need not maintain any history.
▪ Each IP Packet must contain the source and destination address.
➢ IP layer does not guarantee delivery of packets.
➢ IP layer encapsulation
▪ Receives a data chunk from the higher layer (TCP or UDP).
▪ Prepends a header of minimum 20 bytes.
• Containing relevant information for handling, routing and flow
control.
0 4 8 15 16 31
VER HLEN Service Type Total Length
Identification Flags Fragment Offset

HEADER
Time to Live Protocol Header Checksum
Source IP Address
Destination IP Address

Options

DATA
EC-306 – Unit I
IP Header Fields
➢ VER (4 bits)
▪ Version of the IP protocol in use (typically 4).
➢ HLEN (4 bits)
▪ Length od the header, expressed as the number of 32-bit (4 bytes)
words.
▪ Minimum size is 5 (20 bytes), and maximum is 15 (60 bytes).
➢ Total Length (16 bits)
▪ Length in bytes of the datagram, including headers.
▪ Maximum datagram size is 216 = 65536 bytes.
➢ Service Type (8bits)
▪ Allows packet to be assigned a priority.
▪ Router can use this field to route packets.
▪ Not universally used.
➢ Time to Live (8 bits)
▪ Prevents a packet from traveling in a loop.
▪ Senders set a value, that is decremented at each hop. If it reaches zero,
packet is discarded.
➢ Protocol (8 bits)
▪ Identifies the higher layer protocol being used.
EC-306 – Unit I
IP Header Fields (contd.)
➢ Source IP address (32bits)
▪ Internet address of the sender.
➢ Destination IP address (32 bits)
▪ Internet address of the destination.
➢ Identification, Flags, Fragment Offset
▪ Used for handling fragmentation.
➢ Options (variable width)
▪ Can be given, provided router supports.
▪ Example - Source routing
➢ Header Checksum (16 bits)
▪ Covers only the IP header.
▪ Computation:
• Header treated as a sequence of 16-bit integers.
• The integers are all added using ones complement arithmetic.
• Ones complement of the final sum is taken as the checksum.
▪ A mismatch in checksum causes the datagram to be discarded.
EC-306 – Unit I
IP Address
➢ Properties:
▪ 32-bit address
• written as 4 numbers (8-bits each) separated by dots.
• 4 numbers are called as octets (8bits)
• Octets are divided into 2 components – Net ID, Host ID
▪ Hierarchical
• Network, subnet, host hierarchy
• Network ID – IP Address of the network
• Host ID – IP Address of the host.

➢ Example:
▪ 00000001.10100000.00001010.11110000 (Binary Representation)
▪ 1.160.10.240 (Decimal Representation)

➢ Maps to logically unique network adaptor

▪ Exceptions: service request splitting for large web servers
EC-306 – Unit I
IP Address Model
➢ Address Model:
▪ Class A:
• Starts with 0
• First 8 bits: Network ID
• Remaining 24 bits: Host ID
• # of IP Address (due to remaining bits) = 231
• 2 networks are reserved and unused
• Used by organizations requiring very large size networks like NASA,
Pentagon etc.

Class A: 0 Network (7bits) Host (24 bits)

Class Network ID Host ID # of Networks # of Addresses

A (0) + 7 bit 24 bit 27 - 2 = 126 224-2

➢ Note: These Host IDs cannot be assigned.

▪ Host ID in which all bits are set to either 0, used to represent the
network ID of the IP Address
▪ Host ID in which all bits are set to 1, reserved for the multicast address
EC-306 – Unit I
IP Address Model (contd.)
➢ Address Model:
▪ Class B:
• Starts with 10
• First 16 bits: Network ID
• Remaining 16 bits: Host ID
• # of IP Address (due to remaining bits) = 230
• Used by organizations requiring medium size networks such as IRCTC,
banks, etc.

Class B: 1 0 Network (14 bits) Host (16 bits)

Class Network ID Host ID # of Networks # of Addresses

B (10) + 14 bit 16 bit 214 216 - 2
EC-306 – Unit I
IP Address Model (contd.)
➢ Address Model:
▪ Class C:
• Starts with 110
• First 24 bits: Network ID
• Remaining 8 bits: Host ID
• # of IP Address (due to remaining bits) = 229
• Used by organizations requiring small to medium size networks,
example – colleges, small universities, offices etc.

Class C: 1 1 0 Network (21 bits) Host (8 bits)

Class Network ID Host ID # of Networks # of Addresses

C 110 + 21 bit 8 bit 221 28-2
EC-306 – Unit I
IP Address Model
▪ Class D:
• Starts with 1110.
• # of IP Address (due to remaining bits) = 228
• Class D is reserved for multicasting.

▪ Class E:
• Starts with 1111.
• Class D is not divided into Network ID and Host ID.
• # of IP Address (due to remaining bits) = 228
• Class E is reserved for future or experimental purposes.

Class Network ID Host ID # of Networks # of Addresses

A 0 + 7 bit 24 bit 27 - 2 = 126 224-2
B 10 + 14 bit 16 bit 214 65,536-2
C 110 + 21 bit 8 bit 221 256-2
D 1110 + Multicast Address IP Multicast
E Reserved for Research/Experimental purposes
EC-306 – Unit I
MAC Address
➢ Media Access Control (MAC) Addressing
▪ a unique 48-bit number embedded into a Network Interface Card (NIC)
▪ physical address that works at the Data Link Layer.
▪ represented as a 12-digit hexadecimal number (eg: 00:38:D6:CD:46:02)
▪ two sublayers:
• Logical Link Control (LLC) Sublayer
• Media Access Control (MAC) Sublayer
➢ First 6 digits (OUI) identify the manufacturer, eg: CC:46:D6 – Cisco, 3C:D9:2B – HP etc.
➢ Rightmost 6 digits represent NIC, assigned by the manufacturer.

1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th

Octet Octet Octet Octet Octet Octet

Organizationally Unique Network Interface Controller

Identifier (OUI) (NIC) Specific

b7 b6 b5 b4 b3 b2 b1 b0 b0 = 0: Unicast b1 = 0: Globally Unique

b0 = 1: Multicast b1 = 1: Locally administered
EC-306 – Unit I
MAC & IP
➢ Data Link Layer uses a MAC address
▪ manages how data is transported from one network node to another on a
direct, physical bases – hop-to-hop delivery.
➢ Network Layer uses an IP address
▪ identify devices on a network and to route traffic between networks –
end=to-end delivery of data.
➢ When a computer sends data, it first wraps it in an IP header, which is then
encapsulated in a MAC header.
▪ As data travels from one router to the next, the MAC address header is
stripped off, and a new one is generated for the next hop.
▪ The IP header, originated by the source computer remains intact until it
reaches the final destination.

Destination Source Destination Source

User Data Trailer
MAC MAC IP IP

IP Packet

Ethernet Frame
EC-306 – Unit I
Domain Names
➢ Domain Name System (or Server), DNS, is an application layer protocol.
➢ Domain name is the primary name of the website that is easy to remember.
▪ contains 2 to 3 parts, each separated with a dot (.)
➢ Subdomain:
▪ used to separate a website from its domain
▪ we can choose unlimited subdomains in a particular domain.
▪ www.blogs.example.com – blogs: Subdomain, example: domain name
➢ Top-level Domain
▪ refers to the organization or entity the website is registered to on the Internet.
• Examples: .com, .net, .org, .edu, etc.
▪ further divided to make country-region specific domains.
• Example - .edu.in, .co.in
➢ DNS uses UDP at the transport layer:
▪ UDP is much faster than TCP.
▪ DNS is a connection-less protocol.
▪ DNS requests are small, fit well within UDP segments.
▪ Reliability can be added by using timeouts and resend at the application layer.
EC-306 – Unit I
Domain Name Resolution
➢ It is the Internet’s system for mapping alphabetic names to numeric IP addresses.
➢ DNS resolution is an IP address translation service –
▪ Humans use memorable domain names, devices in the internet use IP
addresses.
▪ DNS resolution converts user-friendly hostname to computer-friendly IP
Address.
▪ Also, IP addresses are not static and many change dynamically.
▪ DNS look ups occur “behind the scenes”
➢ When a user needs to load the webpage, a translation must occur between what user
types into their browser into an IP address required to locate that website.
▪ User program sends a name query to a library procedure called the resolver.
▪ Resolver looks up the local domain name cache for a match:
• If a match is found, it sends the corresponding IP Address back.
• If not match is found, it send a query to the local DNS server.
▪ DNS server looks up the name
• If a match is found, it returns the corresponding IP address to the resolver.
• If no match is found, the local DNS server send a query to a higher level
DNS server.
• This process is continued until a result is returned.
▪ After receiving a response, the DNS client returns the resolution result to the
application.
EC-306 – Unit I
URL
➢ Uniform Resource Locator (URL)
➢ To specify the location of a web resource
▪ regardless of the type or content of that resource.
▪ Therefore, Uniform Resource locator.
➢ URL: protocol://host_Address/file_path (E.g.: http://www.example.com/parts.htm)
▪ Scheme/Protocol:
• identifies the type of protocol and URL you are linking to.
• http:// – Hypertext Transfer Protocol is used allow communication with the web
servers.
• https:// – Secure Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTPS) encrypts the data using a digital
certificate.
• ftp:// – File Transfer Protocol is often used to transfer large files across the Web.
• file:// – to indicate a file on the local hard disk or shared directory on a LAN.
▪ Host Address:
• The exact location where a website can be found.
• IP Address, or www.example.com
• www. tells the browser to look for World Wide Web interface for a particular domain.
▪ File path:
• always begin with a forward slash character
• may consist of one or more directory or folder names.
• Filepath may end with a filename at the end.
• In the example above, parts.htm is the filename available in the html directory.
EC-306 – Unit I
Internet, Intranet, Extranet
➢ Internet
▪ network formed by co-operative interconnection of billions of computers.
▪ public network open to everyone and allows unrestricted access.
▪ End users are connected to LANs or ISPs.
▪ lack of control – unruly proliferation of information.
➢ Intranet
▪ Private network built within an organization
▪ Specific, corporate, and proprietary.
▪ Private and restricted – only accessible to employees.
▪ allows members to gain access to internal information or share resources.
▪ developed on the same TCP/IP protocol, with limited access.
▪ Firewalls – protect the intranets from unauthorized outside access.
➢ Extranet (Extended Intranet)
▪ Allows users from outside to access the Intranet of an organization
• limited access by external parties.
▪ Uses the TCP/IP protocol network of the Internet to link to different Intranets.
▪ Shared in authorized collaborating groups.
▪ Enable efficient collaborations, information sharinf and exchanging it securely
▪ Open and flexible patform suitable for connectivity between businesses
through the internet eg: better supply chain management.
▪ Streamline their processes and reduce costs, eg: improved customer service
▪ Example – customer portal: allows customers to log in and access information
about their orders, tracks deliveries etc.
EC-306 – Unit I
Point Internet Intranet Extranet
Network Public Private Private
Accessibility
Coverage All over the world. Restricted area upto Restricted area upto an
an organization organization and some
of its affiliates.
# of Largest in number of Minimal number More comparable with
Computers connected devices. Intranet.
Owner No one Single Organization Single/Multiple
Organizations
Security Dependent on the user Enforced via firewall. Enforced via firewall
of the device connected that separated Internet
to network. and extranet.
Users General Public Employees of the Employees of all
organization connected groups
Policies No hard and fast policies Policies of the Policies of the
behind set-up oganization organization
Maintenance Maintained by ISP. Maintained by IT cell Maintained by IT cell of
of the organization the organization
Relation Network of Networks Derived from Internet Derived from Intranet
EC-306 – Unit I
➢ Unicast:
Types of Communication (Casting)
▪ One source to one destination.
▪ Simple, but not scalable!
▪ Web surfing, file transfers
▪ Example: A video server streaming video to 4 hosts over LAN/WAN.
• HD video stream required 6 Mbps of bandwidth.
• Load on server increases as number of hosts connected to it increases.
➢ Broadcast
▪ One source to everyone.
▪ Easy to implement and manage.
▪ Load is reduced, but everyone in the domain will receive data.
▪ Can cause network overload.
▪ Routers do not forward broadcast traffic.
• Routers need to make active decision based on routing table.
• If destination address is broadcast address, router drops the packet.
➢ Multicast
▪ One source to a group of receivers.
▪ Very efficient.
▪ The switches and routers will only forward traffic to the hosts interested.
• reduces the load of server and network traffic.
▪ Unlike unicast, additional hosts will not increase the load and traffic rate.
▪ Netflix, Youtube etc do not use multicasting!
▪ But most multimedia applications require multicasting, like live streaming, online
gaming, sending group message on WhatsApp, even our class!
EC-306 – Unit I
IP Multicasting
➢ Multicasting that takes place over the internet is known as IP Multicasting.
➢ One-to-many or many-to-many communication.
▪ Allows a single transmission to be split up among multiple users.
▪ Reduces bandwidth of the transmission.
▪ Dynamic group membership – can join and leave at will.
▪ Extension to Unicast IP
▪ Unreliable datagram service.
➢ Designated range of IP addresses represent “multicast groups”
▪ Class D IP addresses: 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255 – Destination only!
▪ Source encapsulates the multicast data in an IP packet with the multicast group
address as the destination address.
➢ Router needs to know who’s interested in the multicast (where & if)
▪ IGMP (Internet Group Management Protocol)
▪ Receiving hosts will use IGMP to (join the group and) inform the router.
➢ What about switches then?
▪ IGMP ‘snooping’
• listening to IGMP traffic between routers and hosts.
• when the host sends a membership report, switch adds an entry to the
table.
• when hosts sends a leave group report, switch removes the entry.
EC-306 – Unit I
IGMP
➢ Internet Group Management Protocol
▪ works directly on top of the Internet Protocol.
▪ Does not use any transport layer protocol, such as TCP or UDP.
➢ Host – router interface
▪ Communicate group membership between hosts and routers
▪ Implemented in most of today’s routers and switches.
➢ Each IGMP packet has both IGMP header and as IP header.
➢ Soft-state protocol
▪ Hosts explicitly inform their router about membership.
▪ “Leave group” messages go from device to a router to leave the multicast
group.
▪ Must periodically refresh membership report.
• Router sends out general membership queries to all connected devices.
• Routers implicitly timeout groups that aren’t refreshed.
EC-306 – Unit I
Real-Time Communication (RTC)
➢ In most data communications,
▪ Need for data to arrive reliably.
▪ Would like it to be fast, but prefer reliable
• E.g.: web, email, p2p etc
▪ Often characterized as elastic application.

➢ In real time communications:

▪ Need for message to arrive in a timely manner.
▪ Timeliness may be more important that reliability.
▪ Messages may have priority.
▪ RTC is based on peer-to-peer architecture.
▪ Example –
• A “drive by wire” system in a car
• Voice and Video calls, instant messaging etc.
EC-306 – Unit I
WebRTC
➢ WebRTC is the ability to communicate and exchange information in real time over
the Internet.
▪ Allows peer-to-peer connections to other web browsers.
▪ Still developing, protocols get standardized
• World Wide Web Consortium (W3C)
• Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
▪ Goal: to define the WebRTC API (Application Programming Interface) that
allows the secure access to the input peripherals such as microphone,
webcams on a device to share/exchange media with a remote device in a
peer-to-peer manner.
▪ Offers a high level of security than various other streaming systems, without
the need for third-party software.
▪ uses JavaScript code
➢ WebRTC Triangle:
▪ Both browers running the same
web application from web server.
▪ Peer Connection established
between them with the help of the
web server.
EC-306 – Unit I
Web RTC (contd.)
➢ Web-RTC functionality has 3 components:
▪ MediaStream: also known as GetUserMedia API
• Local media stream grants the browser to have access to stream devices
such as camera, microphone.
• Provides control over the devices that produce the media.
• Allows the browser to capture and render media.

▪ RTCPeerConnection: Connect with the destination device.

• Provides a way for participants to create direct connections with their peers
(without the need for an intermediary server, beyond signalling)
• Allows browser to exchange the acquired media directly with peers to
create an audio/video feed.
• Manages UDP connection with another user.
• Handles bandwidth management, media transfer, packet loss etc.

▪ RTCDataChannel: Bi-directional data transfer

• designed to mimic the WebSocket API.
• Data channels use UDP-based streams – to minimize congestion.
• Provide reliability by using Stream Control Transmission Protocol.
EC-306 – Unit I
WebRTC (contd.)
➢ RTC is the ability to communicate and exchange information in real time over the
Internet. To maintain this communication session, RTC relies on:
▪ Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP)
▪ Session Initiation Protocol (SIP)

➢ WEbRTC has 3 different layers of API:

▪ 1st: contains all the APIs web developer demands including RTCPeerConnection,
RTCData Channel and media stream objects.
▪ 2nd: API for browser makers
▪ 3rd: Overridable API, which browser makers can hook.

➢ Drawbacks:
▪ One must have access to a fast internet connection.
▪ does not offer any offline services.
▪ Not available in all browsers.
▪ No fixed service providing a base for every browser.