Fan Source Book

One of a
series of
industrial
energy
efficiency
sourcebooks
Improving
Fan System
Performance
a sourcebook for industry
NT OF
ME
RT
EN
U.S. Department of Energy
A
ER
DEP
GY
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy

ICA
U N IT
ER
Bringing you a prosperous future where energy is clean,

ED
ST A
AT E S OF
abundant, reliable, and affordable
Acknowledgments
Improving Fan System Performance: A Sourcebook for Industry has been developed by the U.S. Department
of Energy’s (DOE) Industrial Technologies Program and the Air Movement and Control Association
International, Inc. (AMCA), a DOE Allied Partner. Industrial Technologies and AMCA International
undertook this project as part of a series of sourcebook publications on motor-driven equipment under the
BestPractices effort. Other topics in this series include compressed air systems, pumping systems, and motors
and drives. For more information about the Industrial Technologies’ BestPractices effort and AMCA
International, see Section 3.
AMCA International is a not-for-profit association of the world’s manufacturers of related air system
equipment—primarily, but not limited to fans, louvers, dampers, air curtains, airflow measurement stations,
acoustic attenuators, and other air system components—for industrial, commercial, and residential markets.
The association’s mission is to promote the health and growth of industries covered by its scope and the
members of the association consistent with the interests of the public.
DOE, AMCA International, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, and Resource Dynamics Corporation thank
the staff at the many organizations that so generously assisted in the collection of data for this sourcebook.
The contributions of the following participants are appreciated for their review and input to this sourcebook:
Gary Benson, The New York Blower Company

Frank Breining, Airmaster Fan Company
Don Casada, Diagnostic Solutions, LLC
Brad Gustafson, U.S. Department of Energy
Tom Gustafson, Hartzell Fan, Inc.
Tony Quinn, American Fan Company & Woods USA Division
Paul Saxon, Air Movement and Control Association International, Inc.
Bill Smiley, The Trane Company
Sastry Varanasi, ABB Fan Group North America
Dick Williamson, Twin City Fan Companies, Ltd.
Ron Wroblewski, Productive Energy Solutions
Prepared for: The United States Department of Energy

Air Movement and Control Association International, Inc.
Prepared by: Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory

Washington, DC
Resource Dynamics Corporation
Vienna, VA
Cover photo credit: Copyright© CML Northern Blower Inc., 1989. All rights reserved. This image may not be reproduced,
stored, or transmitted in any form or means without the prior written consent of the copyright holder.
Contents
Quick Start Guide 1
Section 1: Introduction to Fan Systems 3

Fans 3
Fan Performance Curves 6
Fan System Components 9
Section 2: Performance Improvement Opportunity Roadmap 15

1—Assessing Fan System Needs 17
2—Fan Types 19
3—Basic Maintenance 25
4—Common Fan Systems Problems 29
5—Indications of Oversized Fans 33
6—System Leaks 37
7—Configurations to Improve Fan System Efficiency 39
8—Controlling Fans with Variable Loads 43
9—Fan Drive Options 47
10–Multiple-Fan Arrangements 51
11–Fan System Economics 55
Section 3: Programs, Contacts, and Resources 59

Industrial Technologies Program and BestPractices 59
Air Movement and Control Association International, Inc. (AMCA International) 63
Directory of Contacts 65
Resources and Tools 67
Appendices 75
Appendix A: Fan System Terminology 75
Appendix B: The Fan System Marketplace 83
A Sourcebook for Industry i

ii Improving Fan System Performance
Quick Start Guide
Quick Start Guide

This sourcebook is designed to provide fan system ◆ Section 3: Programs, Resources, and Contacts
users with a reference outlining opportunities to Section 3 provides a directory of associations and
improve system performance. It is not intended to other organizations involved in the fan marketplace,
be a comprehensive technical text on improving along with a listing of the resources, tools, software,
fan systems, but rather a document that makes users videos, and workshops.
aware of potential performance improvements,
provides some practical guidelines, and details where ◆ Appendices
the user can find more help. The sourcebook is
The sourcebook includes two appendices. Appendix A
divided into three main sections and appendices.
is a glossary that defines terms used in the fan
system industry. Appendix B presents an overview
◆ Section 1: Introduction to Fan Systems of the fan system marketplace.
For users unfamiliar with the basics of fans and fan
systems, a brief discussion of the terms, relationships,
and important system design considerations is
The Systems Approach
provided. This section describes the key factors
involved in fan selection and system design and The cost-effective operation and maintenance of a
provides an overview of different types of fans and fan system requires attention not only to the needs
the applications for which they are generally used. of the individual pieces of equipment, but also to
Users already familiar with fan system operation the system as a whole. A “systems approach”
may want to skip this section. The key terms and analyzes both the supply and demand sides of the
parameters used in selecting fans, designing system and how they interact, essentially shifting
systems, and controlling fluid flow are discussed. the focus from individual components to total
system performance. Often, operators are so focused
◆ Section 2: Performance Improvement on the immediate demands of the equipment that
Opportunity Roadmap they overlook the broader question of how system
This section describes the key components of a fan parameters are affecting the equipment. The
system and the opportunities for performance improve- systems approach usually involves the following
ments. Also provided is a figurative system diagram types of interrelated actions:
identifying fan system components and performance ■ Establishing current conditions and operating
improvement opportunities. A set of fact sheets parameters
describing these opportunities in greater detail ■ Determining present and estimating future
follows the diagram. These fact sheets cover: process production needs
■ Gathering and analyzing operating data and
1. Assessing Fan System Needs
developing load duty cycles
2. Fan Types
■ Assessing alternative system designs and
3. Basic Maintenance
improvements
4. Common Fan Systems Problems
■ Determining the most technically and
5. Indications of Oversized Fans
economically sound options, taking into
6. System Leaks
consideration all of the subsystems
7. Configurations to Improve Fan System Efficiency
■ Implementing the best option
8. Controlling Fans with Variable Loads
■ Assessing energy consumption with respect to
9. Fan Drive Options performance
10. Multiple-Fan Arrangements
■ Continuing to monitor and optimize the system
11. Fan System Economics
■ Continuing to operate and maintain the system
for peak performance.
A Sourcebook for Industry 1

2 Improving Fan System Performance
Introduction to Fan Systems
Section 1: Introduction to Fan Systems

Fans1 are widely used in industrial and commercial often causes system designers to design fan
applications. From shop ventilation to material systems conservatively. Concerned about being
handling to boiler applications, fans are critical responsible for under-performing systems, designers
for process support and human health. In the tend to compensate for uncertainties in the design
manufacturing sector, fans use about 78.7 billion process by adding capacity to fans. Unfortunately,
kilowatt-hours2 of energy each year. This con- oversizing fan systems creates problems that can
sumption represents 15 percent of the electricity increase system operating costs while decreasing
used by motors.3 Similarly, in the commercial fan reliability.
sector, electricity needed to operate fan motors
composes a large portion of the energy costs for Fans that are oversized for their service requirements
space conditioning. do not operate at their best efficiency points. In
severe cases, these fans may operate in an unstable
Performance may range from “free air” to several manner because of the point of operation on the
pounds per square inch gage (psig)4, with fan airflow-pressure curve. Oversized fans generate
airflow from a few cubic feet per minute (cfm) excess flow energy, resulting in high airflow noise
to more than 1 million cfm. Pressures above and increased stress on the fan and the system.
15 psig generally require air compressors, which Consequently, oversized fans not only cost more to
are addressed in a separate sourcebook titled purchase and to operate, they create avoidable
Improving Compressed Air System Performance, system performance problems. The use of a
A Sourcebook for Industry. “systems approach” in the fan selection process
will typically yield a quieter, more efficient, and
In manufacturing, fan reliability is critical to plant more reliable system.
operation. For example, where fans serve material
handling applications, fan failure will immediately Fans
create a process stoppage. In industrial ventilation
applications, fan failure will often force a process
to be shut down (although there is often enough There are two primary types of fans: centrifugal
time to bring the process to an orderly stoppage). and axial. These types are characterized by the
Even in heating and cooling applications, fan path of the airflow through the fan. Centrifugal
operation is essential to maintain a productive work fans use a rotating impeller to increase the velocity
environment. Fan failure leads to conditions in of an airstream. As the air moves from the impeller
which worker productivity and product quality hub to the blade tips, it gains kinetic energy. This
declines. This is especially true for some production kinetic energy is then converted to a static pressure
applications in which air cleanliness is critical to increase as the air slows before entering the discharge.
minimizing production defects (for example, Centrifugal fans are capable of generating relatively
plastics injection molding and electronic component high pressures. They are frequently used in “dirty”
manufacturing). airstreams (high moisture and particulate content),
in material handling applications, and in systems
In each case, fan operation has a significant impact at higher temperatures.
on plant production. The importance of fan reliability
1 For the purposes of this sourcebook, the term “fan” will be used for all air-moving machines other than compressors.
2 United States Industrial Electric Motor Systems Market Opportunities Assessment, U. S. Department of Energy, December 1998.
3 Ibid.
4 At standard conditions, a column of water 27.68 inches high exerts 1 psig of pressure. Equivalently, 1 inch of water gage =
0.036 psig.

Axial fans, as the name implies, move an airstream Designers tend to protect against being responsible
along the axis of the fan. The air is pressurized by for inadequate system performance by “over-
the aerodynamic lift generated by the fan blades, specifying.” However, an oversized fan/motor
much like a propeller and an airplane wing. assembly creates a different set of operating
Although they can sometimes be used interchange- problems, including inefficient fan operation,
ably with centrifugal fans, axial fans are commonly excess airflow noise, poor reliability, and pipe/duct
used in “clean air,” low-pressure, high-volume vibrations. By describing some of the problems
applications. Axial fans have less rotating mass and and costs associated with poor fan selection, this
are more compact than centrifugal fans of compa- sourcebook is intended to help designers and oper-
rable capacity. Additionally, axial fans tend to have ators improve fan system performance through bet-
higher rotational speeds and are somewhat noisier ter fan selection and improved operating and
than in-line centrifugal fans of the same capacity; maintenance practices.
however, this noise tends to be dominated by high
frequencies, which tend to be easier to attenuate. Noise. In industrial ventilation applications, noise
can be a significant concern. High acoustic levels
◆ Fan Selection promote worker fatigue. The noise generated by a
Fan selection is a complex process that starts with fan depends on fan type, airflow rate, and pressure.
a basic knowledge of system operating requirements Inefficient fan operation is often indicated by a
and conditions such as airflow rates, temperatures, comparatively high noise level for a particular fan
pressures, airstream properties, and system layout. type.
The variability of these factors and other consider-
ations, such as cost, efficiency, operating life, If high fan noise levels are unavoidable, then
maintenance, speed, material type, space con- ways to attenuate the acoustic energy should be
straints, drive arrangements, temperature, and considered. Noise reduction can be accomplished
range of operating conditions, complicate fan by several methods: insulating the duct; mounting
selection. However, knowledge of the important the fan on a soft material, such as rubber or suit-
factors in the fan selection process can be helpful able spring isolator as required to limit the amount
for the purposes of reducing energy consumption of transmitted vibration energy; or installing sound
during system retrofits or expansions. Often, a fan damping material or baffles to absorb noise energy.
type is chosen for nontechnical reasons, such as
price, delivery, availability, or designer or operator Rotational Speed. Fan rotational speed is typically
familiarity with a fan model. If noise levels, energy measured in revolutions per minute (rpm). Fan
costs, maintenance requirements, system reliability, rotational speed has a significant impact on fan
or fan performance are worse than expected, then performance, as shown by the following fan laws:
the issue of whether the appropriate fan type was
initially selected should be revisited.
Fans are usually selected from a range of models Airflowfinal = Airflowinitial ( RPM
RPM
final
initial
)
and sizes, rather than designed specifically for
a particular application. Fan selection is based
on calculating the airflow and pressure require- 2
RPMfinal
ments of a system, then finding a fan of the right Pressurefinal = Pressureinitial ( RPM ) initial
design and materials to meet these requirements.
Unfortunately, there is a high level of uncertainty
associated with predicting system airflow and
RPMfinal 3
pressure requirements. This uncertainty, combined
with fouling effects and anticipated capacity
Powerfinal = Powerinitial ( RPM )initial
expansion, encourages the tendency to increase
the specified size of a fan/motor assembly.

Rotational speed must be considered concurrently be less expensively constructed with fiberglass-
with other issues, such as variation in the fan load, reinforced plastic or coated with a corrosion-
airstream temperature, ambient noise, and resistant material. Because coatings are often less
mechanical strength of the fan. expensive than superalloy metals, fan types that
work well with coatings (for example, radial fan
Variations and uncertainties in system requirements blades because of their simple shape) are widely
are critical to fan type and fan rotational speed used in corrosive applications; however, wear will
selection. Fans that generate high airflow at reduce the reliability of coatings. Alternately, mate-
relatively low speeds (for example, forward-curved rials such as reinforced fiberglass plastics have
blade centrifugal fans) require a relatively accurate been developed for fan applications and function
estimate of the system airflow and pressure demand. effectively in many corrosive environments.
If, for some reason, system requirements are However, there may be size and speed limitations
uncertain, then an improper guess at fan rotational for composite materials and plastic materials.
speed can cause under-performance or excessive
airflow and pressure. Airstreams with high particulate content levels can
also be problematic for the fan drive train. In direct
Airstream temperature has an important impact on drive axial fans, the motor is exposed to the
fan-speed limits because of the effect of heat on airstream. Sealed motors can be used in these
the mechanical strength of most materials. At high applications but tend to be more expensive and,
temperatures, all materials exhibit lower yield in the event of lost seal integrity, they are suscepti-
strengths. Because the forces on shafts, blades, and ble to expensive damage. In axial fans, belt drives
bearings are proportional to the square of the offer an advantage by removing the motor from the
rotational speed, high-temperature applications are airstream. In centrifugal fans, the particulate
often served by fans that operate at relatively low content is less of a factor because the motor or
speeds. sheave can be located outside of the fan enclosure
and connected to the impeller through a shaft seal.
Airstream Characteristics. Moisture and particulate Gear drives are occasionally used in applications
content are important considerations in selecting where speed reduction is required but the use
fan type. Contaminant build-up on fan blades can of belt drives is unfeasible because of access or
cause severe performance degradation and fan maintenance requirements.
imbalance. Build-up problems are promoted by a
shallow blade angle with surfaces that allow con- In flammable environments, fans are usually
taminants to collect. Fans with blade shapes that constructed of nonferrous alloys to minimize the
promote low-velocity air across the blades, such as risk of sparks caused by metal-to-metal contact. In
backward inclined fans, are susceptible to some applications, certain components of the fan
contaminant build-up. In contrast, radial tip fans can be fabricated out of spark-resistant materials.
and radial blade fans operate so that airflow across Fans that operate in flammable environments
the blade surfaces minimizes contaminant build-up. should be properly grounded, including rotating
These fans are used in “dirty” airstreams and in components, to minimize sparking because of stat-
material handling applications. ic discharge.
Corrosive airstreams present a different set of Temperature Range. To a large degree, temperature
problems. The fan material, as well as the fan type, range determines fan type and material selection.
must be selected to withstand corrosive attack. In high-temperature environments, many materials
Also, leakage into ambient spaces may be a lose mechanical strength. The stresses on rotating
concern, requiring the fan to be equipped with a components increase as the fan’s operating speed
shaft seal. Shaft seals prevent or limit leakage from increases. Consequently, for high-temperature
around the region where the drive shaft penetrates applications, the fan type that requires the lowest
the fan housing. For example, in corrosive environ- operating speed for a particular service is often
ments fans can be constructed with expensive alloys recommended. Radial blade fans can be ruggedly
that are strong and corrosion resistant, or they can constructed and are frequently used in

high-temperature environments. Component materials small ducts, and very compact fan assemblies.
also significantly influence a fan’s ability to serve Although this design practice may free up floor
in high-temperature applications, and different space, the effect on fan system performance can be
alloys can be selected to provide the necessary severe in terms of maintenance costs. The use of
mechanical properties at elevated temperatures. multiple elbows close to a fan inlet or outlet can
create a costly system effect, and the added
Variations in Operating Conditions. Applications that pressure drops caused by small duct size or a
have widely fluctuating operating requirements cramped duct configuration can significantly
should not be served by fans that have unstable increase fan operating costs. System designers
operating regions near any of the expected should include fan system operating costs as a
operating conditions. Because axial, backward- consideration in configuring fan assemblies and
inclined airfoil, and forward-curved fans tend to ductwork.
have unstable regions, these fans are not recom-
mended for this type of service unless there is a Fan Performance Curves
means of avoiding operation in the unstable
region, such as a recirculation line, a bleed fea-
ture, or some type of anti-stall device. Fan performance is typically defined by a plot of
developed pressure and power required over a
Space Constraints. Space and structural constraints range of fan-generated airflow. Understanding this
can have a significant impact on fan selection. In relationship is essential to designing, sourcing, and
addition to dimensional constraints on the space operating a fan system and is the key to optimum
available for the fan itself, issues such as mainte- fan selection.
nance access, foundation and structural support
requirements, and ductwork must be considered. Best Efficiency Point. Fan efficiency is the ratio of
Maintenance access addresses the need to inspect, the power imparted to the airstream to the power
repair, or replace fan components. Because down- delivered by the motor. The power of the airflow is
time is often costly, quick access to a fan can pro- the product of the pressure and the flow, corrected
vide future cost savings. Foundation and structural for units consistency. The equation for total
requirements depend on the size and weight of a efficiency is:
fan. Selecting a compact fan can free up valuable
Total Pressure x Airflow
floorspace. Fan weight, speed, and size usually Total Efficiency =
determine the foundation requirements, which, in bhp x 6,362
turn, affect installation cost. Where: Total Pressure is in inches of water
Airflow is in cubic feet per minute (cfm)
If the available space requires a fan to be located bhp is brake horsepower
in a difficult configuration (for example, with an
elbow just upstream or downstream of a fan), then An important aspect of a fan performance curve
some version of a flow straightener should be is the best efficiency point (BEP), where a fan
considered to improve the operating efficiency. operates most cost-effectively in terms of both
Because non-uniform airflow can increase the pres- energy efficiency and maintenance considerations.
sure drop across a duct fitting and will degrade fan Operating a fan near its BEP improves its
performance, straightening the airflow will lower performance and reduces wear, allowing longer
operating costs. For more information, see the fact intervals between repairs. Moving a fan’s operating
sheet titled Configurations to Improve Fan System point away from its BEP increases bearing loads
Efficiency on page 39. and noise.
An important tradeoff regarding space and fan Another term for efficiency that is often used with
systems is that the cost of floor space often fans is static efficiency, which uses static pressure
motivates designers and architects to configure a instead of total pressure in the above equation.
fan system within a tight space envelope. One way When evaluating fan performance, it is important
to accomplish this is to use small-radius elbows, to know which efficiency term is being used.

Region of Instability. In general, fan curves arc Fan Start-Up. Start-up refers to two different issues
downward from the zero flow condition—that is, in the fan industry. Initial fan start-up is the
as the backpressure on the fan decreases, the air- commissioning of the fan, the process of ensuring
flow increases. Most fans have an operating region proper installation. This event is important for
in which their fan performance curve slopes in the several reasons. Poor fan installation can cause
same direction as the system resistance curve. early failure, which can be costly both in terms of
A fan operating in this region can have unstable the fan itself and in production losses. Like other
operation. (See Figure 1-1.) Instability results from rotating machinery, proper fan operation usually
the fan’s interaction with the system; the fan attempts requires correct drive alignment, adequate
to generate more airflow, which causes the system foundation characteristics, and true fit-up to
pressure to increase, reducing the generated air- connecting ductwork.
flow. As airflow decreases, the system pressure
also decreases, and the fan responds by generating Fan start-up is also the acceleration of a fan from
more airflow. This cyclic behavior results in a rest to normal operating speed. Many fans,
searching action that creates a sound similar to particularly centrifugal types, have a large rotation-
breathing. This operating instability promotes poor al inertia (often referred to as WR2), meaning they
fan efficiency and increases wear on the fan require significant torque to reach operating speed.
components.
26 In this region, the slopes of the fan curve

and the system curve are near parallel.
24 Instability results when the fan curve
Region of Instability intersects the system curve at more than one
22 point, causing the fan to hunt.
20
18
Static Pressure
16
(in. wg)
14 Fan
Curve
12 System
Curves
10 Slope Lines
2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000 12,000 14,000 16,000 18,000

3,000 5,000 7,000 9,000 11,000 13,000 15,000 17,000
Airflow Rate (cfm)
Figure 1-1. Region of Instability5
5 Although fan system curves can have a static component, for the purposes of this sourcebook, system curves pass
through (0,0).

In addition to the WR2 load, the air mass moved In axial fan applications, controllable pitch fans
by the fan also adds to the start-up torque require- offer a similar advantage with respect to reducing
ments on the fan motor. Although rotational inertia start-up current. Shifting the blades to a low angle
is not typically a problem in heating, ventilation, of attack reduces the required start-up torque of
and air conditioning (HVAC) applications, it may the fan, which allows the motor to reach operating
be a design consideration in large industrial appli- speed more quickly. For more information on
cations. Proper motor selection is essential VFDs and controllable pitch fans, see the fact
in ensuring that the fan can be brought to its sheet titled Controlling Fans with Variable Loads
operating speed and that, once there, the motor on page 43.
operates efficiently.
System Effect. The system effect is the change in
Because the start-up current for most motors is 2 system performance that results from the interaction
to 5 times the running current, the stress on the of system components. Typically, during the design
motor can be significantly reduced by starting a process, the system curve is calculated by adding
fan under its minimum mechanical load and the losses of each system component (dampers,
allowing the motor to achieve normal operating ducts, baffles, filters, tees, wyes, elbows, grills,
speed more quickly than when under full load. louvers, etc.). The governing equation for pressure
In many applications, system dampers can be loss across any particular component is:
positioned to reduce the load on the fan motor
during start-up. For example, the power required 2
by a centrifugal fan tends to increase with increasing ∆p = C ( 1,097
V
) ρ
flow (although in “non-overloading” fan types, the
power drops off after reaching a peak). In axial
fans, the power tends to decrease with increasing Where: ∆p = pressure loss in inches of water gage
flow. Consequently, for most centrifugal fan types, (in. wg)
C = loss coefficient for the component
large fan start-ups should be performed with
V = velocity in feet per minute
downstream dampers closed, while for most axial
ρ = density of the airstream (0.075 pounds
fan types, start-ups should be performed with these
per cubic foot at standard conditions)
dampers open. However, there are exceptions to
these guidelines, and the actual power curve for
the fan should be evaluated to determine how to The result of this equation is a parabolic line, as
soften the impact of a large fan start-up. shown by the system curve in Figure 1-2. This
system curve assumes all components display
The power surges that accompany the starting of pressure loss characteristics according to their loss
large motors can create problems. Among the coefficients. However, in reality, non-uniform
effects of a large start-up current are power quality airflow profiles that are created as the airstream
problems and increased wear on the electrical sys- develops swirls and vortices cause system
tem. In response to increasing demand for equip- components to exhibit losses that are higher than
ment that minimizes the problems associated with their loss coefficients. The overall effect of these
large motor starts, electrical equipment manufac- added losses is to move the system curve up, as
turers are offering many different technologies, shown by the corrected system curve in Figure 1-2.
including special devices known as soft starters, to
allow gradual motor speed acceleration. A key The system effect can be minimized by configuring
advantage of variable frequency drives (VFDs) is the system so that the flow profile remains as
that they are often equipped with soft starting fea- uniform as possible. However, if space constraints
tures that decrease motor starting current to about prevent an ideal system layout, then system effect
1.5 to 2 times the operating current. Although VFDs consequences should be incorporated into the fan
are primarily used to reduce operating costs, they selection process. For more information on how to
can significantly reduce the impact of fan starts on minimize losses, see the fact sheet titled Configurations
an electrical system. to Improve Fan System Efficiency on page 39.

26
System Curve (with system effect)
24
22
20 Fan Curve
18 System Curve
Static Pressure
(as calculated)
16
(in. wg)
14
12
10
8
4 Expected Performance
2 Actual Performance
2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000 12,000 14,000 16,000 18,000

3,000 5,000 7,000 9,000 11,000 13,000 15,000 17,000
Airflow Rate (cfm)
Figure 1-2. System Effect for a Typical Fan and System
The system effect can be particularly problematic Fan System Components

when the airflow into or out of a fan is disrupted
into a highly non-uniform pattern. Poor configuration
A typical fan system consists of a fan, an electric
of ductwork leading to or from a fan can severely
motor, a drive system, ducts or piping, flow control
interfere with a fan’s ability to efficiently impart
devices, and air conditioning equipment (filters,
energy to an airstream. For example, placing an
cooling coils, heat exchangers, etc.). An example
elbow close to the fan outlet can create a system
system is illustrated in a diagram on page 10.
effect that decreases the delivered flow by up to
30 percent. This can require an increase in fan
To effectively improve the performance of fan
speed, which in turn results in an increase in
systems, designers and operators must understand
power and a decrease in system efficiency.
how other system components function as well.
The “systems approach” requires knowing the
Although underestimating the system effect
interaction between fans, the equipment that
causes insufficient air delivery, many designers
supports fan operation, and the components that
overcompensate for it and other uncertainties
are served by fans.
by selecting oversized fans. This practice creates
problems such as high energy costs, high mainte- Prime Movers. Most industrial fans are driven by
nance, and reduced system reliability. A more alternating current (AC) electric motors. Most are
reasonable approach is to combine proper system induction motors supplied with three-phase,
layout practices with an accurate estimate of the 240- or 480-volt power. Because power supplies
system effect to determine an appropriate fan size. are typically rated at slightly higher voltages than
motors because of anticipated voltage drops in the

Turning Vanes
(typically used on
short-radius elbows)
Outlet Diffusers
Heat Exchanger
Baffles
Filter
Inlet Vanes
Motor Controller
Centrifugal Fan
Variable Frequency Drive
Belt Drive
Motor
Figure 1-3. Example Fan System Components
distribution system, motors are typically rated at fans, actual operating speeds are usually around
230 or 460 volts. In recent years, because of 2 percent less than their nominal speeds. For
efforts by the National Electrical Manufacturers example, a theoretical four-pole induction motor
Association (NEMA) and motor manufacturers, the with no slip would rotate at 1,800 rpm with a
efficiency of general-purpose motors has signifi- 60-hertz power supply; however, rated operating
cantly improved. These improvements are also speeds for this motor are usually around 1,750 rpm,
attributable to the Energy Policy Act (EPAct), which indicating that slip rates are a little over 2.7 percent
for most motors went into effect in October 1997. at rated load. Fans that are driven by older motors
To improve motor efficiency, motor manufacturers are probably operating at much lower efficiencies
have modified motor designs and incorporated and at higher levels of slip than what is available
better materials, resulting in slight changes in from new motors.
motor operating characteristics. Although initial
costs of the motors have increased 10 to 20 per- Upgrading to a new motor can reduce operating
cent, for high run-time applications, improvements costs, because of improved motor efficiency, while
in motor efficiency create very attractive paybacks offering slightly improved fan performance. EPAct-
through lower operating costs. efficiency motors operate with less slip, which
means fans rotate at slightly higher speeds. For
A characteristic of induction motors is that their applications that can effectively use this additional
torque is directly related to slip, or the difference output, this high efficiency can be attractive.
between the speed of the magnetic field and the However, if the additional output is not useful, the
speed of the motor shaft. Consequently, in many added power consumption increases operating costs.

Another component of the prime mover is the motor Because most fans are operated with induction
controller. The controller is the switch mechanism motors, the operating rotational speeds of direct-
that receives a signal from a low power circuit, drive fans are limited to within a few percent of
such as an on/off switch, and energizes or de-ener- the synchronous motor speeds (most commonly
gizes the motor by connecting or disconnecting 1,200, 1,800, and 3,600 rpm). The sensitivity of
the motor windings to the power line voltage. fan output to its operating rotational speed means
Soft starters are electrical devices that are often that errors in estimating the performance require-
installed with a motor controller to reduce the ments can make a direct-drive system operate inef-
electrical stresses associated with the start-up of ficiently (unlike belt drives, which allow fan rota-
large motors. In conventional systems, the high tional speed adjustments by altering pulley diame-
in-rush and starting currents associated with most ters). One way to add rotational speed flexibility to
AC motors creates power quality problems, a direct-drive system is to use an adjustable speed
such as voltage sag. Soft starters gradually drive (ASD). ASDs allow a range of shaft speeds
ramp up the voltage applied to the motor, reducing and are quite practical for systems that have varying
the magnitude of the start-up current. As industrial demand. Although ASDs are generally not a prac-
facilities increase the use of computer-based tical option for fans that are only required to oper-
equipment and control systems, soft starters are ate at one speed, ASDs can provide a highly effi-
becoming important parts of many motor control cient system for fans that operate over a range of
systems. In fact, a major advantage associated with conditions.
most VFDs is that they often have built-in, soft-start
capabilities. In axial fans, direct drives have some important
advantages. Applications with low temperatures
Another common characteristic of motors used in and clean system air are well-suited for direct
fan applications is multiple speed capability. drives because the motor mounts directly behind
Because ventilation and air-moving requirements the fan and can be cooled by the airstream. This
often vary significantly, the ability to adjust fan space-saving configuration allows the motor to
speed is useful. Motors can be built to operate at operate at higher-than-rated loads because of
different speeds in two principal ways: as a single added cooling. However, accessibility to the motor
set of windings equipped with a switch that ener- is somewhat restricted.
gizes or de-energizes an additional set of poles, or
with the use of multiple windings, each of which Belt drives offer a key advantage to fan systems
energizes a different number of poles. The first by providing flexibility in fan speed selection. If
type of motor is known as a consequent pole the initial estimates are incorrect or if the system
motor and usually allows two operating speeds, requirements change, belt drives allow flexibility
one twice that of the other. The second type of in changing fan speed. In axial fans, belt drives
motor can have two, three, or four speeds, keep the motor out of the airstream, which can be
depending on application. In general, multiple- an advantage in high temperature applications, or
speed motors are more costly and less efficient than in dirty or corrosive environments.
single-speed motors. However, the flow control
benefit of different motor speeds makes them There are several different types of belt drives,
attractive for many fan applications. including standard belts, V-belts, cogged V-belts,
and synchronous belts. There are different cost and
Drive System. The drive system often offers operating advantages to each type. In general,
substantial opportunities to improve energy synchronous belts are the most efficient, while
efficiency and to lower overall system operating V-belts are the most commonly used. Synchronous
costs. There are two principal types of drive systems: belts are highly efficient because they use a mesh-
direct drive and belt drive. Gear drives are also type contact that limits slippage and can lower
used but are less common. In direct drive systems, operating costs. However, switching to synchronous
the fan is attached to the motor shaft. This is a belts must be done with caution. Synchronous
simple, efficient system but has less flexibility with belts usually generate much more noise than other
respect to speed adjustments. belts. They also transfer shock loads through the

drivetrain without allowing slip. These sudden Ductwork or Piping. For most fan systems, air is
load changes can be problematic for both motors directed through ducts or pipes. In general, ducts
and fans. Another problem with synchronous belts are made of sheet metal and used in low-pressure
is the limited availability of pulley sizes. Because systems, while pipes are sturdier and used in
the pulleys have a mesh pattern, machining them higher-pressure applications. Because ducts are
alters the pitch diameter, which interferes with used for most air-moving applications, “duct” will
engagement. Consequently, pulleys are available be the common reference for this sourcebook; how-
in discrete sizes, which precludes an important ever, most of the same principles can be applied to
advantage of belt drives: the ability to alter operating pipes.
rotational speeds by adjusting sheave diameters.
Because of these factors, synchronous belts are not In ventilation applications in which a fan pulls
as widely used as V-belts in fan applications. directly from a ventilated space on one side and
discharges directly to an external space (like a
In contrast, V-belts are widely used because of wall-mounted propeller fan), duct losses are not a
their efficiency, flexibility, and robust operation. significant factor. However, in most applications,
V-belts have a long history in industrial applications, ducts are used on one or both sides of a fan and
which means there is a lot of industry knowledge have a critical impact on fan performance. Friction
about them. An important advantage to V-belts is between the airstream and the duct surface is usu-
their protection of the drivetrain during sudden ally a significant portion of the overall load on a fan.
load changes. Service conditions that experience
sudden drivetrain accelerations cause accelerated As a rule, larger ducts create lower airflow
wear or sudden failure. While synchronous belts resistance than smaller ducts. Although larger ducts
tend to transfer these shock loads directly to the have higher initial costs in terms of material and
shafts and motors, V-belts can slip, affording some installation, the reduced cost of energy because of
protection. Although they are less efficient than lower friction offsets some of these costs and should
synchronous belts, V-belts offer many advantages be included during the initial design process and
such as low cost, reliable operation, and operating during system modification efforts. For more
flexibility. In applications that use standard belts, information, refer to the fact sheet titled Fan
upgrades to V-belts should be considered. System Economics on page 55. Other considera-
tions with ducts are their shape and leakage class.
Although they are not commonly used, gear systems Round ducts have less surface area per unit cross
offer some advantages to belt systems. Gear systems sectional area than rectangular ducts and, as a
tend to be much more expensive than belt drive result, have less leakage. In hot or cool airstreams,
alternatives; however, gears tend to require less this surface area also influences the amount of
frequent inspection and maintenance than belts heat transferred to the environment.
and are preferable in applications with severely
limited access. Gears also offer several motor/fan Duct leakage class, typically identified by the
configurations, including in-line drives, parallel- factor CL (which has units of cfm/linear foot) is an
offset drives, and 90-degree drives, each of which indicator of duct integrity. Variables that determine
may provide an attractive advantage in some CL include the type of joints used in construction,
applications. Gear-system efficiency depends largely the number of joints per unit length of duct, and
on speed ratio. In general, gear efficiencies range the shape of the duct. Depending on the length
from 70 to 98 percent. In large horsepower (hp) of the duct system, leakage can account for a
applications (greater than 100 hp), gear systems significant portion of a fan’s capacity. This is
tend to be designed for greater efficiency because especially applicable to systems with rectangular
of the costs, heat, and noise problems that result ducts that have unsealed joints. In many cases, the
from efficiency losses. Because gears require lubri- system designer can improve the performance of
cation, gearbox lubricant must be periodically the ventilation system by specifying ducts that
inspected and changed. Also, because gears—like have low CLs. For more information see the fact
synchronous belts—do not allow slip, shock loads sheet titled System Leaks on page 37.
are transferred directly across the drivetrain.

Airflow Control Devices. Flow control devices delivered to a particular workspace. Because VAV
include inlet dampers on the box, inlet vanes at the systems are much more energy efficient than their
inlet to the fan, and outlet dampers at the outlet of precursors (constant-volume or dual-supply systems),
the fan. Inlet box dampers are usually parallel dampers can be used to lower system operating costs.
blade dampers. Inlet vanes adjust fan output in two
principal ways: by creating a swirl in the airflow However, in many applications, dampers can
that affects the way in which the air hits the fan decrease fan efficiency. Dampers decrease total fan
blades, or by throttling the air altogether, which output by increasing backpressure, which forces
restricts the amount of air entering the fan. The the operating point of a fan to shift to the left along
inlet vanes and dampers must be designed for its performance curve. Often, as the fan operating
proper fan rotation and are to be installed in such point moves to the left along its curve, it operates
a way that these inlet vanes and dampers open in less efficiently and, in some cases, may perform in
the same direction as the fan rotation. The pre- an unstable manner. Unstable fan operation is the
rotation or swirl of the air helps reduce the brake result of an aerodynamic phenomenon in which
horsepower of the fan. If the inlet dampers on the there is insufficient air moving across the fan blades.
inlet box are located too far away from the inlet of The airflow rate surges back and forth resulting in
the fan, the effect of pre-rotation may be lost or inefficient performance, annoying noise character-
reduced, and horsepower savings may be negligible. istics, and accelerated wear on the fan drive system.
The outlet damper, when used for controlling Another airflow control method that is available
airflow, is usually of opposed-blade design for better for axial fan applications is the use of variable
flow distribution on the discharge side of the fan. pitch blades. Variable pitch fans control fan output
If the outlet damper is going to be used for open/ by adjusting the fan blade angle of attack with
close service or for isolating the fan, a parallel- respect to the incoming airstream. This allows the
blade discharge damper may be used. Typically, fan to increase or decrease its load in response to
fans with inlet vanes provide better power savings system demand. In effect, this method is similar to
while operating the fan at part load conditions, as that provided by inlet vanes, which adjust the
opposed to fans with inlet box dampers operating angle of attack of the entering airstream by creat-
in a similar situation. Inlet vanes provide better ing a swirl in the airflow pattern. Variable pitch
controllability with optimum power savings fans provide a highly efficient means of matching
compared to other dampers. Outlet dampers adjust fan output to system demand.
resistance to airflow and move the operating point
along the fan’s performance curve. Because they Another method of airflow control is fan speed
do not change air entry conditions, outlet dampers adjustment. Recalling the fan laws, speed has a
do not offer energy savings other than shifting the linear relationship with airflow, a second-order
operating point along the fan horsepower curve. relationship with pressure, and a third-order
relationship with power. By slowing or speeding
Dampers can be used to throttle the air entering or up a fan, its output can be adjusted to match
leaving a fan and to control airflow in branches of system demand. In general, fan speed adjustment
a system or at points of delivery. Dampers control is the most efficient method of airflow control.
airflow by changing the amount of restriction in an
airstream. Increasing the restriction creates a larger There are two primary speed control options: mul-
pressure drop across the damper and dissipates some tiple-speed motors and ASDs. Multiple-speed motors
flow energy, while decreasing the restriction reduces have discrete speeds, such as “high,” “medium,”
the pressure differential and allows more airflow. and “low.” Although these motors tend to be
somewhat less efficient than single speed motors,
From a system perspective, proper use of dampers they offer simplicity, operating flexibility, a relative-
can improve energy efficiency over traditional system ly compact space envelope, and significant energy
designs, especially in HVAC systems. In variable-air savings for fan systems with highly variable loads.
volume (VAV) systems, dampers are effective at ASDs include several different types of mechanical
rerouting airflow and at controlling the amount of air and electrical equipment. The most common type

of ASD is a VFD. VFDs control the frequency of

the power supplied to a motor to establish its
operating speed. Unlike multiple speed motors that
operate at discrete speeds, VFDs allow motors to
operate over a continuous range of speed. This
flexibility provides accurate matching between fan
output and the flow and pressure requirements of
the system. For more information, see the fact
sheet titled Controlling Fans with Variable Loads
on page 43.
Air Conditioning and Process Equipment (Filters,

Heat Exchangers, etc.). Other equipment
commonly found in air-moving systems includes
devices used to condition the airstream to obtain
certain properties. Heat exchangers are used to
heat or cool an airstream to achieve a particular
temperature or to remove moisture. Filters are used
to remove unwanted particles or gases. Conditioning
equipment influences fan performance by providing
flow resistance and, in some cases, by changing air
density. Filters, including cyclone types or mesh
types, inherently create pressure drops, which are
often significant components of the overall system
pressure drop. Mesh-type filters create increasingly
large pressure drops as they accumulate particles.
In many systems, poor performance is a direct
result of inadequate attention to filter cleanliness.
Cyclone filters remove particulates by rapidly

altering the direction of the airflow so that heavy
particulates, unable to change direction quickly,
get trapped. Although cyclone filters are less
effective than mesh filters, they tend to require less
maintenance and have more stable pressure-drop
characteristics.
The effects of heating and cooling coils on fan

system performance depend largely on where in
the system the heat exchangers are located, the
extent of the temperature change, and how the
heat exchangers are constructed. Where there are
large changes in airstream temperature, fan per-
formance can change as the air density changes.
Heat exchangers that have closely spaced fins can
accumulate particulates and moisture that not only
impact heat transfer properties, but also increase
pressure losses.

Performance Improvement Opportunity Roadmap
Section 2: Performance Improvement

Opportunity Roadmap
The cost-effective operation and maintenance of a
fan system requires attention to the needs of both
individual equipment and the entire system. Often,
operators are so focused on the immediate demands
of the equipment that they overlook the broader
perspective of how the system parameters are
affecting this equipment. A “systems approach”
analyzes a system and how its components interact,
essentially shifting the focus from individual Fact Sheets
components to total system performance. The
1—Assessing Fan System Needs
systems approach usually involves the following
types of interrelated actions: 2—Fan Types
■ Establishing current conditions and operating
3—Basic Maintenance
parameters 4—Common Fan System Problems
■ Determining the present and estimating future
process production needs 5—Indications of Oversized Fans
■ Gathering and analyzing operating data and 6—System Leaks
developing load duty cycles
■ Assessing alternative system designs and 7—Configurations to Improve Fan System Efficiency
improvements
■ Determining the most technically and
8—Controlling Fans with Variable Loads
economically sound options, taking into 9—Fan Drive Options
consideration all of the subsystems
■ Implementing the best option 10–Multiple-Fan Arrangements
■ Assessing energy consumption with respect to 11–Fan System Economics
performance
■ Continuing to monitor and optimize the system
■ Continuing to operate and maintain the system
for peak performance.
The remainder of this section is a collection of 11

fact sheets that address both component and sys-
tem issues. Each fact sheet details a specific oppor-
tunity for improving fan system performance.

1–Assessing Fan System Needs
Assessing Fan System Needs
There are three principal opportunities in the life However, purchasing an oversized fan/motor
cycle of a system that can be used to improve fan assembly creates operating problems such as excess
system performance: airflow noise and inefficient fan operation. The
incremental energy costs of operating oversized fans
■ During initial system design and fan selection can be significant. For more information on this
■ During troubleshooting to solve a system problem, see the fact sheet titled Indications of
problem Oversized Fans on page 33.
■ During a system capacity modification.
◆ Troubleshooting a System Problem
Some fan system problems, such as abnormally high
◆ Initial Fan Selection operating and maintenance costs and ineffective air-
Fan selection starts with a basic knowledge of system flow control, are sufficiently troublesome to justify
operating conditions: air properties (moisture a system assessment. If the system problems are
content, temperature, density, contaminant level, etc.), significant, then a change to the fan, its drive system,
airflow rate, pressure, and system layout. These or the airflow control devices may be justifiable.
conditions determine which type of fan—centrifugal
or axial—is required to meet service needs. High Operating and Maintenance Costs. Unusually
high operating costs are often caused by inefficient
Axial fans move air along the direction of the fan’s fan operation that, in turn, can be the result of
rotating axis, much like a propeller. Axial fans tend improper fan selection, poor system design, or
to be light and compact. Centrifugal fans accelerate wasteful airflow control practices. Improper fan
air radially, changing the direction of the airflow. selection often means the fan is oversized for the
They are sturdy, quiet, reliable, and capable of application, resulting in high energy costs, high
operating over a wide range of conditions. Many airflow noise, and high maintenance requirements.
factors are used to determine whether axial or
centrifugal fans are more appropriate for certain Poor system design can lead to high operating
applications. A discussion of these factors is and maintenance costs by promoting poor airflow
provided in the Fan Types fact sheet on page 19. conditions. For example, duct configurations that
create large system effect factors can cause
After deciding which fan type is appropriate, the significant efficiency and airflow losses.
right size must be determined. Fans are usually
selected on a “best-fit” basis rather than designed An effective way of minimizing maintenance and
specifically for a particular application. A fan is operating costs is to keep a fan operating within a
chosen from a wide range of models based on reasonable range of its best efficiency point (BEP).
its ability to meet the anticipated demands of a However, this practice is often difficult in systems
system. Fans have two mutually dependent outputs: that have changing demands.
airflow and pressure. The variability of these
outputs and other factors, such as efficiency, Poor Airflow Control. Poor airflow control refers to
operating life, and maintenance, complicate the a wide range of causes and problems, including
fan selection process. inadequate delivery to a system branch, surging
operation, and high airflow noise.
Tendency to Oversize. A conservative design tendency
is to source a fan/motor assembly that will be large Inadequate delivery may be the result of poor
enough to accommodate uncertainties in system system balancing or leakage. If a branch has a
design, fouling effects, or future capacity increases. damper that is stuck open or a duct develops a
Designers also tend to oversize fans to protect large leak, then this branch may provide a low
against being responsible for inadequate system resistance flow path that robs airflow from other
performance. delivery points. Fans typically react to this loss of

1–Assessing Fan System Needs
backpressure by generating high airflow rates. Consequently, increasing the airflow rate of the fan
In severe cases, many centrifugal fan motors will by increasing its speed requires significantly more
overload if operated against little or no backpressure. power and may require a larger motor. The struc-
If not corrected, an overloaded motor will typically tural integrity of the rotating elements, bearings,
shut itself down with thermal or current safety shafts, and support structure needs to be evaluated
switches. for the higher speeds.
Several situations can cause surging. Fans in a par- Lower Fan Rotational Speed. If the fan is oversized
allel configuration may be shifting load between for normal operating conditions, the feasibility of
each other. A single fan may be operating in a stall operating it at lower rotational speeds should be
condition or hunting for the right operating point considered. Reducing fan speed can significantly
along an unstable part of its performance curve. In reduce energy consumption. For example, according
these cases, the system resistance is too high. to the fan laws, reducing fan rotational speed by
20 percent decreases fan power by 50 percent.
Electrical System Wear. Frequent start-ups of large Unfortunately, this speed reduction may cause
loads can add significant stress to an electrical motor efficiency and power factor to drop to low
system. The in-rush current and the starting current levels. The costs of inefficient operation and low
for motors can create voltage sags in the electrical power factor may justify motor replacement or the
system and cause the motor to run hot for several installation of a variable frequency drive.
minutes. In fan applications where sensitive loads
can be affected by fan start-ups, the use of soft 3
RPMfinal
starters should be considered. Soft starters are
electrical devices that gradually ramp up the
Powerfinal = Powerinitial ( RPM initial
)
voltage to the fan motor, limiting the in-rush and
starting current. Soft starters can extend fan motor
life by keeping the motor temperature low. Multiple Fans. Airflow rate can also be increased
by installing a separate fan next to an existing one.
Variable frequency drives (VFDs) are also com- Multiple-fan configurations have many advantages,
monly used to soft start fans. By gradually bringing including flexibility in meeting widely varying
fan speed up to operating conditions, VFDs reduce system demands and redundancy in case of equip-
stress on the electrical system. ment failure. When adding a fan to an existing
system, the system can be configured so that both
◆ System Capacity Change fans operate concurrently or either fan operates
For a system that is to be modified or upgraded, an independently. The concurrent operation of two fans
assessment of the available fan capacity should be creates a combined performance curve that may be
performed. Unless the existing fan is considerably more appropriate for the system requirements than
oversized, added capacity requires the installation that of a single fan. For more information, refer to
of a larger fan or an additional fan. Conversely, a the fact sheet titled Multiple-Fan Arrangements
system with excess fan capacity can often be on page 51.
accommodated by operating the fan at a slower
speed. In these applications, the effects of operating Fan Replacement. Replacing an existing fan with a
a motor at less than half its rated load should be different model is also an option. Selecting a new,
considered. Recall that motor efficiency and power larger fan requires consideration of the same factors
factor fall significantly when the motor is operated that are involved in any initial fan selection. A new
below half its rating. fan may be more feasible if the existing one has
degraded or requires extensive refurbishment. In
Higher Fan Rotational Speed. One option to high run-time applications, the purchase of a new
accommodate the increased demand is to operate fan with an energy-efficient motor may provide an
the fan at a higher speed. In belt driven applications, attractive payback.
the sheave diameters can be changed to increase
fan speed. The relationship between fan speed and
airflow rate is linear; however, the relationship
between fan speed and power consumption is
cubed.

2–Fan Types
Fan Types
◆ Basic Principle Forward-Curved Blades. This fan type, shown in

Fans can be classified primarily into two different Figure 2-1, has blades that curve in the direction
types: axial and centrifugal. Axial fans act like of rotation. This fan type is typically used in
propellers, generating airflow along the direction applications that require low to medium air
of the fan’s axis. Centrifugal fans generate airflow volumes at low pressure. It is characterized by
by accelerating the airstream radially and convert- relatively low efficiency (between 55 and 65 percent).
ing the kinetic energy into pressure. Axial and cen- This fan type can operate at relatively low speeds,
trifugal fans have overlapping capabilities in terms which translates to low levels of noise. Forward-
of pressure, airflow, and efficiency; however, usu- curved fans are commonly selected because of
ally they are not interchangeable. their small size relative to other fan types.
Key impacts that determine which fan type is the

most appropriate include technical and non-
technical attributes. Technical considerations
include pressure, airflow rate, efficiency, space
Rotation
constraints, noise generation, drive configuration,
temperature range, variations in operating conditions,
and tolerance to corrosive or particulate-laden
airstreams. Nontechnical reasons include cost,
delivery time, availability, and designer/operator
familiarity with a fan model.
Understanding the principles of fan selection can

be helpful in correcting poor system performance, Figure 2-1. Forward-Curved Blade Fan
especially during retrofit or upgrade opportunities.
If noise levels, energy costs, maintenance require-
ments, or fan performance do not meet expectations, Stress levels in fans are closely related to operating
then a different type of fan may need to be speed; consequently, forward-curved fans do not
considered. require high-strength design attributes. Their low
operating speed also makes them quiet and well-
◆ Centrifugal Fans suited for residential heating, ventilation, and air
conditioning (HVAC) applications. A typical per-
Centrifugal fans are the most commonly used type
formance curve is shown in Figure 2-2. The dip in
of industrial fan. Centrifugal fans are capable of
the performance curve represents a stall region that
generating high pressures with high efficiencies,
can create operating problems at low airflow rates.
and they can be constructed to accommodate
harsh operating conditions. Centrifugal fans have
Forward-curved fans are usually limited to clean
several types of blade shapes, including forward-
service applications. These fans are typically not
curved, radial-blade, radial-tip, backward-inclined,
constructed for high pressures or harsh service.
backward-curved, and airfoil. Some centrifugal fan
Also, fan output is difficult to adjust accurately
types are capable of serving widely varying operating
(note how the fan curve is somewhat horizontal),
conditions, which can be a significant advantage.
and these fans are not used where airflow must be

2–Fan Types
applications. In many cases, the blades can be

inexpensively coated with protective compounds
to improve erosion and corrosion resistance. The
large clearances between the blades also allow
this fan to operate at low airflows without the
vibration problems that usually accompany operating
Fan Curve
in stall. The characteristic durability of this fan
Increasing Pressure
type is a key reason why it is considered an

industry workhorse.
Increasing Power
Radial-Tip. This fan type fills the gap between
e clean-air fans and the more rugged radial-blade
urv
erC fans. Radial-tip fans are characterized by a low
w
Po
angle of attack between the blades and the
incoming air, which promotes low turbulence. A
Increasing Airflow radial tip fan is shown in Figure 2-4.
Figure 2-2. Forward-Curved Centrifugal Fan

Performance Curve
closely controlled. Forward-curved fans have a

power curve that increases steadily with airflow
Rotation
toward free delivery; consequently, careful driver
selection is required to avoid overloading the fan
motor.
Radial-Blade. Shown in Figure 2-3, this type is

commonly used in applications with low to medium
airflow rates at high pressures. The flat blade shape
limits material build-up; consequently, these fans
are capable of handling high-particulate airstreams,
Figure 2-4. Radial-Tip Centrifugal Fan
including dust, wood chips, and metal scrap.
Radial-tip fans have many of the characteristics of
This fan type is characteristically rugged. The radial-blade fans and are well-suited for use with
simple design of these fans allows many small airstreams that have small particulates at moderate
metalworking shops to custom build units for special concentrations and airstreams with high moisture
contents. Radial-tip fans can have efficiencies up
to 75 percent. These fans are commonly used in
airborne-solids handling services because they
have large running clearances. A typical fan curve
Rotation for radial fans is shown in Figure 2-5.
Backward-Inclined Fans. This fan type is character-

ized by blades that tilt away from the direction of
rotation. Within backward-inclined fans are three
different blade shapes: flat, curved, and airfoil. Flat
blade types, shown in Figure 2-6, are more robust.
Curved-blade fans tend to be more efficient. Airfoil
blades, shown in Figure 2-7, are the most efficient
Figure 2-3. Radial-Blade Centrifugal Fan of all, capable of achieving efficiencies exceeding

2–Fan Types
Fan Curve
Rotation
Increasing Pressure
Increasing Power
Curve
Power
Figure 2-7. Backward-Inclined Centrifugal Airfoil Fan
Increasing Airflow
A common application for backward-inclined fans
Figure 2-5. Radial-Blade Fan Curve is forced-draft service. In these applications, the
fan is exposed to the relatively clean airstream on
85 percent. Because airfoil blades rely on the lift the upstream side of the process. The high operating
created by each blade, this fan type is highly efficiencies available from this fan type can provide
susceptible to unstable operation because of stall. low system life-cycle costs. A typical performance
curve is shown in Figure 2-8. The motor brake
A consequence of backward-incline blade orienta- horsepower increases with airflow for most of the
tion is a low angle of impingement with the performance curve but drops off at high airflow rates.
airstream. This promotes the accumulation of par- because of this non-overloading motor characteris-
ticulates on the fan blades, which can create per- tic, this fan type is often selected when system
formance problems. Thin airfoil blades are more behavior at high airflow rates is uncertain.
efficient than the other blade types because of
their lower rotating mass. However, this thin- ◆ Axial Fans
walled characteristic makes this fan type highly The key advantages of axial airflow fans are
susceptible to erosion problems. Loss of blade compactness, low cost, and light weight. Axial
wall thickness can lead to cavity formation in fans are frequently used in exhaust applications
the blades, which can severely interfere with where airborne particulate size is small, such as
fan performance. dust streams, smoke, and steam. Axial fans are also
useful in ventilation applications that require the
ability to generate reverse airflow. Although the
fans are typically designed to generate flow in one
direction, they can operate in the reverse direction.
This characteristic is useful when a space may
Rotation
require contaminated air to be exhausted or fresh
air to be supplied.
Axial fans have a severe stall region that makes

them particularly unsuitable for systems with
widely varying operating conditions. In this stall
region, airflow is insufficient to fill the blades,
causing the fan to operate unstably. The
consequences of unstable operation include
Figure 2-6. Backward-Inclined Fan annoying noise patterns, inefficient performance,

2–Fan Types
Fan Curve
Fan Curve
Increasing Pressure
Increasing Pressure
Increasing Power
Power Curve
Power Curve
Increasing Airflow
Increasing Airflow
Figure 2-10. Propeller Fan Curve
Propeller fans generate high airflow rates at low

Figure 2-8. Backward-Inclined Fan Curve pressures. Because propeller fans do not generate
much pressure, they are usually not combined with
and accelerated drivetrain wear. This problem of extensive ductwork. Propeller fans tend to have
stall can be solved in many axial fans by selecting relatively low efficiencies, but they are inexpensive
a fan with an anti-stall device. These devices alter because of their simple construction. Propeller fans
the airflow patterns around the fan blades, allowing tend to be comparatively noisy, reflecting their
stable fan operation over the entire range of airflow inefficient operation.
and pressure.
As shown in Figure 2-10, the power requirements
Axial fans must rotate faster than comparable of propeller fans decrease with increases in airflow.
centrifugal fans to achieve the same airflow capacity. They achieve maximum efficiency, near-free deliv-
This characteristic makes them noisier than ery, and are often used in rooftop ventilation
comparable centrifugal fans; however, the noise applications.
signature is dominated by higher frequencies,
which are easier to attenuate. Tubeaxial Fans. A more complex version of a
propeller fan is the tubeaxial fan. This type, shown
Propeller Fans. The simplest version of an axial fan in Figure 2-11, is essentially a propeller fan placed
is the propeller type, shown in Figure 2-9. inside a cylinder. By improving the airflow
Airflow
Figure 2-9. Propeller Fan Figure 2-11. Tubeaxial Fan

2–Fan Types
characteristics, tubeaxial fans achieve higher

pressures and better operating efficiencies than
propeller fans.
Tubeaxial fans are used in medium-pressure, high-

airflow rate applications and are well-suited for Airflow
ducted HVAC installations. The airflow profile
downstream of the fan is uneven, with a large
rotational component. This airflow characteristic is
accompanied by moderate airflow noise.
Tubeaxial fans are frequently used in exhaust Figure 2-13. Vaneaxial Fan
applications because they create sufficient pressure
to overcome duct losses and are relatively space outlet vanes that improve the airflow pattern,
efficient. Also, because of their low rotating mass, converting the airstream’s kinetic energy to pressure.
they can quickly accelerate to rated speed, which These vanes create an airflow profile that is
is useful in many ventilation applications. comparatively uniform.
The performance curve for tubeaxial fans is shown Vaneaxial fans are typically used in medium- to
in Figure 2-12. Much like propeller fans, tubeaxial high-pressure applications, such as induced draft
fans have a pronounced instability region that service for a boiler exhaust. Like tubeaxial fans,
should be avoided. vaneaxial fans tend to have a low rotating mass,
which allows them to achieve operating speed
relatively quickly. This characteristic is useful in
emergency ventilation applications where quick air
Fan Curve
removal or supply is required. Also, like other axial
fans, vaneaxial fans can generate flow in reverse
direction, which is also helpful in ventilation
Increasing Pressure
applications. Depending on the circumstances,

these applications may require the supply of fresh
air or the removal of contaminated air.
Increasing Power
Power Curve
Fan Curve
Increasing Airflow
Figure 2-12. Tubeaxial Fan Curve

Increasing Pressure
Tubeaxial fans can be either connected directly to a

motor or driven through a belt configuration.
Increasing Power
Because of the high operating speeds of 2-, 4-, and

Power Curve
6-pole motors, most tubeaxial fans use belt drives
to achieve fan speeds below 1,100 revolutions per
minute.
Increasing Airflow
Vaneaxial Fans. A further refinement of the axial
fan is the vaneaxial fan. As shown in Figure 2-13, Figure 2-14. Vaneaxial Fan Curve
a vaneaxial fan is essentially a tubeaxial fan with

2–Fan Types
Vaneaxial fans are often equipped with variable-

pitch blades, which can be adjusted to change the
angle of attack to the incoming airstream. Variable-
pitch blades can change the load on the fan,
providing an effective and efficient method of air-
flow control.
As shown in Figure 2-14, vaneaxial fans have

performance curves that have unstable regions to
the left of the peak pressure. These fans are highly
efficient. When equipped with airfoil blades and
built with small clearances, they can achieve
efficiencies up to 85 percent. Vaneaxial fans are
frequently connected directly to a motor shaft.

3–Basic Maintenance
Basic Maintenance
◆ Maintenance Items
Basic Maintenance Checklist
Common maintenance tasks on fan systems
include: ❏ Belts. Check belt condition, tightness, and
alignment. Also check sheave condition.
■ Periodic inspection of all system components
■ Bearing lubrication and replacement
❏ Bearings. Determine bearing condition by
listening for noises that indicate excessive
■ Belt tightening and replacement wear, measuring bearing operating temperature,
■ Motor repair or replacement or by using a predictive maintenance technique,
■ Fan cleaning. such as vibration analysis or oil analysis.
Lubricate bearings in accordance with fan
The most costly consequence of improper manufacturer instructions. Replace bearings,
maintenance is unscheduled downtime. Causes of if necessary.
this downtime vary according to the demands of
the application. Because each system places partic- ❏ System Cleaning. Fans and system components
ular demands on its air-moving equipment, mainte- that are susceptible to contaminant build-up
nance requirements vary widely. should be cleaned regularly.
❏ Leaks. Check for ductwork leakage that can

◆ Maintenance Schedules
lead to energy losses and poor system
To minimize the amount of unscheduled downtime,
performance.
basic system maintenance should be performed at
reasonable intervals, the length of which should be ❏ Motor Condition. Check the integrity of motor
determined by either hours of operation or calendar winding insulation. Generally, these tests measure
periods. The maintenance interval should be based insulation resistance at a certain voltage or
on manufacturer recommendations and experience measure the rate at which an applied voltage
with fans in similar applications. decays across the insulation. Also, vibration
analysis can indicate certain conditions within
Factors that should weigh into this schedule include the motor windings, which can lead to early
the cost of downtime, the cost and the risk of detection of developing problems.
catastrophic failure, and the availability of back-up
equipment. In systems that do not have abnormally in which the energy loss of belts is manifested,
severe operating demands, a typical maintenance poor belt condition can add significantly to the
schedule would include the items on the checklist. ambient noise level.
Belt Inspection. In belt-driven fans, belts are usually Belt inspection is particularly important to the
the most maintenance-intensive part of the fan operation of large fans because of the size of the
assembly. As belts wear, they tend to lose tension, power losses. For example, in a 200-horsepower
reducing their power transmission efficiency. (hp) fan, a 5 percent decrease in power transmis-
Even new, properly adjusted belts suffer losses of sion efficiency results in a 10-hp loss, translating
5 to10 percent. As belt conditions degrade, these to $3,270 annually for a continuously operating
losses increase. Because noise is one of the ways system.1
1 Using $0.05/kilowatt-hour.

Although belt inspection and tightening is usually in flexible connections and in areas of a system
a routine task for any mechanic, increased aware- that experience high vibration levels. Leakage
ness of the costs associated with poorly adjusted decreases the amount of air delivered to the point
belts can improve the attention devoted to this of service; consequently, one of the first steps in
maintenance effort. troubleshooting a system that has experienced
declining performance is to check the integrity of
In multiple-belt arrangements, whenever one belt the ductwork.
degrades to the point of requiring replacement, all
the belts should be replaced at the same time. As Sources of leaks can be identified visually by
belts wear and age, they exhibit different properties; inspecting for poorly fitting joints, and tears or
consequently, replacing only one or two belts in a cracks in ductwork and flexible joints. In systems
multiple-belt arrangement creates a risk of over- with inaccessible ductwork, the use of temporary
loading one or more of the belts. Exposing all the pressurization equipment can determine if the
belts to roughly the same operating time mini- integrity of the system is adequate. System pressure
mizes the risk of uneven loading. checks are discussed in the fact sheet titled System
Leaks on page 37.
Establishing proper belt tightness is essential to
minimizing the energy losses associated with belt Bearing Lubrication. Worn bearings can create
drives. However, care should be taken to prevent unsatisfactory noise levels and risk seizure.
overtightening the belts. This leads to high radial Bearings should be monitored frequently. Bearing
bearing loads, accelerated wear, and shorter lubrication should be performed in accordance
bearing replacement intervals. with the manufacturer’s instructions. For example,
for high-speed fans in severe environments,
Fan Cleaning. In many fans, performance decline is lubrication intervals can be necessary weekly or
largely because of contaminant build-up on fan more often.
blades and other system surfaces. Contaminant build-
up is often not uniform, resulting in imbalance ■ For oil-lubricated bearings, check the oil quality
problems that can result in performance problems and, if necessary, replace the oil.
and drivetrain wear. Because fans are often used in ■ For grease-lubricated bearings, check the grease
ventilation applications to remove airborne con- quality and, if necessary, repack the bearings.
taminants, this problem can be particularly acute. Be careful not to over-grease bearings as this
Fans that operate in particulate-laden or high-mois- interferes with ball or roller motion and may
ture airstreams should be cleaned regularly. cause overheating.
■ Ensure the bearings are adequately protected
Certain fan types, such as backward-inclined airfoil, from contamination.
are highly susceptible to build-up of particulates or
moisture. These build-ups disturb the airflow over In axial fans, anti-friction bearings (ball, roller-type)
the blades, resulting in decreased fan efficiency are predominantly used because of the need for a
and higher operating costs. robust thrust bearing to handle the axial thrust
load.
In high-particulate or moisture-content applications,
radial-blade, radial-tip, and forward-curved blade Motor Replacement. Even properly maintained
type fans are commonly used because of their resist- motors have a finite life. Over time, winding
ance to contaminant build-up. If, for some other insulation inevitably breaks down. Motors in
reason, a different type of fan is used in a high-par- which the winding temperatures exceed rated
ticulate or high-moisture service, then fan inspec- values for long periods tend to suffer accelerated
tion and cleaning should be performed more fre- insulation breakdown. When faced with the
quently than normal. decision to repair or replace a motor, several
factors must be considered, including motor size,
Leakage. System leaks degrade system performance motor type, operating hours, and cost of electricity.
and increase operating costs. Leaks tend to develop For example, in a motor application where the

cost of electricity is $0.05/kilowatt-hour, the motor as the existing motor. This can help avoid the
operates 4,000 hours each year at 75 percent rated problem of installing a motor that, because of its
load, and the rebuild cost is 60 percent of the price higher operating speed, causes the fan to generate
of a new motor, the calculated breakeven point more airflow and consume more energy than the
between repair and replacement is 50 hp.2 Under previous motor/fan combination. MotorMaster+ is
these circumstances, in applications requiring less available through the Industrial Technologies
than 50 hp, replacement motors meeting Energy Information Clearinghouse and can be downloaded
Policy Act (EPAct) efficiency requirements should from the BestPractices Web site at
be selected, while larger motors should be rebuilt. www.oit.doe.gov/bestpractices.
Of course, each facility must establish its own Fan Replacement. Under most conditions, fan blades
repair/replace strategy. There are several resources should last the life of the impeller. However, in harsh
that provide guidance in developing such a strategy. operating environments, erosion and corrosion can
A companion sourcebook, Improving Motor and reduce fan-blade thickness, weakening the blades
Drive System Performance: A Sourcebook for and creating an impeller imbalance. In these cases,
Industry, discusses this issue in greater detail. either the impeller should be replaced or an entirely
Other resources related to motor repair can be found new fan should be installed.
on the BestPractices Web site at www.oit.doe.gov/
bestpractices. ◆ Predictive Maintenance
In many applications, fan maintenance is reactive
For motor rewinds, ensure that the repair facility rather than proactive. For example, bearing
has a proper quality assurance program, because lubrication is performed in response to audible
poor quality motor rewinds can compromise motor bearing noises. Fan cleaning is performed to
efficiency. Although motor rewinds are often correct an indication of poor fan performance or
cost-effective, motors that have been previously vibration because of dust build-up. Unfortunately,
rewound can suffer additional efficiency losses many fan system problems remain unaddressed
during subsequent rewinds. For more information until they become a nuisance, by which time they
on motor repair, contact the Industrial Technologies may have resulted in significantly higher operating
Information Clearinghouse at (800) 862-2086 or costs.
the Electrical Apparatus Service Association (EASA)
at (314) 993-1269. (EASA is a trade association of Vibration analysis equipment is essentially a
motor repair companies.) refined extension of the human ear. By “listening”
to the vibrations of a motor or similar piece of
For motor replacements, high-efficiency motors machinery, the instrumentation can detect the
should be considered. High-efficiency motors are early symptoms of a bearing problem, motor
generally 3 to 8 percent more efficient than standard winding problem, or dynamic imbalance. By
motors. In high-use applications, this efficiency identifying problems before they become worse,
advantage often provides an attractive payback repairs can be effectively scheduled, reducing the
period. EPAct, which went into effect in October risk of catastrophic failure.
1997, set minimum efficiency standards for most
general-purpose motors from 1 to 200 hp. Fortunately, recent improvements in instrumentation
and signal analysis software have increased the
The MotorMaster+ software program can be a availability of vibration monitoring and testing
valuable tool in selecting energy-efficient motors. equipment. These devices can be permanently
The program allows users to compare motors and installed with a fan and incorporated into an alarm
estimate energy costs and savings along with life- or safety shutdown system. Vibration monitors
cycle costs. Because MotorMaster+ contains motor offer relatively inexpensive insurance for avoiding
rotational speed data, it is useful in finding costly failures and can improve the effectiveness
replacement motors that operate at the same speed with which fan maintenance is planned.
2 HorsePower Bulletin, Advanced Energy (in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Energy).

Portable vibration instruments can also be used as

part of a facility’s preventive maintenance system.
Vibrations measured during operation can be
compared against a baseline set of data, usually
taken when the machinery was first commissioned.
Vibration signatures taken at different points in a
fan’s operating life can be evaluated to determine
whether a problem is developing and, if so, how fast.
◆ Records
A written log or record documenting observations
and inspection results is a useful supplement to a
maintenance schedule. Often a machinery problem
will develop over time. A history of the repairs,
adjustments, or operator observations regarding
the conditions under which the problem becomes
noticeable improves the ability to effectively
schedule a repair. The MotorMaster+ software
contains an inventory module that allows the user
to record maintenance and inspection results.

4–Common Fan System Problems
Common Fan System Problems
◆ Basic Principle the life and reliability of the whole drive unit.
Like most other rotating machinery, fans experience Poor belt drive maintenance also promotes costly
wear and require periodic maintenance and repairs. system operation. Contaminant build-up on the
Dynamic surfaces in bearings and belt drives belts often results in increased slippage and noisy
degrade over time. Fan blade surfaces may erode operation. The presence of abrasive particles tends
from abrasive particles in the airstream, and motors to accelerate belt wear.
eventually require replacement or rewinding.
Belts are not the only item in a belt drive assembly
Although some degree of wear is unavoidable, that develop problems. The sheaves themselves
operating the system at efficient levels reduces are subject to wear and should be periodically
the risk of sudden equipment failure and can inspected. Because sheave diameter has a signifi-
lower the cost and frequency of maintenance. cant effect on fan speed, the relative wear between
For more information, see the fact sheet titled the driven and the driving sheave can affect fan
Basic Maintenance on page 25. performance.
Fan system problems can be grouped into two Bearings. As with most rotating machinery, the
principal categories: problems that are related to the bearings in a fan/motor assembly wear and, over
fan/motor assembly and problems associated with time, can create operating problems. To prevent
the system. A systems approach is important to such problems from causing unplanned downtime,
help understand the total costs and performance bearings should be a principal maintenance item.
impacts of these problems. There are two primary bearing types in fan/motor
combinations: radial and thrust. In general, radial
◆ Fan/Motor Assembly Problems bearings tend to be less expensive than thrust
Problems with the fan/motor assemblies can bearings in terms of material cost and installation
result from improper component selection, poor requirements. Because of the nature of the airflow,
installation, or poor maintenance. axial fans typically require heavier thrust bearings.
These bearings tend to be comparatively expensive,
Belt Drives. Belt drives are frequently the most making proper fan operation and effective
maintenance-intensive component of a fan/motor maintenance important.
assembly. Common problems include belt wear,
noise, and rupture. Belt wear can lead to efficiency Common bearing problems include noise, excessive
and performance problems. As belt slippage clearance, and, in severe cases, seizure. Because
increases, it can translate directly into lower fan operating conditions vary widely, the history of
output. Insufficient belt tension can also cause other fans in similar applications should be used to
high noise levels through belt slap or slippage. schedule bearing replacement. Vibration analysis
In some cases, belts will develop one or more tools can improve confidence in determining
smooth spots that lead to vibrations during fan bearing condition and planning bearing work. In
operation. oil-lubricated bearings, oil analysis methods can
help evaluate bearing condition.
In contrast, belt tension that is too high increases
the wear rate, increases load on the bearings, and Motors. Even properly maintained motors have a
can create an increased risk of unexpected down- finite life. Over time, winding insulation inevitably
time. breaks down. Motors in which the winding
temperatures exceed rated values for long periods
In multiple-belt drive assemblies, uneven loading tend to suffer accelerated insulation breakdown.
of the belts causes uneven wear, which can affect In motor applications below 50 horsepower, the

common repair choice is simply to replace a In many heating and cooling system applications,
motor with a new one; however, in larger applica- highly efficient fan types, such as backward-
tions, rewinding an existing motor is often more inclined fans, are increasingly used to lower
economically feasible. Although motor rewinds are system energy consumption. An important
typically a cost-effective alternative, motors that component in this trend is the use of filters upstream
have been previously rewound can suffer addition- of the fans to lessen material build-up. While these
al efficiency losses during subsequent rewinds. filters can help maintain efficient fan performance,
additional attention to filter cleaning and replace-
For motor rewinds, ensure that the repair facility ment is required to avoid the pressure drops and
has a proper quality assurance program, because energy losses that result from clogged filters.
poor-quality motor rewinds can compromise motor
efficiency. For more information on motor repair, Fan Degradation. In airstreams that have corrosive
contact the Industrial Technologies Information gases or abrasive particles, fan blade degradation
Clearinghouse at (800) 862-2086, or the can present a threat to reliable operation. As fan
Electrical Apparatus Service Association (EASA) at blades degrade, the airflow over the surfaces
(314) 993-1269. (EASA is a trade association of becomes disrupted and the fan imparts energy less
motor repair companies.) efficiently to the airstream. Certain blade types are
particularly susceptible to erosion because of the
For motor replacements, energy-efficient motors angle of attack with the airstream. In applications
should be considered. A section of the national where higher-than-expected blade degradation has
Energy Policy Act (EPAct) setting minimum occurred, different fan types or fan materials should
efficiency standards for most common types of be considered. Many fan manufacturers have
industrial motors went into effect in October 1997. developed materials and coatings that solve this
EPAct should provide industrial end users with problem.
increased selection and availability of energy
efficient motors. EPAct-efficient motors can be 3 to ◆ System Problems
8 percent more efficient than standard motors. In Poor system performance can be caused by
high run-time applications, this efficiency advantage several factors, including improper system design
often provides an attractive payback period. and component selection, incorrect installation
practices, and inadequate maintenance. Improper
The MotorMaster+ software program can be a system design usually means the system is
valuable tool in selecting energy-efficient motors. configured so that it has high system effect factors
The program allows users to compare motors and (SEFs) that result in high operating costs, system
estimate energy costs and savings along with life leakage, and noisy system operation. Poor
cycle costs. It is available through the Information component selection includes oversizing fans or
Clearinghouse and can be downloaded from the using ineffective or wasteful flow control devices.
Web site at www.oit.doe.gov/bestpractices.
Improper installation practices include on-site
Contaminant Build-Up. Some fan types are susceptible modifications to the duct system that result in high
to contaminant build-up. The tendency to suffer SEFs, improper fan rotational speed selection, and
build-up is related to the velocity and angle of incorrect fan rotation.
attack of the airflow with respect to the blades.
In many cases, especially with backward-inclined Inadequate maintenance often means a lack of
blades, this build-up can significantly affect fan bearing lubrication and fan cleaning. Contaminant
performance. Fan types that have blade shapes accumulation on fan blades, duct surfaces, and in
that discourage material accumulation (for example, filters results in decreased system efficiency and
radial and radial-tip types) are usually selected for inadequate airflow.
applications in which the airstreams have high
particulate or moisture content. However, even High Operating Costs. Many fan systems are designed
in relatively clean air applications, over time, to support the highest expected operating loads.
particulate build-up can be a problem. Consequently, Because systems are frequently not re-adjusted
fan cleaning should be a part of the routine during periods of low demand, fans often generate
maintenance program. higher-than-necessary airflows and incur

higher-than-necessary operating costs. Awareness Insufficient Delivery. Poor system configuration can
of the costs of inefficient system operation can lead to insufficient delivery. In many systems,
lead to efforts that reduce these costs and increase designers have improperly calculated the system
system reliability. An important part of evaluating effect or have attempted to overpower it with
whether operating costs can be significantly additional fan capacity. The system effect stems
reduced is to measure the amount of variability in from poor airflow conditions, and it can cause a
delivery requirements and determine operating con- fan to operate much less efficiently. This causes a
figurations that meet—but do not exceed—these system component to exhibit a higher-than-expected
requirements. pressure drop. Frequently, a key consequence of
the system effect is inadequate airflow.
Fouling. The accumulation of contaminants in
parts of a system can disrupt airflow profiles and There are many alternatives to compensate for this
create high-pressure drops. Finned heat exchangers problem. A common solution is to increase fan
and filters are particularly susceptible to contaminant speed, which increases airflow. Although this option
accumulation that can severely impair airflow. In is sometimes unavoidable, it results in higher
heat exchangers, fouling interferes with heat operating costs and increased airflow noise.
transfer, which can compound an airflow problem
by requiring more airflow to compensate for the Often, a more effective solution to inadequate
reduction in heat exchanger effectiveness. airflow can be obtained by addressing the
Consequently, fouling can have a compounding fundamental cause of the problem. By configuring
impact on energy use. the system to improve airflow and by using flow
straighteners where appropriate, the performance
Another aspect of fouling that can affect fan problems caused by the system effect can be mini-
performance is interference with inlet-guide vane mized. See the fact sheet titled Configurations to
operation or blade-angle adjustment in variable- Improve Fan System Efficiency on page 39.
pitch fans. Inlet-guide vanes are used to change
the load on a fan according to system airflow Leakage. Some systems are constructed with little
requirements, thus allowing lower energy attention to joint integrity. In these systems, leakage
consumption during periods of low demand. can have a significant impact on operating cost
However, because these devices are typically and system performance. Some system leakage is
controlled with a mechanical linkage, contaminant unavoidable; however, minimizing the amount of
build-up on the linkage components can impair airflow and pressure loss can provide key savings.
proper operation. Similarly, the linkages controlling
the position of variable-pitch blades can become Over time, system leakage tends to increase. This
fouled with contaminant build-up, limiting is particularly true for systems with oversized fans.
blade-angle adjustability. Higher-than-expected system pressure and high
vibration levels cause joint integrity to suffer. As
Where contaminant build-up on mechanical joints loosen, the amount of leakage increases.
linkages is a problem, it can defeat the energy In systems with extensive ductwork, increases in
savings and performance benefits that were intended joint leakage can have a direct impact on airflow
when the fan system was specified. Consequently, delivery and can dramatically increase operating
either a greater maintenance effort should be made costs. For more information, refer to the fact sheet
to keep the linkage action free, or an alternative titled System Leaks on page 37.
airflow control solution should be considered.
In many dirty air fan applications, adjustable-speed Unstable Operation. Unstable operation can result
drives are attractive because of the avoided from operating certain types of fans at low airflow
fouling problems. rates and from the interaction of multiple fans
operating in parallel. In single fan configurations,
Airflow Noise. In many systems, airflow noise is a an aerodynamic phenomenon known as “stall”
large component of ambient noise levels. Improper occurs at low airflow rates. The severity of this
fan selection or operating a fan at higher speeds stall varies according to fan type, but is most
than necessary can create avoidable noise levels severe in axial fans, forward-curved centrifugal
that impair worker comfort and productivity. fans, and backward-inclined centrifugal fans.

The hunting phenomenon associated with fan stall system resistance to allow greater airflow. For
occurs as the fan searches for a stable operating more information, refer to the fact sheet titled
point. Multiple-Fan Arrangements on page 51.
Stall occurs when there is insufficient air moving

across the fan blades. As the air “separates” from
the fan blade, the force on the blade changes,
causing the airflow to change as well. Stall hap-
pens largely because of air separation from the fan
blades. When this separation starts on one blade,
it often initiates an effect that carries over to the
next blade, resulting in a cascading effect.
The shape and distance between the fan blades

significantly affect how the stall affects fan perform-
ance. Some centrifugal fans, such as those with
radial blades, show little change in output. This fact
is largely because of the way radial-blade fans
operate—they do not rely on air slipping across
the blade surfaces and tend to have relatively large
distances between the blades. As a result, stall
problems are not as common in radial-blade fan as
they are in other fans.
Axial fans are particularly vulnerable to stall.

Because axial fans rely on the lift generated by blade
surfaces, stall can create a significant performance
problem. In general, axial fans are not recom-
mended for use in systems with widely varying
flow requirements, unless a means of keeping air-
flow rates above the stall point, such as a bleed
line or a recirculation path, is available.
A solution to this problem is commercially available.

A proprietary design feature, known as an anti-stall
device, automatically modifies the flow patterns
around the fan blades to provide stable operation
at all combinations of flow and pressure. In
applications where stall is a risk, this fan design
can be considered.
Even in systems in which operating conditions

are not expected to create stall problems, fan
degradation or a significant increase in system
pressure (filter clogging or system fouling) can
cause a fan to develop an instability problem. In
multiple-fan configurations, fans alternately shifting
loads between each other can cause instability.
This effect occurs at low-flow rates that are typically
to the left of the peak pressure on the combined
fan curve. Avoiding this problem requires
de-energizing one of the fans or decreasing the

5–Indications of Oversized Fans
Indications of Oversized Fans
◆ Tendency to Oversize Fans the excess flow energy imparted to the airstream.
Conservative engineering practices often result in In addition, oversized fans are more likely to
the specification, purchase, and installation of fans operate in their stall regions, which can result in
that exceed system requirements. Engineers often surging flow and vibrations that damage the fans
include a margin of safety in sizing fans to and degrade fan systems. Indications of stall
compensate for uncertainties in the design process. include pulsing airflow noise, system ducts that
Anticipated system capacity expansions and seem to “breathe” in response to the pressure
potential fouling effects add to the tendency to variations, and vibrating fan and duct supports.
specify fans that are one size greater than those
that meet the system requirements. Frequent Maintenance. When oversized fans
operate away from their BEP, they may experience
A recent U.S. Environmental Protection Agency cyclic bearing and drivetrain stresses. This is
(EPA) study revealed that within building fan sys- particularly applicable when a fan operates in its
tems, almost 60 percent of the fans were over- stall region, which is typically on the left side of the
sized, and almost 10 percent of the fans were fan performance curve. Also, cyclic bearing loads
oversized by 60 percent1. tend to increase the stress on other drivetrain
components such as belts and motors. Oversized
Unfortunately, many of the costs and operating fans also tend to create high system pressures,
problems that result from oversized fans are which increase stress on the ductwork and
overlooked during the equipment specification promote leakage.
process. The problems that accompany the
selection of oversized fans are outlined below. High Noise/Vibration Levels. Fans that operate
inefficiently tend to create high airborne and
High Capital Costs. Large fans typically cost more structure-borne vibration levels. Airborne vibra-
than small ones, and large fans also require larger tions are often perceptible as noise, while structure-
and more costly motors. Consequently, specifying borne vibrations are felt by the system equipment,
oversized fans results in higher-than-necessary ductwork, and duct supports. Oversized fans often
initial system costs. create high airflow noise. Workers acclimate to
ambient acoustic levels and do not express
High Energy Costs. Oversized fans increase system discomfort. However, high noise levels promote
operating costs both in terms of energy and main- fatigue, which reduces worker productivity.
tenance requirements. Higher energy costs can
be attributed to two basic causes. The fan may High levels of structure-borne vibrations can create
operate inefficiently because the system curve problems in welds and mechanical joints over
intersects the fan curve at a point that is not near time. High vibration levels create fatigue loads that
the fan’s best efficiency point (BEP). Alternately, eventually crack welds and loosen fittings. In
even if an oversized fan operates near its BEP, by severe cases, the integrity of the system suffers
generating more airflow than necessary, it uses and leaks occur, further degrading system
more energy and increases stress on the system. efficiency.
Poor Performance. Oversized fans tend to operate ◆ Typical Indications of Oversized Fans
with one or more of the indications of poor There are several indications of oversized fans. A
performance including noisy, inefficient, or unstable few of these indications can be discerned by quick
fan operation. High airflow noise often results from checks of system airflow control device settings.
1 ENERGY STAR® Buildings Upgrade Manual, U.S. EPA Office of Air and Radiation, 62021 EPA 430-B-97-024D, July 1997.

Systems in which airflow demand varies widely is a convenient point to take these readings, while
inevitably require control devices to restrict airflow at other sites, the connection box on the motor is
for certain periods. However, in some systems, more accessible. Line voltage is usually measured
inlet vanes and dampers remain closed so often at the motor controller and should be measured
that they can be found rusted or locked in a around the same time as the current reading.
restrictive position. This indicates that the system In some facilities, line voltage varies over time
continually operates against an unnecessary load because of changes in plant power consumption.
and that fan operation is unnecessarily costly.
Alternately, for better accuracy, a power meter can
Other indications of oversized fans require more be used instead of separately reading volts and
detailed measurements. For example, the location of amps. Most power meters measure real-time power,
the operating point on the fan curve can provide obviating the need to estimate power factor. Direct
an indication of how appropriately the fan is sized. measurement of motor power is not always practical.
“Hot” measurement of a motor current exposes
If possible, compare the pressure required by the workers to risk and may not be feasible in some
end uses to the pressure generated by the fan. If the industrial environments because of high voltage or
fan is oversized, it will generate more total pressure exposure of the power connections to moisture or
for the same airflow than a correctly sized fan. contaminants. Such readings should only be taken
by properly trained personnel.
Fan Load Factor. As with any measured data, the
data’s usefulness is limited by how representative it Use of Fan Curves. Another method of determining
is of the average system operating conditions. In fan power consumption is to measure the static
systems with widely varying operating conditions, pressure generated by the fan and to determine
simply taking data once will probably not provide the corresponding brake horsepower as shown in
a true indication of system energy consumption. Figure 2-15. To determine electrical power, the
brake horsepower value must be divided by motor
To account for the fact that a fan does not operate efficiency. Also, the static pressure measurement
at a single condition all the time, an estimate of its must be corrected for any difference between the
average load factor—the percentage of the fan’s density of the airstream and the density used to
full capacity at which it operates—must be made. define the performance curve. Most fan perform-
Unfortunately, unless operators maintain ance curves assume air density of 0.075 pounds
comprehensive records or are highly familiar with per cubic foot, which is the density of air at
fan operating data, the average load factor may be standard conditions. Also, because fan performance
difficult to determine. is highly sensitive to operating speed, fan rotational
speed should be measured and the affinity law
Direct Measurement. An accurate way to determine
motor power consumption requires directly
measuring amps and volts. Kilowatt use is the 26
24
product of amps and line volts, corrected by the Fan Curve
wg)
22
(in wg)
power factor. Power factor is the ratio of real work 20

performed to the product of volts and amps. Motors
Pressure (in.
18
usually have power factors between 0.8 and 1, 16 60
StaticPressure
because of the reactive power that they draw. 14 50

Reactive power is essentially the power stored in 12
Power Curve 40
10
BHP
the magnetic field of the motor. The power factor

bhp
Static
8 30
data for most motors can be obtained from the 6 20
manufacturers. 4
10
2
When conditions permit, hot readings (readings
2,000 6,000 10,000 14,000 18,000
taken while the system is in operation) are relatively
4,000 8,000 12,000 16,000
simple to take. Using a clamp-type ammeter, the
current on each of the three power cables running Flow Rate(CFM)
Flow Rate (cfm)
to the motor (most industrial motors are three-phase) Figure 2-15. Use of Fan Curve to Determine Power
can be measured. Sometimes the motor controller Consumption

relationships should be used to find the equivalent analysis. If fan power is to be reduced significantly,
operating point on the performance curve. a smaller motor should be considered.
Unfortunately, this method is the least accurate Another consideration is the effect on the motor’s
and not usable on fans with relatively flat pressure power factor. At relatively low loads, the power
curves. factor for a motor tends to decrease. Low power
factors are detrimental to a motor and its power
◆ Corrective Measures supply. Utilities often assess a charge against
In systems served by oversized fans, several industrial facilities that have low power factors. The
corrective measures can lower system operating costs of reducing the motor’s power factor should
costs and extend equipment maintenance intervals. be included in the economic analysis and may
Obviously, the entire fan/motor assembly could be provide an incentive to switch to a smaller motor.
replaced by a smaller version or, if necessary, with
a more appropriate fan type; however, this option Another method of decreasing fan rotational speed
may be too costly. is to use a motor that has multiple speeds and to
select a lower rotational speed during low airflow
Other alternatives include: requirements. However, many of the same
advantages available from a multiple-speed motor
■ Decreasing fan speed using different motor and are also available from ASDs. ASDs, particularly
fan sheave sizes (may require downsizing the variable frequency drives (VFDs) are commonly
motor) used as retrofit solutions because of their ability to
■ Installing an adjustable speed drive (ASD) work with existing motors. Multiple-speed motors
or multiple-speed motor are usually selected during the initial design
■ Using an axial fan with controllable pitch process rather than retrofitted into an existing sys-
blades. tem.
The choice among these measures depends on the Variable Frequency Drives. Fans that operate over a
system and on the particular indicator that points wide range of their performance curves are often
to the oversized fan problem. attractive candidates for ASDs. The most popular
type of ASD is the VFD. VFDs use electronic con-
Decreasing Fan Speed. Applications with an trols to regulate motor speed which, in turn,
oversized, belt-driven fan may be suitable for adjusts the fan output more effectively than chang-
decreasing fan speed. Fan power consumption is ing pulley diameters. The principal advantage
highly sensitive to fan speed, as shown by the offered by VFDs is a closer match between the
following equation: fluid energy required by the system and the energy
delivered to the system by the fan. As the system
3 demand changes, the VFD adjusts fan speed to
RPMfinal
Powerfinal = Powerinitial ( RPM initial
) meet this demand, reducing the energy lost across
dampers or in excess airflow.
Consequently, significant energy savings are Also, VFDs tend to operate at unity power factors,
available if the fan can adequately serve the system which can reduce problems and costs associated
at a lower speed. One method of reducing fan with reactive power loads. Because VFDs do not
speed is to adjust the ratio of the pulley diameters expose mechanical linkages to potential fouling
for the motor and the fan. from contaminants in the airflow, they can also
lead to reduced maintenance costs. The energy
A consideration in the fan-speed adjustment is and maintenance cost savings provide a return that
the effect on the motor. Most motors operate at often justifies the VFD investment.
relatively consistent efficiencies above 50 percent
of full load capacity. There is some efficiency loss However, VFDs are not practical for all applications.
above full load rating. However, below 40 percent Fans with severe instability regions should not be
of the motor load, efficiency begins to decline. This operated at rotational speeds that expose the fan to
efficiency loss should be included in any economic inefficient operating conditions. Additionally, many

fans have resonant frequencies at speeds below

their normal operating speeds. Operating at these
resonant speeds can cause high vibration levels
that, if uncorrected, will cause damaging
vibrations. Because slowing a fan increases the risk
of encountering one of these conditions, a VFD, if
used, should be programmed to avoid operating at
these frequencies.
Also, for a belt-driven application where the fan

load is relatively constant, using a VFD simply to
slow the fan is probably less cost-effective than
using a sheave change-out. For more information,
see the fact sheet titled Controlling Fans with
Variable Loads on page 43.
Controllable Pitch Fans. Where the use of an axial

fan is practical, the selection of one with variable-
pitch fan blades can provide several advantages.
Controllable-pitch fans allow adjustment of the fan
blade angle of attack according to airflow require-
ments. Adjusting this angle of attack changes both
the load on the motor and the amount of energy
delivered to the airstream. The average operating
efficiencies of controllable pitch fans can equal or
exceed those achieved by VFD-powered fans.
Consequently, an application that requires an axial
fan to meet a peak load while normally operating
under much smaller load conditions may be an
attractive opportunity to use controllable-pitch
blades.
Advantages of controllable-pitch fans include

allowing the fan to operate over a wide range of
airflow requirements, reducing the start-up load on
the motor, and providing constant motor speed
operation. The disadvantages of controllable-pitch
blades include higher initial cost, exposure of the
pitch angle linkage to fouling, and the potential
efficiency and power factor effects that accompany
operating a motor below one-half of its rated
capacity.

6–System Leaks
System Leaks
◆ Basic Principle to the relationship between fan speed, fan power,

Leakage is a common characteristic of most duct and the system curve. Under an assumption that
systems. Because system leakage can be a signifi- the system curve does not change because of the
cant operating cost, it should be a consideration leaks, a 5 percent increase in airflow would
during the design of a system and the selection of require a 5 percent increase in fan speed and a 16
a fan. The type of duct, the tightness and quality percent increase in power because of the fan law
of the fittings, joint assembly techniques, and the relationship between fan speed and power. In real-
sealing requirements for duct installation are all ity, the actual power required to generate this air-
factors that designers should consider during the flow is somewhat lower because the leakage
development of engineering drawings that guide changes the system curve, allowing the fan to
system installation. Failure to account for leakage operate against a lower backpressure. Consequently,
can result in an under-performing system. Also, calculating the effect of leakage on fan power
designers who focus on initial costs without con- requires analysis of the fan curve, the system
sidering the costs due to leakage can specify a sys- curve, and how the leaks affect the system curve.
tem that uses far more energy than necessary.
However, the costs of leakage can include more
Leakage decreases the amount of delivered airflow. than just the fan power. In many industrial facilities,
Often, the costs of compensating for leakage in an particularly those that require precise environmental
under-performing system far exceed the incremental control, the airflow delivered to the end uses is
costs of installing a “tight” system or locating and often extensively conditioned. Relative humidity,
repairing a system leak. particulate content, and temperature must often be
kept within close tolerances. The leakage of air
System leakage tends to increase as the systems that has been cleaned and conditioned generally
age. Gaskets dry and lose their sealing properties, results in an increased load on heating, ventilation,
and joints loosen from vibrations or inadequate and air conditioning (HVAC) equipment, such as
support (for example, sagging ductwork). chillers, dehumidifiers, etc.
System leakage is also largely dependent upon the Leakage Class. Leakage classes are denoted by
pressure in the duct. One of the principal operat- the term CL, which represents leakage in cubic feet
ing consequences of installing an oversized fan is per minute (cfm) per 100 square feet of duct sur-
higher duct pressure, which increases the airflow face area. CL factors range from 48 for unsealed
losses through leaks. The higher pressure in the rectangular ducts to 3 for sealed, round ducts.
duct system is because of the damper throttling
that is required to achieve the proper flow rate. As Different duct types have different leakage rates.
the dampers are throttled to create a higher pres- For example, because rectangular ducts have cor-
sure loss, the system curve becomes steeper. The ners, the joints do not seal as well as those in
higher pressure upstream of the dampers leads to round ducts. Rectangular ducts also have more
increases in leakage. surface area than round ducts with an equivalent
cross-section. The combined result of these factors
Costs of Leakage. The cost of leakage includes the is that rectangular ducts tend to have higher leak-
additional fan power required to generate more age rates than round ducts.
airflow to compensate for leakage and, in some
applications, the power applied to cool, heat, or To determine the correct leakage class in a duct
filter that air. Much of the leakage cost is attributable system, one must know how the ducts were

6–System Leaks
assembled. A CL of 48 is considered average for maximum allowable leakage rates for systems and
unsealed rectangular ducts. Lower leakage classes equipment, requiring integrity tests to verify that
can be achieved depending on the pressure rating the equipment is properly constructed and
and the construction techniques specified in the installed.
assembly drawings. For example, if the transverse
joints in rectangular ducts are sealed, then the Installation Practices. In addition to designing
estimated CL is reduced to 24 (12 for round ducts). systems to minimize leakage, installation personnel
If all joints, seams, and wall penetrations are sealed, should follow proper installation practices. Systems
then the leakage classes drop to 6 for rectangular should be sealed with the right type of sealant for
ducts (3 for round ducts). the application. Sealants that are compatible with
the service conditions, such as temperature and
The following equation forms the basis for the moisture, should be selected. In general, because
leakage classes: there are essentially no adequate industry
performance standards for cloth and vinyl pres-
Q sure-sensitive tape, the tape is not recommended
CL =
p0.65 for use on metal ducts. However, for flexible ducts,
Where: Q = the leakage rate in cubic feet per the use of pressure-sensitive tape on metal duct
minute (cfm) per 100 square feet of collars may be prescribed for the connection of
duct surface area flexible duct materials to metal duct collars. This is
p = average of upstream and downstream largely because of the ability of the tape to hold
static pressure in inches of water gage well on clean, galvanized steel ducts and fittings.
(in. wg) in the duct Additionally, aluminum foil pressure-sensitive tape
may be specified for the connection of fibrous
A useful resource for evaluating construction glass duct to metal fittings (sleeves, terminals, and
techniques and leakage considerations of ventilation other equipment), particularly where operating
ductwork is the Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning pressures are 1 in. wg or less.
Contractors’ National Association, Inc. (SMACNA).
Further information can be found in the HVAC Air Tightness Tests. To ensure proper installation of
Duct Leakage Test Manual, which is referenced in duct systems, tightness tests should be performed,
the Resources and Tools section on page 68. especially in systems where pressures exceed 2 or
3 in. wg. Although tightness checks are often not
Another useful resource is a standard maintained feasible on every part of the system, as much of
by the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, the system as practical should be evaluated. In
and Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) titled, general, tightness tests pressurize the duct up to its
ASHRAE 90.1, Energy Standard for Buildings pressure class rating and measure the airflow
Except Low-Rise Residential Buildings, also required to sustain this pressure.
referenced on page 68. In an effort to promote
energy-efficient building design and construction
practices, this standard provides guidelines for
sealing ducts and test requirements for checking
leakage.
Fittings and Equipment. The tightness of system

fittings and equipment, such as access doors,
dampers, and terminal boxes, is also an important
consideration. Poorly constructed dampers or
improper sourcing of fittings promotes system
leakage. Designers should specify mating ductwork
and system equipment, so that joints fit tightly.
Also, where practical, designers should set

7–Configurations to Improve Fan System Efficiency
Configurations to Improve Fan System Efficiency
◆ Basic Principle higher than anticipated, leading to under-performing

Flow patterns have a substantial impact on fan out- systems.
put and system resistance. Fans and system com-
ponents are sensitive to the profile of an Unfortunately, a common approach to handling
entering airstream. Non-uniform air patterns cause uncertainties in system design is to increase the
fans and system components to display flow/pres- size of the air movers, essentially overpowering
sure-drop characteristics that are different from the the problems associated with a system effect. The
manufacturer-supplied data. These differences are consequences of this approach include high
attributable to the conditions under which the equipment costs, high operating costs, increased
manufacturer or an independent testing facility energy use, and noisy system operation.
tests their products. Lab conditions tend to create
uniform airflows. Consequently, performance data ◆ Design Practices
that is gathered under ideal conditions will probably Many fan performance problems can be avoided
not be repeated in an industrial environment. This by designing the system so that the inlet and outlet
difference is the fundamental reason for including ducts to and from the fan are as straight as possible
the system effect. within the physical constraints of the available space.
Inadequate attention to duct conditions during the
The pressure drop across a component is calculated design phase increases operating costs. Designers
by the equation: developing new systems and operators seeking to
upgrade or retrofit existing systems can minimize
2 system effect problems by recognizing and avoiding
∆p = C ( 1,097
V
) ρ common configurations that aggravate them.
Fan Inlet. Poor airflow conditions at the inlet of a fan

Where: ∆p = pressure drop in inches of water gage decrease the effectiveness and efficiency with which
(in. wg) a fan imparts energy to an airstream. In fact, this
C = local loss coefficient sensitivity is used to control fan output in many types
V = velocity of the airstream in feet per of fans. Devices such as variable inlet guide vanes
minute (ft./min.) adjust an airflow pattern entering a fan to change
ρ = density of the airstream in pounds the amount of flow energy transferred by the fan.
per cubic foot (lbs./ft.3)
A pre-rotational swirl in the airflow rotates in the
The loss coefficient, C, is a dimensionless indicator same direction as a fan impeller. This phenomenon
of flow resistance. The loss coefficient is based on reduces the load on the fan and shifts its performance
uniform flow into and out of the component. curve down and to the left. As shown in Figure 2-16,
However, under non-uniform flow conditions, the these swirls can result from locating elbows too close
coefficient becomes less accurate as an indicator. to a fan inlet. If possible, the fan should be config-
ured so that there is enough distance from the closest
Loss coefficients for system components such as bend for the airflow to straighten out. Because space
ducts, fittings, and components are typically listed constraints often do not allow ideal configuration,
in tables provided by manufacturers. During the an airflow straightener, such as turning vanes, also
system design phase, designers calculate system shown in Figure 2-16, can improve fan performance.
resistance curves based on the published loss
coefficients for each component. However, system A counter-rotating swirl rotates in the opposite
configurations that promote non-uniform flow direction of an impeller. This swirl creates an
conditions will create flow resistances that are additional load on the impeller. Although it tends

Placing a fan close to an elbow The use of turning vanes can

can create a pre-rotating swirl. correct the swirl.
Impeller Rotation Impeller Rotation
Figure 2-16. Pre-Rotational Swirl
to shift a fan’s performance curve upwards, a which leads to inefficient energy transfer and fan
counter-rotating swirl is an inefficient method of vibrations. One general guideline is to provide a
increasing fan pressure. straight duct length of at least 3 times the duct
diameter just prior to the fan inlet.
Another inlet condition that can interfere with fan
performance is highly non-uniform flow. As shown Fan Outlet. Poor outlet conditions also contribute
in Figure 2-17, placing a bend too close to a fan to under-performance in fan systems. Swirls and
inlet can cause the airflow to enter the fan unevenly, vortices increase the pressure drops of elbows and
D
L
D L
Placing a bend too close to a fan inlet can impair fan performance. General guideline: ensure L > 3D. If this
is not possible, the fan should be equipped with a factory inlet box.
Alternately, a flow straightener should be considered.
Figure 2-17. Effect of Elbow Placement Close to a Fan Inlet

other duct fittings and can lead to inadequate Also as shown in Figure 2-18, the outer radius of
service to one or more system branches. As an elbow requires higher velocity airflow than the
shown in Figure 2-18, tees and other fittings inside edge (because the airflow has farther to
should be placed far enough downstream of travel), which is consistent with the airflow profile
a fan for the airflow to become more uniform. leaving a centrifugal fan.
Similarly, where possible, fans should be oriented
so that the airflow profile out of a fan matches Airflow Straighteners and Splitters. Many problems
the airflow behavior created by fittings such can be corrected with devices such as turning vanes
as an elbow. or airflow straighteners. For example, as shown in
Figure 2-19, flow splitters can prevent highly
Make sure there is sufficient

distance between the fan and
D the tee for the flow to
straighten out. If space L
constraints make this
impossible, consider the use
of a flow straightener.
L
General guideline:
ensure L > 3D.
Placing the fan and the

downstream elbow such that the
airstream reverses the direction
creates a high loss through the Changing the configuration to
elbow and can impair fan accommodate the air profile
performance. improves system performance.
Figure 2-18. Fan Outlet Conditions

Placing the fan inlet too close to the tee can If space constraints force a close gap, the use of a
impair fan performance. splitter plate is recommended.
Figure 2-19. Effect of Placing a Tee Close to a Fan Inlet
disturbed airflow from forming in a tee. By properly and the friction loss per duct length. Consequently,
guiding the airstream into an adjoining duct, the larger ducts create lower friction losses and lower
splitter avoids a highly disrupted airflow profile. operating costs. For example, in a round duct,
doubling the duct diameter reduces frictional head
However, such devices should be used with caution. loss by a factor of 32. Although doubling the size of
For example, a non-uniform profile emerging a duct is often not realistic, increasing the diameter
downstream of a tee can correct itself within several of a round duct from 10 inches to 12 inches can
diameter lengths of a straight duct. The use of flow reduce friction head loss by 60 percent.
straighteners in this case may keep this imbalance
from correcting itself before the flow encounters Offsetting the lower operating costs associated with
another component, thereby creating a problem large ducts are higher initial costs, both in terms of
where one did not previously exist. duct material and the added structural requirements.
Additionally, larger ducts take up more space, which
Duct Sizing. In most fan systems, friction between the may be a problem for certain facilities. Also, some
airstream and the duct surfaces accounts for most of material handling applications require a certain air
the energy consumed by the fan. The resistance of velocity to ensure proper entrainment, making
airflow through a duct is a function of the square frictional head loss less important than system
of the velocity, as shown in the following equation: performance. Striking the right balance between
these competing costs requires effort; however,
L V
2 using a systems approach during the design phase
∆p = ƒ
D ( 1,097 ) ρ can minimize system life-cycle costs.
◆ Installation Practices
Where: ∆p = pressure drop (in. wg)
ƒ = non-dimensional friction coefficient
Frequently, installation of a fan system is performed
with inadequate regard to the effect of flow profile
L = duct length in feet (ft.)
on fan performance. Ductwork is often bent, shifted,
D = duct diameter (ft.)
and dented on site to align connections and to make
V = velocity of the air stream (ft./min.)
room for other equipment.
ρ = density of the airstream (lbs./ft.3)
The friction coefficient (ƒ) depends on the duct When done far upstream or downstream of a fan,
surface finish, duct diameter, and the level of these installation practices may have only a minor
turbulence in the airstream. Although accurately impact on system performance; however, when
calculating the pressure drop requires detailed they create non-uniform flow into or out of a fan,
knowledge of the duct and airstream characteristics, the effect can be costly. In fact, one of the first
the relationship between pressure drop and duct checks typically performed on an under-performing
size is readily apparent. For a given delivery volume, fan system is to examine the ductwork around the
increasing duct diameter decreases both the velocity fan to determine if it is creating the problem.

8–Controlling Fans with Variable Loads
Controlling Fans with Variable Loads
◆ Basic Principle In many industrial applications, fans must operate

Fans often serve over a wide range of operating for extended periods. They are often used directly
conditions. For example, many industrial ventilation to support production (material handling) or to
systems see variable loads because of changes in maintain safe working conditions (ventilation). In
ambient conditions, occupancy, and production either case, fan system operating efficiency is high
demands. To accommodate demand changes, flow priority. The relative efficiencies of the flow control
is controlled by three principal methods: inlet options are shown in Figure 2-20. Although these
vanes, outlet dampers, and fan speed control. flow control options are available for new fan
selection, not all of them can be retrofit into exist-
Each method has a set of advantages and draw- ing fans. For example, controllable-pitch blades
backs in terms of initial cost, flow control effective- are typically not considered for retrofits.
ness, and energy efficiency. In fan systems that are
used relatively infrequently (for example, less than Many fans are sized to handle the largest expected
500 hours annually), initial cost may be the operating or peak condition. Because normal oper-
dominant factor. In high run-time applications, ating conditions are often well below these design
flow control effectiveness and energy efficiency conditions, air-moving equipment is often oversized,
may be the key determinants. operating below its most efficient point and creating
several types of problems. Among these problems
are high energy costs, high system pressures and
120
flow noise, and, in systems with high particulate
contents, erosion of impeller and casing surfaces.
100
Consequently, the combination of extended
operating times and the tendency to oversize the
es
an
air-moving equipment creates a need for efficient

tV
Percent of Full Load Power
80
e
tle
ttl
flow control. Often, the existing flow control

ro
Ou
Th
devices are inefficient, yet the costs associated

sc
Di
with their performance are not recognized.

60
Dampers. Dampers provide flow control by
nes
t Va changing the restriction in the path of an airstream.
Inle
40 As dampers close, they reduce the amount of flow
l
tro
aw
and increase pressure on their upstream side.

on
es
nL
lad
dC
Fa
B
ee
h
itc By increasing system resistance, dampers force
Sp
20 e-P
bl
lla fans to operate against higher backpressure, which
ntro
Co reduces their output. As a fan works against higher
backpressure, its operating point shifts to the left
20 40 60 80 100 along its performance curve. Fans operating away
Percent of Full Flow from their best efficiency points suffer increased
operating and maintenance costs.
Figure 2-20. Relative Power Consumption Among
Flow Control Options Inlet Vanes. Inlet vanes are more commonly used
with centrifugal fans than axial fans. Inlet vanes

change the profile of an airstream entering a fan. below 50 percent of rated capacity, operating at
Inlet vanes create swirls that rotate in the same low loads for long periods may not provide
direction as a fan impeller. These pre-rotating swirls efficiency advantages and can incur a low power
lessen the angle of attack between the incoming factor charge from the utility.
air and the fan blades, which lowers the load on
the fan and reduces fan pressure and airflow. By Fan Rotational Speed Adjustments. Fan rotational
changing the severity of the inlet swirl, inlet vanes speed adjustments provide the most efficient
essentially change the fan curve. Because they can means of controlling fan flow. By reducing fan
reduce both delivered airflow and fan load, inlet rotational speed, less energy is imparted to the air-
vanes can improve fan efficiency. Inlet vanes are stream, which means less energy must be dissipated
particularly cost effective when the airflow demand by the system airflow-control devices. There are
varies between 80 and 100 percent of full flow; two primary devices used to control fan rotational
however, at lower airflow rates, inlet vanes become speed: multiple-speed motors and adjustable speed
less efficient. drives (ASDs). Although both directly control fan
output, multiple-speed motors and ASDs typically
Disc Throttle. In some centrifugal fan designs, the serve separate applications.
generated airflow can be controlled by changing
the effective width of the impeller using a sliding Multiple-speed motors contain a different set of
throttle plate. As the plate moves, it changes the windings for each motor speed. For example, a
amount of impeller width that is exposed to the motor controller may have high, medium, and low
airstream. Although this fan design characteristic is settings. Depending on the application, switching
not common, its simple design may be feasible in from one discrete setting to another may provide a
some applications. sufficient level of speed control. Although they are
more expensive than single-speed motors, multi-
Variable-Pitch Fans. An option with some types of ple-speed motors provide a wide range of fan out-
axial fans is the incorporation of a variable-pitch put within a single unit, avoiding the need for mul-
feature for the fan blades. Variable-pitch fans allow tiple fans.
the fan blades to tilt, changing the angle of attack
between the incoming airflow and the blade. ASDs allow fan rotational speed adjustments over
Reducing the angle of attack reduces both the a continuous range, avoiding the need to jump
airflow and the load on the motor. Consequently, from speed to speed as required by multiple-speed
variable-pitch fans can keep fan efficiency high fans. ASDs include several different types of
over a range of operating conditions. mechanical and electrical systems. Mechanical
ASDs include hydraulic clutches, fluid couplings,
Variable-pitch fans can be a very efficient flow and adjustable belts and pulleys. Electrical ASDs
control option and offer several performance include eddy current clutches, wound rotor motor
advantages. Because variable-pitch fans maintain controllers, and variable frequency drives (VFDs).
their normal operating speed, they avoid reso- VFDs are by far the most popular type of ASD,
nance problems that can be problematic for cer- largely because of their proven effectiveness in
tain fan types. Additionally, variable-pitch blades reducing energy costs.
can operate from a no-flow to a full-flow condition
without stall problems. During start-up, the fan ◆ Advantages of VFDs
blades can be shifted to a low angle of attack, For many systems, VFDs offer a way to improve
reducing the torque required to accelerate the fan fan operating efficiency over a wide range of
to normal operating speed. operating conditions. VFDs also provide an
effective and easy method of controlling airflow.
Disadvantages of this flow-control option include Among the primary reasons for selecting VFDs are
potential fouling problems because of contaminant improved flow control, ability to retrofit to existing
accumulation in the mechanical actuator that motors, their compact space advantages, and elim-
controls the blades. Also, because motor efficiency ination of the fouling problems associated with
and power factor degrade significantly at loads mechanical control devices.

VFDs decrease energy losses by lowering overall and the controller. Soft starting a fan motor also
system flow. By slowing the fan and lessening the provides a benefit to the electrical distribution
amount of unnecessary energy imparted to the system. Large start-up currents can create voltage
airstream, VFDs offer substantial savings with sags that affect the performance of sensitive
respect to the cost-per-unit volume of air moved. equipment, such as controllers. By limiting start-up
When fan speed decreases, the curves for fan current, VFDs can reduce these power quality
performance and brake horsepower move toward problems.
the origin. Fan efficiency shifts to the left, providing
an essential cost advantage during periods of low ◆ Disadvantages of VFDs
system demand. Keeping fan efficiency as high as Although VFDs offer a number of benefits in terms
possible across variations in the system’s flow of lower operating and maintenance costs, they
requirements reduces fan operating costs. are not appropriate for all applications.
VFDs eliminate the reliance on mechanical Decreasing the rotational speed of a fan too much
components, providing an attractive operational often risks unstable operation, especially with axial
advantage, especially in “dirty” airstreams. fans and some centrifugal fans, such as backward-
inclined airfoil and forward-curved types. With
Noise. Other benefits of VFDs include lower airflow these fans, careful review of the performance
noise. Excess fluid energy is primarily dissipated in curves should precede the selection of a VFD.
the form of noise; consequently, operating a fan at
high capacity and then throttling the airflow tends Resonance. Fans, like most rotating machinery, are
to generate high noise levels. Airflow noise can be susceptible to resonance problems. Resonance is
a significant component of the overall ambient an operating condition in which the natural
noise in a workplace. In fact, in many fan systems, frequency of some component coincides with the
airflow noise is high enough to require ear protection. frequency set up by the rotation. Fans are usually
Because VFDs decrease airflow noise during low sys- designed so that their normal operating speeds are
tem demand, they can improve worker comfort. not near one of these resonant speeds. However,
decreasing the rotational speed of a fan increases
Other System Benefits. VFDs offer operating the chances of hitting a resonant speed.
improvements by allowing higher fan operating
efficiency and by increasing system efficiency as The effects of operating at resonant speeds can be
well. Using a system perspective to identify areas damaging. Depending on which component of the
in which fluid energy is dissipated in non-useful assembly is in resonance with the fan rotational
work often reveals opportunities for operating cost speed, the vibrations can cause a wide range of
reductions. For example, in many systems, venting problems, from annoying noise to destructive fail-
flow does not noticeably affect the backpressure ure. Shafts, bearings, and foundations are
on a fan. Consequently, in these applications, fan particularly susceptible to problems with
efficiency does not necessarily decline during resonance.
periods of low flow demand. However, by analyzing
the entire system, the energy lost in venting excess To avoid resonance problems, VFDs should be
pressure or dissipating it across dampers can be programmed to avoid operating near resonant
identified. speeds. This requires knowing what these resonant
speeds are, which, in turn, requires input from the
Another system benefit of VFDs is their soft-start fan manufacturers. Similarly, programming the VFDs
capability. During start-up, most motors experience accordingly often requires input from the VFD
in-rush currents that are 5 to 6 times higher than manufacturers.
normal operating currents. In contrast, VFDs allow
the motor to be started with a lower start-up current High Static Pressure. Another concern is the effect
(usually about 1.5 times the normal operating of reducing fan speed in a system with high static
current), thus reducing wear on the motor windings pressure. When a fan’s rotational speed is reduced,

the fan generates less pressure, and some fans, like

many types of turbomachinery, operate poorly
against shut-off conditions. For example, in many
fan systems, duct outlets are equipped with
normally closed dampers that require a certain
amount of static pressure to open them. If a VFD
slows the fan so that this static pressure require-
ment exceeds the pressure generated by the fan,
no airflow will be generated and the fan may
operate poorly.
Power Quality. In some VFD applications, power

quality can also be a concern. VFDs operate by
varying the frequency of the electric power
supplied to the motor. The solid-state switching that
accompanies inverter operation can create voltage
spikes that increase motor winding temperatures,
accelerating the rate of insulation degradation. To
account for the added winding heat, conventional
motors usually must be de-rated by 5 to 10 percent
when used with VFDs. A classification of motors
known as “inverter-duty” has been developed to
improve the matching of VFDs to motors.
VFDs can also generate electrical noise that

interferes with the power quality of the supporting
electrical supply. These problems are typically
correctable with the installation of coils or
electrical filters. Systems that are sensitive to minor
power supply disturbances should be served
separately from the VFD power supply.
VFD Efficiency. Finally, in some applications,

anticipated energy savings from VFDs are not
realized because of incomplete consideration of all
the losses associated with a VFD installation.
Although at full capacity VFDs can achieve effi-
ciencies of 98 percent, their efficiency at part-
loads is often much lower. When considering
VFDs, test data from the manufacturer should be
evaluated for the efficiencies at the actual load of
the application.
Although VFDs offer an attractive opportunity to

reduce energy consumption in many applications,
all of these considerations should be included in
any feasibility study or system analysis.

9–Fan Drive Options
Fan Drive Options
Fans are typically driven by alternating current ◆ Gear Drives

(AC) motors. In industrial fan applications, the Gear drives are not as common as belt or direct
most common motor type is the squirrel-cage drives, but are useful in a few applications that
induction motor. This motor type is commonly require special configurations between the fan
used because of its characteristic durability, low
and motor. Gear systems have a wide range of
cost, reliability, and low maintenance. These
efficiencies that depend on gear design and speed
motors usually have 2 or 4 poles which, on a 60-
hertz system, translates to nominal operating speeds ratio. Gear systems can be very robust, affording
of 3,600 revolutions per minute (rpm) and 1,800 high reliability—a characteristic that is very
rpm, respectively. Although motors with 6 poles or important in applications with restricted access to the
more are used in some fan systems, they are rela- drive system. However, gears, unlike belt systems,
tively expensive. The most common class of do not allow much flexibility in changing fan speed.
motors for fan applications is NEMA Design B.
Service factors range from 1.1 to 1.15, meaning ◆ Belt Drives
that the motors can safely operate at loads between Because the required rotational speed of a fan is
110 to 115 percent of their horsepower (hp) ratings. usually less than 1,800 rpm, belts are used to
transfer power from a motor pulley (sheave) to a
Motors are connected to fans either directly, through fan pulley with a larger diameter. The desired fan
a gearbox, or, more commonly, by a belt system. rotational speed can be achieved using various
There are advantages and drawbacks to each drive pulley sizes according to the following relationship:
option. Understanding how drives are selected can
be helpful in correcting problems that are the Ddriver
result of poor design. RPMdriven = RPMdriver x
Ddriven
◆ Direct Drives In small horsepower applications (typically less
Direct drives have several advantages over belt than 5 brake horsepower), adjustable pitch sheaves
drives, including higher efficiency, compact space can be used. Because the diameter ratio is vari-
requirements, and lower maintenance. The able, these configurations can provide speed control
absence of a belt removes a key maintenance advantages. However, most large industrial fan
element, allowing a fan to operate more reliably applications use fixed diameter sheaves.
and more quietly. Although belt drives are
occasionally used in fan applications over 300 hp, Types of Belt Drives. The four principal types of
they are rarely found in fan applications over belts are flat, V-belts, cogged V-belts, and synchro-
500 hp. At these power levels, the efficiency nous, each shown in Figure 2-21. Flat belts have a
advantages of direct drives are very attractive. uniform cross-section and transmit power through
However, direct-drive fans must rotate at the speed friction contact with flat pulley surfaces. V-belts
of the motor (typically 3,600 rpm, 1,800 rpm, or are an improvement over the flat belt, using a
1,200 rpm). This limits the applications for which wedging action to supplement friction-based power
they can be used. transfer.
Direct drives may be used in applications where Cogged V-belts offer the same advantages as V-belts;
space is an important consideration. For example, however, their notched design provides additional
vaneaxial fans are well-suited for direct-drive flexibility that allows the use of smaller pulleys.
applications because the motor often fits Cogged V-belts are slightly more efficient than
conveniently behind the fan hub. conventional V-belts, because of their added

Flat Belt V-Belt Cogged V-Belt Synchronous Belt Mesh Contact
Figure 2-21. Different Types of Belts
flexibility and the fact that the notched surface service factor, and arc of contact. The effect of
transfers force more effectively. temperature varies according to the belt material.
Rubber contracts at higher temperatures.
Synchronous belts offer many advantages over Consequently, in belts that have high rubber
standard flat belts and V-belts. By using a mesh content, tension and stress increase as the drive
engagement, synchronous belts are the most system temperature increases. Because temperature
efficient type of belt drive because they do not also affects the mechanical strength of a belt, belts
suffer efficiency losses through slip. Synchronous should be sized to meet the torque requirements at
belts have teeth that engage with grooves in the the highest normal operating temperature.
sheave. Synchronous belts can allow lower belt
tension than conventional belts, reducing the radial Ignoring the belt service factor and arc of contact
loads on motor and fan bearings and extending (see Table 2-1) can lead to undersizing the belts,
their operating lives. Further, synchronous belts do which may lead to frequent servicing or belt failure.
not lose efficiency as they wear. The belt service factor accounts for acceleration
loads during start-up and under load changes. For
Despite their advantages, synchronous belts most fans, the belt service factor is between 1.2
must be used with caution. Synchronous belts and 1.4. The arc of contact correction factor
are very noisy, which often discourages their use. accounts for the loss in power that results when
Synchronous belts transfer torque very quickly the belt runs over by less than 180° of the pulley
and, in applications with rapid load changes, the circumference. As shown in Table 2-1, the horse-
cumulative effects of sudden acceleration and power rating drops off as the arc of contact
deceleration increases wear on the driven machinery decreases. In applications where a small arc of
and the risk of catastrophic failure. Synchronous contact is unavoidable, the use of cogged V-belts
belts also require precise alignment, which is diffi- is recommended.
cult to achieve in some fan applications. Before
selecting or switching to synchronous drives, one Belt Speed. The sensitivity of fan power to speed
should contact the belt drive vendor and review makes belt-drive sizing an important issue.
the history of similar equipment in similar service Although flow rate is linearly related to fan speed,
conditions. power is related to the cube of fan speed. Even
changes in the slip of an induction motor can
Belt Sizing Considerations. The required belt create noticeable changes in the power transferred
capacity must not only include the horsepower to the airstream. Consequently, establishing the right
required by the driven load; it must also account fan speed is critical to operating the system efficiently.
for site-specific factors, such as temperature, In general, fan-belt speed should not exceed

Correction factor for

horsepower rating for a V-belt
according to arc of contact
180° 1
170° .98
160° .95 Arc of contact
150° .92
140° .89
130° .86
120° .83
110° .79
100° .74
90° .69
Table 2-1. Effect of Arc of Contact on V-Belt Horsepower Rating
6,500 feet per minute (ft./min.). Many manufacturers temporary means of reducing noise. Belt slippage
suggest that to minimize bearing loads and to should be corrected by either cleaning the drive
increase reliability, up to but no more than system or adjusting belt tension.
6,500 ft./min is a good speed value for belt system
design. When installing or replacing belts, ensure they are
oriented correctly in accordance with the directions
Maintenance Practices. Belt tension and alignment of the manufacturer. Belts are often tagged to show
should be checked periodically (see Figure 2-22). the preferred direction of rotation. Although some
Proper belt tension is typically the lowest that belts can be operated in either direction, belt
prevents a belt from slipping at peak load. An manufacturers often test their belts in one direction
important maintenance practice to avoid is the use and package them with an indication of this
of belt dressing. Belt dressing is a surface treatment direction.
that increases the level of friction between a belt
and pulley. Because it masks the fundamental In high-temperature applications, new belts should
cause of slippage, belt dressing only provides a be operated under low-load conditions and at normal
Correct Incorrect
Reasonable slack on the

non-drive side of the belt
Rotation
Loose belt indicated by excessive

Rotation slack on the drive side
Figure 2-22. Proper Belt Tension

operating temperature for a reasonable period. This ◆ Other Considerations

run-in time increases the creep strength of the belt. Service conditions, such as high-temperature,
contaminants, erosive or corrosive properties, and
Maximum Practical Speed Ratio. Most industrial fan- moisture, can preclude the exposure of motors to
belt drive applications are limited to speed ratios the airstream. Motors can be sealed for protection
below 4:1 (the motor speed is 4 times faster that against the harmful effects of some airstreams;
the fan speed); however, for small horsepower however, these motors are more expensive and
applications (less than 1 hp), this ratio can be as sometimes require external cooling services.
high as 10:1. The limiting factors on speed ratios
are the practical size of the pulleys, the arc of con- Motor performance is closely linked to operating
tact between the belt and the drive pulley, and belt temperature and, in high-temperature applications,
speed. less heat from the motor windings is rejected to
the ambient air. High winding temperatures
Alignment. Proper belt installation requires careful decrease motor efficiency and accelerate the
alignment and tensioning to ensure that belts wear degradation of winding insulation, shortening
correctly. Belt alignment is important to minimize motor life. In most severe system environments,
side wear on the belt and to keep the stress on the belt drives are used to allow the motor to operate
belt distributed evenly (see Figure 2-23). Side wear outside of the harmful service conditions.
on a belt will shorten its life; insufficient tension
promotes belt slippage, which can “polish” the Access. Access to a motor for maintenance and
sheave surface as well as the contact surface of the repairs in a direct-drive fan assembly can also be
belt. A polished sheave surface has a low friction problematic. Because many direct-drive
constant, which reduces the belt’s ability to transfer applications are selected for space-saving reasons,
power. This loss is especially problematic after a these motors are often located in tight spaces,
belt stretches, releasing tension and decreasing the complicating tasks such as lubricating and replacing
force holding the belt against the sheave. bearings.
To avoid side wear and to evenly load a belt,

minimize these types of misalignments.
Figure 2-23. Improper Alignment

10–Multiple-Fan Arrangements
Multiple-Fan Arrangements
◆ Basic Principle existence of backup fans can help avoid production

Fans can be combined in series or in parallel as an stoppages and may be a safety requirement.
alternative to using single, large fans. In many
cases, two smaller fans are less expensive and ◆ Advantages of Multiple-Fan Arrangements
offer better performance than one relatively large Lower Average Duct Pressure. As shown in
one. Fans configured in series tend to be appropriate Figure 2-24, the series-configurations fans along
for systems that have long ducts or large pressure different points in a system minimize the average
drops across system components. Fans used in an static pressure in a duct. Because leakage in a duct
induced-draft/forced-draft configuration can system depends largely on the pressure difference
minimize the amount of pressurization in a duct or between inside and outside the system, reducing
an enclosure. Advantages of fans in series include: the maximum system pressure can minimize energy
losses attributable to system leaks.
■ Lower average duct pressure
■ Lower noise generation Lower Noise Generation. Lower pressure
requirements can decrease the noise generated by
■ Lower structural and electrical support
fan operation.
requirements.
Fans placed in parallel can provide several Redundancy. Failure of one unit does not force a
advantages including: system shutdown. In a single-fan application, a
repair task on that fan requires a system shutdown.
■ High efficiencies across wide variations in With a multiple-fan arrangement, one can be
repaired while the others serve the system. In some
system demand
facilities, fan failure can cause the interruption of
■ Redundancy to mitigate the risk of downtime production work. With redundant fan configurations,
because of failure or unexpected maintenance. failure of one fan does not necessarily cause the
whole process to halt. Although total fan output
Parallel configurations may be feasible for systems falls if one of the parallel units fails, the capacity
with large changes in air-moving requirements. of the remaining fan or fans may be sufficient for
Wide variations in system demand preclude a limited production.
single fan from consistently operating close to its
best efficiency point (BEP). Operating a fan away Efficiency. Allowing each fan to operate close to its
from its BEP can result in higher operating and BEP can provide substantial energy savings. In
maintenance costs. Multiple fans placed in parallel addition, a potential advantage of multiple fans is
allow units to be energized incrementally to meet a higher overall efficiency level. Although larger
the demands of the system. By energizing or motors tend to be more efficient than smaller ones,
de-energizing individual fans to meet demand operating smaller, higher-speed fans close to their
changes, each fan can be operated more efficiently. BEPs can often achieve a net efficiency advantage
To allow operation of individual fans in a multiple- over a single, low-speed fan.
fan arrangement, each fan must have a back-draft
damper installed to prevent recirculation through Structural and Electrical Constraints. Two smaller
the fan when it is idle. fans in series may be more suitable in terms of
structural and electrical requirements than a single
Parallel fan configurations may also be a safety one. Large motors have large starting currents that
requirement in case of a single fan failure. In can affect the power supply to other parts of the
mining and other hazardous work environments, facility. This concern is particularly acute if the
ventilation is critical to worker safety. The service requires the fan to energize and de-energize

Two Fans in Series

System Resistance System Resistance
Airflow
Pressure
Peak Pressure
Average Pressure
Distance Along Duct
Single Fan
System Resistance
Airflow
Peak Pressure
Pressure
Average Pressure
Distance Along Duct
Figure 2-24. Lower Duct Pressure Because of Fans Placed in Series
relatively often. Frequent power surges that often against a higher backpressure. In severe cases, one
accompany the start-up of large motors can create fan will force another fan to operate far away from
power quality variations that are problematic for its BEP. Often, fans placed in parallel are the same
numeric controlled machinery and other sensitive model so that there is balanced load sharing
equipment. during periods when all the fans are operating.
Also, the use of multiple fans in parallel may be Another problem that accompanies parallel
necessary because of space considerations. A sin- operation of fans is instability. This problem is
gle fan with an impeller large enough to move the especially applicable to fans with unstable operating
proper amount of air may not fit into the available regions (axial fans, forward-curved centrifugal fans,
space or may encounter structural constraints. and airfoil fans). Instability results from alternate
load sharing that can occur below certain airflow
◆ Potential Disadvantages of Multiple-Fan rates, as shown by the shaded region in Figure 2-25.
Arrangements This can occur despite the fact that each fan alone
When placing centrifugal fans in parallel, caution is operating outside of its stall region.
should be used to ensure that one fan does not
dominate another. Ideally, all fans should be the However, the combined performance curve of
same type and size; however, differences in the both fans has a region in which there are multiple
duct configuration can cause one fan to operate combinations of airflow from each fan that can

24
22
A
20
18 Region of Instability Combined Fan Curve
Static Pressure (in. wg)
16
14
12
10
8 Single Fan Curve
6
4
2
2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000 12,000 14,000 16,000 18,000

3,000 5,000 7,000 9,000 11,000 13,000 15,000 17,000
Flow Rate (cfm)
Figure 2-25. Instability Region Because of Parallel Operation of Identical Fans
meet the system needs. The instability results the motor. VFDs allow speed control over a con-
from the fans’ shifting between these multiple tinuous range, which allows relatively accurate
combinations (known as “hunting”), as the fans matching between the system requirements and
tend to load and unload. In addition to creating fan operating speed. See the fact sheet titled
an annoying noise pattern, this continued hunting Controlling Fans with Variable Loads on page 43.
increases the wear on the fan drives because of Inlet vanes control fan output by creating a swirl
repeated acceleration and deceleration. To avoid this in the airflow before it reaches the fan blades, thus
problem, the system airflow should be kept to the changing the angle of attack. This affects how much
right of Point A, shown in Figure 2-25. energy is added to the airflow. Although this option
is generally less efficient than speed adjustment, it
◆ Other Options is a relatively simple and inexpensive option that is
Other alternatives that can handle widely varying widely used.
operating conditions include multiple-speed fans,
variable frequency drives (VFDs), inlet vanes, and, In applications that use axial fans, controllable-
in the case of axial fans, controllable-pitch fan pitch fans should be considered to handle varying
blades. In each of these options, the airflow airflow conditions. This fan type allows the fan
generated by the fan is adjusted to meet the needs blades to tilt away from the incoming airflow. By
of the system. changing the angle of attack to the incoming air,
the amount of airflow generated and the load on
Multispeed motors have separate windings for the motor can be controlled. This flow control
each speed. Operators can select different speeds, option is relatively efficient and offers several
such as high, medium, and low, according to the advantages that are discussed in more detail on
system requirement. VFDs adjust fan speed by page 43.
changing the frequency of the power supplied to

11–Fan System Economics
Fan System Economics
Fan systems are often critical in supporting plant A more accurate analysis of equipment operation
operations. A significant portion of all energy con- is the load-duty cycle. Load-duty cycle refers to the
sumed by motor-driven equipment in manufactur- amount of time that equipment operates at various
ing facilities is for process fans and air distribution. loads relative to its rated capacity and is often used
In many industrial applications, fans help maintain during the system design process. An example of a
environmental conditions that ensure worker safety load-duty cycle is shown in Figure 2-26. Load
and productivity by keeping machinery spaces cool. factor can be determined from the load-duty cycle.
Because they often directly support production
processes, many fans operate continuously. These ◆ Calculating Electricity Consumption
long run times translate into significant energy Electricity consumption can be determined by
consumption and substantial annual operating several methods, including:
costs.
■ Direct measurement of motor current or power
The operating costs of large fans are often high ■ Use of motor nameplate data
enough that improving fan system efficiency can ■ Use of performance curve data.
offer a quick payback. In spite of this, facility person-
nel often do not know the annual operating costs With any of these methods, the data’s usefulness is
of an industrial fan, or how much money they limited by how representative it is of the average
could save by improving fan system performance. system operating conditions.
Fan system operating costs primarily include

electricity and maintenance costs. Of these two 100
components, electricity costs can be determined
with simple measurements. In contrast, maintenance
costs are highly dependent on service conditions
80
and need to be evaluated case-by-case. A
particularly useful method of estimating these costs
Percent of Operating Hours
is to review the maintenance histories of similar

equipment in similar applications. 60
◆ Load Factor
Fan economic analyses are primarily affected by 40
the amount of time and the percentage of full
capacity at which a fan operates. Because the fan
usually does not operate at rated full load all the 20
time, an estimate of its average load factor—the
average percentage of full load that a fan operates
over a period of time—must be made. Unfortunately, 0
unless operators maintain comprehensive records 0 20 40 60 80 100
or are highly familiar with fan operating data, the
Percent of Full Load
average load factor may be difficult to determine.
Figure 2-26. Load-Duty Cycle

In systems with widely varying operating conditions, The motors used on most fans have a 1.15 contin-
simply taking data once will probably not provide uous service factor. This means that a motor with a
a true indication of fan energy consumption. nominal nameplate rating of 100 brake horsepower
(bhp) may be operated continuously up to 115 bhp,
Nameplate Data. A quick way to determine energy although motor efficiency drops slightly above the
costs is to use the fan motor nameplate data. In rated load. Using nameplate data to calculate
many applications, the fan/motor assembly is energy costs on motors that operate above their
oversized, which means the motor operates well rated loads will understate actual costs.
below its full-load nameplate data. However, by
using the nameplate data in combination with load Direct Measurement. A more accurate way to
factor and power factor estimates, the fan’s annual determine electricity consumption requires taking
operating costs can be calculated. Other necessary electrical measurements of both full-load amps
data include the annual hours of operation and volts. Motor full-load bhp and efficiency are
(hours/year) and the average annual unit cost of not required for this calculation. However, the
electricity ($/kilowatt-hour [kWh]). power factor over a range of operating conditions is
required. If practical, the power factor should be
Annual electricity costs can be calculated by measured with a power meter; however, if this
inserting this information into the equation found measurement is not feasible, then it can be
in the Simple Calculation sidebar. This equation obtained from the motor manufacturer.
assumes the electric motor driving the fan is
95 percent efficient (the 0.95 in the 1/0.95 factor), Using a clamp-type ammeter, the current on each
which is a reasonable estimate for a fan motor of the three power cables running to the motor
larger than 50 horsepower (hp). Newer motors should be measured. The average of these three
may have even higher efficiencies, thanks to the readings should be used as the current value. This
Energy Policy Act, which has been in effect since is also an opportunity to determine if there are
October 1997. If the fan uses an older motor that phase imbalances.
has been rewound several times or has a smaller
motor, then a lower motor efficiency should be Sometimes the motor controller is a convenient
used. point to take these readings while, at other sites, the
connection box on the motor itself is more accessi-
ble. Line voltage is usually measured at the motor
Simple Calculation controller and should be measured around the
same time as the current reading. In some facilities,
Annual electricity costs =
line voltage drops with increased power usage.
(motor full-load bhp) x (0.746 kW/hp) x
(1/efficiency) x (annual hours of operation) x (electricity
cost in $/kWh) x (load factor) Wattmeters, in general, are more difficult to use
because they require two simultaneous inputs,
Assumptions: voltage and current; many motor installations do
• Cost of electricity = $0.05/kWh not offer convenient access to both. However, if
• Load factor = 65 percent the use of a wattmeter is practical, then it would
• Motor efficiency = 95 percent provide a more accurate indication of actual
power consumption. Wattmeters provide a direct
For example: reading of real power, obviating the need to
• Motor full-load bhp = 100 hp estimate power factor. Note that the direct
• Annual hours of operation = 8,760 hours (3-shift, measurement of motor current is not always
continuous operation) practical. “Hot” measurement of motor voltage
exposes workers to risk and may not be feasible
Annual electricity costs = in some industrial environments because of expo-
(100 hp) x (0.746 kW/hp) x (1/0.95) x (8,760 hours)
sure of the power connections to moisture or
x ($0.05/kWh) x (0.65) = $22,356
contaminants. Such readings should only be taken
by properly trained personnel.

Direct Measurement Calculation 26

Case I. Separately using a voltmeter and an ammeter 24
Annual electricity costs = 22 Fan Curve
wg)
(in wg)
20
(full-load amps) x (volts) x (1.732) x (power factor) ÷(1000)
Pressure(in.
18
x (annual hours of operation) x (electricity cost in 16 60
StaticPressure
$/kWh) x (load factor) 14 50
12
Power Curve 40
bhp
Case II. Use of a Wattmeter 10
BHP
30
Static
Annual electricity costs = 8
Wattmeter reading (using a 3-phase setting) x (annual 6 20
4
hours of operation) x (electricity cost in $/kWh) x (load 10
2
factor)
2,000 6,000 10,000 14,000 18,000
Assumptions: 4,000 8,000 12,000 16,000
• Cost of electricity = $0.05/kWh FlowRate
Flow Rate (cfm)
(CFM)
• Load factor = 65 percent
• Motor efficiency = 95 percent Figure 2-27. Use of Fan Curve to Determine Power
• Power factor = 0.85 Consumption
For example:
• Full-load amps = 115 amps ◆ Energy and Demand Charges—
• Voltage = 460 volts
• Annual hours of operation = 8,760 hours (3-shift, Understanding Your Electricity Bill
continuous operation) The calculations shown previously use electricity
rates that are stated in terms of average dollars per
Annual electricity costs = kWh ($/kWh). However, electric utilities bill
(115 amps) x (460 volts) x (1.732) x (0.85)÷(1000) x industrial customers using more complicated rate
(8,760 hours) x ($0.05/kWh) x (0.65) = $22,172 structures. These typically include both energy
($/kWh) and demand charges ($/kW), and have
The Direct Measurement sidebar shows an exam- different rates depending on the level of
ple calculation of energy costs. By taking full-load consumption or seasons. Demand charges are
amps and volts, converting them to full-load
kilowatt (kW), multiplying by hours of operation Calculation with Fan Curves
and electricity price, annual energy costs can be
determined. Annual electricity costs =
Fan bhp/motor efficiency x (annual hours of operation)
x (electricity cost in $/kWh) x (load factor)
Use of Fan Curves. Another method of determining
fan power consumption is to take pressure Assumptions:
measurements of the airstream and use the fan’s • Fan discharge pressure is known
performance curve to determine the corresponding • Motor efficiency = 90 percent
bhp. Refer to Figure 2-27. The correct method of • Load factor = 65 percent
measuring fan pressure depends on how the fan is • $0.05/kWh unit electricity cost
configured in the system.
For example:
Figure 2-28 shows different methods of measuring • Fan discharge pressure = 19 in. wg
fan pressure. Once the fan operating pressure is • Reading from the bhp line, fan bhp = 49
known, the corresponding horsepower reading can
be found. The Calculation with Fan Curves sidebar Annual electricity costs =
shows how to estimate annual energy cost. (49 bhp) x (0.746 kW/hp) x (1/0.9) x (8,760 hours)
x ($0.05/kWh) x (0.65) = $11,563

Inlet Total Pressure Fan Total Pressure Outlet Total Pressure
Ducted Inlet and Outlet
Static Static
Pressure Pressure Total
Total Pressure
Pressure
Free Inlet – Ducted Outlet Ducted Inlet – Free Outlet
Figure 2-28. Alternative Methods of Measuring Fan Pressure
based on the peak demand for a given month or In much the same way that preventive and predictive
season and can have significant impacts on maintenance schedules minimize expensive
electricity costs for some customers. When the repairs, a well-designed system can avoid higher-
economic impacts of efficiency measures are than-necessary operating costs. Using a life-cycle
calculated, the actual cost of the electricity needs to cost perspective during initial system design or
be considered, taking into account energy and during the planning of system upgrades and
demand charges, seasonal rates, and different rates modifications can provide both lower operating
for different levels of consumption. costs and improved system reliability. For fan
applications, the dominant components of life-
◆ Maintenance Considerations and cycle cost include initial equipment cost, energy
Life-Cycle Costs consumption, maintenance, and decommissioning.
In addition to the cost of energy consumption, A highly efficient fan system is not merely a system
maintenance costs can be a significant portion of a with an energy-efficient motor. Overall system
fan system’s total operating costs. There are two efficiency is the key to maximum cost savings.
principal types of maintenance: preventive and Often, users are only concerned with initial cost,
predictive. Both are intended to improve system accepting the lowest bid for a component, while
reliability, reduce the risk of unplanned downtime, ignoring system efficiency. To achieve optimum
and avoid expensive failures. Preventive mainte- fan system economics, users should select equip-
nance generally refers to the use of a schedule to ment based on life-cycle economics and operate
perform inspections and replacement tasks. and maintain the equipment for peak performance.
Predictive maintenance uses diagnostic tools to
evaluate machinery condition, allowing effective
planning of repair or replacement tasks.

Programs, Contacts, and Resources
Section 3: Programs, Contacts, and Resources
Industrial Technologies Program recommendations from energy assessments have

payback periods of less than 18 months and can
and BestPractices result in significant energy savings.
■ Plant-wide energy assessments help manufacturers
◆ Overview
develop comprehensive plant strategies to
Industrial manufacturing consumes 36 percent of increase efficiency, reduce emissions, and boost
all energy used in the United States. The U.S. productivity. Annual competitive solicitations
Department of Energy’s (DOE) Industrial Technologies offer a 50 percent cost share of up to $100,000
Program assists industry in achieving significant in matching funds.
energy and process efficiencies. This program
■ Small- to medium-sized manufacturers can
develops and delivers advanced energy-efficiency,
qualify for free assessments from university-
renewable energy, and pollution prevention
based Industrial Assessment Centers.
technologies and practices for industrial applications.
Through an industry-driven initiative called the
◆ Emerging Technologies
Industries of the Future (IOF), Industrial Technologies
works with the nation’s most energy- and resource- Emerging technologies are those that result from
intensive industries to develop visions of their future, research and development and are ready for full-
along with roadmaps to achieve these visions over scale demonstration in real-use applications.
a 20-year time frame. This collaborative process Industrial Technologies recognizes that companies
aligns industry goals with federal resources to may be reluctant to invest capital in these new
accelerate research and development of advanced technologies, even though they can provide signifi-
technologies identified as priorities by industry. cant energy and process improvements. However,
through technology implementation solicitations,
The advancement of energy- and process-efficient Industrial Technologies helps mitigate the risk
technologies is complemented by Industrial associated with using new technologies that are
Technologies’ energy management best practices supported by IOF partnerships. By sharing
for immediate savings results. Through BestPractices, implementation and providing third-party validation
Industrial Technologies assists the eight IOFs— and verification of performance data, the energy,
aluminum, chemicals, forest products, glass, metal economic, and environmental benefits can be
casting, mining, petroleum, and steel—in identifying assessed to accelerate acceptance of new technologies.
and realizing their best energy-efficiency and
pollution-prevention options from a system and life- ◆ Energy Management
cycle cost perspective. Through activities such as Industrial Technologies encourages manufacturers
plant-wide energy assessments, implementation of to adopt a comprehensive approach to energy use
emerging technologies, and energy management of that includes assessing industrial systems and
industrial systems, BestPractices delivers energy evaluating potential improvement opportunities.
solutions for industry that result in significant energy Efficiency gains in compressed air, motor, process
and cost savings, waste reduction, pollution pre- heating, pumping, and steam systems can be
vention, and enhanced environmental performance. significant and usually result in immediate energy
and cost savings. The program offers software tools
◆ Plant Assessments and training in a variety of system areas to help
Depending on the industry, energy can account for industry become more energy and process efficient,
10 percent or more of total operating costs. Energy reduce waste, and improve environmental
assessments identify opportunities for implementing performance.
new technologies and system improvements. Many

◆ Allied Partnerships The BestPractices Web site offers case studies of

Allied Partners are manufacturers, associations, companies that have successfully implemented
industrial service and equipment providers, energy-efficient technologies and practices,
utilities, and other organizations that voluntarily software tools, tip sheets, training events, and
work with Industrial Technologies. Allied Partners solicitations for plant assessments. Find these and
seek to increase energy efficiency and productivity other resources at www.oit.doe.gov/bestpractices.
within industries by participating in, endorsing, and
promoting Industrial Technologies programs, Software Tools and Training. Industrial Technologies
products, and services. Allied Partnerships help the and its partners have developed several software
program achieve industrial energy efficiency goals tools for systems improvements to help users make
by extending delivery channels through the decisions for implementing efficient practices in
partners’ existing networks. In turn, partners benefit; theirmanufacturing facilities. Tools for assessing the
they achieve their own corporate, institutional, or efficiency of fan and process heating systems are
plant goals and objectives by expanding services in development and will be ready in the near
to customers and suppliers. Allied Partners also future. The following software tools are currently
gain access to technical resources, such as soft- available.
ware, technical publications, and training, and can
gain recognition as leaders in the implementation • AirMaster+ provides comprehensive information
of energy-efficient technologies and practices. on assessing compressed air systems, including
Allied Partners who successfully complete training modeling, upgrades to existing and future systems,
and a qualifying exam in the use of Industrial and evaluating savings and effectiveness of
Technologies software tools are recognized as energy-efficiency measures.
Qualified Specialists. For more on Allied Partner-
ships, contact the Industrial Technologies • MotorMaster+ 3.0 software is an energy-efficient
Information Clearinghouse at (800) 862-2086. motor selection and management tool that
includes a catalog of more than 20,000 AC motors.
◆ Technical Resources Version 3.0 features motor inventory manage
ment tools, maintenance log tracking, efficiency
Industrial Technologies offers a variety of resources analysis, savings evaluation, energy accounting,
to help industry achieve increased energy and and environmental reporting capabilities.
process efficiency, improved productivity, and
greater competitiveness. • The Pumping System Assessment Tool (PSAT)
helps industrial users assess the efficiency of
Industrial Technologies Information Clearinghouse. pumping system operations. PSAT uses achievable
The Clearinghouse fields questions on products and pump performance data from Hydraulic Institute
services including those focused on the IOFs. They standards and motor performance data from the
can also answer questions about industrial systems, MotorMaster+ database to calculate potential
such as compressed air, motors, process heating, energy and associated cost savings.
and steam. The Clearinghouse can be the first stop
in finding out what’s available from Industrial • The Steam System Assessment Tool (SSAT) is
Technologies. Contact the Clearinghouse at The Steam System Assessment Tool (SSAT) allows
(800) 862-2086 or at [email protected]. users to assess potential savings from individual-
ized steam-system improvements. Users input
Industrial Technologies and BestPractices Web Sites. data about their plant's conditions, and the SSAT
The Industrial Technologies and BestPractices Web generates results detailing the energy, cost, and
sites offer an array of information, products, and emissions savings that various improvements
resources to assist manufacturers who are interested could achieve.
in increasing the efficiency of their industrial
operations. Users can gain access to Web pages for • The Steam System Scoping Tool is designed to
the eight IOFs, learn about upcoming events and help steam system energy managers and
solicitations, and much more through the Industrial operations personnel for large industrial plants.
Technologies Web site at www.oit.doe.gov. This spreadsheet program profiles and grades

steam system operations and management. This End users can participate in plant-wide energy
tool will help users evaluate steam system assessments. Depending on the size of the facility,
operations against identified best practices. BestPractices offers no-cost or cost-shared energy
assessments with a team of experts. Small- to
• The 3E Plus software tool allows users to easily medium-sized plants may be eligible for a no-cost
determine whether boiler systems can be assessment with one of our Industrial Assessment
optimized through the insulation of boiler steam Centers. Larger plants can propose a cost-shared,
lines. The program calculates the most economical plant-wide energy assessment.
thickness of industrial insulation for a variety of
operating conditions. Users can make calculations Plant assessments provide the opportunity to work
using the built-in thermal performance relation- with BestPractices’ Allied Partners to develop case
ships of generic insulation materials or supply studies that document the results of the assessments
conductivity data for other materials. and any efficiency upgrades. Such written reports
provide positive public relations with existing and
Training sessions in industrial systems improvements potential customers, and with the plant’s surrounding
using these software tools are offered periodically community.
through Allied Partners. For more information,
visit the BestPractices Web site at www.oit.doe. Service Providers. Organizations that provide equip-
gov/bestpractices. ment, advice, or other services to manufacturers
benefit by becoming Allied Partners. BestPractices
Energy Matters Newsletter. Energy Matters, published provides Allied Partners with the technical support,
quarterly, is Industrial Technologies technical news- software, and materials to improve users’ knowledge
letter. Articles include case studies of companies of energy-efficient motor, steam, compressed air,
that have successfully implemented energy-efficient and other industrial systems. In addition, Allied
technologies and practices, optimization tips for Partners who provide these unbiased materials to
improving system operations, technology updates, their clients are seen as credible resources for
Allied Partner activities, and news and information industrial customers.
on plant assessments, system improvements, and
new products and services. For a free subscription Allied Partners can gain additional access to the
to Energy Matters, contact the Information media. For example, an Allied Partner can refer
Clearinghouse or subscribe online at www.oit.doe. customers who have completed energy efficiency
gov/bestpractices/energymatters/energy_matters.shtml. improvements to BestPractices. These projects may
be featured in Industrial Technologies case studies,
◆ Benefits of Participation Energy Matters newsletter, and on the BestPractices
BestPractices is only as effective as its partners. and Industrial Technologies Web sites.
Industrial plant efficiencies can only be improved
when plant engineers, plant managers, service Industry Trade or Technical Associations. Original
providers, and industry leaders get involved. All of equipment manufacturers’ trade associations, end-
these people can participate in and benefit from user industry associations, and utility consortia
BestPractices in the following ways. also work with BestPractices as Allied Partners.
Associations often work with BestPractices to
End Users. End users have access to the broad create new efficiency guidelines, products,
variety of BestPractices tools described earlier in this materials, and services.
section, and also have access to the Industrial
Technologies Information Clearinghouse. The ◆ Benefits of a Systems Approach
technical staff at the Clearinghouse can answer spe- BestPractices encourages use of the “systems
cific questions about energy efficiency upgrades approach” energy system design and analysis.
and assessments. They are available Monday
through Friday from 9 a.m. to 8 p.m., Eastern The systems approach seeks to increase the
Standard Time. Call (800) 862-2086 or e-mail efficiency of systems by shifting the focus from
[email protected]. individual components and functions to total

Three-phase
Process Mechanical and Electrical Feedback
Input Power
Power Controls Motor Coupling Load Process
Motor/Drive Subsystem Mechanical Subsystem
The Electric Motor System
Figure 3-1. Motor System Diagram
system performance (see Figure 3-1). When 122 billion kilowatt-hours per year, or up to $5.8
applying the systems approach, system design and billion per year. These estimates include only the
manufacturing best practices seek to optimize per- energy savings and do not factor in other benefits
formance in the entire process system, and then focus likely to result from optimization. Benefits include
on selecting components and control strategies that improved control over production processes, reduced
best match this optimized system. The steps involved maintenance, and improved environmental compli-
in accomplishing a system optimization include: ance. This study is based on on-site surveys of 265
industrial facilities in the United States, in a statistically
■ Characterizing the process load requirements based sampling of the manufacturing sector. The study,
titled United States Industrial Electric Motor Systems
■ Minimizing distribution losses
Market Opportunities Assessment, can be downloaded
■ Matching the equipment to load requirements
from the BestPractices Web site at www.oit.doe.gov/
■ Controlling the process load in the most optimal bestpractices or obtained through the Industrial
manner, considering all cycles of the process load Technologies Information Clearinghouse at (800)
■ Properly matching the system components to 862-2086.
each other as well as to the load.
Figure 3-2 shows that two-thirds of the potential

Energy-Efficient
manufacturing motor system savings are “system” Motors
related, demonstrating that management decisions 15%
and technical actions that support a systems
approach at the corporate and plant level will be
the key to achieving large-scale energy efficiency Motor
improvement in manufacturing motor systems. Management
20%
System
Motor Systems Market Study. A study commissioned Optimization
by DOE has estimated that optimizing industrial 65%
motor systems through the implementation of mature,
proven, cost-effective energy-savings techniques Figure 3-2. Savings Potential
can reduce industrial energy consumption by 75 to

Motor Energy Savings per Savings as Percent

Motor Systems Costs/Total Establishment per of Operating
Industry Groups Costs/Establishment Operating Costs Year Margin
Paper Mills 4.6 million 6.5% $659,000 5%
Petroleum Refining 5.6 million 1.4% $946,000 1%
Industrial Inorganic 1.6 million 10.4% $283,000 6%
Chemicals, nec.
Paperboard Mills 3.0 million 6.4% $492,000 5%
Blast Furnaces and 6.0 million 2.1% $358,000 2%
Steel Mills
Industrial Organic 1.3 million 1.0% $91,000 1%
Chemicals, nec.
Industrial Gases 1.1 million 21.7% $116,000 13%
Plastics Materials 1.5 million 1.5% $121,000 4%
and Resins
Cement, Hydraulic 2.2 million 9.6% $219,000 4%
Pulp Mills 1.7 million 6.7% $483,000 5%
Table 3-1. Financial Impact of Motor Consumption and Savings for Selected Industries
Sources: Manufacturers Energy Consumption Survey 1994, Bureau of Economic Analysis 1997, Census of Manufacturers 1993,
and United States Industrial Electric Motor Systems Market Opportunities Assessment, U.S. Department of Energy, 1998.
Table 3-1 displays motor systems energy use and information on all aspects of the BestPractices
potential savings per establishment in the ten Program are available by calling the Information
4-digit Standard Industrial Classification groups Clearinghouse at (800) 862-2086. Information is
with the highest annual motor energy consumption. also available at the BestPractices Web site at
In all these industries, the annual cost of motor www.oit.doe.gov/bestpractices.
system energy in a typical plant exceeds $1 million;
in steel mills, the energy cost is $6 million. Potential
savings at the typical plant are also large, ranging
Air Movement and Control
from $90,000 per year in the industrial organic Association International, Inc.
chemicals sector to nearly $1 million per year in
petroleum refineries.
(AMCA International)
The right-hand column of Table 3-1 shows potential ◆ Introduction to AMCA International
energy savings as a percentage of operating margin. AMCA International is a not-for-profit international
These figures suggest the potential impact of motor association of the world’s manufacturers of related
energy savings on the bottom line. The process air system equipment. Such equipment primarily
industries listed in Table 3-1 operate on thin margins: includes fans, louvers, dampers, air curtains, air-
the difference between revenues from sales and flow measurement stations, acoustic attenuators, and
variable costs, including labor, materials, and sell- other air system components for the industrial,
ing costs. In 1996, operating margins for the groups commercial, and residential markets. The association’s
listed below ranged from 10 to 24 percent and mission is to promote the health and growth of
clustered around 16 percent. Thus, even relatively industries covered by its scope and the members
small increases in operating margin can have a of the association consistent with the interests of
significant impact on profitability. the public. It encourages the effective and efficient
use of air systems. AMCA International, with origins
Educational and informational materials, including dating back to 1917, has members in most
additional copies of this sourcebook and further industrialized countries throughout the world.

In 1917, a group of centrifugal fan manufacturers ◆ AMCA International Standards

decided to exchange credit information and other AMCA International, backed by almost 80 years of
ideas, thus creating the National Association of Fan standards development, is the world’s leading
Manufacturers (NAFM). The association grew authority in the development of the science and art
steadily during the next several decades and devel- of engineering related to air movement and air
oped into a multi-service trade association with control devices. AMCA International publishes and
heavy emphasis on engineering standards and distributes standards, references, and application
product performance testing. Over the years, the manuals for specifiers, engineers, and others with
association merged with other similar groups an interest in air systems to use in the selection,
including the Home Ventilating Institute (HVI), evaluation, and troubleshooting of air system
an association of manufacturers of residential components. Many of AMCA International’s
air movement equipment. HVI joined AMCA standards are accepted as American National
International as the HVI Division in 1985. AMCA Standards. Descriptions of AMCA International’s
International, headquartered in Arlington Heights, publications are contained in AMCA International’s
Illinois, continues to expand and enlarge its product Publication Catalogue, which is available free-of-
scope to meet the changing needs of industry. charge from the association, or can be viewed on
AMCA International’s Web site at www.amca.org.
AMCA International provides a variety of services
to its members and the air movement and control AMCA International and its member companies
industry, including its Certified Ratings Program, and laboratories are located in many industrialized
Standards, and Testing Laboratories. The following countries around the world. These organizations
sections provide information on these services. are active on the technical committees of the ISO
and participate in the development of international
◆ AMCA International’s Certified
standards for industry.
Ratings Program
AMCA International’s Certified Ratings Program ◆ The AMCA International Test Laboratory
(CRP) was developed in response to the concerns
The AMCA International test laboratory is located
about product performance by buyers, specifiers,
in Arlington Heights, Illinois, and accredited AMCA
and users of air movement and air control devices.
International laboratories are located around the
The CRP assures that a product line has been tested
world. Independent accredited AMCA International
and rated in conformance with AMCA International
laboratories, located in the United Kingdom and
or Industrial Standards Organization (ISO) test
Taiwan, function much like AMCA International’s
standards and rating requirements. Only after a
primary laboratory. Negotiations are underway to
product has been tested and the manufacturer’s
approve other designated, independent accredited
catalogued ratings have been submitted to and
AMCA International test laboratories around the world.
approved by AMCA International staff can
performance seals be displayed in literature and on
The AMCA International test laboratory is equipped to
equipment. Currently, AMCA International has the
test fans in accordance with the following standards:
world’s only international CRP for air system
components. Each licensed product line is subject
■ ANSI/AMCA 210, Laboratory Method of Testing
to continual check tests in AMCA International’s
Fans for Aerodynamic Performance Rating
laboratories. All licensed products are open to
■ AMCA 220, Test Methods for Air Curtain Units
challenge testing, which can be initiated by
competing manufacturers. Participation in the CRP ■ ANSI/AMCA 230, Laboratory Method of Testing
is voluntary and open to both AMCA International Air Circulator Fans for Rating
nonmembers and members. AMCA International ■ ANSI/AMCA 240, Laboratory Method of Testing
maintains the Directory of Products Licensed to Positive Pressure Ventilators
Use the AMCA International Certified Ratings Seal
on its Web site at www.amca.org. The information AMCA International also has a series of test standards
on certified products is updated on a daily basis. for sound testing of fans using various testing

methods, and a standard for the field testing of AMCA International is a not-for-profit international
industrial process/power generation fans (AMCA association of the world’s manufacturers of related
Standard 803.) These standards, as well as application air system equipment. Such equipment primarily
guides and certified ratings programs, are described includes fans, louvers, dampers, air curtains, air-
in AMCA International’s Publications Catalogue. flow measurement stations, acoustic attenuators,
AMCA International tests to international standards, and other air system components for the industrial,
including those of the ISO, and participates in the commercial, and residential markets. The
international development of standards for industry. association’s mission is to promote the health and
growth of industries covered by its scope and the
Test standards provide an important equipment members of the association consistent with the
performance yardstick, while customer feedback interests of the public.
provides an application yardstick. AMCA
International research contributes to improved test American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
standards or evaluation of application conditions. 11 West 42nd Street
The AMCA International laboratory also provides a New York, NY 10036
reference standard for testing by other laboratories. Phone: (212) 642-4900
Many laboratories around the world compare their Fax: (212) 398-0023
product test data with the AMCA International web.ansi.org
laboratory test data on identical products. An overall
improved fan system performance results from the ANSI is a professional society that develops and
application of AMCA International standards. maintains standards for a broad range of goods
and services. ANSI has approved several standards
For additional information on AMCA International’s on fan performance for testing purposes.
products and services, call (847) 394-0150, or visit
the AMCA International Web site at www.amca.org. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air
Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE)
Directory of Contacts 1791 Tullie Circle, NE
Atlanta, GA 30329
The following organizations can provide more Phone: (404) 636-8400
information on improving the performance of fans Fax: (404) 321-5478
and fan systems. www.ashrae.org
The U.S. Department of Energy ASHRAE is a professional society that promotes

Industrial Technologies Program the responsible development and use of heating,
Information Clearinghouse ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) technologies.
P.O. Box 43171 Because fans have a significant impact on HVAC
Olympia, WA 98504-3171 system performance, ASHRAE has an interest in
Phone: (800) 862-2086 fan design, selection, operation, and maintenance.
Fax: (360) 586-8303
www.oit.doe.gov/bestpractices Consortium for Energy Efficiency, Inc. (CEE)
One State Street
The Information Clearinghouse provides resources Suite 1400
and information on improving electric motor Boston, MA 02109-3507
systems, including fan systems. Phone: (617) 589-3949
Fax: (617) 589-3948
www.cee1.org
Air Movement and Control Association International,
Inc. (AMCA International)
CEE is a national, non-profit public benefits corpo-
30 West University Drive
ration that promotes the manufacture and purchase
Arlington Heights, IL 60004-1893
of energy-efficient products and services. CEE’s
Phone: (847) 394-0150
goal is to induce lasting structural and behavioral
Fax: (847) 253-0088
www.amca.org

changes in the marketplace, resulting in the Phone: (518) 862-1090

increased adoption of energy-efficient technologies. www.nyserda.org
CEE provides a forum for the exchange of information
and ideas. CEE members include utilities, statewide NYSERDA is a public benefit corporation that
and regional market transformation administrators, provides energy efficiency services, including those
environmental groups, research organizations, and directed at the low-income sector, research and
state energy offices. Also contributing to the development, and environmental protection
collaborative process are CEE partners, including activities. NYSERDA has successfully developed
manufacturers, retailers, and government agencies. and brought into use more than 125 innovative,
energy-efficient, and environmentally beneficial
Energy Center of Wisconsin (ECW) products, processes, and services.
595 Science Drive
Madison, WI 53711-1076 Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors
Phone: (608) 238-4601 National Association
Fax: (608) 238-8733 4201 Lafayette Center Drive
www.ecw.org Chantilly, VA 20151-1209
Phone: (703) 803-2980
ECW finds ways to use energy more efficiently by Fax: (703) 803-3732
providing research, education, and energy www.smacna.org
information. ECW works closely with government
organizations, businesses, research and develop- Northeast Energy Efficiency Partnerships, Inc. (NEEP)
ment organizations, advocacy groups, and 5 Militia Drive
Wisconsin’s electric and gas utilities to promote Lexington, MA 02421
energy efficiency and demonstrate ideas that Phone: (781) 860-9177
benefit both energy producers and energy con- Fax: (781) 860-9178
sumers. ECW also conducts and sponsors a variety www.neep.org
of energy-efficiency research.
NEEP is a non-profit regional organization with a
Iowa Energy Center mission to increase energy efficiency in homes, build-
2521 Elwood Drive Suite 124 ings, and industry throughout the Northeast region
Ames, Iowa 50010-8229 of the United States. NEEP’s general method is to
Phone: (515)-294-8819 recognize and engage all concerned and capable
Fax: (515)-294-9912 organizations in regional initiatives that promise
www.energy.iastate.edu greater results than an assortment of subregional
(state or service territory) efforts could produce.
The Center’s mission is to increase energy efficiency
in all areas of energy use. It conducts and sponsors The Northwest Energy Efficiency Alliance
research on energy efficiency, conservation, and 522 SW Fifth Ave., Suite 410
alternative energy systems that are based on Portland, Oregon 97204
renewable resources. The Center assists in assessing Phone: (800) 411-0834
technology related to energy efficiency and Fax: (503) 827-8437
alternative energy production systems. It also www.nwalliance.org
supports educational and demonstration programs
that encourage implementation of energy-efficient The Alliance seeks to bring about significant and
and alternative-energy production systems lasting changes in markets for energy-efficient tech-
nologies and practices, to improve the Pacific
New York State Energy Research and Development Northwest region’s efficient use of energy, and
Authority (NYSERDA) reduce costs to consumers and the electric system.
Corporate Plaza West The Alliance has documented several case studies
286 Washington Avenue Extension that demonstrate how energy projects have
Albany, New York 12203-6399 improved fan system performance.

Resources and Tools Compressors and Fans

Author: Cheremisinoff, Nicholas P.
Publisher: Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1992.
A wide range of information is available on the
ASIN: 013159740X
application and use of fans. This section of the
sourcebook will focus on resources and tools in
Fans, 2nd ed.
these formats:
Author: Osborne, William C.
■ Books
Publisher: Pergamon Press, Oxford, NY, 1977.
ASIN: 0080217265
■ Brochures/Guides/Manuals
■ Software Fans, Design and Operation of Centrifugal,
■ Training Courses Axial-flow, and Cross-Flow Fans
■ Periodicals Author: Eck, Bruno.
■ Reports and Technical Papers Publisher: Pergamon Press, Oxford, NY, 1973.
■ Videos and Slide Programs
Translated by Ram S. Azad and David R. Scott.
ASIN: 0080158722
■ Other Sources of Information.
Fan Handbook: Selection, Application, and

Note: The descriptions accompanying the following Design
sources have generally been taken directly from Author: Bleier, Frank P.
the publisher/author/developer. Inclusion of these Publisher: McGraw Hill, New York, NY, 1997.
sources does not imply endorsement by DOE. ISBN: 0070059330
A Guidebook to Electrical Energy Savings at

Books Lumber Dry Kilns through Fan Speed Reduction
Author: Caroll, Hatch & Associates.
ASHRAE Handbook Publisher: Bonneville Power Administration
Author/Publisher: American Society of Heating, Portland, OR.
Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers
ISBN: Series publication in which each volume Industrial Ventilation (23rd ed.)
has a separate ISBN record. Publisher: American Conference of Governmental
and Industrial Hygenists, 1998.
Axial Flow Fans and Compressors: Aerodynamic ISBN: 1882417224
Design and Performance
Author: McKenzie, A.B. Mine Ventilation and Air Conditioning
Publisher: Ashgate, Aldershot; Brookfield, VT, 1997. Author: Hartman, Howard L. (ed), et al.
ISBN: 0291398502 Publisher: John Wiley & Sons, 1997.
ISBN: 0471116351
Axial Flow Fans and Ducts
Author: Wallis, R. Allen. Moving Air Through Fans and Ducts (Tech-Set
Publisher: Krieger Publishing Company, NY, 1983. Series)
ISBN: 0894646443 Author: Gladstone, John.
Publisher: Engineers Press, 1992.
Centrifugal Pumps and Blowers ISBN: 0930644174
Author: Church, Austin.
Publisher: Kreiger Publishing Company, Pumps/Compressors/Fans: Pocket Handbook
Melbourne, FL, 1972. Author: Cheremisinoff, Nicholas P. and Paul N.
ASIN: 0882750089 Cheremisinoff.
Publisher: Technomic Publishing, 1989.
ISBN: 0877626235

ANSI/AMCA Standard 230-99—Laboratory

Brochures/Guides/Manuals Methods of Testing Air Circulator Fans for Rating
The following publications and standards are ANSI/AMCA Standard 240-96—Laboratory

available from: Methods of Testing Positive Pressure Ventilators
AMCA International ANSI/AMCA Standard 330-97—Laboratory Method

30 West University Drive of Testing to Determine the Sound Power in a Duct
Arlington Heights, IL, 60004-1893
Phone (847) 394-0150 Fan Application Manual, Air Movement and Control
Fax (847) 253-0088 Association International, Inc., 1975. Note: This
E-mail: [email protected] manual includes four informative publications:
Web site: www.amca.org Publication 200-95—Air Systems,
Publication 201-90—Fans and Systems,
AMCA Publication 9.5—Why Buy an ‘Efficient’ Publication 202-98—Troubleshooting, and
Agricultural Fan? Publication 203-90—Field Performance
Measurement of Fan Systems
AMCA Publication 99-86—Standards Handbook
Other Brochures/Guides/Manuals
AMCA Publication 302-73—Application of Sone
Ratings for Non-ducted Air Moving Devices ASHRAE Standard 90.1-2001—Energy Standard
for Buildings Except Low-Rise Residential
AMCA Publication 303-79—Application Sound Buildings, American Society of Heating,
Power Level Ratings for Fans Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.,
Atlanta, GA, 2001.
AMCA Publication 410-96—Recommended Safety
Practices for Users and Installers of Industrial and Displacement Compressors, Vacuum Pumps, and
Commercial Fans Blowers, American Society of Mechanical Engineers,
[Performance Test codes; 9-1970], New York, 1970.
AMCA Publication 801-01—AMCA Industrial
Process/Power Generation Fans: Specifications Energy Saving in the Design and Operation of
Guidelines Fans, Institution of Mechanical Engineers,
Mechanical Engineering Publications, London, 1995.
AMCA Publication 802-92—Industrial Process
Power Generation Fans: Establishing Performance HVAC Air Duct Leakage Test Manual, Sheet Metal
Using Laboratory Models and Air Conditioning Contractors National
Association, Chantilly, VA, 1985.
AMCA Standard 300-96—Reverberant Room
Method for Sound Testing of Fans Motor Repair Tech Brief Information, U.S.
Department of Energy, Office of Industrial
AMCA Standard 301-90—Method for Calculating Technologies Clearinghouse, Washington, DC, 2000.
Fan Sound Ratings from Laboratory Test Data
Process Fan and Compressor Selection,
AMCA Standard 803-96—Industrial (ImechE guides for the process industries)
Process/Power Performance Fans: Site Davidson, John and Otto von Bertele (eds.).,
Performance Test Standard Mechanical Engineering Publications, London, 1996.
ANSI/AMCA Standard 204-96, Balance Quality The Selection and Use of Fans, Osborne, William
and Vibration Levels for Fans C. [Engineering design guides series], Design
Council, The British Institution and The Council of
ANSI/AMCA Standard 210-99—Laboratory Engineering Institutions by Oxford University
Methods of Testing Fans for Aerodynamic Press, 1979.
Performance Rating

This software program was developed for industrial

Software and large commercial systems’ design, engineering,
energy efficiency program analysis, and life-cycle
ASDMaster cost evaluation. C-MAX is designed for consulting
engineers, design professionals, process plant engi-
Developer: neers, energy engineers, and electric utilities.
Electric Power Research Institute and
Bonneville Power Administration Available from:
UNICADE, Inc.
This software package consists of six modules design- 13219 NE 20th Street, Suite 211
ed to educate and assist users in the proper applica- Bellevue, WA 98005-2020
tion of adjustable speed drives (ASDs). ASDMaster Phone: (425) 747-0353
contains instruction tools that discuss the technology,
process effects, and power quality issues associated Computer-Aided Product Selection (CAPS)
with ASDs. It also analyzes energy consumption and
performance differences between ASDs and constant Developer:
speed alternatives. ASDMaster contains a database ABC Industries
module that refers the user to manufacturers of ASDs
that can meet the needs of the application. This program helps users make fan selection deci-
sions. The program facilitates the specification
Available from: process for the manufacturer’s fans, which are
Industrial Technologies Information Clearinghouse designed for the mining and tunneling industries.
P.O. Box 43171
925 Plum Street Available from:
Olympia, WA 98504-3171 ABC Industries, Inc.
Phone: (800) 862-2086 301 Kings Highway
Fax: (360) 586-8303 P.O. Box 77
Email: [email protected] Warsaw, IN 46581
Web site: www.oit.doe.gov/bestpractices Phone: (574) 267-5166
Fax: (574) 267-2045
CFSWin Web site: www.abc-industries.net
Developer: Computer Aided Product Selection (CAPS)

Cincinnati Fan
Developer:
The Cincinnati Fan Selector for Windows guide Greenheck Fan Corporation
allows the user to input fan requirements and
operating constraints. The program provides a list of CAPS is an electronic catalog and fan selection pro-
fans that satisfy the user requirements. gram. The software helps users select a fan, and pro-
vides operating data such as fan performance curves.
Available from:
Cincinnati Fan Available from:
7697 Snider Road Greenheck Fan Corporation
Mason, OH 45040-9135 P.O.Box 410
Phone: (513) 573-0600 Schofield, WI 54476-0410
Fax: (513) 573-0640 Phone: (715) 359-6171
Web site: www.cincinnatifan.com Fax: (715) 355-2399
Web site: www.greenheck.com
C-Max Software: Fluid Flow Analysis
Developer:
UNICADE, Inc.

Fan Selector graphics screen and to a wide variety of printers.

If required, appurtenance derating factors for drive
Developer: losses, etc., are available.
Twin Cities Fan Companies, Ltd.
Available from:
The Fan Selector software is a Windows®-based ACME Engineering and Manufacturing Corporation
fan selection program, featuring selections from P.O. Box 978
over 190 product lines. The program provides per- Muskogee, OK 74402
formance operating data, power requirements, and Phone: (918) 682-7791
sound data. Other features include 50 and 60 Hz Fax: (918) 682-0134
selection, density adjustments, performance cor- Web site: www.acmefan.com
rections for inlet and outlet appurtenances, and
automatically calculated wheel diameters to match Fan-to-Size Selection Program
direct drive speeds.
Developer:
Available from: New York Blower Company
Twin City Fan Companies, Ltd.
5959 Trenton Lane This software program helps users select the proper
Minneapolis, MN 55442 fan. Using performance requirements, this program
Phone: (763) 551-7600 can identify fans that meet the needs of the system.
Fax: (763) 551-7601 The program can also provide operating data, such
Web site: www.twincityfan.com as fan curves, noise levels, and power require-
ments.
Fansizer
Available from:
Developer: New York Blower Company
Penn Ventilation 7660 Quincy Street
Willowbrook, IL 60521
Fansizer is a fan selection guide that allows the user Phone: (630) 794-5700
to input fan requirements and operating constraints. Fax: (630) 794-5776
The program provides a list of fans that satisfy the Web site: www.nyb.com
user requirements.
MotorMaster+
Available from:
Penn Ventilation Developer:
4509 Springfield Street U.S. Department of Energy
Dayton, OH 45431
Phone: (937) 475-6500 This software package assists users in calculating
Fax: (937) 254-9519 motor operating costs and tracking the installation
Web site: www.pennvent.com and service characteristics for a plant’s motor
inventory. Additionally, MotorMaster+ contains a
FANtastic!® database of motors from which the user can select
an appropriate model. The software allows consid-
Developer: eration of special service requirements, such as
ACME Engineering and Manufacturing Corporation high starting torque, severe duty, two-speed drives,
inverter duty, and medium-voltage (2,300- and
FANtastic!® is a fan selection program with project 4,000-volt) power supplies. MotorMaster+ allows
management capabilities that supports all ACME users to track motor loads, maintenance histories,
fan lines with performance and sound ratings. It and energy consumption.
offers the ability to plot performance curves to any

Available from: Training Courses

Industrial Technologies Information Clearinghouse
P.O. Box 43171 AMCA International Technical Seminar
925 Plum Street
Olympia, WA 98504-3171 Description:
Phone: (800) 862-2086 This 2-1/2-day course is offered biennially, usually
Fax: (360) 586-8303 during the month of December. The seminar is
Email: [email protected] designed to provide information about the perform-
Web site: www.oit.doe.gov/bestpractices ance of fans, louvers, dampers, airflow measure-
ment stations, air curtains, acoustic attenuators, and
Optisizer: Fan Selection Software other related components that comprise an air sys-
tem. The seminar provides practical information
Developer: covering fundamental concepts of the latest technol-
Stanley Fans ogy, which can save time and money in the recom-
mendation or selection of proper equipment, avoiding
A software program developed to help users select installation errors and potential liability problems.
fans using standard or metric units. Fan selection Participants gain an understanding of how the com-
can be done by direct model, aided by competitors ponents relate to each other and learn important fac-
cross-reference. Optisizer fan selection software is tors in the selection and application of air system
designed for project managers. components.
Available from: Available From:
Stanley Fans AMCA International
6393 Powers Avenue 30 West University Drive
Jacksonville, FL 32217 Arlington Heights, IL 60004-1893
Phone: (904) 731-4711 Phone: (847) 394-0150
Fax: (904) 737-8322 Fax: (847) 253-0088
Email: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected]
Web site: www.stanleyfans.com Web site: www.amca.org
T-duct Software: Duct Design Computer Program Duct Design Using T-Method Techniques
Developer: Description:
NETSAL & Associates This 2-day seminar is devoted to teaching duct
design from fundamentals through computerized life-
This software program was developed to evaluate cycle cost optimization and modeling. Attendees
the performance of a fan/duct system under various will be provided with the method required to accu-
conditions, adjust the fan operating point, and dis- rately determine the most energy-efficient duct
play actual airflow, mass flow rate, velocity, and pressure losses, optimized duct sizes, and air
pressure profile at each duct section. T-Duct is velocities in a duct system. This course is intended
designed for consulting engineers, plant engineers, for project engineers, HVAC consulting engineers
and equipment manufacturers. and designers, and research and development spe-
cialists.
Available from:
NETSAL & Associates Available from:
Phone: (714) 531-2960 NETSAL & Associates
Fax: (714) 531-2960 Phone: (714) 531-2960
Email: [email protected] Fax: (714) 531-2960
Web site: www.apc.net/netsal E-mail: [email protected]
Web site: www.apc.net/netsal

Effective Fan Systems Optimizing the Performance of Industrial Fan,

Pump, and Blower Systems
Description:
This course—based on the Energy Center of Description:
Wisconsin’s Optimizing the Performance of This 2-day fan and pump system optimization
Industrial Fan, Pump, and Blower Systems course was developed by the Energy Center of
course—focuses strictly on fan systems. A 2-day Wisconsin and DOE BestPractices. Students
course enables engineers to optimize the operation explore fan optimization techniques, including
of existing fans and to maximize the effectiveness changing belt ratios, pony fans, and parallel fans.
of new fans. A 1-day version is also available for Students examine the different system types to bet-
audiences that want to identify and qualify oppor- ter match the machine to the needs of the process.
tunities in new and existing systems but do not Students also explore the proper application of fans
need all of the engineering details. and pumps, applying ASDs in fan and pump sys-
tems, and minimizing system effect. Also available
Available from: is a 1-day course on identifying and prioritizing opti-
Productive Energy Solutions, LLC mization opportunities in new and existing systems.
2229 Eton Ridge
Madison, WI 53705 Available from:
Phone: (608) 232-1861 Energy Center of Wisconsin
Fax: (608) 232-1863 595 Science Drive
E-mail: [email protected] Madison, WI 53705
Phone: (608) 238-4601
Evaluation of Industrial Ventilation Systems Fax: (608) 238-8733
Web site: www.ecw.org
Description:
This 3-day course is offered once a year during the
month of August. Participants are provided with
training, information, hands-on experience, and
practical guidance in conducting inspections and
evaluating the performance of industrial ventilation
systems. This course is designed specifically for
engineers, industrial hygiene and safety profession-
als, and HVAC personnel.
Available from:
Centers for Education and Training
317 George Street, Plaza II, 2nd Floor
New Brunswick, NJ 08901-2008
Phone: (732) 235-9450
Fax: (732) 235-9460
E-mail: [email protected]
Web site: www.eohsi.rutgers.edu

IEEE Power Engineering Magazine

Periodicals
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers,
Power Engineering Society (PES), Los Angeles, CA
ASHRAE Journal
Phone: (800) 272-6657
American Society of Heating, Refrigeration, and
Web site: www.ieee.org
Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE), Atlanta, GA
Phone: (800) 527-4723
Industrial Maintenance & Plant Operation (IMPO)
Web site: www.ashrae.org
Cahners Publishing Company, A Division of Reed
Elsevier Properties, Inc., Des Plaines, IL
Consulting-Specifying Engineer
Phone: (212) 519-7700
Web site: www.impomag.com
Phone: (212) 519-7700
Mechanical Engineering
Web site: www.csemag.com
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME),
New York, NY.
Electrical Construction and Maintenance
Phone: (800) 843-2763
Primedia Business Magazines and Media,
Web site: www.asme.org
Overland Park, KS
Phone: (800) 441-0294
Plant Engineering
Web site: www.primediabusiness.com
Heating/Piping/Air-Conditioning (HPAC)
Phone: (630) 320-7144
Engineering
Web site: www.plantengineering.com
Penton Publishing, Cleveland, OH
Phone: (216) 696-7000 x9291
Plant Services
Web site: www.hpac.com
Putnam Publishing, Itasca, IL
Phone: (630) 467-1300
IEEE Control Systems Magazine
Web site: www.plantservices.com
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
(IEEE), Control Systems Society (CSS),
Pollution Engineering Magazine
Indianapolis, IN
Pollution Engineering, Troy, MI
Phone: (800) 272-6657
Phone: (248) 244-1737
Web site: www.pollutionengineering.com
IEEE Industry Applications Magazine
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
(IEEE), Industry Applications Society (IAS),
Indianapolis, IN
Phone: (800) 272-6657

Reports/Technical Papers Market Baseline Evaluation Report: Fan Speed

Reduction in Pneumatic Conveying Systems in the
Secondary Wood Products Industry, SBW
Air Handling Equipment Energy Efficiency Consulting, Northwest Energy Efficiency Alliance,
Standards Program, Science Applications, Inc., November, 1999.
California Energy Commission, publisher.
(Consultant report), Sacramento, CA, 1982. Papers Presented at the International Conference
CEC#: 400-80-75. on Fan Design & Applications, International
Conference on Fan Design and Applications.
A Study of the Energy Savings Possible by sponsored by BIIRA Fluid Engineering England,
Automatic Control of Mechanical Draft Cooling [H.S. Stephens and Mrs. G.B. Warren, eds.],
Tower Fans, (Conservation paper), Gordon Bedford, UK, 1982.
Associates, Washington, DC, U.S. Federal Energy
Administration, Office of Industrial Programs, 1975. Power Station Pumps and Fans: International
GPO Item #: 434-A-10. Conference, Institution of Mechanical Engineers,
Power Industries Division, Proceedings of the
“Discharge Diffuser Effect on Performance-Axial Institution of Mechanical Engineers,
Fans,” Galbraith, L. E., AMCA Paper 1228-82-A6. Co-sponsored by EPRI, London, 1992.
Authority, Kingston Fossil Plant, 1993.
Energy-Efficient Fan Component Detailed Design GPO Item #: 1082 (MF).
Report, Halle, J.F., and C.J. Michael, Cleveland,
OH, NASA-Lewis Research Center, 1981. System Effect Factors for Axial Flow Fans, Zaleski,
GPO Item #: 30-II-14 (MF). R. H., AMCA Paper 2011-88, AMCA Engineering
Conference, 1988.
“Fan Performance Testing and the Effects of the
System,” Cory, W. T. W., AMCA Paper 1228-82- System Effects on Centrifugal Fan Performance,
A6. Traver, D. G., ASHRAE Symposium Bulletin,
Fan Application Testing and Selection, 1971.
Field Performance of Erosion-Resistance Materials
on Boiler-Induced Fan Blades, Karr, Orval F., J.B.
Brooks, and Ed Seay, Tennessee Valley Authority, Videos/Slide Programs
Kingston Fossil Plant, 1993. GPO Item #: 1082
(MF). SP2: Fans and Air Systems, Air Movement and
Control Association International, Inc. (Slide pro-
Impact of Using Auxiliary Fans on Coal Mine gram). Arlington Heights, IL.
Ventilation Efficiency and Cost, Wallace, Keith G.,
Jr., U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, V3: System Effect, Optimum System Performance,
Washington, DC, 1990, GPO Item #: 0637-A (MF). Air Movement and Control Association
International, Inc. (Video). Arlington Heights, IL.
Installation Effects in Ducted Fan System,
Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Engineering
Sciences Division and Power Industries Division,
Westminster, London, 1984.
Installation Effects in Fan Systems, [Proceedings of

the Institution of Mechanical Engineers European
Conference], London, 1990.
Limiting Noise From Pumps, Fans, and

Compressors, Institution of Mechanical Engineers,
Fluid Machinery Group, (Conference), ImechE
conference publications; 1977-10, London, 1977.

Appendix A: Fan System Terminology
This appendix is a collection of terms used in ARI—Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute
fans and fan systems. It is based primarily on
Engineering Letter G, written by The New York ASHRAE—American Society of Heating,
Blower Company, and is used here with permission. Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning Engineers
acceleration loss—the energy required to induce ASME—American Society of Mechanical Engineers

air to move at the entry to a system
aspect ratio—the ratio of width to length
acfm—actual cubic feet per minute; the quantity
or volume of a gas flowing at any point in a sys- ASTM—American Society for Testing and Materials
tem. Fans are rated and selected on the basis of
ACFM, as a fan handles the same volume of air atmospheric pressure—one atmosphere is
regardless of density. approximately 14.7 psi, 408” water gauge at sea
level. Airflow is the result of a difference in pressure
air conditioning—treating air to meet the require- (above or below atmospheric) between two points.
ments of a conditioned space by controlling its
temperature, humidity, cleanliness, and distribu- attenuation—absorption of sound pressure.
tion. Attenuation reduces the amplitude of a sound wave
while leaving the frequency unchanged.
air curtain—mechanical air-moving device
designed to limit the influx of unwanted air at a axial fan—fan where the airflow through the
building opening impeller is predominantly parallel to the axis of
rotation. The impeller is contained in a cylindrical
air handling unit—factory-made encased assembly housing.
consisting of a fan or fans and other equipment to
circulate, clean, heat, cool, humidify, dehumidify, axial flow—in-line air movement parallel to the
or mix air fan or motor shaft
ambient—immediate surroundings or vicinity backdraft damper—damper used in a system to

relieve air pressure in one direction and to prevent
AMCA—Air Movement and Control Association airflow in the opposite direction
International, Inc.
backward-inclined fan—a group of centrifugal fans
anemometer—a device that reads air velocity, such with blades that angle back from the direction of
as a wind vane. In fan applications, it is fan rotation. These fans can have curved and air-
usually a spinning-vane-type instrument used to foil blade shapes. Airfoil blades are among the
read low velocities at registers or grills. most efficient fan types.
anneal—the process of relieving stress and brittle- balancing—the process of adding (or removing)
ness in metals by controlled heating and cooling weight on a rotor in order to move the center of
gravity toward the axis of rotation
ANSI—American National Standards Institute
barometric pressure—a measurement of the
API—American Petroleum Institute pressure of the atmosphere; standard atmospheric
pressure is 29.92” Hg at sea level

bearing losses—power losses resulting from friction cfm—cubic feet per minute; the volume of flow for
in the main bearings a given fan or system
Bernoulli’s Theorem—the principle that the total coatings—specialty coverings, typically referred to
energy per unit of mass in the streamline flow of a as paints, with varying degrees of resistance to
moving fluid is constant, being the sum of the atmospheric or chemical corrosion
potential energy, the kinetic energy, and the energy
because of pressure. In terms of air movement, the coefficient of conductivity—the rate of heat transfer
theorem states that static pressure plus velocity through a material, expressed in Btu, transmitted
pressure as measured at a point upstream in the per hour through one square foot of surface per
direction of airflow is equal to the static pressure degree difference in temperature across the material.
plus velocity pressure as measured at a point
downstream in the direction of airflow plus the compressibility—a factor used by fan manufacturers
friction and dynamic losses between the points. to correct performance ratings in higher pressure
ranges to account for the fact that air is a
best efficiency point (BEP)—the operating condition compressible gas
at which a fan transfers energy to an airstream most
efficiently. In general, this is a point on a fan curve compression—a phenomenon related to positive
to the right of peak pressure. pressure. When air is forced into a system it is
compressed and becomes more dense. Depending on
blade liners—pieces of material added over the the volume or weight of air required downstream
impeller blades to reduce abrasion of the blades in the positive-pressure portion of the system, the
volume of air at the inlet of a fan may have to be
blade-pass frequency—the tone generated by the adjusted by the ratio of absolute pressure at the
blades passing a fixed object entrance of the fan versus the design requirements
in the system.
blast area—the fan outlet area less the projected
area of the cut-off conveying velocity—the air velocity required in a
duct system to maintain entrainment of a specific
brake horsepower (bhp)—a measure of the rate of material
energy expended. One bhp is equivalent to mechan-
ical energy consumed at a rate of 33,000-ft. lbs. corrosion—the deterioration of a material by
per minute. chemical or electrochemical reaction resulting
from exposure to weathering, moisture, chemical,
breakdown torque—maximum torque a motor will or other agents in the environment in which it is
produce without a sudden decrease in speed. Often placed
referred to as pullout torque or maximum torque.
curve, fan performance—a graphic representation
Btu—British thermal unit; heat required to raise the of static or total pressure and fan bhp requirements
temperature of 1 pound of water by 1°F over an airflow volume range
capture velocity—air velocity necessary to over- curve, system—a graphic representation of the
come opposing air currents or natural flow and pressure versus flow characteristics of a given system
cause contaminated air, fumes, or material to flow
in a desired direction damper—an accessory to be installed at the fan
inlet or outlet for air-volume modulation
Celsius—a thermometric scale in which water
boils at 100° and freezes at 0° density—the measure of unit mass equal to its
weight divided by its volume (lbs./ft.3); standard air
centrifugal fan—a fan design in which air is is 0.075 lbs./ft.3
discharged perpendicular to the impeller’s
rotational axis

dew point—the temperature at which condensation fan class—operating limits at which a fan must be
begins to form as air is cooled physically capable of operating safely
dust—air suspension of particles [aerosol] of any fan laws—theoretical constant relationships

solid material, usually with a particle size smaller between cfm, rpm, static pressure (sp), and bhp for
than 100 micrometers a given fan used in a given fixed system:
cfm ~ rpm
dust collector—an air-cleaning device used to
sp ~ (rpm)2
remove heavy-particulate loadings from exhaust
bhp ~ (rpm)3
systems prior to discharge
foot-pound (ft.-lb.)—torque rating or requirement;
DWDI—double-width, double-inlet fans equivalent to the force required to move a
1-pound weight 1 foot in distance, equal to
dynamic balance—the mechanical balancing of a 12 in.-lb.
rotating part or assembly in motion
forced draft—how air is provided in a process,
efficiency, mechanical total—the ratio of fan out- such as a combustion process; when air is blown
put to the power applied to the fan; can be helpful or forced into a process, it is known as a “forced
in selecting fan size, type, or manufacturer for the draft” system. Also see Induced Draft.
same application
forward-curved blade fan—a fan type with blades
elevation—the distance of the subject site above or that angle toward the direction of rotation. This fan
below sea level type generates relatively high pressure at low
operating speeds and is used frequently in residential
entry loss—the loss in pressure caused by air furnace applications
flowing into a system; normally expressed in
fractions of velocity pressure fpm—feet per minute; commonly defines air veloc-
ity (to determine velocity pressure or suitability for
equivalent duct diameter—for rectangular duct material conveying), shaft/bearing speeds (used to
with sides a and b is: determine lubrication requirements), and impeller
tip speeds
√ 4ab frame size—a set of physical dimensions of motors

Deff =
π as established by National Electrical Manufacturers
Association (NEMA) for interchangeability between
manufacturers. Dimensions include shaft diameter,
evase—a diffuser at the fan outlet that gradually shaft height, and motor-mounting footprint.
increases in area to decrease velocity and to
convert kinetic energy to static pressure at the fan frequency—any cyclic event, whether vibration,
outlet and inlet alternating current, or rotational speed. Usually
expressed in cycles per second (cps) or just “cycles.”
Fahrenheit—a thermometric scale in which water
boils at 212°F and freezes at 32°F friction loss—resistance to airflow through any
duct or fitting, given in terms of static pressure
fan—a power-driven machine that moves a
continuous volume of air by converting rotational FRP—abbreviation for fiberglass-reinforced-plastic
mechanical energy to an increase in the total
pressure of the moving air full-load speed—the speed at which the rated
horsepower is developed. This speed is less than
fan capacity—performance requirement for which synchronous speed and varies with motor type and
a fan is selected to meet specific system calculations manufacturer.
given in terms of ACFM at the fan inlet

full-load torque—the torque required to produce inch of water—unit of pressure equal to the
the rated horsepower at full-load speed pressure exerted by a column of water 1 inch high
at a standard density (1 inch of water = 0.036 psig)
fumes—airborne particles, usually less than
1 micrometer in size, formed by condensation of inch-pound (in.-lb.)—torque equal to one-twelfth
vapors, sublimation, distillation, or chemical reaction foot-pound
gauge (gage)—metal manufacturers’ standard inclined manometer—a metering device used to

measure of thickness for sheet stock obtain pressure measurements
gauge pressure—the pressure differential between induced draft—how air is provided in a process,
atmospheric and that measured in the system such as a combustion process, where air is drawn
or pulled through a process. Also see forced draft.
heat exchanger—a device, such as a coil or
radiator, which is used to transfer heat between induction—the production of an electric current in
two physically separated fluids a conductor in a changing magnetic field
HEPA filter—high-efficiency particulate air filters, inertia—tendency of an object to remain in the

commonly called absolute filters state it is in. Also see WR2.
hertz—frequency measured in cycles per second inlet-vane damper—round multiblade damper

mounted to the inlet of a fan to vary the airflow
Hg—symbol for mercury. Pressure is often measured
in inches of mercury (1 inch Hg = 13.64 inches instability—the point of operation at which a fan or
wg). system will “hunt” or pulse; common in forward-
curved fans and some axial fan types where the
horsepower (hp)—(as applied to motors) an index point of operation is left of the peak of the static-
of the amount of work the machine can perform in pressure curve
a period of time. One hp equals 33,000-ft. lbs. of
work per minute, also equal to 0.746 kilowatts. kilowatt—measure of power equal to 1.34 horse-
Horsepower can be calculated by: power
L-10 bearing life—the theoretical number of hours

Torque x RPM after which 90 percent of the bearings subjected to
horsepower =
5,250 a given set of conditions will still be in operation
housing—the casing or shroud of a centrifugal fan laminar flow—gas or fluid in parallel layers with
some sliding motion between the layers, characteristic
HVAC—heating, ventilating, and air conditioning of airstreams with Reynolds numbers less than 2,000
impeller—another term for fan “wheel.” The load factor—ratio of the average capacity to the
rotating portion of the fan designed to increase the rated full capacity, determined by the following
energy level of the gas stream. relationship:
impeller diameter—the maximum diameter Load = ∑ (Actual Load x Number of operating hours at this load)
Factor Rated Full Load x Number of hours in the period
measured over the impeller blades
impingement—striking or impacting, such as louver—a device composed of multiple blades

material impingement on a fan impeller which, when mounted in an opening, permits the
flow of air but inhibits the entrance of undesirable
elements

make-up air—a ventilating term which refers to the plenum—a chamber or enclosure within an
replacement of air lost because of exhaust air air-handling system in which two or more branches
requirements converge or where system components such as
fans, coils, filters, or dampers are located
manometer—instrument for measuring pressure;
u-shaped, and partially filled with liquid, either poles—the number of magnetic poles established
water, light oil, or mercury inside an electric motor by the placement and
connection of the windings
maximum continuous rating—the point at which
the fan is expected to operate propeller fan—an axial fan type that is compact,
inexpensive, but relatively inefficient
natural frequency—the frequency at which a com-
ponent or system resonates psia—pounds per square inch absolute, represents
total pressure above a perfect vacuum
NEMA—the National Electrical Manufacturers
Association; the trade association establishing psig—pounds per square inch measured in gauge
standards of dimensions, ratings, enclosures, pressure, represents the difference between psia
insulation, and other design criteria for electric and atmospheric pressure
motors and other devices
radial blade—fan impeller design with blades posi-
noise criteria—a way for a designer to specify the tioned in straight radial direction from the hub
maximum permissible sound-power level in each
of the eight-octave bands. Noise criteria curves give radial-tip fan—a fan type with short blades and
maximum permissible intensity per octave-band in large clearances between the blades and the
a graphical form. impeller hub
opposed-blade damper—a type of damper where rarefication—a phenomenon related to negative

adjacent blades rotate in the opposite direction pressure. When air is drawn through resistance
into a fan inlet, the air is stretched out, or rarefied,
parallel-blade damper—a type of damper where and becomes less dense than at the entry to the
the blades rotate in the same direction system. While negligible at low pressures and
volumes, high-pressure fan selection must be
parallel fans—two or more fans that draw air from a based on rarefied inlet density.
common source and exhaust into a common duct
or plenum. A parallel fan arrangement is generally relative humidity—the ratio of existing water vapor
used to meet volume requirements beyond that of to that of saturated air at the same dry-bulb tempera-
single fans. Two identical fans in parallel will ture
effectively deliver twice the rated flow of any one
fan at the same static pressure. Reynolds number—a mathematical factor used to
express the relation between velocity, viscosity,
pitch diameter—the mean diameter or point at density, and dimensions in a system of flow; used
which V-belts ride within a sheave. This dimension to define fan proportionality
is necessary for accurate drive calculations.
rotor—the rotating part of most alternating current
pitot tube—a metering device consisting of a motors
double-walled tube with a short right-angle bend; the
periphery of the tube has several holes through which rpm—revolutions per minute
static pressure is measured; the bent end of the tube
has a hole through which total pressure is measured radial tip—fan impeller design with shallow blades
when pointed upstream in a moving gas stream in which the trailing edge points radially from the
axis of rotation

saturated air—air containing the maximum amount density of dry air at the same temperature and
of water vapor for a given temperature and pressure pressure is the specific gravity of the gas.
scfm—standard cubic feet per minute; a volume of air specific heat—the ratio of the quantity of heat
at 0.075 lbs./ft.3 density; used as an equivalent weight required to raise the temperature of a certain
scroll—the general shape of a centrifugal fan hous- volume by one degree to that required to raise an
ing; the formed piece to which housing sides are equal volume of water by one degree
welded
squirrel-cage winding—a permanently short-
sensible heat—any portion of heat which affects a circuited winding, usually uninsulated and chiefly
change in a substance’s temperature but does not used in induction motors, with its conductors
alter that substance’s state uniformly distributed around the periphery of the
machine and joined by continuous end rings
series fans—a combination of fans connected so
that the outlet of one fan exhausts into the inlet of standard air density—0.075 lbs./ft.3, corresponds
another. Fans connected in this manner are capable approximately to dry air at 70°F and 29.92 in. Hg
of higher pressures than a single fan and are used to
meet greater pressure requirements than single fans. stator—the stationary parts of a magnetic circuit
with operating speeds associated windings
service factor—the number by which the horse-
power rating is multiplied to determine the synchronous speed—rated motor speed expressed
maximum safe load that a motor may be expected in rpm:
to carry continuously
120 x Frequency
Synchronous speed =
shaft seal—a device to limit gas leakage between Number of poles
the shaft and fan housing
system curve—graphic presentation of the
slip—the percentage difference between pressure versus volume flow-rate characteristics of
synchronous speed and actual speed a particular system
sound—produced by the vibration of matter. The system effect—the difference between the actual
vibration causes sound waves to spread through flow-pressure characteristics of a fan or a fan system
the surrounding medium. component and the flow-pressure characteristics
determined in laboratory tests to obtain performance
surge limit—that point near the peak of the ratings
pressure curve that corresponds to the minimum
flow at which the fan medium can be operated tachometer—an instrument which measures the
without instability speed of rotation; usually in rpm
sound-power level—acoustic power radiating from tensile strength—the maximum stress a material
a sound source; expressed in watts or in decibels can withstand before it breaks; expressed in
pounds per square inch
sound-pressure level—the acoustic pressure at a
point in space where the microphone or listener’s tip speed—fan impeller velocity at a point
ear is situated; expressed in units of pressure or in corresponding to the outside diameter of the
decibels impeller blades; normally expressed in feet per
minute (circumference times rpm)
specific gravity—the ratio of the weight or mass of
a given volume of any substance to that of an torque—a force that produces rotation; commonly
equal volume of some other substance taken as a measured in ft.-lbs. or in.-lbs.
standard. The ratio of the density of any gas to the

tubeaxial fan—axial fan without guide vanes
tubular centrifugal fan—fan with a centrifugal

impeller within a cylindrical housing that discharges
the gas in an axial direction.
turbulent flow—airflow in which true velocities at

a given point vary erratically in speed and direction
uniform flow—airflow in which velocities between

any two given points remain fairly constant
vaneaxial fan—axial fan with either inlet or

discharge guide vanes or both
ventilation—supplying and removing air by natural

or mechanical means to and from any space
vibration—alternating mechanical motion of an

elastic system, components of which are amplitude,
frequency, and phase
viscosity—the characteristic of all fluids to resist

flow
watt—a unit of power. In electrical terms, the

product of voltage and amperage; 746 watts are
equal to 1 horsepower
wg—water gage. Also see “inch of water.”
WR2—the unit designation of fan-impeller

rotational inertia in lb.-ft.2, also known as WK2

Appendix B: The Fan System Marketplace
The fan marketplace connects manufacturers, commercial, and residential customers. Most of the
manufacturer representatives, engineering/specifying energy improvement opportunities for fan systems
companies, and mechanical contractors to a wide are found in the industrial sector. The installed
range of fan end users. Fans are used in residential, base of fans in the industrial sector consumes
commercial, agricultural, and industrial fluid system about 79 billion kilowatt-hours annually, repre-
applications, where customer sophistication varies senting about 11 percent of all motor-driven indus-
widely. Consequently, fans are sold through several trial electricity consumption in the United States.
different market channels. Customer knowledge, Although the market segment of fans below 5
system application, and fan cost are among the horsepower (hp) accounts for the largest number of
principal factors that affect the structure of these units sold, the segment of fans above 1,000 hp
market channels. Industrial applications represent accounts for the highest energy consumption.
the largest fan-market segment in terms of energy
consumption and are the primary focus in this ◆ Market Distribution Channels
sourcebook. The fan marketplace is relatively complex, because
of the wide range of applications (see Figure B-1).
◆ Market Size and Energy Consumption Fan manufacturers sell fans through two primary
In 1997, U.S. fan and blower manufacturers channels: original equipment manufacturers (OEMs)
recorded almost $2 billion in sales to industrial, and manufacturer representatives. The key points
Market influences, AMCA, ARI, Trade Associations, Government, Utilities
Fan Users
Original
Equipment • Power
Fan Manufacturer • Mining
Manufacturer • Chemical
Mechanical • Pulp & Paper
Fan Manufacturer Contractor • Petroleum
Representative • Other Process
Industries
Variable Frequency Drive

Manufacturer
Motor
Manufacturer
Figure B-1. Industrial Fan Marketplace

of influence for promoting market transformation Specifying Engineers and Mechanical Contractors.
in the process fan systems market are: Contractor and engineering firms often handle
turnkey production facility design, including system
■ Fan manufacturers and their internal sales staffs
design, fan sizing, and selection. New fan systems
■ Manufacturers representatives are typically installed by mechanical contractors.
■ Specifying engineers and mechanical Consulting engineers provide design services and
contractors help specify equipment for new facilities, as well
■ Fan users as major retrofits and system renovations.
■ Standards and trade associations
The role of specifying engineers is to design
■ Engineering societies.
systems and select fans that meet the system’s
Fan Manufacturers. The U.S. fan market is relatively needs. These engineers must ensure the system
distributed. Fan manufacturers include large meets performance criteria; however, once the
companies that produce a wide range of fan types system is installed and operating, the specifying
and comparatively small companies that specialize engineer’s task is complete. Because operating and
in a few fan designs. maintenance costs are future costs, not applied to
the capital budget, there is a tendency to focus on
Although fan manufacturers generally consider fans initial system performance. This practice often
to be commodity items, they cite technical features, results in equipment that is oversized. The
such as operating efficiency and durability, as constraint against sourcing oversized equipment is
competitive advantages. Some manufacturers use the higher cost associated with larger equipment
engineering support and order fulfillment time as rather than the need to keep life-cycle costs down.
selling points to swing purchase decisions in their
favor. Fan Users. Most fan users rely on mechanical
contractors/fan manufacturer representatives for fan
Manufacturers do not typically provide complete procurement. However, some large, sophisticated
system design services to fan customers, although fan users may use an in-house engineering staff to
a few manufacturers offer engineering services to design specialized systems and to source system
assist in fan selection. Most fan sales and service equipment, such as fans, motors, and control
support is provided by manufacturer representatives. systems. Evaluation criteria for fan selection
Fan manufacturers also sell fans to OEMs for use include initial cost, performance, and reliability.
as part of packaged products, such as unitary air The balance among these criteria changes according
conditioning units. to the sophistication level of the fan user, the needs
of the application, and resource constraints.
Another channel for fan sales is directly to end users
who need replacement fans. Fans in corrosive In many applications, fan systems are conservatively
environments often degrade and require replace- designed, which results in the selection of over-
ment before the end of the system’s service life. In sized fans. A common perception is that the costs
these cases, end users may request an entire fan of oversizing fans are small relative to the cost of
assembly or individual components, such as fan insufficient fan output. However, this practice
wheels. overlooks the life-cycle cost components of energy
use, maintenance requirements, and risk of failure,
Manufacturer Representatives. Manufacturer all of which are increased by operating a fan that
representatives are the primary links between the is improperly sized for its system.
manufacturer and the mechanical contractors.
Manufacturer representatives do not take possession Although some fan users are sufficiently
of the fans and are not exposed to the risk of sales. knowledgeable about fan system operation to
Manufacturer representatives place orders for sales, know the problems associated with poor system
and the manufacturer ships the unit directly to the design practices, many do not recognize the
fan customer. penalties of inefficient fan operation. In addition to

increasing energy consumption, oversizing a fan in the development of international standards

sacrifices—rather than improves—long-term for the industry.
reliability. Fan manufacturers, manufacturer
representatives, specifying engineers, and • American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
mechanical contractors are stakeholders in initial is a professional society whose goal is the
fan performance. However, the fan user alone pays review and approval of standards for a broad
for the long-term operating and maintenance costs. range of goods and services. This voluntary,
private-sector organization is made up of
Standards and Trade Associations. Trade associations, manufacturers and industry professionals. ANSI
government entities, and electric utilities also play is the sole U.S. representative to the ISO and the
vital roles in the process fan market. Two trade International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC).
associations are key players in the fan industry: The purpose of standards organizations is to
promote uniformity in the nonproprietary aspects
• The Air Movement and Control Association of products. This uniformity provides a valuable
International, Inc. (AMCA) is a not-for-profit interchangeability among the products of different
international association of the world’s manufac- manufacturers; for example, a burned-out light
turers of related air system equipment—primarily, bulb may be replaced with a light bulb from any
but not limited to fans, louvers, dampers, air manufacturer. This interchangeability allows
curtains, airflow measurement systems, acoustic plants to maintain standard parts inventories
attenuators, and other air system components— rather than keep special replacement items for
for the industrial, commercial, and residential each piece of equipment.
markets. The association’s mission is to promote
the health and growth of industries covered by With respect to fans, ANSI has approved several
its scope and the members of the association standards on fan performance for testing purposes.
consistent with the interests of the public. Most of these standards are relatively general
and do not require specific performance criteria.
AMCA International developed a Certified To contact ANSI, see the Directory of Contacts
Ratings Program in response to the concerns on page 65.
over product performance on the part of buyers,
specifiers, and users of air movement and Engineering Societies. Engineering societies can be
control devices. Currently, AMCA International useful in resolving fan system problems by referring
has the world’s only existing international to resources or publications that describe how other
certified ratings program for air system compo fan users have resolved similar problems. Two such
nents. All licensed products are open to societies are:
challenge testing, which can be initiated by
competing manufacturers. Participation in the • The American Society of Heating, Refrigerating,
Certified Ratings Programs is voluntary and and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE)
open to AMCA International nonmembers as is an international organization with the sole
well as members. purpose of advancing the arts and sciences of
heating, ventilation, air conditioning, and
AMCA International publishes and distributes refrigeration (HVAC&R) for the public’s benefit
standards, references, and application manuals through research, standards writing, continuing
for specifiers, engineers, and others with an education, and publications.
interest in air systems, for use in the selection,
evaluation and troubleshooting of air system Through its membership, ASHRAE writes
components. Many of AMCA International’s standards that set uniform methods of testing
standards are accepted as American National and rating equipment and establish accepted
Standards. AMCA International is active on the practices for the HVAC&R industry worldwide,
technical committees of the International such as the design of energy-efficient buildings.
Standards Organization (ISO) and participates The Society’s research program investigates

numerous issues, such as identifying new

refrigerants that are environmentally safe.
ASHRAE organizes broad-based technical
programs for presentation at its semi-annual
meetings and co-sponsors the International Air-
Conditioning, Heating, and Refrigerating
Exposition, the largest HVAC&R trade show in
North America.
• The Society of Tribologists and Lubrication

Engineers (STLE) focuses on issues of wear and
machine reliability, which translates to an interest
in predicting and avoiding failures in bearings
and mechanical seals. Fan users who experience
bearing or seal problems may benefit from the
STLE’s knowledge of lubrication, material
selection, and predictive analysis.

About the Office of Energy Efficiency and
Renewable Energy
A S TRONG E NERGY P ORTFOLIO FOR A S TRONG Industrial Technologies Program

A MERICA
Energy efficiency and clean, renewable energy will mean
To order additional copies of
a stronger economy, a cleaner environment, and greater energy this sourcebook, please call:
independence for America. By investing in
technology breakthroughs today, our nation can look
forward to a more resilient economy and secure future. Industrial Technologies
Information Clearinghouse
Far-reaching technology changes will be essential to America’s (800) 862-2086
energy future. Working with a wide array of state, community,
industry, and university partners, the U.S. Department of Energy’s
Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy invests in a
diverse portfolio of energy technologies that will:
• Conserve energy in the residential, commercial,

industrial, government, and transportation sectors
• Increase and diversify energy supply, with a focus on
renewable domestic sources
• Upgrade our national energy infrastructure
• Facilitate the emergence of hydrogen technologies
as a vital new “energy carrier.”
The Opportunities
Biomass Program
Using domestic, plant-derived resources to meet our fuel, power,
and chemical needs
Building Technologies Program

Homes, schools, and businesses that use less energy, cost less to
operate, and ultimately, generate as much power as they use
Distributed Energy & Electric Reliability Program

A more reliable energy infrastructure and reduced need for new
power plants
Federal Energy Management Program

Leading by example, saving energy and taxpayer dollars in federal
facilities
FreedomCAR & Vehicle Technologies Program

Less dependence on foreign oil, and eventual transition to an
emisions-free, petroleum-free vehicle
Geothermal Technologies Program

Tapping the earth’s energy to meet our heat and power needs
Hydrogen, Fuel Cells & Infrastructure Technologies Program

Paving the way toward a hydrogen economy and net-zero carbon
energy future
Industrial Technologies Program U.S. Department of Energy

Boosting the productivity and competitiveness of U.S. industry
through improvements in energy and environmental performance Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy
Solar Energy Technology Program Washington, D.C. 20585
Utilizing the sun’s natural energy to generate electricity and provide
water and space heating
Weatherization & Intergovernmental Program

Acelerating the use of today’s best energy-efficient and renewable
technologies in homes, communities, and businesses
Wind & Hydropower Technologies Program

Harnessing America’s abundant natural resources for clean power
generation
DOE/GO-102003-1294
To learn more, visit www.eere.energy.gov April 2003

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One of a

Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy

Bringing you a prosperous future where energy is clean,

Gary Benson, The New York Blower Company

Prepared for: The United States Department of Energy

Prepared by: Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory

Section 1: Introduction to Fan Systems 3

Section 2: Performance Improvement Opportunity Roadmap 15

Section 3: Programs, Contacts, and Resources 59

A Sourcebook for Industry i

Quick Start Guide

A Sourcebook for Industry 1

Section 1: Introduction to Fan Systems

A Sourcebook for Industry 3

4 Improving Fan System Performance

A Sourcebook for Industry 5

6 Improving Fan System Performance

26 In this region, the slopes of the fan curve

2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000 12,000 14,000 16,000 18,000

Airflow Rate (cfm)

Figure 1-1. Region of Instability5

A Sourcebook for Industry 7

8 Improving Fan System Performance

2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000 12,000 14,000 16,000 18,000

Airflow Rate (cfm)

Figure 1-2. System Effect for a Typical Fan and System

The system effect can be particularly problematic Fan System Components

A Sourcebook for Industry 9

Figure 1-3. Example Fan System Components

10 Improving Fan System Performance

A Sourcebook for Industry 11

12 Improving Fan System Performance

A Sourcebook for Industry 13

of ASD is a VFD. VFDs control the frequency of

Air Conditioning and Process Equipment (Filters,

Cyclone filters remove particulates by rapidly

The effects of heating and cooling coils on fan

14 Improving Fan System Performance

Section 2: Performance Improvement

The remainder of this section is a collection of 11

A Sourcebook for Industry 15

Assessing Fan System Needs

A Sourcebook for Industry 17

18 Improving Fan System Performance

◆ Basic Principle Forward-Curved Blades. This fan type, shown in

Key impacts that determine which fan type is the

Understanding the principles of fan selection can

A Sourcebook for Industry 19

applications. In many cases, the blades can be

type is a key reason why it is considered an

Figure 2-2. Forward-Curved Centrifugal Fan

closely controlled. Forward-curved fans have a

Radial-Blade. Shown in Figure 2-3, this type is

Backward-Inclined Fans. This fan type is character-

20 Improving Fan System Performance

Axial fans have a severe stall region that makes

A Sourcebook for Industry 21

Propeller fans generate high airflow rates at low

Figure 2-9. Propeller Fan Figure 2-11. Tubeaxial Fan

22 Improving Fan System Performance