An earthquake is caused by a sudden release of energy in the earth's crust that generates seismic waves. The point of rupture is the focus (or hypocenter) located below ground, and the area directly above on the surface is the epicenter. Earthquakes can be classified by their focal depth as shallow (0-70km), intermediate (70-300km), or deep (300-800km). The intensity of ground shaking is measured on scales like the Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale, while the size of an earthquake is measured by its magnitude on the Richter scale. Primary effects are direct results like ground shaking, while secondary effects include liquefaction, landslides, fires, tsunamis, and long term
An earthquake is caused by a sudden release of energy in the earth's crust that generates seismic waves. The point of rupture is the focus (or hypocenter) located below ground, and the area directly above on the surface is the epicenter. Earthquakes can be classified by their focal depth as shallow (0-70km), intermediate (70-300km), or deep (300-800km). The intensity of ground shaking is measured on scales like the Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale, while the size of an earthquake is measured by its magnitude on the Richter scale. Primary effects are direct results like ground shaking, while secondary effects include liquefaction, landslides, fires, tsunamis, and long term
An earthquake is caused by a sudden release of energy in the earth's crust that generates seismic waves. The point of rupture is the focus (or hypocenter) located below ground, and the area directly above on the surface is the epicenter. Earthquakes can be classified by their focal depth as shallow (0-70km), intermediate (70-300km), or deep (300-800km). The intensity of ground shaking is measured on scales like the Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale, while the size of an earthquake is measured by its magnitude on the Richter scale. Primary effects are direct results like ground shaking, while secondary effects include liquefaction, landslides, fires, tsunamis, and long term
An earthquake is caused by a sudden release of energy in the earth's crust that generates seismic waves. The point of rupture is the focus (or hypocenter) located below ground, and the area directly above on the surface is the epicenter. Earthquakes can be classified by their focal depth as shallow (0-70km), intermediate (70-300km), or deep (300-800km). The intensity of ground shaking is measured on scales like the Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale, while the size of an earthquake is measured by its magnitude on the Richter scale. Primary effects are direct results like ground shaking, while secondary effects include liquefaction, landslides, fires, tsunamis, and long term
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What is an earthquake ?
An earthquake is a sudden shaking or rupture in the earth caused by the release of
accumulated stresses in the crust. The point within the earth where the rupture starts is known as the focus or hypocenter. Directly above it on the surface of the earth is a point called the epicenter.
Earthquake classification according to the depth of their foci:
A shallow focus earthquake has focal depth of from 0 to 70 km. The focal depth of an intermediate focus earthquake ranges from 70 to 300 km., and that of a deep focus earthquake from 300 to 800 km. Focal depths greater than 800 km do not occur.
Seismic Intensity
Before instrumental observations were possible, it was realized that the effects of an earthquake could be classified according to the apparent intensity of its tremors. Every earthquake has many intensities, the strongest usually being at the epicenter; intensities decrease the farther a region is from this point. Intensities are quantified using a scale( here in Philippines, we used PHIVOLCS Earthquake Intensity Scale ), which has numerical values ranging from I to X. After the numbers are assessed at various localities, a contour map, known as the isoseismal map, is prepared depicting regions of equal seismic intensity.
Seismic Magnitude
One of the first questions asked about an earthquake by both scientists and public is its size. Thus seismologist (Charles Richter, the inventor of the Richter magnitude scale) have developed simple ways to identify earthquake size from the records of seismographs. The most common measure of size used at observatories is seismic magnitude. Because earthquake vary in size over huge range, it is convenient to compress the measured wave amplitude by using logarithms. The Richter magnitude, ML, is the logarithm base 10 of the maximum seismic wave amplitude.
In general sense, the Richter magnitude also may be related to the damage expected from an earthquake. A M = 8.0 or above is considered to be a great earthquake, capable of causing catastrophic damage; an earthquake with Richter magnitude greater than 7.0 is a major earthquake, capable of causing widespread damage; an earthquake of M = 6.0 can cause considerable damage, depending upon factors such as location and surface materials present.
Effects of Earthquakes
Primary effects of earthquakes are caused directly by the earthquake and can include violent ground shaking motion accompanied by surface rupture and permanent displacement.
Short-term secondary effects of earthquakes include liquefaction, landslides, fires,
seismic sea waves (tsunami), and floods (following collapse of dams). Long-term secondary effects include regional subsidence or emergence of land-masses and regional changes in groundwater levels.
Liquefaction:
Liquefaction is defined as the transformation of water saturated granular material from
solid to a liquid state. During earthquakes, this may result from an increase in pore – water pressure caused by compaction during intense shaking. Liquefaction of near – surface water – saturated silts and sand causes the materials to lose their shear strength and flow. As a result, buildings may tilt or sink into the liquefied sediments, tanks or pipelines buried in the ground may float to the surface.
Landslides:
Earthquake shaking commonly triggers many landslides (a comprehensive term for
several types of hill slope failure) in hilly and mountainous areas. Landslides can be extremely destructive and cause great loss of life.
Fires:
Fire is a major secondary hazard associated with earthquakes. Shaking of the ground and surface displacements can break electrical power and gas lines and ignite fires. The threat from fire is doubled because fire fighting equipment may be damage and water mains may be broken.
Tsunami:
Tsunami, or seismic seawaves, can be extremely destructive and present a serious
natural hazard. Fortunately , damaging tsunami are relatively rare and usually are confined to the Pacific Basin. Tsunami originate when ocean water is displaced vertically during large earthquakes, submarine mass movements, or submarine volcanic eruptions.
"TSUNAMI" Japanese word for harbor wave"
The most destructive waves on earth are not wind driven but generated by violent displacement of the ocean bed. Tsunami (the word is both singular and plural) are large long water waves caused by underwater earthquakes or submarine volcanic eruptions or landslides. One of the strange things about these these fearsome water waves is that they are hardly noticeable out at sea because their offshore wave height is insignificant. It is their wavelength that gives remarkable speed and energy.
When one of these monstrous waves strikes a coastline, people standing onshore see the sea level rise above the highest tide level, then suddenly retreat far below the lowest water level - only to rear back and strike the shore at astonishing height and speed. The impact on a populated coastline can be calamitous.
Tsunami can strike any coastline, but because of their particular positions on the circum- Pacific belt (where 80 % of all earthquakes take place) and the configuration of their coastlines (it is the angle of incidence relative to the shoreline that determines how bad the damage will be), the areas of the world most susceptible to devastating tsunami are Japan, Hawaii, Indonesia, and the Pacific coast of South America.
Damage caused by tsunami is most severe at the water's edge, where boats, harbors, buildings, transportation systems, and utilities may be destroyed. The waves also may damage aquatic and supratidal life in the near shore and on shore environments.
Insights Into The Dichotomy of Coastal Dune Vulnerability and Protection Measures From Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis: A Case Study of West Bengal Coast, Bay of Bengal, India
