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Semiconductors
Extracted from Lessons in Electric Circuits Volume III – Semi
Author Tony R. Kuphaldt – under the terms and conditions of the
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Public License
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS
Contents
1 Introduction
2 Single-ended and differential amplifiers
3 The ”operational” amplifier
4 Negative feedback
5 Divided feedback
6 An analogy for divided feedback
7 Voltage-to-current signal conversion
8 Averager and summer circuits
9 Building a differential amplifier
10 The instrumentation amplifier
11 Differentiator and integrator circuits
12 Positive feedback
13 Practical considerations
13.1 Common-mode gain
13.2 Offset voltage
13.3 Bias current
13.4 Drift
13.5 Frequency response
13.6 Input to output phase shift
14 Operational amplifier models
15 Data
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Introduction
The operational amplifier is arguably the most useful single device in analog electronic cir-
cuitry. With only a handful of external components, it can be made to perform a wide variety
353
354 CHAPTER 8. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS
of analog signal processing tasks. It is also quite affordable, most general-purpose amplifiers
selling for under a dollar apiece. Modern designs have been engineered with durability in
mind as well: several ”op-amps” are manufactured that can sustain direct short-circuits on
their outputs without damage.
One key to the usefulness of these little circuits is in the engineering principle of feedback,
particularly negative feedback, which constitutes the foundation of almost all automatic control
processes. The principles presented here in operational amplifier circuits, therefore, extend
well beyond the immediate scope of electronics. It is well worth the electronics student’s time
to learn these principles and learn them well.
8.2 Single-ended and differential amplifiers

For ease of drawing complex circuit diagrams, electronic amplifiers are often symbolized by a
simple triangle shape, where the internal components are not individually represented. This
symbology is very handy for cases where an amplifier’s construction is irrelevant to the greater
function of the overall circuit, and it is worthy of familiarization:
General amplifier circuit symbol
+Vsupply
Input Output
-Vsupply
The +V and -V connections denote the positive and negative sides of the DC power supply,
respectively. The input and output voltage connections are shown as single conductors, because
it is assumed that all signal voltages are referenced to a common connection in the circuit called
ground. Often (but not always!), one pole of the DC power supply, either positive or negative,
is that ground reference point. A practical amplifier circuit (showing the input voltage source,
load resistance, and power supply) might look like this:
+V
+
Input Output 30 V
Vinput -
Rload
-V
Without having to analyze the actual transistor design of the amplifier, you can readily
discern the whole circuit’s function: to take an input signal (Vin ), amplify it, and drive a load
8.2. SINGLE-ENDED AND DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIERS 355
resistance (Rload ). To complete the above schematic, it would be good to specify the gains of
that amplifier (AV , AI , AP ) and the Q (bias) point for any needed mathematical analysis.
If it is necessary for an amplifier to be able to output true AC voltage (reversing polarity)
to the load, a split DC power supply may be used, whereby the ground point is electrically
”centered” between +V and -V. Sometimes the split power supply configuration is referred to
as a dual power supply.
+V
+
Input Output 15 V
Vinput -
Rload
-V
+
15 V
-
The amplifier is still being supplied with 30 volts overall, but with the split voltage DC
power supply, the output voltage across the load resistor can now swing from a theoretical
maximum of +15 volts to -15 volts, instead of +30 volts to 0 volts. This is an easy way to
get true alternating current (AC) output from an amplifier without resorting to capacitive or
inductive (transformer) coupling on the output. The peak-to-peak amplitude of this amplifier’s
output between cutoff and saturation remains unchanged.
By signifying a transistor amplifier within a larger circuit with a triangle symbol, we ease
the task of studying and analyzing more complex amplifiers and circuits. One of these more
complex amplifier types that we’ll be studying is called the differential amplifier. Unlike nor-
mal amplifiers, which amplify a single input signal (often called single-ended amplifiers), differ-
ential amplifiers amplify the voltage difference between two input signals. Using the simplified
triangle amplifier symbol, a differential amplifier looks like this:
Differential amplifier
+Vsupply
Input1 −
Output
Input2 +
-Vsupply
The two input leads can be seen on the left-hand side of the triangular amplifier symbol, the
output lead on the right-hand side, and the +V and -V power supply leads on top and bottom.
As with the other example, all voltages are referenced to the circuit’s ground point. Notice that
one input lead is marked with a (-) and the other is marked with a (+). Because a differential
amplifier amplifies the difference in voltage between the two inputs, each input influences the
output voltage in opposite ways. Consider the following table of input/output voltages for a
differential amplifier with a voltage gain of 4:
(-) Input1 0 0 0 0 1 2.5 7 3 -3 -2
(+) Input2 0 1 2.5 7 0 0 0 3 3 -7
Output 0 4 10 28 -4 -10 -28 0 24 -20
Voltage output equation: Vout = AV(Input2 - Input1)

or
Vout = AV(Input(+) - Input(-))
An increasingly positive voltage on the (+) input tends to drive the output voltage more
positive, and an increasingly positive voltage on the (-) input tends to drive the output voltage
more negative. Likewise, an increasingly negative voltage on the (+) input tends to drive the
output negative as well, and an increasingly negative voltage on the (-) input does just the
opposite. Because of this relationship between inputs and polarities, the (-) input is commonly
referred to as the inverting input and the (+) as the noninverting input.
It may be helpful to think of a differential amplifier as a variable voltage source controlled
by a sensitive voltmeter, as such:
+V
-
-
G
+
+ -V
Bear in mind that the above illustration is only a model to aid in understanding the behav-
ior of a differential amplifier. It is not a realistic schematic of its actual design. The ”G” symbol
represents a galvanometer, a sensitive voltmeter movement. The potentiometer connected be-
tween +V and -V provides a variable voltage at the output pin (with reference to one side of
the DC power supply), that variable voltage set by the reading of the galvanometer. It must be
understood that any load powered by the output of a differential amplifier gets its current from
the DC power source (battery), not the input signal. The input signal (to the galvanometer)
merely controls the output.
This concept may at first be confusing to students new to amplifiers. With all these polar-
ities and polarity markings (- and +) around, its easy to get confused and not know what the
output of a differential amplifier will be. To address this potential confusion, here’s a simple
rule to remember:
8.2. SINGLE-ENDED AND DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIERS 357
- −
Differential +
input voltage Output
+ +
- voltage
+ −
Differential -
input voltage Output
- + voltage
+
When the polarity of the differential voltage matches the markings for inverting and nonin-
verting inputs, the output will be positive. When the polarity of the differential voltage clashes
with the input markings, the output will be negative. This bears some similarity to the math-
ematical sign displayed by digital voltmeters based on input voltage polarity. The red test lead
of the voltmeter (often called the ”positive” lead because of the color red’s popular association
with the positive side of a power supply in electronic wiring) is more positive than the black,
the meter will display a positive voltage figure, and vice versa:
blk -
-
Differential + 6.00 V
input voltage 6V Digital Voltmeter
+ red +
blk -
+
Differential - 6.00 V
input voltage 6V Digital Voltmeter
- red +
Just as a voltmeter will only display the voltage between its two test leads, an ideal differ-
ential amplifier only amplifies the potential difference between its two input connections, not
the voltage between any one of those connections and ground. The output polarity of a differ-
ential amplifier, just like the signed indication of a digital voltmeter, depends on the relative
polarities of the differential voltage between the two input connections.
If the input voltages to this amplifier represented mathematical quantities (as is the case
within analog computer circuitry), or physical process measurements (as is the case within
analog electronic instrumentation circuitry), you can see how a device such as a differential
amplifier could be very useful. We could use it to compare two quantities to see which is
greater (by the polarity of the output voltage), or perhaps we could compare the difference
between two quantities (such as the level of liquid in two tanks) and flag an alarm (based on the
absolute value of the amplifier output) if the difference became too great. In basic automatic
control circuitry, the quantity being controlled (called the process variable) is compared with
a target value (called the setpoint), and decisions are made as to how to act based on the
discrepancy between these two values. The first step in electronically controlling such a scheme
is to amplify the difference between the process variable and the setpoint with a differential
amplifier. In simple controller designs, the output of this differential amplifier can be directly
utilized to drive the final control element (such as a valve) and keep the process reasonably
close to setpoint.
• REVIEW:
• A ”shorthand” symbol for an electronic amplifier is a triangle, the wide end signifying
the input side and the narrow end signifying the output. Power supply lines are often
omitted in the drawing for simplicity.
• To facilitate true AC output from an amplifier, we can use what is called a split or dual
power supply, with two DC voltage sources connected in series with the middle point
grounded, giving a positive voltage to ground (+V) and a negative voltage to ground (-V).
Split power supplies like this are frequently used in differential amplifier circuits.
• Most amplifiers have one input and one output. Differential amplifiers have two inputs
and one output, the output signal being proportional to the difference in signals between
the two inputs.
• The voltage output of a differential amplifier is determined by the following equation:

Vout = AV (Vnoninv - Vinv )
8.3 The ”operational” amplifier

Long before the advent of digital electronic technology, computers were built to electronically
perform calculations by employing voltages and currents to represent numerical quantities.
This was especially useful for the simulation of physical processes. A variable voltage, for in-
stance, might represent velocity or force in a physical system. Through the use of resistive
voltage dividers and voltage amplifiers, the mathematical operations of division and multipli-
cation could be easily performed on these signals.
The reactive properties of capacitors and inductors lend themselves well to the simulation
of variables related by calculus functions. Remember how the current through a capacitor
was a function of the voltage’s rate of change, and how that rate of change was designated
in calculus as the derivative? Well, if voltage across a capacitor were made to represent the
velocity of an object, the current through the capacitor would represent the force required to
accelerate or decelerate that object, the capacitor’s capacitance representing the object’s mass:
iC = C dv F = m dv
dt dt
Where, Where,
iC = Instantaneous current F = Force applied to object
through capacitor
C = Capacitance in farads m = Mass of object
dv = Rate of change of dv = Rate of change of
dt voltage over time dt velocity over time
8.3. THE ”OPERATIONAL” AMPLIFIER 359
This analog electronic computation of the calculus derivative function is technically known
as differentiation, and it is a natural function of a capacitor’s current in relation to the voltage
applied across it. Note that this circuit requires no ”programming” to perform this relatively
advanced mathematical function as a digital computer would.
Electronic circuits are very easy and inexpensive to create compared to complex physical
systems, so this kind of analog electronic simulation was widely used in the research and
development of mechanical systems. For realistic simulation, though, amplifier circuits of high
accuracy and easy configurability were needed in these early computers.
It was found in the course of analog computer design that differential amplifiers with ex-
tremely high voltage gains met these requirements of accuracy and configurability better than
single-ended amplifiers with custom-designed gains. Using simple components connected to
the inputs and output of the high-gain differential amplifier, virtually any gain and any func-
tion could be obtained from the circuit, overall, without adjusting or modifying the internal
circuitry of the amplifier itself. These high-gain differential amplifiers came to be known as
operational amplifiers, or op-amps, because of their application in analog computers’ mathe-
matical operations.
Modern op-amps, like the popular model 741, are high-performance, inexpensive integrated
circuits. Their input impedances are quite high, the inputs drawing currents in the range of
half a microamp (maximum) for the 741, and far less for op-amps utilizing field-effect input
transistors. Output impedance is typically quite low, about 75 Ω for the model 741, and many
models have built-in output short circuit protection, meaning that their outputs can be directly
shorted to ground without causing harm to the internal circuitry. With direct coupling between
op-amps’ internal transistor stages, they can amplify DC signals just as well as AC (up to
certain maximum voltage-risetime limits). It would cost far more in money and time to design
a comparable discrete-transistor amplifier circuit to match that kind of performance, unless
high power capability was required. For these reasons, op-amps have all but obsoleted discrete-
transistor signal amplifiers in many applications.
The following diagram shows the pin connections for single op-amps (741 included) when
housed in an 8-pin DIP (Dual Inline Package) integrated circuit:
Typical 8-pin "DIP" op-amp

integrated circuit
No +V Offset
connection Output null
8 7 6 5
+
1 2 3 4
Offset -V
null
Some models of op-amp come two to a package, including the popular models TL082 and
1458. These are called ”dual” units, and are typically housed in an 8-pin DIP package as well,
with the following pin connections:
Dual op-amp in 8-pin DIP
+V
8 7 6 5
+
+
1 2 3 4
-V
Operational amplifiers are also available four to a package, usually in 14-pin DIP arrange-
ments. Unfortunately, pin assignments aren’t as standard for these ”quad” op-amps as they
are for the ”dual” or single units. Consult the manufacturer datasheet(s) for details.
Practical operational amplifier voltage gains are in the range of 200,000 or more, which
makes them almost useless as an analog differential amplifier by themselves. For an op-amp
with a voltage gain (AV ) of 200,000 and a maximum output voltage swing of +15V/-15V, all
it would take is a differential input voltage of 75 µV (microvolts) to drive it to saturation or
cutoff! Before we take a look at how external components are used to bring the gain down to a
reasonable level, let’s investigate applications for the ”bare” op-amp by itself.
One application is called the comparator. For all practical purposes, we can say that the
output of an op-amp will be saturated fully positive if the (+) input is more positive than the (-)
input, and saturated fully negative if the (+) input is less positive than the (-) input. In other
words, an op-amp’s extremely high voltage gain makes it useful as a device to compare two
voltages and change output voltage states when one input exceeds the other in magnitude.
+V
Vin − LED
-V
In the above circuit, we have an op-amp connected as a comparator, comparing the input
voltage with a reference voltage set by the potentiometer (R1 ). If Vin drops below the voltage
set by R1 , the op-amp’s output will saturate to +V, thereby lighting up the LED. Otherwise, if
Vin is above the reference voltage, the LED will remain off. If Vin is a voltage signal produced
by a measuring instrument, this comparator circuit could function as a ”low” alarm, with the
trip-point set by R1 . Instead of an LED, the op-amp output could drive a relay, a transistor, an
SCR, or any other device capable of switching power to a load such as a solenoid valve, to take
action in the event of a low alarm.
Another application for the comparator circuit shown is a square-wave converter. Suppose
that the input voltage applied to the inverting (-) input was an AC sine wave rather than a
stable DC voltage. In that case, the output voltage would transition between opposing states
of saturation whenever the input voltage was equal to the reference voltage produced by the
potentiometer. The result would be a square wave:
+V
−
Vin Vout
+
-V
Vin Vout
Adjustments to the potentiometer setting would change the reference voltage applied to
the noninverting (+) input, which would change the points at which the sine wave would cross,
changing the on/off times, or duty cycle of the square wave:
+V
−
Vin Vout
+
-V
Vin Vout
It should be evident that the AC input voltage would not have to be a sine wave in particular
for this circuit to perform the same function. The input voltage could be a triangle wave,
sawtooth wave, or any other sort of wave that ramped smoothly from positive to negative to
positive again. This sort of comparator circuit is very useful for creating square waves of
varying duty cycle. This technique is sometimes referred to as pulse-width modulation, or
PWM (varying, or modulating a waveform according to a controlling signal, in this case the
signal produced by the potentiometer).
Another comparator application is that of the bargraph driver. If we had several op-amps
connected as comparators, each with its own reference voltage connected to the inverting input,
but each one monitoring the same voltage signal on their noninverting inputs, we could build a
bargraph-style meter such as what is commonly seen on the face of stereo tuners and graphic
equalizers. As the signal voltage (representing radio signal strength or audio sound level)
increased, each comparator would ”turn on” in sequence and send power to its respective LED.
With each comparator switching ”on” at a different level of audio sound, the number of LED’s
illuminated would indicate how strong the signal was.
+V
Simple bargraph driver circuit
− LED4
− LED3
− LED2
− LED1
+
-V
-V
Vin
In the circuit shown above, LED1 would be the first to light up as the input voltage increased
in a positive direction. As the input voltage continued to increase, the other LED’s would
illuminate in succession, until all were lit.
This very same technology is used in some analog-to-digital signal converters, namely the
flash converter, to translate an analog signal quantity into a series of on/off voltages represent-
ing a digital number.
• REVIEW:
• A triangle shape is the generic symbol for an amplifier circuit, the wide end signifying
the input and the narrow end signifying the output.
• Unless otherwise specified, all voltages in amplifier circuits are referenced to a common
ground point, usually connected to one terminal of the power supply. This way, we can
speak of a certain amount of voltage being ”on” a single wire, while realizing that voltage
is always measured between two points.
• A differential amplifier is one amplifying the voltage difference between two signal inputs.
In such a circuit, one input tends to drive the output voltage to the same polarity of the
input signal, while the other input does just the opposite. Consequently, the first input is
called the noninverting (+) input and the second is called the inverting (-) input.
• An operational amplifier (or op-amp for short) is a differential amplifier with an extremely
high voltage gain (AV = 200,000 or more). Its name hails from its original use in analog
computer circuitry (performing mathematical operations).
• Op-amps typically have very high input impedances and fairly low output impedances.
• Sometimes op-amps are used as signal comparators, operating in full cutoff or saturation
mode depending on which input (inverting or noninverting) has the greatest voltage.
Comparators are useful in detecting ”greater-than” signal conditions (comparing one to
the other).
• One comparator application is called the pulse-width modulator, and is made by compar-
ing a sine-wave AC signal against a DC reference voltage. As the DC reference voltage
is adjusted, the square-wave output of the comparator changes its duty cycle (positive
versus negative times). Thus, the DC reference voltage controls, or modulates the pulse
width of the output voltage.
8.4 Negative feedback

If we connect the output of an op-amp to its inverting input and apply a voltage signal to
the noninverting input, we find that the output voltage of the op-amp closely follows that
input voltage (I’ve neglected to draw in the power supply, +V/-V wires, and ground symbol for
simplicity):
−
Vout
Vin +
As Vin increases, Vout will increase in accordance with the differential gain. However, as
Vout increases, that output voltage is fed back to the inverting input, thereby acting to decrease
the voltage differential between inputs, which acts to bring the output down. What will happen
for any given voltage input is that the op-amp will output a voltage very nearly equal to Vin ,
but just low enough so that there’s enough voltage difference left between Vin and the (-) input
to be amplified to generate the output voltage.
The circuit will quickly reach a point of stability (known as equilibrium in physics), where
the output voltage is just the right amount to maintain the right amount of differential, which
in turn produces the right amount of output voltage. Taking the op-amp’s output voltage and
coupling it to the inverting input is a technique known as negative feedback, and it is the key
to having a self-stabilizing system (this is true not only of op-amps, but of any dynamic system
in general). This stability gives the op-amp the capacity to work in its linear (active) mode, as
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8.4. NEGATIVE FEEDBACK 365
opposed to merely being saturated fully ”on” or ”off ” as it was when used as a comparator, with
no feedback at all.
Because the op-amp’s gain is so high, the voltage on the inverting input can be maintained
almost equal to Vin . Let’s say that our op-amp has a differential voltage gain of 200,000. If Vin
equals 6 volts, the output voltage will be 5.999970000149999 volts. This creates just enough
differential voltage (6 volts - 5.999970000149999 volts = 29.99985 µV) to cause 5.999970000149999
volts to be manifested at the output terminal, and the system holds there in balance. As you
can see, 29.99985 µV is not a lot of differential, so for practical calculations, we can assume
that the differential voltage between the two input wires is held by negative feedback exactly
at 0 volts.
The effects of negative feedback
−
29.99985 µV
+
5.999970000149999 V
6V
The effects of negative feedback

(rounded figures)
−
0V
+ 6V
6V
One great advantage to using an op-amp with negative feedback is that the actual voltage
gain of the op-amp doesn’t matter, so long as its very large. If the op-amp’s differential gain
were 250,000 instead of 200,000, all it would mean is that the output voltage would hold just
a little closer to Vin (less differential voltage needed between inputs to generate the required
output). In the circuit just illustrated, the output voltage would still be (for all practical pur-
poses) equal to the non-inverting input voltage. Op-amp gains, therefore, do not have to be
precisely set by the factory in order for the circuit designer to build an amplifier circuit with
precise gain. Negative feedback makes the system self-correcting. The above circuit as a whole
will simply follow the input voltage with a stable gain of 1.
Going back to our differential amplifier model, we can think of the operational amplifier
as being a variable voltage source controlled by an extremely sensitive null detector, the kind
of meter movement or other sensitive measurement device used in bridge circuits to detect a
condition of balance (zero volts). The ”potentiometer” inside the op-amp creating the variable
voltage will move to whatever position it must to ”balance” the inverting and noninverting
input voltages so that the ”null detector” has zero voltage across it:
+V
-
6V
0V null
+ -V
6V
As the ”potentiometer” will move to provide an output voltage necessary to satisfy the ”null
detector” at an ”indication” of zero volts, the output voltage becomes equal to the input voltage:
in this case, 6 volts. If the input voltage changes at all, the ”potentiometer” inside the op-amp
will change position to hold the ”null detector” in balance (indicating zero volts), resulting in
an output voltage approximately equal to the input voltage at all times.
This will hold true within the range of voltages that the op-amp can output. With a power
supply of +15V/-15V, and an ideal amplifier that can swing its output voltage just as far, it
will faithfully ”follow” the input voltage between the limits of +15 volts and -15 volts. For this
reason, the above circuit is known as a voltage follower. Like its one-transistor counterpart,
the common-collector (”emitter-follower”) amplifier, it has a voltage gain of 1, a high input
impedance, a low output impedance, and a high current gain. Voltage followers are also known
as voltage buffers, and are used to boost the current-sourcing ability of voltage signals too weak
(too high of source impedance) to directly drive a load. The op-amp model shown in the last
illustration depicts how the output voltage is essentially isolated from the input voltage, so
that current on the output pin is not supplied by the input voltage source at all, but rather
from the power supply powering the op-amp.
It should be mentioned that many op-amps cannot swing their output voltages exactly to
+V/-V power supply rail voltages. The model 741 is one of those that cannot: when saturated,
its output voltage peaks within about one volt of the +V power supply voltage and within about
2 volts of the -V power supply voltage. Therefore, with a split power supply of +15/-15 volts,
a 741 op-amp’s output may go as high as +14 volts or as low as -13 volts (approximately), but
no further. This is due to its bipolar transistor design. These two voltage limits are known
8.5. DIVIDED FEEDBACK 367
as the positive saturation voltage and negative saturation voltage, respectively. Other op-amps,
such as the model 3130 with field-effect transistors in the final output stage, have the ability to
swing their output voltages within millivolts of either power supply rail voltage. Consequently,
their positive and negative saturation voltages are practically equal to the supply voltages.
• REVIEW:
• Connecting the output of an op-amp to its inverting (-) input is called negative feedback.
This term can be broadly applied to any dynamic system where the output signal is ”fed
back” to the input somehow so as to reach a point of equilibrium (balance).
• When the output of an op-amp is directly connected to its inverting (-) input, a voltage
follower will be created. Whatever signal voltage is impressed upon the noninverting (+)
input will be seen on the output.
• An op-amp with negative feedback will try to drive its output voltage to whatever level
necessary so that the differential voltage between the two inputs is practically zero. The
higher the op-amp differential gain, the closer that differential voltage will be to zero.
• Some op-amps cannot produce an output voltage equal to their supply voltage when sat-
urated. The model 741 is one of these. The upper and lower limits of an op-amp’s output
voltage swing are known as positive saturation voltage and negative saturation voltage,
respectively.
8.5 Divided feedback

If we add a voltage divider to the negative feedback wiring so that only a fraction of the output
voltage is fed back to the inverting input instead of the full amount, the output voltage will be
a multiple of the input voltage (please bear in mind that the power supply connections to the
op-amp have been omitted once again for simplicity’s sake):
The effects of divided negative feedback
6 mA R1 6V R2 6 mA
1 kΩ 1 kΩ
−
6V
0V 12 V
+
All voltage figures shown in

reference to ground
6V
If R1 and R2 are both equal and Vin is 6 volts, the op-amp will output whatever voltage is
needed to drop 6 volts across R1 (to make the inverting input voltage equal to 6 volts, as well,
keeping the voltage difference between the two inputs equal to zero). With the 2:1 voltage
divider of R1 and R2 , this will take 12 volts at the output of the op-amp to accomplish.
Another way of analyzing this circuit is to start by calculating the magnitude and direction
of current through R1 , knowing the voltage on either side (and therefore, by subtraction, the
voltage across R1 ), and R1 ’s resistance. Since the left-hand side of R1 is connected to ground (0
volts) and the right-hand side is at a potential of 6 volts (due to the negative feedback holding
that point equal to Vin ), we can see that we have 6 volts across R1 . This gives us 6 mA of current
through R1 from left to right. Because we know that both inputs of the op-amp have extremely
high impedance, we can safely assume they won’t add or subtract any current through the
divider. In other words, we can treat R1 and R2 as being in series with each other: all of the
electrons flowing through R1 must flow through R2 . Knowing the current through R2 and the
resistance of R2 , we can calculate the voltage across R2 (6 volts), and its polarity. Counting up
voltages from ground (0 volts) to the right-hand side of R2 , we arrive at 12 volts on the output.
Upon examining the last illustration, one might wonder, ”where does that 6 mA of current
go?” The last illustration doesn’t show the entire current path, but in reality it comes from the
negative side of the DC power supply, through ground, through R1 , through R2 , through the
output pin of the op-amp, and then back to the positive side of the DC power supply through the
output transistor(s) of the op-amp. Using the null detector/potentiometer model of the op-amp,
the current path looks like this:
R1 R2
1 kΩ 1 kΩ
+V
-
null
+ -V
6V
The 6 volt signal source does not have to supply any current for the circuit: it merely
commands the op-amp to balance voltage between the inverting (-) and noninverting (+) input
pins, and in so doing produce an output voltage that is twice the input due to the dividing effect
of the two 1 kΩ resistors.
We can change the voltage gain of this circuit, overall, just by adjusting the values of R1
and R2 (changing the ratio of output voltage that is fed back to the inverting input). Gain can
be calculated by the following formula:
8.5. DIVIDED FEEDBACK 369
R2
AV = +1
R1
Note that the voltage gain for this design of amplifier circuit can never be less than 1. If
we were to lower R2 to a value of zero ohms, our circuit would be essentially identical to the
voltage follower, with the output directly connected to the inverting input. Since the voltage
follower has a gain of 1, this sets the lower gain limit of the noninverting amplifier. However,
the gain can be increased far beyond 1, by increasing R2 in proportion to R1 .
Also note that the polarity of the output matches that of the input, just as with a voltage
follower. A positive input voltage results in a positive output voltage, and vice versa (with
respect to ground). For this reason, this circuit is referred to as a noninverting amplifier.
Just as with the voltage follower, we see that the differential gain of the op-amp is irrele-
vant, so long as its very high. The voltages and currents in this circuit would hardly change
at all if the op-amp’s voltage gain were 250,000 instead of 200,000. This stands as a stark con-
trast to single-transistor amplifier circuit designs, where the Beta of the individual transistor
greatly influenced the overall gains of the amplifier. With negative feedback, we have a self-
correcting system that amplifies voltage according to the ratios set by the feedback resistors,
not the gains internal to the op-amp.
Let’s see what happens if we retain negative feedback through a voltage divider, but apply
the input voltage at a different location:
6 mA R1 0V R2 6 mA
1 kΩ 1 kΩ
−
6V
-6 V
+
0V
All voltage figures shown in
reference to ground
By grounding the noninverting input, the negative feedback from the output seeks to hold
the inverting input’s voltage at 0 volts, as well. For this reason, the inverting input is referred
to in this circuit as a virtual ground, being held at ground potential (0 volts) by the feedback,
yet not directly connected to (electrically common with) ground. The input voltage this time
is applied to the left-hand end of the voltage divider (R1 = R2 = 1 kΩ again), so the output
voltage must swing to -6 volts in order to balance the middle at ground potential (0 volts).
Using the same techniques as with the noninverting amplifier, we can analyze this circuit’s
operation by determining current magnitudes and directions, starting with R1 , and continuing
on to determining the output voltage.
We can change the overall voltage gain of this circuit, overall, just by adjusting the values
of R1 and R2 (changing the ratio of output voltage that is fed back to the inverting input). Gain
can be calculated by the following formula:
AV = − 2
R
R1
Note that this circuit’s voltage gain can be less than 1, depending solely on the ratio of R2
to R1 . Also note that the output voltage is always the opposite polarity of the input voltage.
A positive input voltage results in a negative output voltage, and vice versa (with respect to
ground). For this reason, this circuit is referred to as an inverting amplifier. Sometimes, the
gain formula contains a negative sign (before the R2 /R1 fraction) to reflect this reversal of
polarities.
These two amplifier circuits we’ve just investigated serve the purpose of multiplying or
dividing the magnitude of the input voltage signal. This is exactly how the mathematical
operations of multiplication and division are typically handled in analog computer circuitry.
• REVIEW:
• By connecting the inverting (-) input of an op-amp directly to the output, we get negative
feedback, which gives us a voltage follower circuit. By connecting that negative feedback
through a resistive voltage divider (feeding back a fraction of the output voltage to the
inverting input), the output voltage becomes a multiple of the input voltage.
• A negative-feedback op-amp circuit with the input signal going to the noninverting (+)
input is called a noninverting amplifier. The output voltage will be the same polarity as
the input. Voltage gain is given by the following equation: AV = (R2 /R1 ) + 1
• A negative-feedback op-amp circuit with the input signal going to the ”bottom” of the
resistive voltage divider, with the noninverting (+) input grounded, is called an inverting
amplifier. Its output voltage will be the opposite polarity of the input. Voltage gain is
given by the following equation: AV = -R2 /R1
8.6 An analogy for divided feedback
A helpful analogy for understanding divided feedback amplifier circuits is that of a mechanical
lever, with relative motion of the lever’s ends representing change in input and output voltages,
and the fulcrum (pivot point) representing the location of the ground point, real or virtual.
Take for example the following noninverting op-amp circuit. We know from the prior section
that the voltage gain of a noninverting amplifier configuration can never be less than unity (1).
If we draw a lever diagram next to the amplifier schematic, with the distance between fulcrum
and lever ends representative of resistor values, the motion of the lever will signify changes in
voltage at the input and output terminals of the amplifier:

8.6. AN ANALOGY FOR DIVIDED FEEDBACK 371
Vout
R1 R2
Vin Vout = 2(Vin)
R1 R2
1 kΩ 1 kΩ
−
0V
+ Vout
Vin
Physicists call this type of lever, with the input force (effort) applied between the fulcrum
and output (load), a third-class lever. It is characterized by an output displacement (motion) at
least as large than the input displacement – a ”gain” of at least 1 – and in the same direction.
Applying a positive input voltage to this op-amp circuit is analogous to displacing the ”input”
point on the lever upward:
Vout
Vin
Vout = 2(Vin)
R1 R2
1 kΩ 1 kΩ
−
0V +
+ Vout
-
+
Vin
-
Due to the displacement-amplifying characteristics of the lever, the ”output” point will move
twice as far as the ”input” point, and in the same direction. In the electronic circuit, the output
voltage will equal twice the input, with the same polarity. Applying a negative input voltage is
analogous to moving the lever downward from its level ”zero” position, resulting in an amplified
output displacement that is also negative:
Vin
Vout
R1 R2
1 kΩ 1 kΩ Vout = 2(Vin)
−
0V -
+ Vout
+
-
Vin
+
If we alter the resistor ratio R2 /R1 , we change the gain of the op-amp circuit. In lever terms,
this means moving the input point in relation to the fulcrum and lever end, which similarly
changes the displacement ”gain” of the machine:
Vout
R1 R2
Vin Vout = 4(Vin)
R1 R2
1 kΩ 3 kΩ
−
0V
+ Vout
Vin
Now, any input signal will become amplified by a factor of four instead of by a factor of two:
Vout
Vin
Vout = 4(Vin)
R1 R2
1 kΩ 3 kΩ
−
0V +
+ Vout
-
+
Vin
-
Inverting op-amp circuits may be modeled using the lever analogy as well. With the invert-
ing configuration, the ground point of the feedback voltage divider is the op-amp’s inverting
input with the input to the left and the output to the right. This is mechanically equivalent to
a first-class lever, where the input force (effort) is on the opposite side of the fulcrum from the
output (load):
R1 R2
Vin Vout
R1 R2
Vout = -(Vin)
Vin 1 kΩ 1 kΩ
−
+ Vout
With equal-value resistors (equal-lengths of lever on each side of the fulcrum), the output
voltage (displacement) will be equal in magnitude to the input voltage (displacement), but of
the opposite polarity (direction). A positive input results in a negative output:
Vout
Vin
R1 R2
Vout = -(Vin)
+
1 kΩ 1 kΩ
Vin −
- -
+ Vout
+
Changing the resistor ratio R2 /R1 changes the gain of the amplifier circuit, just as changing
the fulcrum position on the lever changes its mechanical displacement ”gain.” Consider the
following example, where R2 is made twice as large as R1 :
Vout
Vin
R1 R2
Vout = -2(Vin)
+
1 kΩ 2 kΩ
Vin −
- -
+ Vout
+
With the inverting amplifier configuration, though, gains of less than 1 are possible, just
as with first-class levers. Reversing R2 and R1 values is analogous to moving the fulcrum to
its complementary position on the lever: one-third of the way from the output end. There, the
output displacement will be one-half the input displacement:
Vout
Vin
R1 R2
Vout = -0.5(Vin)
+
2 kΩ 1 kΩ
Vin −
- -
+ Vout
+
8.7 Voltage-to-current signal conversion
In instrumentation circuitry, DC signals are often used as analog representations of physical

measurements such as temperature, pressure, flow, weight, and motion. Most commonly, DC
current signals are used in preference to DC voltage signals, because current signals are ex-
actly equal in magnitude throughout the series circuit loop carrying current from the source
(measuring device) to the load (indicator, recorder, or controller), whereas voltage signals in
a parallel circuit may vary from one end to the other due to resistive wire losses. Further-
more, current-sensing instruments typically have low impedances (while voltage-sensing in-
struments have high impedances), which gives current-sensing instruments greater electrical
noise immunity.
In order to use current as an analog representation of a physical quantity, we have to have

some way of generating a precise amount of current within the signal circuit. But how do
we generate a precise current signal when we might not know the resistance of the loop?
The answer is to use an amplifier designed to hold current to a prescribed value, applying
as much or as little voltage as necessary to the load circuit to maintain that value. Such an
amplifier performs the function of a current source. An op-amp with negative feedback is a
perfect candidate for such a task:
8.7. VOLTAGE-TO-CURRENT SIGNAL CONVERSION 377
250 Ω 4 to 20 mA
-
Rload
− +
+ 4 to 20 mA
+
Vin 1 to 5 volt signal range
-
The input voltage to this circuit is assumed to be coming from some type of physical trans-
ducer/amplifier arrangement, calibrated to produce 1 volt at 0 percent of physical measure-
ment, and 5 volts at 100 percent of physical measurement. The standard analog current signal
range is 4 mA to 20 mA, signifying 0% to 100% of measurement range, respectively. At 5 volts
input, the 250 Ω (precision) resistor will have 5 volts applied across it, resulting in 20 mA of
current in the large loop circuit (with Rload ). It does not matter what resistance value Rload is,
or how much wire resistance is present in that large loop, so long as the op-amp has a high
enough power supply voltage to output the voltage necessary to get 20 mA flowing through
Rload . The 250 Ω resistor establishes the relationship between input voltage and output cur-
rent, in this case creating the equivalence of 1-5 V in / 4-20 mA out. If we were converting the
1-5 volt input signal to a 10-50 mA output signal (an older, obsolete instrumentation standard
for industry), we’d use a 100 Ω precision resistor instead.
Another name for this circuit is transconductance amplifier. In electronics, transconduc-
tance is the mathematical ratio of current change divided by voltage change (∆I / ∆ V), and
it is measured in the unit of Siemens, the same unit used to express conductance (the mathe-
matical reciprocal of resistance: current/voltage). In this circuit, the transconductance ratio is
fixed by the value of the 250 Ω resistor, giving a linear current-out/voltage-in relationship.
• REVIEW:
• In industry, DC current signals are often used in preference to DC voltage signals as

analog representations of physical quantities. Current in a series circuit is absolutely
equal at all points in that circuit regardless of wiring resistance, whereas voltage in a
parallel-connected circuit may vary from end to end because of wire resistance, making
current-signaling more accurate from the ”transmitting” to the ”receiving” instrument.
• Voltage signals are relatively easy to produce directly from transducer devices, whereas
accurate current signals are not. Op-amps can be used to ”convert” a voltage signal into
a current signal quite easily. In this mode, the op-amp will output whatever voltage is
necessary to maintain current through the signaling circuit at the proper value.
8.8 Averager and summer circuits
If we take three equal resistors and connect one end of each to a common point, then apply
three input voltages (one to each of the resistors’ free ends), the voltage seen at the common
point will be the mathematical average of the three.
"Passive averager" circuit
R1
V1 V2 V3
R2
R1 + R2 + R3
Vout =
R3 1 1 1
R1 + R2 + R3
V1 V2 V3 With equal value resistors:

V1 + V2 + V3
Vout =
3
This circuit is really nothing more than a practical application of Millman’s Theorem:
R1 R2 R3 V1 V2 V3
R1 + R2 + R3
Vout =
1 1 1
V1 V2 V3 R1 + R2 + R3
This circuit is commonly known as a passive averager, because it generates an average volt-
age with non-amplifying components. Passive simply means that it is an unamplified circuit.
The large equation to the right of the averager circuit comes from Millman’s Theorem, which
describes the voltage produced by multiple voltage sources connected together through indi-
vidual resistances. Since the three resistors in the averager circuit are equal to each other, we
can simplify Millman’s formula by writing R1 , R2 , and R3 simply as R (one, equal resistance
instead of three individual resistances):
8.8. AVERAGER AND SUMMER CIRCUITS 379
V1 V2 V3
R + R + R
Vout =
1 1 1
R + R + R
V1 + V2 + V3
R
Vout =
3
R
V1 + V2 + V3
Vout =
3
If we take a passive averager and use it to connect three input voltages into an op-amp
amplifier circuit with a gain of 3, we can turn this averaging function into an addition function.
The result is called a noninverting summer circuit:
1 kΩ 2 kΩ
R −
V1
R Vout
V2 +
R
V3
With a voltage divider composed of a 2 kΩ / 1 kΩ combination, the noninverting amplifier

circuit will have a voltage gain of 3. By taking the voltage from the passive averager, which
is the sum of V1 , V2 , and V3 divided by 3, and multiplying that average by 3, we arrive at an
output voltage equal to the sum of V1 , V2 , and V3 :
V1 + V2 + V3
Vout = 3
3
Vout = V1 + V2 + V3
Much the same can be done with an inverting op-amp amplifier, using a passive averager
as part of the voltage divider feedback circuit. The result is called an inverting summer circuit:
R I1
V1
R 0V R I1 + I2 + I3
V2
I2
R −
V3
I3 Vout
+
0V
Now, with the right-hand sides of the three averaging resistors connected to the virtual
ground point of the op-amp’s inverting input, Millman’s Theorem no longer directly applies as
it did before. The voltage at the virtual ground is now held at 0 volts by the op-amp’s negative
feedback, whereas before it was free to float to the average value of V1 , V2 , and V3 . However,
with all resistor values equal to each other, the currents through each of the three resistors
will be proportional to their respective input voltages. Since those three currents will add at
the virtual ground node, the algebraic sum of those currents through the feedback resistor will
produce a voltage at Vout equal to V1 + V2 + V3 , except with reversed polarity. The reversal in
polarity is what makes this circuit an inverting summer:
Vout = -(V1 + V2 + V3)
Summer (adder) circuits are quite useful in analog computer design, just as multiplier and
divider circuits would be. Again, it is the extremely high differential gain of the op-amp which
allows us to build these useful circuits with a bare minimum of components.
• REVIEW:
• A summer circuit is one that sums, or adds, multiple analog voltage signals together.
There are two basic varieties of op-amp summer circuits: noninverting and inverting.
8.9 Building a differential amplifier
An op-amp with no feedback is already a differential amplifier, amplifying the voltage differ-
ence between the two inputs. However, its gain cannot be controlled, and it is generally too high
to be of any practical use. So far, our application of negative feedback to op-amps has resulting
in the practical loss of one of the inputs, the resulting amplifier only good for amplifying a sin-
gle voltage signal input. With a little ingenuity, however, we can construct an op-amp circuit
maintaining both voltage inputs, yet with a controlled gain set by external resistors.
8.9. BUILDING A DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER 381
R R
V1
−
Vout
+
R R
V2
If all the resistor values are equal, this amplifier will have a differential voltage gain of 1.
The analysis of this circuit is essentially the same as that of an inverting amplifier, except that
the noninverting input (+) of the op-amp is at a voltage equal to a fraction of V2 , rather than
being connected directly to ground. As would stand to reason, V2 functions as the noninverting
input and V1 functions as the inverting input of the final amplifier circuit. Therefore:
Vout = V2 - V1
If we wanted to provide a differential gain of anything other than 1, we would have to
adjust the resistances in both upper and lower voltage dividers, necessitating multiple resistor
changes and balancing between the two dividers for symmetrical operation. This is not always
practical, for obvious reasons.
Another limitation of this amplifier design is the fact that its input impedances are rather
low compared to that of some other op-amp configurations, most notably the noninverting
(single-ended input) amplifier. Each input voltage source has to drive current through a re-
sistance, which constitutes far less impedance than the bare input of an op-amp alone. The
solution to this problem, fortunately, is quite simple. All we need to do is ”buffer” each input
voltage signal through a voltage follower like this:
V1 +
R R
−
−
Vout
+
− R R
V2 +
Now the V1 and V2 input lines are connected straight to the inputs of two voltage-follower
op-amps, giving very high impedance. The two op-amps on the left now handle the driving of
current through the resistors instead of letting the input voltage sources (whatever they may
be) do it. The increased complexity to our circuit is minimal for a substantial benefit.
8.10 The instrumentation amplifier

As suggested before, it is beneficial to be able to adjust the gain of the amplifier circuit without
having to change more than one resistor value, as is necessary with the previous design of
differential amplifier. The so-called instrumentation builds on the last version of differential
amplifier to give us that capability:
V1 +
3 R R
−
R
1 −
Rgain Vout
2 +
− R
R R
V2 + 4
This intimidating circuit is constructed from a buffered differential amplifier stage with
three new resistors linking the two buffer circuits together. Consider all resistors to be of equal
value except for Rgain . The negative feedback of the upper-left op-amp causes the voltage at
point 1 (top of Rgain ) to be equal to V1 . Likewise, the voltage at point 2 (bottom of Rgain ) is
held to a value equal to V2 . This establishes a voltage drop across Rgain equal to the voltage
difference between V1 and V2 . That voltage drop causes a current through Rgain , and since the
feedback loops of the two input op-amps draw no current, that same amount of current through
Rgain must be going through the two ”R” resistors above and below it. This produces a voltage
drop between points 3 and 4 equal to:
V3-4 = (V2 - V1)(1 + 2R )

Rgain
The regular differential amplifier on the right-hand side of the circuit then takes this volt-
age drop between points 3 and 4, and amplifies it by a gain of 1 (assuming again that all ”R”
resistors are of equal value). Though this looks like a cumbersome way to build a differential
amplifier, it has the distinct advantages of possessing extremely high input impedances on the
V1 and V2 inputs (because they connect straight into the noninverting inputs of their respec-
tive op-amps), and adjustable gain that can be set by a single resistor. Manipulating the above
formula a bit, we have a general expression for overall voltage gain in the instrumentation
amplifier:
AV = (1 + 2R )
Rgain
Though it may not be obvious by looking at the schematic, we can change the differential
gain of the instrumentation amplifier simply by changing the value of one resistor: Rgain . Yes,
we could still change the overall gain by changing the values of some of the other resistors,
8.11. DIFFERENTIATOR AND INTEGRATOR CIRCUITS 383
but this would necessitate balanced resistor value changes for the circuit to remain symmet-
rical. Please note that the lowest gain possible with the above circuit is obtained with Rgain
completely open (infinite resistance), and that gain value is 1.
• REVIEW:
• An instrumentation amplifier is a differential op-amp circuit providing high input impedances

with ease of gain adjustment through the variation of a single resistor.
8.11 Differentiator and integrator circuits

By introducing electrical reactance into the feedback loops of op-amp amplifier circuits, we can
cause the output to respond to changes in the input voltage over time. Drawing their names
from their respective calculus functions, the integrator produces a voltage output proportional
to the product (multiplication) of the input voltage and time; and the differentiator (not to be
confused with differential) produces a voltage output proportional to the input voltage’s rate of
change.
Capacitance can be defined as the measure of a capacitor’s opposition to changes in voltage.
The greater the capacitance, the more the opposition. Capacitors oppose voltage change by
creating current in the circuit: that is, they either charge or discharge in response to a change
in applied voltage. So, the more capacitance a capacitor has, the greater its charge or discharge
current will be for any given rate of voltage change across it. The equation for this is quite
simple:
Changing
C
DC
voltage
i = C dv
dt
The dv/dt fraction is a calculus expression representing the rate of voltage change over
time. If the DC supply in the above circuit were steadily increased from a voltage of 15 volts
to a voltage of 16 volts over a time span of 1 hour, the current through the capacitor would
most likely be very small, because of the very low rate of voltage change (dv/dt = 1 volt / 3600
seconds). However, if we steadily increased the DC supply from 15 volts to 16 volts over a
shorter time span of 1 second, the rate of voltage change would be much higher, and thus the
charging current would be much higher (3600 times higher, to be exact). Same amount of
change in voltage, but vastly different rates of change, resulting in vastly different amounts of
current in the circuit.
To put some definite numbers to this formula, if the voltage across a 47 µF capacitor was
changing at a linear rate of 3 volts per second, the current ”through” the capacitor would be
(47 µF)(3 V/s) = 141 µA.
We can build an op-amp circuit which measures change in voltage by measuring current
through a capacitor, and outputs a voltage proportional to that current:
Differentiator
C
0V R
Vin
0V −
Vout
0V +
The right-hand side of the capacitor is held to a voltage of 0 volts, due to the ”virtual ground”
effect. Therefore, current ”through” the capacitor is solely due to change in the input voltage.
A steady input voltage won’t cause a current through C, but a changing input voltage will.
Capacitor current moves through the feedback resistor, producing a drop across it, which
is the same as the output voltage. A linear, positive rate of input voltage change will result
in a steady negative voltage at the output of the op-amp. Conversely, a linear, negative rate
of input voltage change will result in a steady positive voltage at the output of the op-amp.
This polarity inversion from input to output is due to the fact that the input signal is being
sent (essentially) to the inverting input of the op-amp, so it acts like the inverting amplifier
mentioned previously. The faster the rate of voltage change at the input (either positive or
negative), the greater the voltage at the output.
The formula for determining voltage output for the differentiator is as follows:
dvin
Vout = -RC
dt
Applications for this, besides representing the derivative calculus function inside of an ana-
log computer, include rate-of-change indicators for process instrumentation. One such rate-
of-change signal application might be for monitoring (or controlling) the rate of temperature
change in a furnace, where too high or too low of a temperature rise rate could be detrimen-
tal. The DC voltage produced by the differentiator circuit could be used to drive a comparator,
which would signal an alarm or activate a control if the rate of change exceeded a pre-set level.
In process control, the derivative function is used to make control decisions for maintaining
a process at setpoint, by monitoring the rate of process change over time and taking action to
prevent excessive rates of change, which can lead to an unstable condition. Analog electronic
controllers use variations of this circuitry to perform the derivative function.
On the other hand, there are applications where we need precisely the opposite function,
called integration in calculus. Here, the op-amp circuit would generate an output voltage pro-
portional to the magnitude and duration that an input voltage signal has deviated from 0 volts.
Stated differently, a constant input signal would generate a certain rate of change in the out-
put voltage: differentiation in reverse. To do this, all we have to do is swap the capacitor and
resistor in the previous circuit:
8.11. DIFFERENTIATOR AND INTEGRATOR CIRCUITS 385
Integrator
C
R 0V
Vin
0V −
Vout
0V +
As before, the negative feedback of the op-amp ensures that the inverting input will be held
at 0 volts (the virtual ground). If the input voltage is exactly 0 volts, there will be no current
through the resistor, therefore no charging of the capacitor, and therefore the output voltage
will not change. We cannot guarantee what voltage will be at the output with respect to ground
in this condition, but we can say that the output voltage will be constant.
However, if we apply a constant, positive voltage to the input, the op-amp output will fall
negative at a linear rate, in an attempt to produce the changing voltage across the capacitor
necessary to maintain the current established by the voltage difference across the resistor.
Conversely, a constant, negative voltage at the input results in a linear, rising (positive) voltage
at the output. The output voltage rate-of-change will be proportional to the value of the input
voltage.
The formula for determining voltage output for the integrator is as follows:
dvout Vin
=-
dt RC
or
t
Vin
Vout = ∫ - dt + c
0 RC
Where,
c = Output voltage at start time (t=0)
One application for this device would be to keep a ”running total” of radiation exposure,
or dosage, if the input voltage was a proportional signal supplied by an electronic radiation
detector. Nuclear radiation can be just as damaging at low intensities for long periods of time
as it is at high intensities for short periods of time. An integrator circuit would take both
the intensity (input voltage magnitude) and time into account, generating an output voltage
representing total radiation dosage.
Another application would be to integrate a signal representing water flow, producing a
signal representing total quantity of water that has passed by the flowmeter. This application
of an integrator is sometimes called a totalizer in the industrial instrumentation trade.
• REVIEW:
• A differentiator circuit produces a constant output voltage for a steadily changing input
voltage.
• An integrator circuit produces a steadily changing output voltage for a constant input
voltage.
• Both types of devices are easily constructed, using reactive components (usually capaci-
tors rather than inductors) in the feedback part of the circuit.
8.12 Positive feedback

As we’ve seen, negative feedback is an incredibly useful principle when applied to operational
amplifiers. It is what allows us to create all these practical circuits, being able to precisely
set gains, rates, and other significant parameters with just a few changes of resistor values.
Negative feedback makes all these circuits stable and self-correcting.
The basic principle of negative feedback is that the output tends to drive in a direction
that creates a condition of equilibrium (balance). In an op-amp circuit with no feedback, there
is no corrective mechanism, and the output voltage will saturate with the tiniest amount of
differential voltage applied between the inputs. The result is a comparator:
With negative feedback (the output voltage ”fed back” somehow to the inverting input), the
circuit tends to prevent itself from driving the output to full saturation. Rather, the output
voltage drives only as high or as low as needed to balance the two inputs’ voltages:
Negative feedback
−
0V Vout
+
Vout = Vin
Vin
Whether the output is directly fed back to the inverting (-) input or coupled through a set of
components, the effect is the same: the extremely high differential voltage gain of the op-amp
will be ”tamed” and the circuit will respond according to the dictates of the feedback ”loop”
connecting output to inverting input.
Another type of feedback, namely positive feedback, also finds application in op-amp cir-
cuits. Unlike negative feedback, where the output voltage is ”fed back” to the inverting (-)
input, with positive feedback the output voltage is somehow routed back to the noninverting

8.12. POSITIVE FEEDBACK 387
(+) input. In its simplest form, we could connect a straight piece of wire from output to nonin-
verting input and see what happens:
Positive feedback
+
Vout
−
The inverting input remains disconnected from the feedback loop, and is free to receive an
external voltage. Let’s see what happens if we ground the inverting input:
+
Vout
−
0V
With the inverting input grounded (maintained at zero volts), the output voltage will be
dictated by the magnitude and polarity of the voltage at the noninverting input. If that voltage
happens to be positive, the op-amp will drive its output positive as well, feeding that positive
voltage back to the noninverting input, which will result in full positive output saturation. On
the other hand, if the voltage on the noninverting input happens to start out negative, the op-
amp’s output will drive in the negative direction, feeding back to the noninverting input and
resulting in full negative saturation.
What we have here is a circuit whose output is bistable: stable in one of two states (sat-
urated positive or saturated negative). Once it has reached one of those saturated states, it
will tend to remain in that state, unchanging. What is necessary to get it to switch states is a
voltage placed upon the inverting (-) input of the same polarity, but of a slightly greater mag-
nitude. For example, if our circuit is saturated at an output voltage of +12 volts, it will take an
input voltage at the inverting input of at least +12 volts to get the output to change. When it
changes, it will saturate fully negative.
So, an op-amp with positive feedback tends to stay in whatever output state its already in.
It ”latches” between one of two states, saturated positive or saturated negative. Technically,
this is known as hysteresis.
Hysteresis can be a useful property for a comparator circuit to have. As we’ve seen before,
comparators can be used to produce a square wave from any sort of ramping waveform (sine
wave, triangle wave, sawtooth wave, etc.) input. If the incoming AC waveform is noise-free
(that is, a ”pure” waveform), a simple comparator will work just fine.
+V
−
Vin Vout
+
-V
Square wave
output voltage
DC reference
voltage
AC input
voltage
A "clean" AC input waveform produces predictable

transition points on the output voltage square wave
However, if there exist any anomalies in the waveform such as harmonics or ”spikes” which
cause the voltage to rise and fall significantly within the timespan of a single cycle, a compara-
tor’s output might switch states unexpectedly:
+V
−
Vin Vout
+
-V
Square wave
output voltage
DC reference
voltage
AC input
voltage
Any time there is a transition through the reference voltage level, no matter how tiny that
transition may be, the output of the comparator will switch states, producing a square wave
with ”glitches.”
If we add a little positive feedback to the comparator circuit, we will introduce hysteresis
into the output. This hysteresis will cause the output to remain in its current state unless the
AC input voltage undergoes a major change in magnitude.
8.12. POSITIVE FEEDBACK 389
+V
−
Vin Vout
+
-V Positive feedback
resistor
What this feedback resistor creates is a dual-reference for the comparator circuit. The
voltage applied to the noninverting (+) input as a reference which to compare with the incoming
AC voltage changes depending on the value of the op-amp’s output voltage. When the op-
amp output is saturated positive, the reference voltage at the noninverting input will be more
positive than before. Conversely, when the op-amp output is saturated negative, the reference
voltage at the noninverting input will be more negative than before. The result is easier to
understand on a graph:
DC reference voltages
upper
center
lower
square wave
output voltage
AC input
voltage
When the op-amp output is saturated positive, the upper reference voltage is in effect, and
the output won’t drop to a negative saturation level unless the AC input rises above that upper
reference level. Conversely, when the op-amp output is saturated negative, the lower reference
voltage is in effect, and the output won’t rise to a positive saturation level unless the AC input
drops below that lower reference level. The result is a clean square-wave output again, despite
significant amounts of distortion in the AC input signal. In order for a ”glitch” to cause the
comparator to switch from one state to another, it would have to be at least as big (tall) as the
difference between the upper and lower reference voltage levels, and at the right point in time
to cross both those levels.
Another application of positive feedback in op-amp circuits is in the construction of oscil-
lator circuits. An oscillator is a device that produces an alternating (AC), or at least pulsing,
output voltage. Technically, it is known as an astable device: having no stable output state (no
equilibrium whatsoever). Oscillators are very useful devices, and they are easily made with
just an op-amp and a few external components.
Oscillator circuit using positive feedback
C Vramp R
−
Vout
+
R R
Vref
Vref
Vramp
Vout is a square wave just like Vref, only taller

When the output is saturated positive, the Vref will be positive, and the capacitor will
charge up in a positive direction. When Vramp exceeds Vref by the tiniest margin, the output
will saturate negative, and the capacitor will charge in the opposite direction (polarity). Os-
cillation occurs because the positive feedback is instantaneous and the negative feedback is
delayed (by means of an RC time constant). The frequency of this oscillator may be adjusted
by varying the size of any component.
• REVIEW:
• Negative feedback creates a condition of equilibrium (balance). Positive feedback creates

a condition of hysteresis (the tendency to ”latch” in one of two extreme states).
• An oscillator is a device producing an alternating or pulsing output voltage.
8.13 Practical considerations

Real operational have some imperfections compared to an “ideal” model. A real device deviates
from a perfect difference amplifier. One minus one may not be zero. It may have have an offset
like an analog meter which is not zeroed. The inputs may draw current. The characteristics
may drift with age and temperature. Gain may be reduced at high frequencies, and phase
may shift from input to output. These imperfection may cause no noticable errors in some
applications, unacceptable errors in others. In some cases these errors may be compensated
for. Sometimes a higher quality, higher cost device is required.
8.13. PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS 391
8.13.1 Common-mode gain

As stated before, an ideal differential amplifier only amplifies the voltage difference between
its two inputs. If the two inputs of a differential amplifier were to be shorted together (thus
ensuring zero potential difference between them), there should be no change in output voltage
for any amount of voltage applied between those two shorted inputs and ground:
−
Vout
+
Vout should remain the same

Vcommon-mode regardless of Vcommon-mode
Voltage that is common between either of the inputs and ground, as ”Vcommon−mode ” is
in this case, is called common-mode voltage. As we vary this common voltage, the perfect
differential amplifier’s output voltage should hold absolutely steady (no change in output for
any arbitrary change in common-mode input). This translates to a common-mode voltage gain
of zero.
Change in Vout
AV =
Change in Vin
. . . if change in Vout = 0 . . .
0
=0
Change in Vin
AV = 0
The operational amplifier, being a differential amplifier with high differential gain, would
ideally have zero common-mode gain as well. In real life, however, this is not easily attained.
Thus, common-mode voltages will invariably have some effect on the op-amp’s output voltage.
The performance of a real op-amp in this regard is most commonly measured in terms of its
differential voltage gain (how much it amplifies the difference between two input voltages) ver-
sus its common-mode voltage gain (how much it amplifies a common-mode voltage). The ratio
of the former to the latter is called the common-mode rejection ratio, abbreviated as CMRR:
Differential AV
CMRR =
Common-mode AV
An ideal op-amp, with zero common-mode gain would have an infinite CMRR. Real op-amps
have high CMRRs, the ubiquitous 741 having something around 70 dB, which works out to a
little over 3,000 in terms of a ratio.

Because the common mode rejection ratio in a typical op-amp is so high, common-mode gain
is usually not a great concern in circuits where the op-amp is being used with negative feed-
back. If the common-mode input voltage of an amplifier circuit were to suddenly change, thus
producing a corresponding change in the output due to common-mode gain, that change in out-
put would be quickly corrected as negative feedback and differential gain (being much greater
than common-mode gain) worked to bring the system back to equilibrium. Sure enough, a
change might be seen at the output, but it would be a lot smaller than what you might expect.
A consideration to keep in mind, though, is common-mode gain in differential op-amp cir-
cuits such as instrumentation amplifiers. Outside of the op-amp’s sealed package and ex-
tremely high differential gain, we may find common-mode gain introduced by an imbalance of
resistor values. To demonstrate this, we’ll run a SPICE analysis on an instrumentation am-
plifier with inputs shorted together (no differential voltage), imposing a common-mode voltage
to see what happens. First, we’ll run the analysis showing the output voltage of a perfectly
balanced circuit. We should expect to see no change in output voltage as the common-mode
voltage changes:
1 +
3 R3 7 R4
E1
V1 − 9
2 R1
0
2 7 −
Rgain E3 Vout
+ 9
Rjump 5 8
(jumper
wire) 5 − R2
R5 R6
E2
+ 6 8 0
4
instrumentation amplifier
v1 1 0
rin1 1 0 9e12
rjump 1 4 1e-12
rin2 4 0 9e12
e1 3 0 1 2 999k
e2 6 0 4 5 999k
e3 9 0 8 7 999k
rload 9 0 10k
r1 2 3 10k
rgain 2 5 10k
r2 5 6 10k
r3 3 7 10k
r4 7 9 10k
r5 6 8 10k
r6 8 0 10k
.dc v1 0 10 1
.print dc v(9)
.end
v1 v(9)
0.000E+00 0.000E+00
1.000E+00 1.355E-16
2.000E+00 2.710E-16
3.000E+00 0.000E+00 As you can see, the output voltage v(9)
4.000E+00 5.421E-16 hardly changes at all for a common-mode
5.000E+00 0.000E+00 input voltage (v1) that sweeps from 0
6.000E+00 0.000E+00 to 10 volts.
7.000E+00 0.000E+00
8.000E+00 1.084E-15
9.000E+00 -1.084E-15
1.000E+01 0.000E+00
Aside from very small deviations (actually due to quirks of SPICE rather than real behavior
of the circuit), the output remains stable where it should be: at 0 volts, with zero input voltage
differential. However, let’s introduce a resistor imbalance in the circuit, increasing the value of
R5 from 10,000 Ω to 10,500 Ω, and see what happens (the netlist has been omitted for brevity
– the only thing altered is the value of R5 ):
v1 v(9)
0.000E+00 0.000E+00
1.000E+00 -2.439E-02
2.000E+00 -4.878E-02
3.000E+00 -7.317E-02 This time we see a significant variation
4.000E+00 -9.756E-02 (from 0 to 0.2439 volts) in output voltage
5.000E+00 -1.220E-01 as the common-mode input voltage sweeps
6.000E+00 -1.463E-01 from 0 to 10 volts as it did before.
7.000E+00 -1.707E-01
8.000E+00 -1.951E-01
9.000E+00 -2.195E-01
1.000E+01 -2.439E-01
Our input voltage differential is still zero volts, yet the output voltage changes significantly
as the common-mode voltage is changed. This is indicative of a common-mode gain, something
we’re trying to avoid. More than that, its a common-mode gain of our own making, having
nothing to do with imperfections in the op-amps themselves. With a much-tempered differen-
tial gain (actually equal to 3 in this particular circuit) and no negative feedback outside the
circuit, this common-mode gain will go unchecked in an instrument signal application.
There is only one way to correct this common-mode gain, and that is to balance all the re-
sistor values. When designing an instrumentation amplifier from discrete components (rather
than purchasing one in an integrated package), it is wise to provide some means of making
fine adjustments to at least one of the four resistors connected to the final op-amp to be able to
”trim away” any such common-mode gain. Providing the means to ”trim” the resistor network
has additional benefits as well. Suppose that all resistor values are exactly as they should
be, but a common-mode gain exists due to an imperfection in one of the op-amps. With the
adjustment provision, the resistance could be trimmed to compensate for this unwanted gain.
One quirk of some op-amp models is that of output latch-up, usually caused by the common-
mode input voltage exceeding allowable limits. If the common-mode voltage falls outside of the
manufacturer’s specified limits, the output may suddenly ”latch” in the high mode (saturate at
full output voltage). In JFET-input operational amplifiers, latch-up may occur if the common-
mode input voltage approaches too closely to the negative power supply rail voltage. On the
TL082 op-amp, for example, this occurs when the common-mode input voltage comes within
about 0.7 volts of the negative power supply rail voltage. Such a situation may easily occur in
a single-supply circuit, where the negative power supply rail is ground (0 volts), and the input
signal is free to swing to 0 volts.
Latch-up may also be triggered by the common-mode input voltage exceeding power supply
rail voltages, negative or positive. As a rule, you should never allow either input voltage to
rise above the positive power supply rail voltage, or sink below the negative power supply
rail voltage, even if the op-amp in question is protected against latch-up (as are the 741 and
1458 op-amp models). At the very least, the op-amp’s behavior may become unpredictable. At
worst, the kind of latch-up triggered by input voltages exceeding power supply voltages may
be destructive to the op-amp.
While this problem may seem easy to avoid, its possibility is more likely than you might
think. Consider the case of an operational amplifier circuit during power-up. If the circuit
receives full input signal voltage before its own power supply has had time enough to charge
the filter capacitors, the common-mode input voltage may easily exceed the power supply rail
voltages for a short time. If the op-amp receives signal voltage from a circuit supplied by a
different power source, and its own power source fails, the signal voltage(s) may exceed the
power supply rail voltages for an indefinite amount of time!
8.13.2 Offset voltage
Another practical concern for op-amp performance is voltage offset. That is, effect of having
the output voltage something other than zero volts when the two input terminals are shorted
together. Remember that operational amplifiers are differential amplifiers above all: they’re
supposed to amplify the difference in voltage between the two input connections and nothing
more. When that input voltage difference is exactly zero volts, we would (ideally) expect to have
exactly zero volts present on the output. However, in the real world this rarely happens. Even
if the op-amp in question has zero common-mode gain (infinite CMRR), the output voltage may
not be at zero when both inputs are shorted together. This deviation from zero is called offset.
+15 V
−
Vout = +14.7 V (saturated +)
+
-15 V
A perfect op-amp would output exactly zero volts with both its inputs shorted together and
grounded. However, most op-amps off the shelf will drive their outputs to a saturated level,
either negative or positive. In the example shown above, the output voltage is saturated at a
value of positive 14.7 volts, just a bit less than +V (+15 volts) due to the positive saturation
limit of this particular op-amp. Because the offset in this op-amp is driving the output to a
completely saturated point, there’s no way of telling how much voltage offset is present at the
output. If the +V/-V split power supply was of a high enough voltage, who knows, maybe the
output would be several hundred volts one way or the other due to the effects of offset!
For this reason, offset voltage is usually expressed in terms of the equivalent amount of
input voltage differential producing this effect. In other words, we imagine that the op-amp
is perfect (no offset whatsoever), and a small voltage is being applied in series with one of the
inputs to force the output voltage one way or the other away from zero. Being that op-amp
differential gains are so high, the figure for ”input offset voltage” doesn’t have to be much to
account for what we see with shorted inputs:
+15 V
−
Vout = +14.7 V (saturated +)
+
-15 V
Input offset voltage

(internal to the real op-amp,
external to this ideal op-amp)
Offset voltage will tend to introduce slight errors in any op-amp circuit. So how do we
compensate for it? Unlike common-mode gain, there are usually provisions made by the man-
ufacturer to trim the offset of a packaged op-amp. Usually, two extra terminals on the op-amp
package are reserved for connecting an external ”trim” potentiometer. These connection points
are labeled offset null and are used in this general way:
+15 V
−
Vout
+
-15 V
Potentiometer adjusted so that
Vout = 0 volts with inputs shorted together
On single op-amps such as the 741 and 3130, the offset null connection points are pins 1
and 5 on the 8-pin DIP package. Other models of op-amp may have the offset null connections
located on different pins, and/or require a slightly difference configuration of trim potentiome-
ter connection. Some op-amps don’t provide offset null pins at all! Consult the manufacturer’s
specifications for details.
8.13.3 Bias current

Inputs on an op-amp have extremely high input impedances. That is, the input currents enter-
ing or exiting an op-amp’s two input signal connections are extremely small. For most purposes
of op-amp circuit analysis, we treat them as though they don’t exist at all. We analyze the cir-
cuit as though there was absolutely zero current entering or exiting the input connections.
This idyllic picture, however, is not entirely true. Op-amps, especially those op-amps with
bipolar transistor inputs, have to have some amount of current through their input connec-
tions in order for their internal circuits to be properly biased. These currents, logically, are
called bias currents. Under certain conditions, op-amp bias currents may be problematic. The
following circuit illustrates one of those problem conditions:
+V
−
Thermocouple Vout
+
-V
At first glance, we see no apparent problems with this circuit. A thermocouple, generating a
small voltage proportional to temperature (actually, a voltage proportional to the difference in
temperature between the measurement junction and the ”reference” junction formed when the
alloy thermocouple wires connect with the copper wires leading to the op-amp) drives the op-
amp either positive or negative. In other words, this is a kind of comparator circuit, comparing
the temperature between the end thermocouple junction and the reference junction (near the
op-amp). The problem is this: the wire loop formed by the thermocouple does not provide a

path for both input bias currents, because both bias currents are trying to go the same way
(either into the op-amp or out of it).
+V
I?
−
Thermocouple Vout
+
I?
-V
This comparator circuit won’t work
In order for this circuit to work properly, we must ground one of the input wires, thus
providing a path to (or from) ground for both currents:
+V
I
−
Thermocouple Vout
+
I I
-V
This comparator circuit will work

Not necessarily an obvious problem, but a very real one!
Another way input bias currents may cause trouble is by dropping unwanted voltages across
circuit resistances. Take this circuit for example:
+V
Voltage drop due −
to bias current:
Vout
- Rin +
+
Vin Ibias
-V
Voltage at (+) op-amp input

will not be exactly equal to Vin
We expect a voltage follower circuit such as the one above to reproduce the input voltage
precisely at the output. But what about the resistance in series with the input voltage source?
If there is any bias current through the noninverting (+) input at all, it will drop some voltage
across Rin , thus making the voltage at the noninverting input unequal to the actual Vin value.
Bias currents are usually in the microamp range, so the voltage drop across Rin won’t be very
much, unless Rin is very large. One example of an application where the input resistance
(Rin ) would be very large is that of pH probe electrodes, where one electrode contains an ion-
permeable glass barrier (a very poor conductor, with millions of Ω of resistance).
If we were actually building an op-amp circuit for pH electrode voltage measurement, we’d
probably want to use a FET or MOSFET (IGFET) input op-amp instead of one built with
bipolar transistors (for less input bias current). But even then, what slight bias currents may
remain can cause measurement errors to occur, so we have to find some way to mitigate them
through good design.
One way to do so is based on the assumption that the two input bias currents will be the
same. In reality, they are often close to being the same, the difference between them referred
to as the input offset current. If they are the same, then we should be able to cancel out the
effects of input resistance voltage drop by inserting an equal amount of resistance in series
with the other input, like this:
+V
Rin(-)
- + −
Ibias
Vout
- Rin(+)+
+
Vin Ibias
-V
With the additional resistance added to the circuit, the output voltage will be closer to Vin
than before, even if there is some offset between the two input currents.
For both inverting and noninverting amplifier circuits, the bias current compensating re-
sistor is placed in series with the noninverting (+) input to compensate for bias current voltage
drops in the divider network:
Noninverting amplifier with

compensating resistor
R1 R2
−
Vout
+
Rcomp
Vin
Rcomp = R1 // R2
Inverting amplifier with

compensating resistor
R1 R2
Vin −
Vout
+
Rcomp
Rcomp = R1 // R2
In either case, the compensating resistor value is determined by calculating the parallel
resistance value of R1 and R2 . Why is the value equal to the parallel equivalent of R1 and R2 ?
When using the Superposition Theorem to figure how much voltage drop will be produced by
the inverting (-) input’s bias current, we treat the bias current as though it were coming from
a current source inside the op-amp and short-circuit all voltage sources (Vin and Vout ). This
gives two parallel paths for bias current (through R1 and through R2 , both to ground). We
want to duplicate the bias current’s effect on the noninverting (+) input, so the resistor value
we choose to insert in series with that input needs to be equal to R1 in parallel with R2 .
A related problem, occasionally experienced by students just learning to build operational
amplifier circuits, is caused by a lack of a common ground connection to the power supply. It is
imperative to proper op-amp function that some terminal of the DC power supply be common
to the ”ground” connection of the input signal(s). This provides a complete path for the bias
currents, feedback current(s), and for the load (output) current. Take this circuit illustration,
for instance, showing a properly grounded power supply:
R1 R2
1 kΩ 1 kΩ
+V
-
null
+ -V
6V
Here, arrows denote the path of electron flow through the power supply batteries, both for
powering the op-amp’s internal circuitry (the ”potentiometer” inside of it that controls output
voltage), and for powering the feedback loop of resistors R1 and R2 . Suppose, however, that the
ground connection for this ”split” DC power supply were to be removed. The effect of doing this
is profound:
A power supply ground is essential to circuit operation!
R1 R2
1 kΩ 1 kΩ
+V
-
broken
connection
null
+ -V
6V
No electrons may flow in or out of the op-amp’s output terminal, because the pathway to the
power supply is a ”dead end.” Thus, no electrons flow through the ground connection to the left
of R1 , neither through the feedback loop. This effectively renders the op-amp useless: it can
neither sustain current through the feedback loop, nor through a grounded load, since there is
no connection from any point of the power supply to ground.
The bias currents are also stopped, because they rely on a path to the power supply and back
to the input source through ground. The following diagram shows the bias currents (only), as
they go through the input terminals of the op-amp, through the base terminals of the input
transistors, and eventually through the power supply terminal(s) and back to ground.
Bias current paths shown, through power supply
+V
-
Ibias
Ibias
+ -V
6V
Without a ground reference on the power supply, the bias currents will have no complete
path for a circuit, and they will halt. Since bipolar junction transistors are current-controlled
devices, this renders the input stage of the op-amp useless as well, as both input transistors
will be forced into cutoff by the complete lack of base current.
• REVIEW:
• Op-amp inputs usually conduct very small currents, called bias currents, needed to prop-
erly bias the first transistor amplifier stage internal to the op-amps’ circuitry. Bias cur-
rents are small (in the microamp range), but large enough to cause problems in some
applications.
• Bias currents in both inputs must have paths to flow to either one of the power supply
”rails” or to ground. It is not enough to just have a conductive path from one input to the
other.
• To cancel any offset voltages caused by bias current flowing through resistances, just add
an equivalent resistance in series with the other op-amp input (called a compensating
resistor). This corrective measure is based on the assumption that the two input bias
currents will be equal.
• Any inequality between bias currents in an op-amp constitutes what is called an input
offset current.
• It is essential for proper op-amp operation that there be a ground reference on some ter-
minal of the power supply, to form complete paths for bias currents, feedback current(s),
and load current.
8.13.4 Drift
Being semiconductor devices, op-amps are subject to slight changes in behavior with changes
in operating temperature. Any changes in op-amp performance with temperature fall under
the category of op-amp drift. Drift parameters can be specified for bias currents, offset voltage,
and the like. Consult the manufacturer’s data sheet for specifics on any particular op-amp.
To minimize op-amp drift, we can select an op-amp made to have minimum drift, and/or we
can do our best to keep the operating temperature as stable as possible. The latter action may
involve providing some form of temperature control for the inside of the equipment housing
the op-amp(s). This is not as strange as it may first seem. Laboratory-standard precision
voltage reference generators, for example, are sometimes known to employ ”ovens” for keeping
their sensitive components (such as zener diodes) at constant temperatures. If extremely high
accuracy is desired over the usual factors of cost and flexibility, this may be an option worth
looking at.
• REVIEW:
• Op-amps, being semiconductor devices, are susceptible to variations in temperature. Any

variations in amplifier performance resulting from changes in temperature is known as
drift. Drift is best minimized with environmental temperature control.
8.13.5 Frequency response

With their incredibly high differential voltage gains, op-amps are prime candidates for a phe-
nomenon known as feedback oscillation. You’ve probably heard the equivalent audio effect
when the volume (gain) on a public-address or other microphone amplifier system is turned
too high: that high pitched squeal resulting from the sound waveform ”feeding back” through
the microphone to be amplified again. An op-amp circuit can manifest this same effect, with
the feedback happening electrically rather than audibly.
A case example of this is seen in the 3130 op-amp, if it is connected as a voltage follower
with the bare minimum of wiring connections (the two inputs, output, and the power supply
connections). The output of this op-amp will self-oscillate due to its high gain, no matter
what the input voltage. To combat this, a small compensation capacitor must be connected
to two specially-provided terminals on the op-amp. The capacitor provides a high-impedance
path for negative feedback to occur within the op-amp’s circuitry, thus decreasing the AC gain
and inhibiting unwanted oscillations. If the op-amp is being used to amplify high-frequency
signals, this compensation capacitor may not be needed, but it is absolutely essential for DC or
low-frequency AC signal operation.
Some op-amps, such as the model 741, have a compensation capacitor built in to minimize
the need for external components. This improved simplicity is not without a cost: due to that
capacitor’s presence inside the op-amp, the negative feedback tends to get stronger as the
operating frequency increases (that capacitor’s reactance decreases with higher frequencies).
As a result, the op-amp’s differential voltage gain decreases as frequency goes up: it becomes
a less effective amplifier at higher frequencies.
Op-amp manufacturers will publish the frequency response curves for their products. Since
a sufficiently high differential gain is absolutely essential to good feedback operation in op-amp
circuits, the gain/frequency response of an op-amp effectively limits its ”bandwidth” of opera-
tion. The circuit designer must take this into account if good performance is to be maintained
over the required range of signal frequencies.
• REVIEW:
• Due to capacitances within op-amps, their differential voltage gain tends to decrease as
the input frequency increases. Frequency response curves for op-amps are available from
the manufacturer.
8.13.6 Input to output phase shift

In order to illustrate the phase shift from input to output of an operational amplifier (op-amp),
the OPA227 was tested in our lab. The OPA227 was constructed in a typical non-inverting
configuration (Figure 8.1).
Figure 8.1: OPA227 Non-inverting stage
The circuit configuration calls for a signal gain of ∼

=34 V/V or ∼
=50 dB. The input excitation
at Vsrc was set to 10 mVp, and three frequencies of interest: 2.2 kHz, 22 kHz, and 220 MHz.
The OPA227’s open loop gain and phase curve vs. frequency is shown in Figure 8.2.
Figure 8.2: AV and Φ vs. Frequency plot
To help predict the closed loop phase shift from input to output, we can use the open loop
gain and phase curve. Since the circuit configuration calls for a closed loop gain, or 1/β, of
∼
=50 dB, the closed loop gain curve intersects the open loop gain curve at approximately 22
kHz. After this intersection, the closed loop gain curve rolls off at the typical 20 dB/decade for
voltage feedback amplifiers, and follows the open loop gain curve.
What is actually at work here is the negative feedback from the closed loop modifies the
open loop response. Closing the loop with negative feedback establishes a closed loop pole at
22 kHz. Much like the dominant pole in the open loop phase curve, we will expect phase shift
in the closed loop response. How much phase shift will we see?
Since the new pole is now at 22 kHz, this is also the -3 dB point as the pole starts to roll off
the closed loop again at 20 dB per decade as stated earlier. As with any pole in basic control
theory, phase shift starts to occur one decade in frequency before the pole, and ends at 90o of
phase shift one decade in frequency after the pole. So what does this predict for the closed loop
response in our circuit?
This will predict phase shift starting at 2.2 kHz, with 45o of phase shift at the -3 dB point of
22 kHz, and finally ending with 90o of phase shift at 220 kHz. The three Figures shown below
are oscilloscope captures at the frequencies of interest for our OPA227 circuit. Figure 8.3 is
set for 2.2 kHz, and no noticeable phase shift is present. Figure 8.4 is set for 220 kHz, and
∼
=45o of phase shift is recorded. Finally, Figure 8.5 is set for 220 MHz, and the expected ∼ =90o
of phase shift is recorded. The scope plots were captured using a LeCroy 44x Wavesurfer. The
final scope plot used a x1 probe with the trigger set to HF reject.
Figure 8.3: OPA227 Av=50dB @ 2.2 kHz
8.14 Operational amplifier models

While mention of operational amplifiers typically provokes visions of semiconductor devices
built as integrated circuits on a miniature silicon chip, the first op-amps were actually vacuum
tube circuits. The first commercial, general purpose operational amplifier was manufactured
by the George A. Philbrick Researches, Incorporated, in 1952. Designated the K2-W, it was
8.14. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER MODELS 405
Figure 8.4: OPA227 Av=50dB @ 22 kHz
Figure 8.5: OPA227 Av=50dB @ 220 kHz

built around two twin-triode tubes mounted in an assembly with an octal (8-pin) socket for easy
installation and servicing in electronic equipment chassis of that era. The assembly looked
something like this:
The Philbrick Researches

op-amp, model K2-W
approx.
4 inches
GAP/R
MODEL
K2-W
The schematic diagram shows the two tubes, along with ten resistors and two capacitors, a
fairly simple circuit design even by 1952 standards:
The Philbrick Researches op-amp, model K2-W
+300 V
220 kΩ 510 kΩ 680 kΩ
NE-68
12AX7 12AX7 7.5 pF
1 MΩ
Inverting (-)
input
2.2 MΩ
Noninverting (+) Output
input 221 kΩ
220 kΩ 9.1 kΩ 120 kΩ 4.7 MΩ
500 pF
-300 V
In case you’re unfamiliar with the operation of vacuum tubes, they operate similarly to N-
channel depletion-type IGFET transistors: that is, they conduct more current when the control
grid (the dashed line) is made more positive with respect to the cathode (the bent line near the
bottom of the tube symbol), and conduct less current when the control grid is made less positive
(or more negative) than the cathode. The twin triode tube on the left functions as a differential
pair, converting the differential inputs (inverting and noninverting input voltage signals) into
a single, amplified voltage signal which is then fed to the control grid of the left triode of
the second triode pair through a voltage divider (1 MΩ −− 2.2 MΩ). That triode amplifies
and inverts the output of the differential pair for a larger voltage gain, then the amplified
signal is coupled to the second triode of the same dual-triode tube in a noninverting amplifier
configuration for a larger current gain. The two neon ”glow tubes” act as voltage regulators,
similar to the behavior of semiconductor zener diodes, to provide a bias voltage in the coupling
between the two single-ended amplifier triodes.
With a dual-supply voltage of +300/-300 volts, this op-amp could only swing its output +/-
50 volts, which is very poor by today’s standards. It had an open-loop voltage gain of 15,000
to 20,000, a slew rate of +/- 12 volts/µsecond, a maximum output current of 1 mA, a quiescent
power consumption of over 3 watts (not including power for the tubes’ filaments!), and cost
about $24 in 1952 dollars. Better performance could have been attained using a more sophis-
ticated circuit design, but only at the expense of greater power consumption, greater cost, and
decreased reliability.
With the advent of solid-state transistors, op-amps with far less quiescent power consump-
tion and increased reliability became feasible, but many of the other performance parameters
remained about the same. Take for instance Philbrick’s model P55A, a general-purpose solid-
state op-amp circa 1966. The P55A sported an open-loop gain of 40,000, a slew rate of 1.5
volt/µsecond and an output swing of +/- 11 volts (at a power supply voltage of +/- 15 volts),
a maximum output current of 2.2 mA, and a cost of $49 (or about $21 for the ”utility grade”
version). The P55A, as well as other op-amps in Philbrick’s lineup of the time, was of discrete-
component construction, its constituent transistors, resistors, and capacitors housed in a solid
”brick” resembling a large integrated circuit package.
It isn’t very difficult to build a crude operational amplifier using discrete components. A
schematic of one such circuit is shown in Figure 8.6.
While its performance is rather dismal by modern standards, it demonstrates that com-
plexity is not necessary to create a minimally functional op-amp. Transistors Q3 and Q4 form
the heart of another differential pair circuit, the semiconductor equivalent of the first triode
tube in the K2-W schematic. As it was in the vacuum tube circuit, the purpose of a differen-
tial pair is to amplify and convert a differential voltage between the two input terminals to a
single-ended output voltage.
With the advent of integrated-circuit (IC) technology, op-amp designs experienced a dra-
matic increase in performance, reliability, density, and economy. Between the years of 1964
and 1968, the Fairchild corporation introduced three models of IC op-amps: the 702, 709, and
the still-popular 741. While the 741 is now considered outdated in terms of performance, it is
still a favorite among hobbyists for its simplicity and fault tolerance (short-circuit protection
on the output, for instance). Personal experience abusing many 741 op-amps has led me to the
conclusion that it is a hard chip to kill . . .
The internal schematic diagram for a model 741 op-amp is shown in Figure 8.7.
By integrated circuit standards, the 741 is a very simple device: an example of small-
scale integration, or SSI technology. It would be no small matter to build this circuit using
discrete components, so you can see the advantages of even the most primitive integrated
circuit technology over discrete components where high parts counts are involved.
For the hobbyist, student, or engineer desiring greater performance, there are literally hun-
dreds of op-amp models to choose from. Many sell for less than a dollar apiece, even retail!
Special-purpose instrumentation and radio-frequency (RF) op-amps may be quite a bit more
expensive. In this section I will showcase several popular and affordable op-amps, comparing
+V
Q1 Q2
Output
input (+) Q3 Q4 (-) input
A simple operational
Q5 Q6 amplifier made from
discrete components
-V
Figure 8.6: A simple operational amplifier made from discrete components.
+V Internal schematic of a model 741 operational amplifier
Q8 Q9 Q12 Q13 Q14
(-) input
Q15
Q1 Q2 R5 Q18
(+) input R6
Q19 Output
Q3 Q4 R10 R7
Q21
C1
Q7 Q16
Q22 Q20
Q5 Q6 Q10 Q11 Q23 Q17

offset null
offset null
R1 R3 R2 R4 R9 R8 Q24 R11
-V
Figure 8.7: Schematic diagram of a model 741 op-amp.

and contrasting their performance specifications. The venerable 741 is included as a ”bench-
mark” for comparison, although it is, as I said before, considered an obsolete design.
Table 8.1: Widely used operational amplifiers

Model Devices/ Power Bandwidth Bias Slew Output
package supply current rate current
number (count) (V) (MHz) (nA) (V/µS) (mA)
TL082 2 12 / 36 4 8 13 17
LM301A 1 10 / 36 1 250 0.5 25
LM318 1 10 / 40 15 500 70 20
LM324 4 3 / 32 1 45 0.25 20
LF353 2 12 / 36 4 8 13 20
LF356 1 10 / 36 5 8 12 25
LF411 1 10 / 36 4 20 15 25
741C 1 10 / 36 1 500 0.5 25
LM833 2 10 / 36 15 1050 7 40
LM1458 2 6 / 36 1 800 10 45
CA3130 1 5 / 16 15 0.05 10 20
Listed in Table 8.1 are but a few of the low-cost operational amplifier models widely avail-
able from electronics suppliers. Most of them are available through retail supply stores such as
Radio Shack. All are under $1.00 cost direct from the manufacturer (year 2001 prices). As you
can see, there is substantial variation in performance between some of these units. Take for
instance the parameter of input bias current: the CA3130 wins the prize for lowest, at 0.05 nA
(or 50 pA), and the LM833 has the highest at slightly over 1 µA. The model CA3130 achieves
its incredibly low bias current through the use of MOSFET transistors in its input stage. One
manufacturer advertises the 3130’s input impedance as 1.5 tera-ohms, or 1.5 x 1012 Ω! Other
op-amps shown here with low bias current figures use JFET input transistors, while the high
bias current models use bipolar input transistors.
While the 741 is specified in many electronic project schematics and showcased in many
textbooks, its performance has long been surpassed by other designs in every measure. Even
some designs originally based on the 741 have been improved over the years to far surpass
original design specifications. One such example is the model 1458, two op-amps in an 8-pin
DIP package, which at one time had the exact same performance specifications as the single
741. In its latest incarnation it boasts a wider power supply voltage range, a slew rate 50
times as great, and almost twice the output current capability of a 741, while still retaining
the output short-circuit protection feature of the 741. Op-amps with JFET and MOSFET input
transistors far exceed the 741’s performance in terms of bias current, and generally manage to
beat the 741 in terms of bandwidth and slew rate as well.
My own personal recommendations for op-amps are as such: when low bias current is a
priority (such as in low-speed integrator circuits), choose the 3130. For general-purpose DC
amplifier work, the 1458 offers good performance (and you get two op-amps in the space of
one package). For an upgrade in performance, choose the model 353, as it is a pin-compatible
replacement for the 1458. The 353 is designed with JFET input circuitry for very low bias
current, and has a bandwidth 4 times are great as the 1458, although its output current limit
is lower (but still short-circuit protected). It may be more difficult to find on the shelf of your
local electronics supply house, but it is just as reasonably priced as the 1458.
If low power supply voltage is a requirement, I recommend the model 324, as it functions
on as low as 3 volts DC. Its input bias current requirements are also low, and it provides four
op-amps in a single 14-pin chip. Its major weakness is speed, limited to 1 MHz bandwidth and
an output slew rate of only 0.25 volts per µs. For high-frequency AC amplifier circuits, the 318
is a very good ”general purpose” model.
Special-purpose op-amps are available for modest cost which provide better performance
specifications. Many of these are tailored for a specific type of performance advantage, such as
maximum bandwidth or minimum bias current. Take for instance the op-amps, both designed
for high bandwidth in Table 8.2.
Table 8.2: High bandwidth operational amplifiers

CLC404 1 10 / 14 232 44,000 2600 70
CLC425 1 5 / 14 1900 40,000 350 90
The CLC404 lists at $21.80 (almost as much as George Philbrick’s first commercial op-
amp, albeit without correction for inflation), while the CLC425 is quite a bit less expensive at
$3.23 per unit. In both cases high speed is achieved at the expense of high bias currents and
restrictive power supply voltage ranges. Some op-amps, designed for high power output are
listed in Table 8.3.
Table 8.3: High current operational amplifiers

LM12CL 1 15 / 80 0.7 1000 9 13,000
LM7171 1 5.5 / 36 200 12,000 4100 100
Yes, the LM12CL actually has an output current rating of 13 amps (13,000 milliamps)!
It lists at $14.40, which is not a lot of money, considering the raw power of the device. The
LM7171, on the other hand, trades high current output ability for fast voltage output ability
(a high slew rate). It lists at $1.19, about as low as some ”general purpose” op-amps.
Amplifier packages may also be purchased as complete application circuits as opposed to
bare operational amplifiers. The Burr-Brown and Analog Devices corporations, for example,
both long known for their precision amplifier product lines, offer instrumentation amplifiers
in pre-designed packages as well as other specialized amplifier devices. In designs where high
precision and repeatability after repair is important, it might be advantageous for the circuit
designer to choose such a pre-engineered amplifier ”block” rather than build the circuit from
individual op-amps. Of course, these units typically cost quite a bit more than individual op-
amps.
8.15. DATA 411
8.15 Data
Parametrical data for all semiconductor op-amp models except the CA3130 comes from Na-
tional Semiconductor’s online resources, available at this website: (http://www.national.com).
Data for the CA3130 comes from Harris Semiconductor’s CA3130/CA3130A datasheet (file
number 817.4).
Contributors
Contributors to this chapter are listed in chronological order of their contributions, from most
recent to first. See Appendix 2 (Contributor List) for dates and contact information.
Wayne Little (June 2007): Author, “Input to output phase shift” subsection, in “Practical
considerations” section.

Extracted from Lessons in Electric Circuits Volume III – Semiconductors Author Tony R. Kuphaldt – under the
terms and conditions of the
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Public License. Click this box to see license copy

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8.2 Single-ended and differential amplifiers

General amplifier circuit symbol

Voltage output equation: Vout = AV(Input2 - Input1)

• The voltage output of a differential amplifier is determined by the following equation:

8.3 The ”operational” amplifier

Typical 8-pin "DIP" op-amp

8.4 Negative feedback

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The effects of negative feedback

8.5 Divided feedback

The effects of divided negative feedback

All voltage figures shown in

8.6 An analogy for divided feedback

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Vin Vout = 2(Vin)

Vin Vout = 4(Vin)

8.7 Voltage-to-current signal conversion

In instrumentation circuitry, DC signals are often used as analog representations of physical

In order to use current as an analog representation of a physical quantity, we have to have

• In industry, DC current signals are often used in preference to DC voltage signals as

8.8 Averager and summer circuits

"Passive averager" circuit

V1 V2 V3 With equal value resistors:

With a voltage divider composed of a 2 kΩ / 1 kΩ combination, the noninverting amplifier

8.9 Building a differential amplifier

8.10 The instrumentation amplifier

V3-4 = (V2 - V1)(1 + 2R )

• An instrumentation amplifier is a differential op-amp circuit providing high input impedances

8.11 Differentiator and integrator circuits

8.12 Positive feedback

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A "clean" AC input waveform produces predictable

Oscillator circuit using positive feedback

Vout is a square wave just like Vref, only taller

• Negative feedback creates a condition of equilibrium (balance). Positive feedback creates

• An oscillator is a device producing an alternating or pulsing output voltage.

8.13 Practical considerations

8.13.1 Common-mode gain

Vout should remain the same

little over 3,000 in terms of a ratio.

8.13.2 Offset voltage

Input offset voltage

8.13.3 Bias current

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This comparator circuit will work

Voltage at (+) op-amp input

Noninverting amplifier with

Inverting amplifier with