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A PRELIMINARY STUDY OF TAIWANESE

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Taiwan Journal of TESOL
Vol. 13.1, 71-103, 2016

A PRELIMINARY STUDY OF TAIWANESE NNETS’

SELF-ASSESSMENT OF INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATIVE
COMPETENCE IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING

Tzu-Chia Chao

ABSTRACT
In the context of globalisation, intercultural teaching has been suggested as
an objective in English as lingua franca (ELF) education, which has
challenged English teachers in acquiring the intercultural communicative
competence (ICC) in English language teaching (ELT). However, empirical
research exploring the intercultural capabilities and practices of nonnative
English teachers (NNETs) teaching English as a foreign language (EFL) in
Asian contexts remains scant. This study was a preliminary exploration of
Taiwanese NNETs’ ICC in ELT, namely their affective orientations regarding
intercultural communication, personal capabilities of intercultural
communication, perspectives of ELT, and practices related to the intercultural
dimensions of ELT. A self-assessment inventory of ICC in ELT was used in
combination with follow-up interviews to collect data from Taiwanese
NNETs in different institutional contexts. An analysis of the data revealed
inconsistencies between the NNETs’ self-reported ICC (e.g., personal
capabilities) and ICC-oriented teaching practices (e.g., teaching objectives
and strategies). Personal (e.g., interests and life experience) and sociocultural
factors (e.g., entrance exams and social norms) identified in the interview
data were applied to interpret the survey results. This paper addresses the
importance of developing NNETs’ ICC in ELT, particularly their awareness
and practices of various Englishes and cultures to help EFL learners
communicate effectively with the increasing number of nonnative English
speakers. Some suggestions for Taiwanese English educational policy and
future studies on the topic of developing NNETs’ ICC in ELT are provided.

Key Words: English as lingua franca (ELF), nonnative English teachers (NNETs),
intercultural communicative competence (ICC), English language
teaching (ELT)

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INTRODUCTION

In recent years, intercultural contact and interchange have grown

because of globalisation and internationalisation. Numerous scholars in
the field of applied linguistics (Alptekin, 2002; Baker, 2012; Byram,
1997; Fantini, 2000, 2007; Matsuda, 2002; Sercu et al., 2005) have
emphasised the importance of intercultural communicative competence
(ICC) in foreign or second language education. ICC, building on
communicative competence and expanding it to include intercultural
competence, involves the following four interconnected dimensions: (a)
affect (e.g., attitudes and disposition); (b) cognition (e.g., knowledge); (c)
metacognition (e.g., planning and awareness), and (d) behaviour (e.g.,
skills and abilities). Byram (1997) and Spencer-Oatey and Franklin
(2009) have suggested that ICC be adequately developed to ensure that
people from different linguistic and cultural backgrounds can interact
appropriately and effectively with each other. Rather than merely
focusing on language teaching, several previous studies have suggested
that intercultural teaching as an objective in English as lingua franca
(ELF) or English as an international language (EIL) education, which
has challenged English language teachers in acquiring a new
professional identity (Han & Song, 2011; Luk, 2012; Sercu, 2006). For
English teachers who have been encouraged to integrate an intercultural
dimension into English language teaching (ELT) to assist English
learners with becoming linguistically and interculturally competent,
previous studies have recommended fostering English learners’
awareness of hybrid cultures (Pennycook, 2007), acquiring knowledge
on the linguistic varieties of English (Jung, 2010), increasing students’
intercultural knowledge, as well as assisting them with developing the
skills of negotiation and accommodation in intercultural contexts (Baker,
2009; Holliday, 2013). Because English language teachers are expected
to effectively act as cultural facilitators (Luk, 2012) or cultural mediators
(Sercu, Méndez García, & Castro Prieto, 2004) to promote the learner
aim of becoming an intercultural speaker rather than a native speaker
(Young & Sachdev, 2011), their competence in intercultural teaching
should be recognised and appropriately developed. Thus far, empirical
research on exploring intercultural capabilities and intercultural teaching
practices of nonnative English teachers (NNETs) teaching English as a
foreign language (EFL) in Asian contexts remains scant, so relevant
studies are necessary to address this research gap. The current study was
thereby conducted to collect Taiwanese NNETs’ perspectives of their
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 TAIWANESE NNETS’ SELF-ASSESSMENT OF ICC IN ELT

ICC in English language teaching (ELT) through a self-assessment

inventory and follow-up interviews, including four dimensions 1 : (a)
affective orientations to intercultural communication; (b) capabilities for
intercultural communication; (c) perspectives on ELT; and (d)
employment of intercultural strategies in ELT.

LITERATURE REVIEW

English Language Teaching in the ELF Paradigm

Because of the prestigious position of English in the context of

globalisation as an international lingua franca extensively used among
people of different linguistic or cultural backgrounds in intercultural
contexts, previous ELT studies have discussed the pedagogical models,
materials, and activities related to ELF.
Regarding ELT models, a native speaker model might not be an
appropriate choice in contexts where effective communication rather
than behaving like a native English speaker is the goal (Kachru & Smith,
2008; Kirkpatrick, 2007). According to Kirkpatrick (2006), potential
pedagogic models of English in East Asia include a native speaker model,
nativised model (e.g., Indian English in India and Singaporean English in
Singapore), and a lingua franca model. Although the lingua franca one
appears to be the most appropriate model for Asian contexts, a complete
description of any kind has not been proposed so far (He & Zhang, 2010).
When few published learning materials (e.g., adequately codified
features of the Englishes of India, Singapore, and China) are available in
a lingua franca model, teaching “World Englishes” (i.e., the norms that
include various forms of English) has become a difficult task.
Consequently, Kirkpatrick (2007) argued that local contexts and learner

1
Drawing upon the implications of existing ICC and ELF/EIL literature, as
well as the results of focus group interviews with local experienced EFL
teachers and intercultural experts, five dimensions were originally developed as
the basic themes of a self-assessment ICC inventory for EFL teachers (Chao,
2012). After item pool generation, data collection, processing and analysis (i.e.,
item analysis, factor analysis and reliability analysis), a 24-item inventory,
categorized under four factors, was finally generated. Here, the four dimensions
refer to the four factors in the inventory, which was the main survey tool used in
this study (Chao, 2013a).
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Tzu-Chia Chao

needs should decide the target model taught in classrooms. By contrast,

Kuo (2006) insisted on choosing a native speaker model for instruction
because it “serves as a complete and convenient starting point,
particularly with its social-cultural richness” (p. 220). However,
regardless of which standard English is taught, English teachers should
offer EFL learners opportunities by providing various resources (e.g., the
Internet and films) that can assist them with hearing and understanding
the varieties of English in order to improve their intelligibility (words)
and comprehensibility (meaning) in using ELF (Harmer, 2001; Jenkins,
2002; Kachru & Smith, 2008). Moreover, Alptekin (2002) suggested that
materials and activities related to ELT should involve local and
international contexts that are relevant to the lives of ELF users, contain
suitable native–nonnative and nonnative–nonnative discourse samples,
and be based on the insights and knowledge of competent intercultural
speakers as pedagogical models. Similarly, Saraceni (2009) argued that
classroom practices should faithfully reflect the complex reality of
English worldwide, such as the process of acculturation of English
occurring globally.

Culture Teaching in the ELF Paradigm

English teachers are reminded that cultural teaching is as crucial as

the linguistic dimension of ELF education (Baker, 2009; Chao, 2013b;
McKay, 2002; Nault, 2006). With developments in globalisation and
internationalisation, English teachers are compelled to shift from target
culture teaching (e.g., the United States and Great Britain) to
intercultural teaching. Sercu (2006) advised devoting effort and time to
employing inclusive content and adopting multiple strategies for
improving the intercultural competence of English learners. McKay
(2002) suggested that the three types of cultures (i.e., target, local, and
international) should be integrated into teaching materials to reflect the
status of ELF and satisfy the practical needs of ELF users in intercultural
contexts. Baker (2012) proposed an intercultural awareness model and
emphasised the importance of regarding cultures as dynamic, diverse,
and emergent resources rather than considering them based on ethnic,
national, or international differences. Holliday (2013) provided a
practical framework (i.e., “the grammar of culture”) for English learners
to explore cultures on nonessentialist perspectives through reflective
activities.

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 TAIWANESE NNETS’ SELF-ASSESSMENT OF ICC IN ELT

Textbooks in the ELF Paradigm

Textbooks have played a critical role in the process of English

learning for EFL learners. Nevertheless, many internationally published
and widely used textbooks mainly represent the Western understanding
of language, culture, communication, and learning. Canagarajah (2003)
indicated that English learning materials, mostly edited by Western
scholars, deliver many messages that are culturally inappropriate for
international learners. Similarly, Zacharias (2005) stated that the cultural
content of many English textbooks is not practical for students.
Therefore, Yuen (2011) addressed the importance of selecting
appropriate English textbooks containing varied cultural content and
reflecting the status of ELF. After examining the cultural content and
hidden curriculum of a popular internationally published textbook, Chao
(2011) argued for the need to consider whether English textbooks written
by English native speakers are implicitly of higher quality and to
mitigate the negative impacts of the values, norms, attitudes, and
manners of English-speaking countries portrayed in such textbooks on
the development of EFL learners’ identities, behaviours, and social
expectations. Furthermore, Shinm Eslami, and Chen (2011) indicated the
deficiencies of internationally distributed ELT textbooks, such as the
domination of inner circle cultural content and knowledge-oriented level
of cultural presentation. They recommended that textbook developers
integrate local and global culture, design cultural responsive activities, and
use English learners’ experiences to promote their cultural awareness.

Intercultural Communicative Competence in Foreign Language Teaching: A Review

of Related Models and Assessment Tools

The concept of intercultural communicative competence (ICC) is so

complex that there is no consensus on the terminology and it tends to be
interpreted according to the goals and interests from scholars of diverse
disciplines (Deardorff, 2006; Spencer-Oatey & Franklin, 2009). As
emphasized by Fantini (2009), the definition or framework of ICC in a
particular field is essential before proceeding with further assessment
approaches. Generally, assessment approaches can be categorized into
three groups: direct (e.g., interviews, observation and portfolios), indirect
(e.g., personality tests, questionnaires, sensitivity instruments, and
awareness tests) and blended methods. The purposes of these assessment

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methods are employed to (1) explain failure in intercultural

communication, (2) to predict success in intercultural communication, (3)
to develop personal intercultural strategies and (4) to design, implement
and test intercultural training programs (Sinicrope, Norris, & Watanabe,
2007).
In this section, a brief review of related models or definitions on ICC
and their methods or tools for assessment in the contexts of general
education, study abroad programs, intercultural management or
communication, and foreign language teacher education are provided as
reference to teacher education trainers as they seek to recognize and
improve the ICC of pre- or in-service foreign language teachers.
Byram’s ICC model and assessment methods. The most influential ICC
model in foreign language education is that of Michael Byram (1997).
Drawing upon the previous works of Canale and Swain’s (1980)
communicative competence, and Van Ek’s (1986) communicative ability,
Byram (1997) emphasized an interwoven link between communicative
competence of the foreign/target language (i.e., linguistic, sociolinguistic
and discourse) and intercultural competence (i.e., attitudes, knowledge,
skills of interpretation and relating, skills of discovering and interacting,
and critical cultural awareness). Moreover, Byram was involved in the
Intercultural Competence Assessment project (INCA) in the European
context. He and researchers in the INCA project combined existing ICC
theories and built up an ICC framework of six components (including
tolerance for ambiguity, behavioural flexibility, communicative
awareness, knowledge discovery, respect for otherness, and empathy)
and three levels (including basic, intermediate and full). A blended
approach (e.g., questionnaires, role plays and portfolios) has been
employed in this project to assess the affective, cognitive and
behavioural aspects of an individual’s ICC (Prechtl & Davidson-Lund,
2007). Clearly, Byram (2008, 2014) has approached the goals of foreign
language teaching through intercultural views, particularly stressing the
importance of becoming an intercultural speaker through English
(foreign) language education.
The Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity and its inventory.
Milton J. Bennett (1993) developed the Developmental Model of
Intercultural Sensitivity (DMIS) to explain the reported and observed
experiences of individuals in intercultural contexts for understanding
their increasing sensitivity to cultural differences over time. This model
has been widely discussed and researched in the North American context

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(Hammer, Bennet, & Wiseman, 2003). It consists of six stages. The first
three are ethnocentric (i.e., denial, defense and minimization), implying
a person tends to use his/her worldview to judge all people. The second
three stages are ethnorelative (i.e., acceptance, adaptation and
integration), meaning a person recognizes and adapts to equally valid
worldviews. Grounded in the theoretical constructs of DMIS, the
Intercultural Development Inventory (IDI) was invented by Milton J.
Bennet and Mitchell Hammer. The creators asserted that the IDI, a
50-item questionnaire, is a valid tool for evaluating the effectiveness of
ICC training programs and the needs of trainees in various contexts
(Hammer et al., 2003).
Cultural Intelligence and its scale. With the growing globalization of
organizations and the diversity of workforces, Cultural Intelligence (CQ)
has gained increasing attention in the areas of intercultural management
(Van Dyne et al., 2012). The concept of CQ, introduced by Earley and
Ang (2003), is defined as an individual’s capabilities in coping with
cultural diversity and in functioning effectively in intercultural
interactions. Accordingly, CQ is described as a four-factor construct that
entails metacognitive, cognitive, motivational and behavioural
dimensions (Ang & Van Dyne, 2008). Drawing upon the CQ model, Van
Dyne, Ang, and Koh (2008) developed the 20-item CQ scale (CQS) to
measure the four primary factors of CQ. Recent CQ research has focused
on providing an expanded concept of CQ that describes sub-dimensions
for each of the four factors (Van Dyne et al., 2012).
Intercultural Communication Apprehension and its scale. Communication
apprehension (CA), defined by McCroskey (1977) as an individual’s
level of fear or anxiety associated with real or anticipated interaction
with others, has received much attention in communication research. The
original concept of CA focused on general oral communication without
mentioning situational features of the communication context. With the
increasing opportunities of intercultural encounters in a globalized world,
a high level of uncertainty and strangeness exists during intercultural
communication which leads to anxiety (Gudykunst & Kim, 1997). This
type of communication anxiety is called Intercultural Communication
Anxiety (ICA), the fear or anxiety that people experience when
interacting with others of culturally or ethnically diverse groups. Based
on this concept, the 14-item Personal Report of Intercultural
Communication Apprehension (PRICA-14), a derivative of the Personal
Report of Communication Apprehension (PRCA-24) (McCroskey, 1982),

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Tzu-Chia Chao

was developed to measure the intercultural aspects of communication

apprehension (Neuliep & McCroskey, 1997). PRCA-24 has been a
widely used instrument in various contexts to measure apprehension in
different communication situations, such as group discussions and public
speaking (Renshaw, 2010). However, PRICA-14, presumed to be better
than the PRCA-24 for intercultural settings filled with novelty,
unfamiliarity, dissimilarity, and uncertainty (Neuliep & McCroskey,
1997), has been particularly employed to assess people’s feelings about
intercultural communication (Lin, 2012).
Fantini’s ICC model and its checklist of cultural and intercultural teacher.
Fantini (2000, 2007) addressed the values of ICC in English language
education and claimed that the construct of ICC includes different
dimensions of intercultural competence (i.e., knowledge, attitudes, skills
and awareness) as well as proficiency in the host language. He suggested
a process approach for English language course development, in which
intercultural exploration is one of the seven stages (Fantini, 1997b).
Moreover, he emphasized the importance of assessing the ICC of
language teachers in ELT and designed a checklist of cultural and
intercultural teacher competencies (Fantini, 1997a). This checklist
consists of four themes describing specific teacher competencies in
culture and intercultural dimensions of their teaching: (1) inclusion of
the sociocultural dimension in the lessons, (2) presence of a cultural
dimension in classroom dynamics, (3) inclusion of an intercultural
dimension, and (4) awareness of/sensitive and responsive to intercultural
challenges of the teaching situation. This checklist has been used as a
monitoring and reflective tool to help pre- and in-service English
teachers evaluate their ICC in their work (Fantini, 1997a).
Sercu’s foreign language and intercultural competence teacher and its
questionnaire. Sercu (2006) also stressed the importance of viewing
foreign language education from an intercultural perspective. She coined
the term foreign language and intercultural competence teacher (FL &
IC teacher) to represent the new professional identity that foreign
language teachers are expected to acquire so as to effectively promote
the acquisition of ICC in their learners. Sercu et al. (2005) conducted an
international research project involving teachers from Belgium, Bulgaria,
Greece, Mexico, Poland, Spain and Sweden to investigate their
knowledge and perceptions regarding ICC teaching in foreign language
classrooms, and how their teaching practices related to the envisaged
profile of an FL&IC teacher. The project questionnaire, characterizing

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 TAIWANESE NNETS’ SELF-ASSESSMENT OF ICC IN ELT

the knowledge, attitudes and skills of an FL&IC teacher, inquired into

teachers’ self-concepts of being an intercultural foreign language teacher,
their perceptions of the objectives, contents and approaches concerning
culture teaching in foreign language education, and their willingness and
strategies to interculturalize foreign language education. Sercu et al.
(2005) suggested that these findings could help us understand how
foreign language teachers perceive culture teaching/intercultural
education, and the reasons why they are hesitant or willing to change
their instructional behaviours in foreign language classrooms. The results
can serve as a guide for teacher educators to design appropriate pre- or
in-service teacher training programs to facilitate trainees’ acquisition of
ICC in foreign language teaching.

Intercultural Education in Foreign Language Teaching: Language Teachers’

Perspectives and Practices

Language teachers’ perceptions of ICC and related practices play a

critical role in realising intercultural education in foreign language
teaching (Young & Sachdev, 2011) and are recognised as significant
indicators of their professional identity (Sercu, 2006; Sercu et al., 2005).
Most relevant studies exploring the perspectives and practices of foreign
language teachers have been conducted in Western contexts.
Aleksandrowicz-Pedich, Draghicescu, Issaiass, and Sabec (2003)
investigated the views of foreign language (English and French) teachers
in a European context and showed that most of the teachers realised the
importance of ICC, but few of them clearly knew how to integrate ICC
into foreign language teaching. Liddicoat, Papademetre, Scarino, and
Kohler (2003) reported similar results from a study of intercultural
language teaching in Australia, in which many language teachers had
vague perceptions of ICC and an obscure curricular framework of
intercultural education in foreign language programs. In an international
investigation, Sercu et al. (2005) focused on language teachers’ views of
ICC in foreign language education and how their teaching practices were
related to the professional identity of foreign language and intercultural
competence (FL&IC) teachers. The results revealed no clear relationship
between teachers’ beliefs and practices regarding the integration of ICC
in foreign language education, and their ICC profiles in attitudes,
knowledge, and skills were highly inconsistent with the expectations of
FL&IC teachers. Furthermore, Young and Sachdev (2011) explored the

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beliefs and practices of experienced English language teachers in the

United States, United Kingdom, and France regarding applying an ICC
model to English language programs. They showed that most teachers
had inconsistent attitudes and beliefs regarding ICC and applying such
models in language classrooms.
Recently, a few similar surveys have been conducted in Asian
contexts. Han and Song (2011) reported their study on teacher cognition
of ICC in the Chinese ELT context. The results revealed that even though
language teachers were willing to help students develop ICC, they had a
vague concept of ICC and its connection to ELT. They also showed
strong doubt to the possibility of teaching and acquiring ICC skills in
school contexts. Luk (2012) investigated the perceptions and practices of
native and nonnative English teachers in Hong Kong regarding
integrating culture into EFL teaching. The results of that study indicated
that many teachers had positive attitudes toward integrating culture into
language teaching, but they expressed contradictory feelings regarding
how culture should be positioned in EFL teaching because of unclear
curriculum aims related to promoting intercultural awareness through
cultural content, uncertainty regarding which cultural resources should
be deployed, a lack of assessable learning outcomes, and the low English
proficiency of many EFL learners. Moreover, Cheng (2012) explored
five Taiwanese EFL teachers’ understanding of ICC in university EFL
education and how their beliefs affected the self-reported pedagogical
practices. The findings revealed that participating teachers did not have
clear theoretical frameworks of IC teaching, intercultural issues did not
appear in their teaching, the importance of cultural self-awareness was
not recognized, and their understanding of IC seemed to remain at a
surface level.
The aforementioned studies improved the understanding of the
emergent field of inquiry into foreign language teacher perspectives and
the practices of intercultural education in language classrooms. Those
findings suggested that many foreign language teachers around the world
have not been ready to incorporate the content of ICC into their
classroom pedagogical practices.
With the increased demand for NNET professionals to meet the
needs from globalisation and internationalisation in Asian contexts
(Braine, 2010), the development of NNETs’ ICC in ELT has become
urgent and important. Extensive studies are needed to explore and
elucidate the ICC perceptions and practices of Asian NNETs in different

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 TAIWANESE NNETS’ SELF-ASSESSMENT OF ICC IN ELT

institutional contexts, along with the factors that shape and influence
their motivation, attitudes and instructional behaviours of ICC in ELT.

STUDY DESIGN

This study was conducted to investigate Taiwanese NNETs’ ICC in

ELT, namely their perspectives of personal ICC as well as their attitudes
toward and practices in the intercultural dimensions of ELT through a
self-assessment inventory and follow-up interviews (Chao, 2012, 2013a,
2015). To achieve the aims, local NNETs were invited to participate. All
data were collected with the purpose of answering the following research
questions:
1. How do Taiwanese NNETs self-assess their affective orientations
regarding intercultural communication?
2. In which areas of intercultural communication competence do
Taiwanese NNETs feel the least and most competent?
3. How do Taiwanese NNETs perceive the goals, models, and materials
of ELT? What are the reasons behind their priorities?
4. How frequently do Taiwanese NNETs apply intercultural strategies2
to ELT? What are the reasons underlying the frequency with which
such strategies are applied?

Participants

Local full-time NNETs were initially approached by placing

telephone calls and sending e-mails. With the assistance of colleagues
and students, many NNETs were invited to participate in the project by a
snowball sampling method. In order to get holistic data for study, the
NNETs were recruited from various areas of Taiwan in a wide range of
institutional contexts, from kindergartens to universities. A total of 455
teachers were contacted to complete a 24-item self-assessment inventory

2
The spectrum of intercultural strategies is very broad, including various
aspects and activities of intercultural education (Sercu, Méndez García, &
Castro Prieto, 2004); however, the intercultural strategies in ELT of the
self-assessment inventory used in this study only focused on the selection of
textbooks, teaching content and the familiarity with ICC theories, three of the
most popular issues in relevant literature after the process of validation of all
potential items (Chao, 2012, 2013a).
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Tzu-Chia Chao

of ICC in ELT (Chao, 2015), which was distributed either via e-mail or
by regular postal services. Finally, 356 valid self-assessment inventories
(i.e., no missing answers to all inventory items) were collected and
analysed. Subsequently, 22 volunteer NNETs were interviewed to clarify
relevant findings from the survey analysis. Table 1 presents the
institutional contexts of the NNETs3.

Table 1

Institutional Contexts of the Study Participants

Institutional contexts (Code) Survey: Interview:
N (%) N (%)
Kindergarten (K) 45 (13%) 3 (14%)
Elementary school (ES) 48 (14%) 3 (14%)
Junior high school (JHS) 69 (19%) 4 (17%)
Senior high school (SHS) 54 (15%) 3 (14%)
Vocational school (VS) 27 (8%) 2 (9%)
Regular university (RU) 25 (7%) 2 (9%)
Technological university (TU) 44 (12%) 2 (9%)
Cram school (CS) 44 (12%) 3 (14%)
Total 356 (100%) 22 (100%)

Data Collection and Analysis

The main tool employed in the study was a self-assessment

inventory of ICC in ELT (Chao, 2012, 2013a, 2015). This tool, a
preliminary exploration for the potential ICC qualifications in ELT of
EFL teachers, was developed on the basis of relevant literature (Alptekin,
2002; Bennett, 1993; Byram, 1997; Fantini, 2000, 2007; Sercu, 2006;
Van Dyne et al., 2012) as well as the suggestions of local university
English professors and intercultural communication scholars to ensure
that the content was relevant to the EFL context in Taiwan (Chao, 2015).
After factor and reliability analyses were conducted, the inventory was
validated to include 24 items categorized under four factors with high
reliability (α = .932), and an ICC in ELT model for EFL teachers was

3
Since the demographical information (e.g., age, gender and years of experience)
of participating teachers in this study was incomplete (some data were missing),
the author/researcher decided not to discuss this part in this paper.
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 TAIWANESE NNETS’ SELF-ASSESSMENT OF ICC IN ELT

proposed (Figure 1). The four dimensions of ICC in ELT are listed as
follows (Chao, 2012, 2013a, 2015): (a) affective orientations to
intercultural communication which particularly refers to personal interest,
self-confidence and desire/enthusiasm during intercultural encounters; (b)
capabilities for intercultural communication; (c) perspectives on ELT;
and (d) employment of intercultural strategies in ELT. A 6-point scale
(1~6) was used in the inventory. All respondents rated their level of
agreement (Q1–Q18) or frequency of employment (Q19–Q24) with
regard to the 24 items. Descriptive statistics were computed to obtain the
mean score and standard deviation of all items to explore the ICC of
Taiwanese NNETs (Research Questions 1 and 2); the self-rated priorities
of their English teaching goals, models, and materials (Research
Question 3); and the frequency at which they applied intercultural
strategies to ELT (Research Question 4).

EFL teachers’ affective

orientations to IC
EFL Teachers’
EFL teachers’ capabilities
Intercultural
for IC
Communicative
EFL teachers’ perspectives Competence in
on ELT ELT
(ICC-ELT-EFL)
EFL teachers’ employment
of intercultural strategies
in ELT

Figure 1. ICC in ELT model for EFL teachers

Furthermore, in-depth interviews were conducted by the author and

her colleagues to collect qualitative data for clarification and elaboration.
Each interview began with several biographical questions, followed by
those on attitudes and perceptions toward intercultural communication,
English language teaching, culture teaching and intercultural strategies.
The interviews with 22 volunteer NNETs were audiotaped. The recorded
data were analysed independently by the author and two colleagues
through pattern coding to reduce the “large amounts of data into a
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smaller number of analytic units” (Miles & Huberman, 1994, p. 69).

After initial analyses, the coded units were continuously negotiated
among data coders. Finally, the coded units were subsequently grouped
by the agreed-on categories to interpret the quantitative findings
according to the research questions and, thus, provide a detailed
description of and explanation for the attitudes, ideas, and behaviours of
the study participants.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This section discusses the preliminary results from 356 NNETs in

eight institutional contexts according to the research questions. Relevant
comments and explanations from the interviewees are integrated into the
discussion.

NNETs’ Affective Orientations Regarding Intercultural Communication

The purpose of the first research question was to explore NNETs’

interest, self-confidence, and enthusiasm for intercultural communication.
Table 2 shows that the survey results (Items 1–3) were positive, because
the mean score of each item was close to five. Many NNETs indicated
that they were interested in contacting people from other cultural
backgrounds (Q1, M = 4.51), felt confident in interacting appropriately
with people from different cultural backgrounds (Q2, M = 4.86), and
were actively learning about other cultures (Q3, M = 4.63).
All interviewees provided similar responses. Some of them (10/22:
45%) mentioned that personality was a critical factor influencing their
attitudes toward intercultural communication, as demonstrated in the
following statement:
1. You know, most of the time, those [people who] have chosen [to be an]
English teacher as their career are optimistic and adventurous people. . . .
They enjoy knowing foreign people, traveling and seeing bizarre
things. . . . Their personalities affect their attitudes toward intercultural
communication. (ES 1)
Many (14/22: 64%) NNETs indicated that their experiences in
English-speaking countries facilitated the learning and development of
their ability to communicate appropriately with foreigners.

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 TAIWANESE NNETS’ SELF-ASSESSMENT OF ICC IN ELT

Table 2

Descriptive Analysis of the Affective Orientation Items

Factor/ M SD Frequency (%)
Item SD D SlD PA A SA
AO/Q1 I enjoy interacting with people of different cultural
backgrounds.
13 184 124 35
4.51 .72 0 0 (3.7) (51.7) (34.8) (9.8)
AO/Q2 I believe I can interact appropriately with people of different
cultural backgrounds.
2 1 3 115 154 81
4.86 .83
(0.7) (0.4) (0.8) (32.3) (43.3) (22.8)
AO/Q3 I’m an active learner in understanding different cultures in
the world.
1 1 16 179 71 88
4.63 .93 (0.3) (0.3) (4.5) (50.3) (19.9) (24.7)
Note. AO = affective orientations; SD = strongly disagree; D = disagree; SlD =
slightly disagree; PA = partly agree; A = agree; SA = strongly agree.

2. In Taiwan, people always believe that a qualified local English teacher

should have learning experiences in English-speaking countries. . . at least
[having] lived in English-speaking countries for years. . . . Many Taiwanese
English teachers choose to get a Teachers of English to Speakers of Other
Languages (TESOL) degree in the United States, United Kingdom, or
Australia to promote themselves. . . . Because of [their] personal
experiences, they certainly know better than others on how to interact with
foreign people properly in intercultural communication. (TU 2)
Several (7/22: 32%) interviewees also indicated their enthusiasm
regarding learning new things about foreign cultures (nations).
3. I took a trip this summer to New Zealand to experience [the local culture].
(JHS 3)
4. I like to watch TV travel programs. . . . It is a good way to learn English
and new things [about] foreign cultures. (VS 1)
5. I went to America and joined a summer camp for English teachers last
year. . . . I learned [something about the culture] from local people—[it was]
very interesting. (RU 2)

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According to the information mentioned above, it was found that

most participating NNETs had positive attitudes (e.g., curiosity and
open-mindedness) to intercultural communication, similar to the ability
to relativize one’s self and value others (i.e. attitude factor) in Byram’s
ICC model (Byram, 1997). However, the “others” they meant often refer
to the cultures of English-speaking countries, and their intercultural
learning experiences mainly focused on the acquisition of knowledge,
such as knowing social groups and practices in English-speaking
countries.

NNETs’ Capabilities for Intercultural Communication

Table 3 shows the results of the most and least competent

intercultural capabilities of NNETs. Most participants felt relatively
self-assured regarding the appropriateness of their behaviour in
intercultural communication, such as building amiable relationships with
foreigners (Q11, M = 4.74) and effectively initiating and ending a
conversation (Q10, M = 4.58). However, 117 participants (32.9%)
considered themselves as lacking competence in the nonverbal
communication norms of other cultures (Q6, M = 3.98). In general, most
of the NNETs were in agreement that they were skilful intercultural
communicators in some way, as indicated by the mean scores of the
items for this aspect, most of which were higher than 4.

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Table 3

Descriptive Analysis of the IC Items

Factor/ M SD Frequency (%)
Item SD D SlD PA A SA
IC/Q4 I know the religious beliefs, social norms and values of other
cultures.
51 206 71 28
4.21 .78 0 0 (14.3) (57.9) (19.9) (7.9)
IC/Q5 I know the tangible products of other cultures (e.g.,
architecture, music, arts and literature).
55 219 45 37
4.18 .82 0 0 (15) (61.5) (12.6) (10.4)
IC/Q6 I know the nonverbal communication rules of other cultures.
117 166 37 36
3.98 .92 0 0 (32.9) (46.6) (10.4) (10.1)
IC/Q7 I am conscious of the appropriateness of the cultural
knowledge I have applied to intercultural communication.
64 205 66 21
4.12 .77 0 0 (18) (57.6) (18.5) (5.9)
IC/Q8 I know how to change my ways of communicating in English
to fit the situational need of intercultural communication.
5 13 225 90 23
4.30 .76 (1.3) 0 (3.7) (63.2) (25.3) (6.5)
IC/Q9 I can resolve conflicts or settle misunderstandings during
intercultural communication.
28 212 85 31
4.33 .75 0 0 (7.9) (59.6) (23.9) (8.7)
IC/Q10 I can effectively open and end a conversation during
intercultural communication.
188 129 39
4.58 .68 0 0 0 (52.8) (36.2) (11)
IC/Q11 I can build a good relationship with foreign friends during
intercultural contacts.
142 163 51
4.74 .69 0 0 0 (39.9) (45.8) (14.3)
Note. IC = intercultural communication; SD = strongly disagree; D = disagree;
SlD = slightly disagree; PA = partly agree; A = agree; SA = strongly agree.

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Moreover, an analysis of interview data revealed that some of these

participating NNETs (8/22: 36%) preferred exposure to those cultures
(e.g., arts and daily routines) of English-speaking countries through
various approaches (e.g., traveling, reading, and taking courses) which
could assist them with developing their intercultural communication
capabilities. Obviously, they easily associated competent intercultural
communicators with English native speakers. It seemed that what they
believed and felt confident during intercultural communication were
mainly due to their various experiences and learning with the cultures
(e.g., people and activities) of English speaking countries.
6. I like traveling. . . . [It] is an effective way to empower my intercultural
capabilities. . . . I have visited Australia several times. . . . I can experience
the beauty of their cultures, such as arts and architecture. ( JHS 2 )
7. Learning British and American literature is an effective way to understand
English cultures. . . . It is easier to generate discussion topics with my
British friends. . . to show [that] I am well educated. (RU 1)
8. I have taken many courses to improve my English communication skills
with native speakers. . . . To resolve intercultural conflicts, I think we
should firstly understand the differences of communication styles between
American and Taiwanese [people]. (K 3 )
Regarding the unfamiliarity of nonverbal communication norms
(Q6), the potential explanations proposed by several teachers (9/22:41%)
during interviews included a lack of relevant learning materials and
limited experience living in a foreign country. However, three teachers
(two from regular universities and one from an elementary school) didn’t
think this was a big issue, for example, one teacher said:
9. I think sensitive observation and active enquiry can help us understand
those unfamiliar nonverbal messages when [we are] in a new context…We
need to teach our students how to be a sensitive observer and active learner
during intercultural communication. (RU 2)

NNETs’ Perspectives About the Goals, Models, and Materials of ELT

Regarding the NNETs’ perspectives on ELT, the responses to the

related items (Q12–Q18) indicated that many NNETs were not sensitive
to ELF- or EIL-related topics that reflect the needs of globalisation and

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internalisation.4 As shown in Table 4, numerous participants agreed that

the main goal of English education in Taiwan was to assist students with
developing their English knowledge and skills (Q12, M = 5.02), and the
main purpose of school English courses in Taiwan was to pass
internationally recognised English tests with high scores (Q16, M = 4.32).
The pedagogical model for English learning that they preferred was the
standard Englishes of native speakers (Q14, M = 5.00). Approximately
57% of the NNETs moderately agreed that helping students with
comprehending the variety of Englishes was necessary in English
education (Q18, M = 3.37); however, 22.45% did not agree that this issue
was critical. For many of them, culture learning in language education
was not as crucial as acquiring language ability (Q12, Q15, and Q16).
When culture was taught in English education, many participants
preferred the cultures of English native speakers over other cultures
(Q13, M = 4.73). Many EFL teachers also considered the teaching
materials developed by English native speakers as a more favourable
choice because of the accuracy of the content and professionalism with
which it was produced (Q17, M = 4.79).

4
In the survey, Q12–Q17 were designed to address the opposite aspect of the
target concepts proposed in the ELF/EIL and ICC-related literature; therefore,
higher scores indicate less awareness regarding integrating intercultural and
ELF/EIL perspectives into ELT.
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Table 4

Descriptive Analysis of the Items Related to the NNETs’ Perspectives of ELT

Factor/ M SD Frequency (%)
Item SD D SlD PA A SA
P/Q12 The mastery of English language knowledge and English
fluency is the main goal of English teaching and learning in
Taiwan.
7 21 48 161 119
5.02 4.9 0 (2) (5.9) (13.5) (45.2) (33.4)
P/Q13 English native speakers’ cultures (e.g., USA and UK) should
be the main focus of culture learning when teaching English.
32 29 22 192 81
4.73 1.16 0 (9) (8.1) (6.2) (53.9) (22.8)
P/Q14 The Standard Englishes used by native speakers should be the
best model(s) for EIL/ELF users.
33 80 97 146
5 1 0 0 (9.3) (22.5) (27.2) (41)
P/Q15 Students with fluent English abilities can face all future
challenges in different situations of intercultural
communication (e.g., job and education).
17 29 57 106 147
4.95 1.15 0 (4.8) (8.1) (16) (29.8) (41.3)
P/Q16 One of the main purposes of school English courses is to help
EFL learners pass internationally recognized English tests
with high scores to get English language certificates.
40 50 58 171 37
4.32 1.18 0 (11.2) (14) (16.3) (48) (10.4)
P/Q17 The English textbooks edited by native speakers are more
accurate and professional.
5 21 25 80 86 139
4.79 1.30 (1.4) (5.9) (7) (22.5) (24.2) (39)
P/Q18 It is necessary to help students comprehend the variety of
Englishes (e.g., the accent and grammar of Indian English
and Singaporean English).
19 61 60 203 13
3.37 .99 (5.3) (17.1) (16.9) (57) (3.7) 0
Note. P = perspectives; SD = strongly disagree; D = disagree; SlD = slightly
disagree; PA = partly agree; A = agree; SA = strongly agree.

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Many interviewees (19/22: 86%) discussed how factors had affected

their priorities in local ELT, such as the pressure from schools, parents,
and English proficiency tests (Excerpt 10); social norms5 (Excerpt 11);
the shortage of ELF-related materials for intercultural teaching and lack
of intercultural training in teacher education (Excerpt 12); and the
uncertainty of personal abilities in formal intercultural settings (Excerpt
13). Related excerpts are presented as follows:
10. If students want to apply for a good university, English is an important
indicator. . . . It is our responsibility to help students get high English
scores in GEPT or TOEIC. . . .Most internationally recognized English
proficiency tests are developed by English native speakers. . . . Parents and
[the] school will evaluate teacher performance according to students’
scores. . . . We should face the reality [score is everything]….We should
teach Standard English. (JHS 4)
11. English has been considered as a fundamental tool for advancing
socioeconomic status. . . . If students want to apply for job positions in
some well-known companies, high TOEIC scores are one of the basic
requirements. . . . English teachers should help students achieve a certain
level [of English proficiency] to prove their English abilities. (TU 1)
12. Few useful ELF-related learning materials have been published for
Taiwanese English learners, it seems impossible for me to design decent
lesson plans. . . . I am not really familiar with other Englishes and
cultures. . . . I only know American English, the standard one. . . . [To] be
honest, I have not [received] any training about intercultural teaching. . . .
The courses I took in pre-service teacher education focused [only] on the
four-skill teaching of standard American English. (CS 1)
13. I enjoy travelling and making foreign friends, but I am not sure if can do
well in formal intercultural settings, like business negotiation and academic
exchanges. . . . I have no idea about Indian English and Japanese English. . . . I
do not know how to teach the varieties of English and appropriately integrate
their cultures into classroom English learning. (SHS 3)
In addition, five interviewees (teachers in high school levels),
expressed their marginality as nonnative English teachers, although they

5
Social norms mean social expectations /requirements for a person’s English
proficiency (e.g., the score of TOEIC or GEPT) in particular fields (e.g., job or
education).
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Tzu-Chia Chao

appreciated the concept of World English. They reported difficulty

regarding possessing a real sense of “owning” English. Because they had
already formed perceptions of “good” models for teaching English, they
preferred the native speaker model in language and culture teaching for
reasons of familiarity, convenience, accuracy, and being well-educated.
14. I think World English is a positive idea but a little bit unrealistic. . . . Only
researchers are interested in that issue… For me, I enjoy teaching English,
but English is still a foreign language. . . . English will not “belong to me”
like my mother tongue. . . . I have been informed that English native
speaker models are the best models for me to follow since childhood. . . . I
believe most local NNETs prefer [the] American model. . . . For many of us,
[the] American model is the most convenient and familiar one. . . How can
we [as] language teachers [justify using] a non-standardised model to teach
our students inaccurate English? (SHS 2)
These data revealed that previous learning experiences (e.g.,
standard American English is the best model) and social expectations
(e.g., good performance in English proficiency test is what society
expects) have deeply affected participating NNETs’ perspectives about
the goals, models, and materials of ELT, which may have led to their
lack of awareness of and exposure to different Englishes and cultures.
Therefore, they could not be sensitive to the issue regarding integrating
intercultural and ELF/EIL perspectives into ELT.

NNETs’ Employment of Intercultural Strategies in ELT

Table 5 shows that all scores regarding the intercultural strategies

employed by the NNETs in ELT (Q19–Q24) were below four. The choice
“sometimes do this” was a common choice among many of the participating
teachers regarding their approach to incorporating intercultural methods
into teaching. Specifically, the results regarding textbook selection (Q19,
Q21, and Q22) were consistent with the findings of other previous studies
regarding the presentation of content in textbooks (Shin et al., 2011; Yuen,
2011). When selecting textbooks, some participating teachers tended to
consider neither domestic and world cultures nor the various English
accents. Many participants were unfamiliar with intercultural theories and
practices (Q23) and did not spend a considerable length of time guiding
students to discover various explanations for communication breakdown
in intercultural settings (Q20 and Q24).

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Table 5

Descriptive Analysis of the Items Regarding Employing Intercultural

Strategies in ELT
Factor/ M SD Frequency (%)
Item NDT SDT SoDT ODT UDT ADT
IS/Q19 When selecting English material(s)/textbook(s), I take the
allocation of world cultures into consideration.
7 133 116 88 12
3.88 .96 (2) 0 (37.3) (32.6) (24.7) (3.4)
IS/Q20 I guide students to explore and understand those cultural factors
that may cause the breakdown of intercultural communication.
5 14 167 81 68 21
3.72 1.05 (1.4) (3.9) (46.9) (22.8) (19.1) (5.9)
IS/Q21 When selecting English material(s)/textbook(s), I take the
allocation of local cultures into consideration.
17 32 210 55 23 19
3.26 1.05 (4.8) (9) (59) (15.4) (6.5) (5.3)
IS/Q22 When selecting English material(s)/textbook(s), I take the
variety of English accents into consideration.
17 14 177 95 46 7
3.45 .99 (4.8) (3.9) (49.7) (26.7) (12.9) (2)
IS/Q23 I apply intercultural communication theories6 to culture
teaching of English curricula.
7 95 152 36 65 1
3.17 1.08 (2) (26.6) (42.7) (10.1) (18.3) (.3)
IS/Q24 I guide students to explore and understand those linguistic factors
that may cause the breakdown of intercultural communication.
5 3 163 91 81 13
3.78 .97 (1.4) (0.8) (45.8) (25.6) (22.7) (3.7)
Note. IS = intercultural strategies; NDT = never do this; SDT = seldom do this;
SoDT = sometimes do this; ODT = often do this; UDT = usually do this; ADT=
always do this.

6
Intercultural theories that provide an overview of patterns underlining cultures
are useful for understanding cultural similarities and differences. In intercultural
education, the familiarity of various intercultural theories are important for
developing competence in intercultural communication (Lustig & Koester,
2006), just like the significance of learning second language acquisition theories
for foreign/second language teachers.
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The following statements from the interviewees offer an explanation

regarding why they were unlikely to employ intercultural strategies in
ELT. Specifically, they lacked authority in textbook selection (Excerpt
15), their major concerns regarding the teaching materials were
convenience and quality (Excerpt 16), some of them were constrained by
sociocultural factors (Excerpt 17), they lacked intercultural training in
previous teacher education (Excerpt 18), and they based their approach
on personal learning experiences (Excerpt 19).
15. Textbook selection is not my responsibility. . . it is decided by our school
English curriculum and instruction committee. (VS 2)
16. Generally, we prefer imported English textbooks with a complete package,
including a teachers’ manual, test materials, and PPT. . . . Of course, it is
better [if the material has been] edited by native speakers. . . . I think
convenience and quality are our major concerns in choosing teaching
materials rather than those issues about cultures or the varieties of English.
(TU 2)
17. The limitation of school lecturing hours and the pressure from entrance
exams have made school English teaching become very routine and
stressful. . . . I do not have time to guide students [through exploring] the
potential factors [that cause] intercultural communication breakdown. (SHS
1)
18. I have not heard [of] any intercultural communication theories. . . . I only
learnt second language acquisition theories in my TESOL M.A. program.
(JHS 4)
19. My learning experiences tell me [that] teaching kids American
English—the standard one—is the best choice. . . . A good start is half way
to success. . . . I do not encourage students to develop local English
accents. . . . Most parents expect their kids to acquire native speakers’
English. (K 2)
Moreover, when asked which cultural issues should be integrated
into ELT if possible, many interviewees expressed that traditions,
customs and festivals in English speaking countries (19/22: 86%), tourist
attractions (17/22:77%), daily life and routines in English-speaking
countries (14/22:64%), and American and British literature and drama
(11/22: 50%) as crucial topics for students to master.
Accordingly, these teachers preferred using traditional strategies in

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intercultural education, such as delivering cultural knowledge and social

activities/practices of English-speaking countries, and only introducing
standard Englishes of native speakers. Obviously, these strategies that
participating teachers employed were constrained by previous learning
experiences, the lack of intercultural education training, the pressure
from social expectations, insufficient lecturing hours and pre-decided
teaching materials; as a result, their strategies in intercultural education
could not reflect the needs of globalization and intercultural
communication in some way.

LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

The current study was investigating the ICC in ELT of NNETs in

Taiwan through a self-assessment inventory developed by the researcher.
It is suggested that other ICC-related assessment tools or questionnaires,
like the Cultural Intelligence scale (Van Dyne, Ang, & Koh, 2008), and
Personal Report of Intercultural Communication Apprehension scale
(Neuliep & McCroskey, 1997) could be used in future studies to expand
our understanding of their relatedness to the ICC of NNETs in ELT. As a
consequence of the issues of privacy and time, the researcher only had
22 teachers for interviews in this study. The findings may not be
representative but are still informative. In order to develop a holistic
profile of Taiwanese NNETs’ intercultural capabilities and practices in
ELT, more interviewees are needed; moreover, dynamic and reflective
approaches, such as Kelly’s Repertory Grid Technique (Borg, 2006) and
focus group interview through a ‘liquid’ approach (Dervin, 2011), could
be employed to stimulate dialogic communication among teachers and
researchers, reduce potential biases and control during the interview
process and thereby increase the reliability of collected discourse data.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

The quantitative results of this study show that many NNETs had
positive affective orientations regarding intercultural communication and
considered themselves effective intercultural speakers in some way.
However, there were obvious inconsistencies between the NNETs’
self-reported ICC (e.g., personal capabilities) and ICC-oriented teaching
practices (e.g., teaching objectives and strategies). Their teaching
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attitudes and practices could not be characterised as intercultural. For

example, few of them had frequently employed intercultural strategies in
their classrooms. Scant attention was given to promoting the acquisition
of intercultural knowledge and skills. Instead, they preferred to introduce
the cultures of English speaking countries. Many teachers are
unconsciously trapped in the fallacy that the native speaker model is the
optimal model of English instruction and that English learners should
know cultural facts (i.e., knowledge) regarding English-speaking
countries.
The qualitative interviews revealed that personal (e.g., interests,
personalities and life experience of individuals) and sociocultural factors
(e.g., entrance exams and social norms) might explain the survey results.
First, although the NNETs claimed that they were highly motivated to
have intercultural contact with people from other cultural or linguistic
backgrounds, the foreigners that many NNETs liked to interact with
often referred to Western people or people from English-speaking
countries. Some NNETs did not appear to be sensitive to the ELF- or
EIL-related issues in ELT, which affected their teaching behaviours (e.g.,
selecting textbooks and cultural content). Moreover, because of a lack of
explicit guidance regarding intercultural education, insufficient
ELF-related materials for intercultural teaching, and inadequate
intercultural training in teacher education, many NNETs were not
familiar with instructing the various Englishes, and they even overlooked
the importance for students to develop an awareness and acquire
knowledge of their own culture and other cultures, which is a useful
ability in intercultural communication. Furthermore, the pressures from
school, parents, entrance exams, and social norms seemed to be critical
reasons affecting NNETs’ perspectives on ELT and teaching practices.
The results reveal that many Taiwanese NNETs in this study like other
foreign language teachers around the world (Aleksandrowicz-Pedich et
al., 2003; Han & Song, 2011; Liddicoat et al., 2003; Luk, 2012; Young &
Sachdev, 2011) have not been ready to appropriately incorporate the
content of ICC into their pedagogical practices.
On the basis of these findings, firstly, it is suggested that the
educational policy for English curriculum and instruction (e.g.,
objectives, content, pedagogy, and assessment) in Taiwan should include
intercultural perspectives. Secondly, many Taiwanese NNETs as the
study indicated had a vague concept of ICC, did not sense the urgency
and possibility of intercultural learning in EFL classrooms, and presented

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low motivation in employing intercultural strategies in teaching practices.

In order to assist Taiwanese NNETs with developing the new
professional identity of being an FL&IC teacher (Sercu, 2006; Sercu et
al., 2005) in ELF education, it is necessary to elucidate the notion of
culture and interculturality as well as arrange ICC-related training and
assessment in English teacher education programs. Furthermore, more
dialogues, interactions and negotiations regarding the factors influencing
the ICC development of NNETs in ELT (e.g., identity) should be
generated among language teachers, teacher educators and researchers to
identify potential difficulties and challenges, and then discover
contextually sensitive and appropriate solutions.
This paper concludes that regardless of which culture or standard of
English mainly being taught in school contexts, students should be
informed that there are different varieties of English and their related
cultures, and be given opportunities to be exposed to those diversities.
That is, NNETs should act as cultural facilitators (Luk, 2012) to increase
EFL learners’ awareness and comprehension of various Englishes and
cultures, and help these ELF/EIL users know how to communicate
effectively with not only native English speakers, but also the increasing
number of nonnative English speakers all over the world.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This research was financially supported by the Ministry of Science and Technology,
Taiwan (R.O.C.) under Grant No. NSC 101-2410-H-159-008.

CORRESPONDENCE

Tzu-Chia Chao, Department of Applied Foreign Languages, Minghsin University of

Science and Technology, Hsinchu County, Taiwan
E-mail address: [email protected]

PUBLISHING RECORD

Manuscript received: March 30, 2015; Revision received: June 17, 2015; Manuscript
accepted: June 22, 2015

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臺灣英語非母語之英語教師跨文化溝通教學力自評初探

趙子嘉
明新科技大學

全球化使得跨文化教學成為英語為國際共通語教育的目標之
一，此趨勢讓英語教師在教學專業力上面臨新的挑戰。此研究
是要探索臺灣英語非母語之英語教師在英語教學中跨文化溝
通教學力的發展情形。此教學力包含了四個面向：跨文化溝通
的情意傾向、跨文化溝通能力、英語教學的觀點、英語教學中
跨文化面向的實行。透過一份自評問卷與事後深入訪談，研究
者收集與分析來自臺灣不同教育機構，英語非母語之英語教師
的態度與觀點。自評問卷結果顯示，參與教師所陳述的個人跨
文化能力與其在英語教學中跨文化面向的實行很不一致。從訪
談資料中發現，個人或是社會文化的因素可解釋自評問卷的結
果。本文強調發展英語非母語之英語教師跨文化溝通教學力的
重要，特別是對英語教學中文化多元性與英語變異性的覺醒與
教學。最後針對未來英語師資培育與相關研究提出建議。

關鍵詞：英語為國際共通語、英語非母語之英語教師、跨文化
溝通教學力、英語教學

103

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