The United Nations World Water Development Report 2017

WASTEWATER
THE UNTAPPED RESOURCE
Published in 2017 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization,
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TABLE OF CONTENT
FOREWORD v
by Irina Bokova v
Director-General of UNESCO v

FOREWORD vii
by Guy Ryder vii
Chair of UN-Water and Director-General of International Labour Organization vii

PREFACE viii
by Stefan Uhlenbrook, WWAP Coordinator viii
and Richard Connor, Editor-in-Chief viii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS x

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1

PROLOGUE | STATE OF WATER RESOURCES: AVAILABILITY AND QUALITY 9

PART I BASELINE AND CONTEXT

CHAPTER 1 | INTRODUCTION 16
1.1 Wastewater flows 20
1.2 Wastewater as a resource: Seizing the opportunities 21

CHAPTER 2 | WASTEWATER AND THE SUSTAINABLE

DEVELOPMENT AGENDA 23
2.1 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development 24
2.2 Potential synergies and conflicts 26

CHAPTER 3 | GOVERNANCE 29
3.1 Actors and roles 30
3.2 Policy, law and regulation 31
3.3 Financing 35
3.4 Socio-cultural aspects 36

CHAPTER 4 | TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF WASTEWATER 37

4.1 Wastewater sources and components 38
4.2 Impacts of releasing untreated or inadequately treated wastewater 40
4.3 Wastewater collection and treatment 42
4.4 Data and information needs 46

P RE FAC E
PART II THEMATIC FOCUS

CHAPTER 5 | MUNICIPAL AND URBAN WASTEWATER 48

5.1 Urbanization and its impact on wastewater production 49
5.2 Urban forms 50
5.3 Sources of wastewater in municipal and urban systems 51
5.4 Composition of municipal and urban wastewater 52
5.5 Urban form and the potential for municipal and urban wastewater use 55
5.6 Managing urban runoff 57

CHAPTER 6 | INDUSTRY 58
6.1 Extent of industrial wastewater generation 59
6.2 Nature of industrial wastewater 61
6.3 Addressing the resource challenge 62
6.4 Wastewater and sustainable industrial development 68

CHAPTER 7 | AGRICULTURE 69
7.1 Agriculture as a source of water pollution 70
7.2 Agriculture as a user of wastewater 74

CHAPTER 8 | ECOSYSTEMS 78
8.1 The role and limits of ecosystems in wastewater management 79
8.2 Planned use of wastewater for ecosystem services 80
8.3 Operational and policy aspects 82

PART III REGIONAL ASPECTS

CHAPTER 9 | AFRICA 84
9.1 Water and wastewater in Sub-Saharan Africa 85
9.2 Critical challenges 85
9.3 The way forward 88

ii W W D R 2 0 1 7
 CHAPTER 10 | THE ARAB REGION 91
10.1 Context 92
10.2 Challenges 92
10.3 Responses 94

CHAPTER 11 | ASIA AND THE PACIFIC 96

11.1 Context and challenges 97
11.2 Building resilient infrastructure 97
11.3 A systems approach to wastewater by-product recovery 99
11.4 Regulatory and capacity needs 99

CHAPTER 12 | EUROPE AND NORTH AMERICA 100

12.1 Context 101
12.2 Challenges 101
12.3 Responses 103

CHAPTER 13 | LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN 106

13.1 The urban wastewater challenge 107
13.2 Recent expansion of urban wastewater treatment 108
13.3 Ongoing concerns and expanding opportunities 109
13.4 Benefits of urban wastewater treatment 109
13.5 Other sources of wastewater 110
13.6 Lessons learned 110

PART IV RESPONSE OPTIONS

CHAPTER 14 | PREVENTING AND REDUCING WASTEWATER

GENERATION AND POLLUTION LOADS AT THE SOURCE 112
14.1 Mechanisms for controlling and monitoring pollution 113
14.2 Technical responses 115
14.3 Financial approaches and behavioural change 118

iii
 CHAPTER 15 | ENHANCING WASTEWATER COLLECTION
AND TREATMENT 119
15.1 Sewers and waterborne sanitation 120
15.2 Low-cost sewerage 120
15.3 Combined sewerage 121
15.4 Decentralized treatment (DEWATS) 121
15.5 Decentralized stormwater management 121
15.6 Evolution of treatment technologies 122
15.7 Sewer mining and component separation 123

CHAPTER 16 | WATER REUSE AND RESOURCE RECOVERY 124

16.1 Beneficial reuse of water 125
16.2 Resource recovery from wastewater and biosolids 129
16.3 Business models and economic approaches 132
16.4 Minimizing risks to human health and the environment 133
16.5 Regulations for water reuse 135
16.6 Social acceptance of wastewater use 136

CHAPTER 17 | KNOWLEDGE, INNOVATION, RESEARCH

AND CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT 137
17.1 Trends in research and innovation 138
17.2 Knowledge, research, technology and capacity-building gaps 138
17.3 Future trends in wastewater management 141
17.4 Capacity building, public awareness and collaboration
among stakeholders 142

CHAPTER 18 | CREATING AN ENABLING ENVIRONMENT 143

18.1 Technical options 144
18.2 Legal and institutional frameworks 145
18.3 Financing opportunities 146
18.4 Enhancing knowledge and building capacity 147
18.5 Mitigating human and environmental health risks 148
18.6 Fostering social acceptance 149
18.7 Coda 149

References 150
Annex 1 – Lexicon 172
Abbreviations and acronyms 175
Boxes, figures and tables 177
Photo credits 180

iv W W D R 2 0 1 7
FOREWORD

OREWOR
by Irina Bokova
Director-General of UNESCO

In a world where demands for freshwater are ever growing, and where limited water
resources are increasingly stressed by over-abstraction, pollution and climate change,
neglecting the opportunities arising from improved wastewater management is nothing less
than unthinkable.

This is how the 2017 World Water Development Report concludes, highlighting the vital
importance of improving the management of wastewater for our common future.

Continuing ‘business as usual’ means allowing overwhelming neglect to worsen. It is

estimated that well over 80 per cent of wastewater worldwide (over 95 per cent in some
developing countries) is released into the environment without treatment. The consequences
are alarming. Water pollution is worsening in most rivers across Africa, Asia and Latin
America. In 2012, over 800,000 deaths worldwide were caused by contaminated drinking
water, inadequate handwashing facilities and inappropriate sanitation services. In the seas
and ocean, de-oxygenated dead zones caused by the discharge of untreated wastewater are
growing rapidly, affecting an estimated 245,000 km2 of marine ecosystems, impacting on
fisheries, livelihoods and food chains.

When not ignored, used water has long been seen as simply a burden for disposal. With
rising water scarcity in many regions, this is changing, and we see increasing recognition of
the importance of wastewater collection, treatment and reuse. Infrastructure is a central issue
in all countries. Data availability remains a persisting challenge, particularly in developing
countries. Recent analysis shows that out of 181 countries, only 55 had information on the
generation, treatment and use of wastewater, and the remaining ones had no or only partial
data. In the majority of countries where data were available, it was outdated. This information
bottleneck impedes the research and development necessary to craft innovative technologies
and adapt existing ones to local specificities and needs.

The 2017 World Water Development Report shows that improved wastewater management
is as much about reducing pollution at the source, as removing contaminants from
wastewater flows, reusing reclaimed water and recovering useful by-products. Together, these
four actions generate social, environmental and economic benefits for all society, contributing
to overall well-being and health, water and food security, and sustainable development. The
cross-cutting importance of wastewater is highlighted in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development, through Sustainable Development Goal 6 on water and sanitation, and
especially Target 6.3 on halving the proportion of untreated wastewater and substantially
increasing recycling, and safe reuse globally.

Forewo rd v
 OREWOR
Raising social acceptance of the use of wastewater is essential to moving forward. This is
the importance of education and training, and new forms of awareness-raising, to change
perceptions of health risks and address socio-cultural concerns, to bolster public acceptance.

This is also good business. As an essential component of a circular economy, wastewater use
and by-product recovery can generate new business opportunities and help to recover the
costs of new, innovative and adapted installations, allowing us to recover energy, nutrients,
metals and other by-products.

For its part, UNESCO, through its ‘water family,’ is working to support Member States in
responding to water quality challenges – including the World Water Assessment Programme
of UNESCO, the International Hydrological Programme, the UNESCO-IHE Institute for
Water Education in Delft, and numerous Category II Centres and Chairs around the world.
Our action stretches across the board, from promoting scientific research, mobilizing
and disseminating knowledge, and facilitating the exchange of technological and policy
approaches to building capacity and raising awareness on risks caused by emerging pollutants
in water and wastewater.

As always, the 2017 Report is the result of partnership across the United Nations system
and among the 31 members of UN-Water, for which I am deeply grateful. I wish to thank
the Government of Italy for its support to the Secretariat of the World Water Assessment
Programme, to ensure its long-term sustainability and productivity. In this spirit, I invite all
to take ownership over this Report and its conclusions, to raise the flag for new, just and
sustainable approaches to water as a driver for a better future for all.

Irina Bokova

vi W W D R 2 0 1 7
FOREWORD

OREWOR
by Guy Ryder
Chair of UN-Water and Director-General of International Labour Organization

In the fifth century BC, Heraclitus is quoted as saying “change is the only
constant in life.” Today, this holds true more than ever. As populations and urban
settlements grow, so do our demands; transforming our societies and planet before
our eyes.

The 2017 edition of the United Nations World Water Development Report (WWDR)
explores the issue of wastewater and its potential as a sustainable resource.
However, the findings show how much work we have to do: “Worldwide, the vast
majority of wastewater is neither collected nor treated. Furthermore, wastewater
collection per se is not synonymous with wastewater treatment. In many cases,
collected wastewater is merely discharged directly into the environment without any
treatment. Agricultural runoff is almost never collected or treated, so that metrics for
these types of wastewater flows are practically non-existent.”

Of course, as well as being a squandered opportunity, releasing most wastewater

back into the ecosystem without being treated is having deep impacts on human
health and the natural world.

The 2017 edition of the WWDR, the flagship publication of UN-Water, conveys
to readers that wastewater has long been a neglected resource – it is not only
a solution to address growing water scarcity but also a rich source of nutrients,
minerals and energy, all of which can be cost-efficiently extracted. Expanding on
the 2015 UN-Water Analytical Brief on Wastewater Management, the WWDR also
discusses the circular economy, innovation and many regional aspects.

The report clearly reflects the consensus among 31 Members and 38 Partners
of UN-Water that issues related to wastewater extend beyond Sustainable
Development Goal 6 and its wastewater target and cuts across many SDG targets.

I would like to thank all my UN-Water colleagues for their contributions,

including UNESCO and its World Water Assessment Programme for coordinating
the production of this high-quality report, which could have such far-reaching
ramifications for progress across the Sustainable Development Goals.

Guy Ryder

Forewo rd vii
PREFACE
by Stefan Uhlenbrook, WWAP Coordinator
and Richard Connor, Editor-in-Chief

The 2017 edition of the United Nations World Water Development Report (WWDR), the fourth in
a series of annual, theme-oriented reports, addresses an often overlooked issue that is critical to
water resources management and the provision of basic water-related services: wastewater.

Wastewater is not merely a water management issue – it affects the environment and all living
beings, and can have direct impacts on economies, both mature and emerging. Furthermore,
wastewater flows contain a number of useful materials, such as nutrients, metals and organic
material that, much like the water itself, can be extracted and used to for other productive
purposes. As such, wastewater constitutes a valuable resource that, if sustainably managed, is set
to become a central pillar of the circular economy. The upside to improving the way we manage
wastewater is huge, with potential co-benefits to societies and the environment.

The entire notion of wastewater is itself somewhat of an oxymoron. Once water has been
used for any purpose, it should not be seen as ‘wasted’. In other languages it is called ‘used
water’ (eaux usées in French), ‘residual water’ (aguas residuales in Spanish) or ‘after-use water’
(Abwasser in German). Indeed, making the case for moving away from the notion that used
water is a waste to be disposed of – towards wastewater as a resource – is the central message
of this report.

In preparing the WWDR 2017, we quickly became aware of the wide variety of definitions
of wastewater, which can mean many different things to different people. Engineers, urban
planners, environmental managers and academics, not to mention several fellow UN Agencies,
have addressed various aspects of wastewater in numerous reports, each offering their own
insightful perspectives and vocabularies. We have endeavoured to draw upon many of these
documents – as evidenced by the sheer length of the reference list – to present a balanced,
fact-based and neutral account of the current wealth of knowledge, covering the most recent
developments pertaining to wastewater management, and the various benefits and opportunities
it offers in the context of a circular economy.

Improved wastewater management will be critical for green growth, especially in the context of
the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Target 6.3 of the Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs) explicitly focuses on reducing pollution and improving the disposal, management and
treatment of wastewater and its impact on ambient water quality. This target is highly relevant to
achieving several other SDGs.

Maximizing wastewater’s potential as a valuable and sustainable resource will require creating
an enabling environment for change, including suitable legal and regulatory frameworks,
appropriate financing mechanisms and social acceptance. We remain confident that, with
the political will to do so, current obstacles, such as the lack of knowledge, capacity, data and
information about wastewater, can be quickly and effectively overcome.

viii W W D R 2 0 1 7
re f a c e
Although primarily targeted at national-level decision-makers and water resources managers, we
hope that this report will also be of interest to the broader developmental community, academics
and anyone interested in building an equitable and sustainable future for all.

This latest edition of the WWDR is the result of a concerted effort between FAO, UNDP, UNECE,
UNEP, UNESCAP, UNESCO, UNESCWA, UN-Habitat, UNIDO and WWAP. Furthermore, the
report benefited from the inputs and contributions of several UN-Water members and partners,
members of WWAP’s Technical Advisory Committee, as well as from dozens of scientists,
professionals and NGOs who provided a wide range of relevant material. The report has been
gender-mainstreamed similar to the earlier editions.

On behalf of the WWAP Secretariat, we would like to extend our deepest appreciation to the
afore-mentioned agencies, members and partners of UN-Water, and to the writers, editors
and other contributors for collectively producing this unique and authoritative report that will,
hopefully, have multiple impacts worldwide.

We are profoundly grateful to the Italian Government for funding the Programme and to the
Regione Umbria for hosting the WWAP Secretariat in Villa La Colombella in Perugia. Their
contributions have been instrumental to the production of the WWDR.

Our special thanks go to Ms Irina Bokova, Director General of UNESCO, for her vital support to
WWAP and the production of the WWDR. The guidance of Mr Guy Ryder, Director-General of
the International Labour Organization, as Chair of UN-Water, has made this publication possible.

Last but not least, we extend our most sincere gratitude to all our colleagues at the WWAP
Secretariat, whose names are listed in the acknowledgments. The report could not have been
completed without their dedication and professionalism, especially in light of the challenges
and difficulties related to the 2016 earthquakes in Umbria and the surrounding regions of Italy.

Stefan Uhlenbrook Richard Connor

p refa ce ix
2017
WWDR 2017 TEAM
Director of the Publication
Stefan Uhlenbrook

Editor-in-Chief
Richard Connor

Process Coordinator
Engin Koncagül

Research Officer
Angela Renata Cordeiro Ortigara

Publications Officer
Diwata Hunziker

Publications Assistant
Valentina Abete

Graphic Designer
Marco Tonsini

Copyeditor
Simon Lobach

WWAP Technical Advisory Committee

Uri Shamir (Chair), Dipak Gyawali (Deputy Chair), Fatma Abdel Rahman Attia, Anders Berntell, Elias
Fereres, Mukuteswara Gopalakrishnan, Daniel P. Loucks, Henk van Schaik, Yui Liong Shie, Lászlo
Somlyody, Lucio Ubertini and Albert Wright

United Nations World Water Assessment Programme (WWAP) Secretariat in 2016

Coordinator: Stefan Uhlenbrook

Deputy Coordinator: Michela Miletto
Programmes: Richard Connor, Angela Renata Cordeiro Ortigara, Francesca Greco,
Engin Koncagül and Lucilla Minelli
Publications: Valentina Abete, Diwata Hunziker and Marco Tonsini
Communications: Simona Gallese and Laurens Thuy
Administration and support: Barbara Bracaglia, Lucia Chiodini, Arturo Frascani and Lisa Gastaldin
IT and Security: Fabio Bianchi, Michele Brensacchi and Francesco Gioffredi

x W W D R 2 0 1 7
7
cknowledgement
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The United Nations World Water Assessment Programme (WWAP)

recognizes the valuable contributions of FAO, UNDP, UNECE, UNEP,
UNESCAP, UNESCO, UNESCWA, UN Habitat and UNIDO whose inputs as
chapter lead agencies made the content preparation of this report possible.
We also would like to thank those UN-Water members and partners, all the
organizations, institutions and individuals, who provided useful inputs and
comments during multiple rounds of review.

The WWDR 2017 benefitted from the reviews, comments and guidance of
WWAP’s Technical Advisory Committee.

We wish to express our earnest thanks to Irina Bokova, Director-General of

UNESCO, whose support was instrumental in preparing the report. Flavia
Schlegel, Assistant Director General of UNESCO for Natural Sciences, Blanca
Jiménez-Cisneros, Director of the Division of Water Sciences and Secretary
of the International Hydrological Programme (IHP), and colleagues at IHP
deserve special recognition for their valuable encouragement and assistance.

We greatly appreciate the generous help extended to us by the UNESCO

Field Offices in Almaty, Beijing, Brasilia, Cairo and New Delhi for the
translation of the Executive Summary into Russian, Chinese, Portuguese,
Arabic and Hindi languages, respectively. The German translation was made
possible, thanks to the German Commission for UNESCO.

WWAP is grateful for the generous financial contribution of the Italian

Government, and for the facilities provided by Regione Umbria. The report is
also financially supported by the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

a c k n ow l e d ge m e nts xi
Wastewater treatment plant
 EXECUTIVE
SUMMARY
Most human activities that use water produce is no longer seen as a problem in need of a
wastewater. As the overall demand for water solution, rather it is part of the solution to
grows, the quantity of wastewater produced challenges that societies are facing today.
and its overall pollution load are continuously
increasing worldwide. Wastewater can also be a cost-efficient and
sustainable source of energy, nutrients, organic
In all but the most highly developed countries, matter and other useful by-products. The
the vast majority of wastewater is released potential benefits of extracting such resources
directly to the environment without adequate from wastewater go well beyond human and
treatment, with detrimental impacts on human environmental health, with implications on
health, economic productivity, the quality of food and energy security as well as climate
ambient freshwater resources, and ecosystems. change mitigation. In the context of a circular
economy, whereby economic development
Although wastewater is a critical component is balanced with the protection of natural
of the water management cycle, water after it resources and environmental sustainability,
has been used is all too often seen as a burden wastewater represents a widely available and
to be disposed of or a nuisance to be ignored. valuable resource.
The results of this neglect are now obvious. The
immediate impacts, including the degradation The outlook is undeniably optimistic, provided
of aquatic ecosystems and waterborne illness action is taken now.
from contaminated freshwater supplies, have
far-reaching implications on the well-being
of communities and peoples’ livelihoods. The world’s water:
Continued failure to address wastewater as a Availability and quality
major social and environmental problem would
compromise other efforts towards achieving the Globally, water demand is predicted to increase
2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. significantly over the coming decades. In
addition to the agricultural sector, which is
In the face of ever-growing demand, responsible for 70% of water abstractions
wastewater is gaining momentum as a reliable worldwide, large increases in water demand are
alternative source of water, shifting the predicted for industry and energy production.
paradigm of wastewater management from Accelerated urbanization and the expansion of
‘treatment and disposal’ to ‘reuse, recycle and municipal water supply and sanitation systems
resource recovery’. In this sense, wastewater also contribute to the rising demand.

E xe c u ti ve Su m m a r y 1
 Climate change scenarios project an exacerbation especially in developing countries, due to
of the spatial and temporal variations of water lacking infrastructure, technical and institutional
cycle dynamics, such that discrepancies between capacity, and financing.
water supply and demand are becoming
increasingly aggravated. The frequency and
severity of floods and droughts will likely change Wastewater, sanitation and
in many river basins worldwide. Droughts the sustainable development
can have very significant socio-economic and
environmental consequences. The crisis in Syria
agenda
was, among other factors, triggered by a historic Access to improved sanitation services can
drought (2007–2010). contribute significantly to the reduction of
health risks. Further health gains may be realized
Two thirds of the world’s population currently through improved wastewater treatment. While
live in areas that experience water scarcity for 2.1 billion people gained access to improved
at least one month a year. About 500 million sanitation facilities since 1990, 2.4 billion still
people live in areas where water consumption do not have access to improved sanitation and
exceeds the locally renewable water resources by nearly 1 billion people worldwide still practice
a factor of two. Highly vulnerable areas, where open defecation.
non-renewable resources (i.e. fossil groundwater)
continue to decrease, have become highly However, improved sanitation coverage does not
dependent on transfers from areas with necessarily equate with improved wastewater
abundant water and are actively seeking management or public safety. Only 26% of urban
affordable alternative sources. and 34% of rural sanitation and wastewater
services effectively prevent human contact with
The availability of water resources is also excreta along the entire sanitation chain and can
intrinsically linked to water quality, as the therefore be considered safely managed.
pollution of water sources may prohibit
different type of uses. Increased discharges of Building on the experience of the MDGs, the
untreated sewage, combined with agricultural 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development has
runoff and inadequately treated wastewater a more comprehensive goal for water, going
from industry, have resulted in the degradation beyond the issues of water supply and sanitation.
of water quality around the world. If current SDG Target 6.3 states: By 2030, improve water
trends persist, water quality will continue to quality by reducing pollution, eliminating
degrade over the coming decades, particularly dumping and minimizing release of hazardous
in resource-poor countries in dry areas, further chemicals and materials, halving the proportion
endangering human health and ecosystems, of untreated wastewater and substantially
contributing to water scarcity and constraining increasing recycling and safe reuse globally. The
sustainable economic development. extremely low level of wastewater treatment
reveals an urgent need for technological
upgrades and safe water reuse options to
Wastewater: Global trends support the achievement of Target 6.3, which
is critical for achieving the entire Agenda. The
On average, high-income countries treat about efforts required to achieve this Target will place
70% of the municipal and industrial wastewater a higher financial burden on low-income and
they generate. That ratio drops to 38% in lower middle-income countries, putting them at
upper middle-income countries and to 28% in an economic disadvantage compared to high-
lower middle-income countries. In low-income income and upper middle-income countries.
countries, only 8% undergoes treatment of any
kind. These estimates support the often-cited
approximation that, globally, over 80% of all
wastewater is discharged without treatment.
Governance challenges
The benefits to society of managing human
In high-income countries, the motivation for waste are considerable, for public health as well
advanced wastewater treatment is either to as for the environment. For every US$1 spent
maintain environmental quality, or to provide on sanitation, the estimated return to society is
an alternative water source when coping US$5.5.
with water scarcity. However, the release of
untreated wastewater remains common practice,

2 W W D R 2 0 1 7
Overcoming the practical difficulties of Monitoring and reporting of pollutant discharges
implementing water quality regulations can to the environment and ambient water quality are
be particularly challenging. In order to realize necessary to achieve progress. If something is not
the goals of water quality improvement and measured, the problem cannot be defined and
water resources protection, individuals and the effectiveness of policies cannot be assessed.
organizations responsible for various aspects of
wastewater management need to comply and 2. Wastewater collection and
act in the collective interest. Benefits are only treatment
realized once everyone abides by the rules to Centralized waterborne waste disposal remains
protect water resources from pollution. the prevalent method for sanitation and
for evacuating wastewater from domestic,
Involving citizens in decision-making at all levels
commercial and industrial sources. Globally,
promotes engagement and ownership. This
about 60% of people are connected to a sewer
includes decisions as to what types of sanitation
system (although only a small proportion of the
facilities are desirable and acceptable, and how
collected sewerage is actually treated). Other
they can be securely funded and maintained over
sanitation options, such as on-site systems, are
the long term. It is especially important to reach
well-suited to rural areas and low population
out to marginalized groups, ethnic minorities and
density settings, but can be expensive and
people living in extreme poverty, in remote rural
difficult to manage in dense urban environments.
areas or in informal urban settlements. It is also
essential to engage with women, as they bear Large-scale centralized wastewater treatment
the brunt of the health consequences stemming systems may no longer be the most viable option
from the unsafe management of human waste. for urban water management in many countries.
Decentralized wastewater treatment systems,
serving individual or small groups of properties,
Technical aspects of the have shown an increasing trend worldwide. They
wastewater management allow for the recovery of nutrients and energy,
cycle save freshwater and help secure access to
water in times of scarcity. It has been estimated
Wastewater is roughly composed of 99% water that the investment costs for these treatment
and 1% suspended, colloidal and dissolved solids. facilities represent only 20–50% of conventional
treatment plants, with even lower operation and
The consequences of releasing untreated maintenance costs (in the range of 5–25% of
or inadequately treated wastewater can be conventional activated sludge treatment plants).
classified into three groups: i) harmful effects
on human health; ii) negative environmental Low-cost sewerage systems have become a
impacts; and iii) adverse repercussions on method of choice for neighbourhoods of all
economic activities. income levels. They differ from those used in
conventional sewer design and focus on the
Controlling and regulating various wastewater concept that solid-free sewage is conveyed in
flows is the ultimate purpose of wastewater the system. These systems lend themselves to
management. The wastewater management community management and are very well-
cycle can be broken down into four basic suited to extend and expand existing systems or
interconnected phases: to connect satellite communities to centralized
1. Prevention or reduction of pollution systems. They have also been used in refugee
at the source settings. One drawback is that they are not
suitable for stormwater drainage.
Approaches to water pollution control that focus
on wastewater prevention and minimization Ecosystems can be effective in terms of providing
should be given priority over traditional end- economical wastewater treatment services,
of-pipe treatment whenever possible. These provided that these ecosystems are healthy, the
approaches include prohibiting or controlling the pollutant load (and types of contaminants) in
use of certain contaminants to eliminate or limit the effluent is regulated and the ecosystem’s
their entering into wastewater streams through pollution assimilation capacity is not exceeded.
regulatory, technical and/or other means. Remedial
actions to clean up polluted sites and water bodies
are generally much more expensive than measures
to prevent pollution from occurring.

E xe c u ti ve Su m m a r y 3
 3. Using wastewater as an alternative on-site treatment facilities such as septic tanks and
source of water latrines can be technically and financially feasible
by transforming septage into organic or organic-
The use of untreated or diluted wastewater mineral fertilizer. Moreover, faecal sludge presents
for irrigation has taken place for centuries. a relatively lower risk of chemical contamination
Reclaimed water also offers opportunities for compared to sewerage biosolids.
a sustainable and reliable water supply for
industries and municipalities, especially with It is likely that urine collection and use will
a growing number of cities relying on more become an increasingly important component
distant and/or alternative sources of water to of ecological wastewater management, as it
meet increasing demand. contains 88% of the nitrogen and 66% of the
phosphorus found in human waste – essential
In general, water reuse becomes more components for plant growth. With extractable
economically feasible if the point of reuse mineral phosphorus resources predicted to
is close to the point of production. Treating become scarce or even exhausted over the next
wastewater to a water quality standard decades, its recovery from wastewater offers a
acceptable by a user (i.e. ‘fit-for-purpose’ realistic and viable alternative.
treatment) increases the potential for cost
recovery. Wastewater use becomes all the more
competitive when freshwater prices also reflect
the opportunity cost of using freshwater and
Municipal and urban
pollution charges reflect the cost of removing wastewater
pollutants from wastewater flows. The composition of municipal wastewater
The planned use of treated and partially treated can vary considerably, reflecting the range of
wastewater for ecosystem services can increase contaminants released by various domestic,
resource efficiency and provide benefits to industrial, commercial and institutional sources.
ecosystems through reducing freshwater Wastewater from domestic sources is usually
abstractions, recycling and reusing nutrients, relatively free of hazardous substances, but
allowing fisheries and other aquatic ecosystems there are growing concerns about emerging
to thrive by minimizing water pollution, and pollutants including commonly used
recharging depleted aquifers. medications that, even at low concentrations,
may have long-term impacts.
4. The recovery of useful by-products
Accelerated urban growth poses several
Wastewater’s vast potential as a source of challenges, including dramatic increases in
resources, such as energy and nutrients, the generation of municipal wastewater.
remains underexploited. However, this growth also offers opportunities
to break away from the past (inadequate) water
Energy can be recovered in the form of biogas,
management practices and adopt innovative
heating/cooling and electricity generation.
approaches, which include the use of treated
Technologies exist for on-site energy recovery
wastewater and by-products.
through sludge/biosolids treatment processes
integrated in wastewater treatment plants, Wastewater generation is one of the biggest
allowing them to transition from major energy challenges associated to the growth of informal
consumers to energy neutrality, or even to settlements (slums) in the developing world.
net energy producers. Energy recovery can There were more slum dwellers in 2012 than
also help facilities reduce operational costs in 2000, a trend that will likely continue in the
and their carbon footprint, enabling increased future. Slum dwellers frequently have to rely on
revenue streams through carbon credits and unsewered communal toilets, use open spaces
carbon trading programmes. There are also or dispose of faeces in polythene bags (i.e.
opportunities for combined energy and nutrient flying toilets). Communal toilets are not widely
recovery. Off-site energy recovery involves used, due to a lack of water, poor maintenance,
sludge incineration in centralized plants through and the cost to the user. Finding a suitable
thermal treatment processes. place to go to the toilet is especially problematic
for women, causing risks related to personal
The development of technologies for recovering
security, embarrassment and hygiene.
nitrogen and phosphorus from sewage or sewage
sludge is advancing. Phosphorus recovery from

4 W W D R 2 0 1 7
Industry the last 20 years, new agricultural pollutants have
emerged, such as antibiotics, vaccines, growth
The toxicity, mobility and loading of industrial promoters and hormones that may be released
pollutants have potentially more significant from livestock and aquaculture farms.
impacts on water resources, human health
and the environment than actual volumes of If adequately treated and safely applied,
wastewater. The first step is to keep the volumes domestic wastewater is a valuable source of both
and toxicity of pollution to a minimum at the water and nutrients. In addition to enhancing
point of origin, from concept to design and food security, water reuse for agriculture can
in operations and maintenance. This includes have significant health benefits, including
substitution with more environmentally friendly improved nutrition. The use of municipal
raw materials and biodegradable process wastewater is a common pattern in countries
chemicals, as well as staff education and training of the Middle East and North Africa, Australia,
to address pollution-related issues. The second and the Mediterranean, as well as in China,
step is to recycle as much water as possible within Mexico and the USA. The practice has been
a plant, thus minimizing discharge. most successful in urban and peri-urban areas,
where wastewater is easily available, generally
Small- and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) free of charge, and where there is a market for
and informal industries often discharge their agricultural products.
wastewater into municipal systems or directly
into the environment. Industries discharging
into municipal systems or surface water have to Regional perspectives
meet discharge regulations to avoid fines, so in
many cases end-of-pipe treatment is required One of the main challenges related to wastewater
at the plant before release. In some situations, in Africa is the overall lack of infrastructure
however, industries may find it more economical for collection and treatment, which results
to pay fines than to invest in treatment to meet in the pollution of often-limited surface and
regulations. groundwater resources. African cities are growing
quickly, and their current water management
One notable opportunity for industrial systems cannot keep up with the growing
wastewater use and recycling is the cooperation demand. However, this situation provides
between plants through industrial symbiosis. This opportunities from improved urban wastewater
is best seen in eco-industrial parks that locate management using multi-purpose technologies
industries adjacent to one another in such a for water reuse and the recovery of useful by-
way as to take advantage of various wastewater products. Strong advocacy is needed to convince
flows and water and by-product recycling. For policy-makers of the phenomenal ‘cost of
SMEs, this can be a significant way to save on inaction’ in terms of socio-economic development,
wastewater treatment costs. environmental quality and human health.

The use of safely treated wastewater has

Agriculture become a means of increasing water availability
in several Arab states and has been included
Over the past half century, the area equipped for as a core component of water resources
irrigation has more than doubled, total livestock management plans. In 2013, 71% of the
has more than tripled and inland aquaculture has wastewater collected in Arab States was safely
grown more than twentyfold. treated, of which 21% is being used, mostly
for irrigation and groundwater recharge.
Water pollution from agriculture occurs when Integrated water resources management and
fertilizers (nutrients) and other agrochemicals nexus approaches that consider the linkages
are applied more heavily than crops can absorb between water, energy, food and climate change
them or when they are washed away. Efficient provide a framework for considering avenues
irrigation schemes can greatly reduce both water for supporting the improved collection, transfer,
and fertilizer loss. Nutrients can also be released treatment and use of wastewater in the Arab
by livestock production and aquaculture. region from a water security perspective.
Agriculture can be a source of several other By-products from domestic wastewater, such as
types of pollutants, including organic matter, salt, nitrogen and phosphorus, have potential
pathogens, metals and emerging pollutants. Over economic value that can be used to improve

E xe c u ti ve Su m m a r y 5
 livelihoods in the Asia-Pacific region. Case studies Suitable legal and regulatory
in South-East Asia have shown that revenues frameworks
from wastewater by-products, such as fertilizer,
are significantly higher than the operational costs An effective regulatory framework requires that
of wastewater systems that harvest by-products, the implementing authority has the necessary
providing evidence that resource recovery from technical and managerial capacity and performs
wastewater is a viable and profit-producing in an independent fashion, with sufficient powers
business model. More needs to be done across the to enforce rules and guidelines. Transparency
region to support municipal and local governments and access to information motivates compliance
in managing urban wastewater and capturing its by promoting trust among users with respect to
resource benefits. the implementation and enforcement processes.
Achieving progress will require a flexible and
The level of access to improved sanitation across incremental approach.
the European and North American region is
relatively high (95%) and wastewater treatment Policies and regulatory instruments are
levels have improved during the last 15–20 implemented locally and need to be adapted to
years. Although tertiary treatment has increased varied circumstances. It is therefore important
gradually, significant volumes of wastewater are that political, institutional and financial support
still collected and discharged without treatment, be given to ‘bottom-up’ initiatives and small-scale
particularly in Eastern Europe. Demographic local (i.e. decentralized) provision of wastewater
and economic changes have rendered the management services.
effectiveness of some of the larger centralized New regulations regarding water reuse and the
systems suboptimal, as exemplified by several recovery of wastewater by-products are also
oversized and maladapted systems in parts of the required. There is often little or no legislation on
former Soviet Union. Cities throughout the region quality standards for these products, creating
are facing the financial burden associated with market uncertainties that can discourage
repairing or replacing ageing infrastructure. investment. Markets for these products could be
The coverage of urban wastewater treatment stimulated by financial or legal incentives (e.g.
in Latin America and the Caribbean has almost compulsory blending of recovered phosphates in
doubled since the late 1990s and is now estimated artificial fertilizer).
to have reached between 20% and 30% of Cost recovery and appropriate financing
the wastewater collected in urban sewerage mechanisms
systems. This improvement is mainly attributed to
increasing levels of water and sanitation coverage, Wastewater management and sanitation are
the improved financial situation of many service generally considered to be expensive and capital-
providers (which in recent years have made intensive. This is especially the case of large
important advances towards cost recovery), and centralized systems, which require a large degree
strong socio-economic growth in the region over of up-front capital expenditure and relatively high
the past decade. A further contributing factor operation and maintenance costs over the medium
was the integration of regional economies into and long term to avoid rapid deterioration. The
global markets. Treated wastewater could be an problem is further exacerbated by chronically
important source of water supply in some cities, lacking investment in the development of
particularly those located in arid areas (e.g. Lima) institutional and human capacity. However, the
or where long-distance transfers are required costs of inadequate investment in wastewater
to meet growing demands, particularly during management are far greater, particularly when
drought (e.g. São Paulo). the direct and indirect damages to health, socio-
economic development and the environment are
taken into consideration.
Creating an enabling Decentralized wastewater treatment systems
environment for change can be used to offset some financial problems
generated by centralized systems. When properly
Improved wastewater treatment, the increase
designed and implemented, such low-cost
in water reuse and the recovery of useful by-
technologies can provide satisfactory results in
products support the transition to a circular
terms of effluent quality, although they too require
economy by helping reduce water withdrawals
an appropriate level of operation and maintenance
and the loss of resources in production systems
in order to avoid system failure.
and economic activities.

6 W W D R 2 0 1 7
Wastewater use can add new revenue streams to are necessary tools for protecting human and
wastewater treatment, particularly under conditions environmental health and safety. However, there is a
of recurring or chronic water scarcity. Several pervasive lack of data relating to virtually all aspects
different business models have been implemented of water quality and wastewater management,
where cost and value recovery offer a significant particularly in developing countries.
advantage from a financial perspective. However,
revenues from the sale of treated wastewater Appropriate and affordable technologies, both
alone are not generally adequate to cover the new and well-established, need to be transferred
operational and maintenance costs of the water from developed to developing countries. Research
treatment facility itself. The recovery of nutrients is needed to improve the understanding of the
(mainly phosphorus and nitrogen) and energy can dynamics of emerging pollutants and improve
add significant new value streams to improve the methods to remove these pollutants from
proposition of cost recovery. wastewater. It is also essential to understand how
external factors like climate change will impact
Although revenues from wastewater use and wastewater management.
resource recovery may not always cover their extra
costs, the benefits from investments in water In order to enhance wastewater management, it
reuse may compare well with the cost of dams, is essential to ensure that the appropriate levels
desalination, inter-basin transfers, and other options of human capacity are in place. Organizational
to increase water availability. and institutional capacity in the wastewater
management sector is often lacking and, therefore,
Even when delivered to the tap, potable water any investment – large-scale centralized wastewater
remains generally undervalued and underpriced management systems or smaller, on-site systems – is
when compared to the total cost of the service. at stake.
Treated wastewater must itself be priced lower than
potable water in order to gain public acceptance. Public awareness and social acceptance
Pricing water from all sources to better reflect its Even if wastewater use projects are technically well-
actual cost enables investments that can translate designed, appear financially realizable, and have
into affordable service delivery to all members of incorporated appropriate safety measures, water
society, including the poor. reuse schemes can fail if planners do not adequately
account for the dynamics of social acceptance.
Minimizing risks to people and the Generally, the use of wastewater encounters strong
environment public resistance due to a lack of awareness and trust
The discharge of untreated wastewater can have with regard to human health risks. Awareness raising
severe impacts on human and environmental health, and education are the main tools to overcome social,
including outbreaks of food-, water- and vector- cultural and consumer barriers. Such awareness
borne diseases, as well as pollution and the loss of campaigns need to be tailored to consumers with
biological diversity and ecosystem services. Exposure different cultural and religious backgrounds.
of vulnerable groups, especially women and children,
to partially treated or untreated wastewater requires The health risks associated with water reuse need to
specific attention. Limited awareness of health risks be assessed, managed, monitored and reported on a
associated with wastewater use, due to poverty and regular basis in order to gain public acceptance and
low education, further contributes to these risks, in to maximize the benefits of using wastewater while
particular in developing countries. Whenever human minimizing the negative impacts. In the case of
exposure is considered likely (i.e. via food or direct drinking water (i.e. potable water reuse), extensive
contact), more rigorous risk management measures information campaigns are required to build trust in
are required. the system and overcome the so-called ‘yuck’ factor.

Building knowledge and capacity

Data and information on wastewater generation,
Coda
treatment and use is essential for policy-makers, In a world where demands for freshwater are
researchers, practitioners and public institutions in continuously growing, and where limited water
order to develop national and local action plans resources are increasingly stressed by over-
aimed at environmental protection and the safe abstraction, pollution and climate change,
and productive use of wastewater. Knowledge neglecting the opportunities arising from improved
concerning the volumes and, perhaps even more wastewater management is nothing less than
importantly, the constituents of wastewater unthinkable in the context of a circular economy.

E xe c ut i ve Su m m a r y 7
 PROLOGUE
WWAP | Stefan Uhlenbrook, Angela Renata Cordeiro Ortigara and Richard Connor
With contributions from: Sara Marjani Zadeh (FAO)

STATE OF WATER RESOURCES:

AVAILABILITY
AND
QUALITY
Collecting water from a river in Bor (South Sudan)
The Prologue provides a brief overview of two core aspects of the state of the world’s water resources
that are directly related to wastewater: water availability and ambient water quality. While adequately
treated wastewater is a resource that can be used to address water supply shortages, the level of
wastewater treatment directly affects ambient water quality, with implications on water availability.
The external drivers that will dictate future trends in water availability and quality are described, with
a special focus on demographic dynamics and climate change.

Global wastewater through evaporation in irrigated cropland.

production and treatment The remaining 56% (2,212 km3 per
year) is released into the environment
Although data on wastewater generation, as wastewater in the form of municipal
collection and treatment is grossly lacking, and industrial effluent and agricultural
it is clear that, worldwide, the vast drainage water (see Figure 1).
majority of wastewater is neither collected
nor treated. Furthermore, wastewater A country’s level of industrial and
collection per se is not synonymous with municipal wastewater treatment is
wastewater treatment. In many cases, generally a reflection of its income level.
collected wastewater is merely discharged On average, high-income countries
directly into the environment without any treat about 70% of the wastewater
treatment. Agricultural runoff is almost they generate, while that ratio drops to
never collected or treated, so that metrics 38% in upper middle-income countries
for these types of wastewater flows are and to 28% in lower middle-income
practically non-existent. countries. In low-income countries,
only 8% of industrial and municipal
The AQUASTAT database of the Food and wastewater undergoes treatment of any
Agriculture Organization of the United kind (Sato et al., 2013). This exasperates
Nations (FAO) estimates global freshwater the situation for the poor, particularly in
withdrawals at 3,928 km³ per year. An slums, who are often directly exposed to
estimated 44% (1,716 km3 per year) of this wastewater due to a lack of water and
water is consumed, mainly by agriculture sanitation services.

Figure 1 Fate of freshwater withdrawals: Global consumption and wastewater production by major water
use sector (circa 2010)

16% 38%

3% Agricultural water consumption

8% Agricultural drainage

Municipal water consumption

3% Municipal wastewater

Industrial water consumption

32%
Industrial wastewater

Source: Based on data from AQUASTAT (n.d.a.); Mateo-Sagasta et al. (2015); and Shiklomanov (1999).
Contributed by Sara Marjani Zadeh (FAO).

Prolog u e 9
 Figure 2 Number of months per year in which the volume of surface water and groundwater that is
withdrawn and not returned exceeds 1.0 at 30 x 30 arc min resolution (1996–2005)*

Number of months
in which water
scarcity is >100%
0
1
2—3
4—5
6—7
8—9
10—11
12
No data

*Quarterly averaged monthly blue water scarcity at 30 × 30 arc min resolution. Water scarcity at the grid cell level is defined as the ratio of
the blue water footprint within the grid cell to the sum of the blue water generated within the cell and the blue water inflow from upstream
cells. Period: 1996–2005.
Source: Mekonnen and Hoekstra (2016, Fig. 3, p. 3).

These estimates support the often-cited approximation Even when wastewater is collected and treated, the final
that, globally, it is likely that over 80% of wastewater quality of the wastewater discharged may be affected
is released to the environment without adequate by poor operation and maintenance, as well as overflow
treatment (WWAP, 2012; UN-Water 2015a). during storm events, when wastewater is allowed
to bypass the treatment plant. Thus, much of the
There also appears to be significant variability across wastewater is not treated (or inadequately treated) and
different regions. In Europe, 71% of the municipal and discharged in water bodies, and subsequently affects the
industrial wastewater generated undergoes treatment, water quality (and its availability) for users downstream.
while only 20% is treated in the Latin American
countries. In the Middle East and North Africa (MENA),
an estimated 51% of municipal and industrial Global water availability –
wastewater is treated. In African countries, the lack of
financial resources for the development of wastewater
Scarcity growing more severe by
facilities is a major constraint in managing wastewater, the year
while 32 out of 48 Sub-Saharan African countries Water resources (surface water and groundwater) are
had no data available on wastewater generation and renewed through the continuous cycle of evaporation,
treatment (Sato et al., 2013). precipitation and runoff. The water cycle is driven by
The treatment of wastewater and its use and/or global and climatic forces that introduce variability in
disposal in the humid regions of high-income countries precipitation and evaporation, which in turn define
(e.g. North America, northern Europe and Japan) are runoff patterns and water availability over space and
motivated by stringent effluent discharge regulations time (modulated by natural and artificial storage).
and public awareness about environmental quality. Observations over the past decades and projections
The situation is different in high-income countries in from climate change scenarios point towards an
drier regions (e.g. parts of North America, Australia, exacerbation of the spatial and temporal variations
the Middle East and southern Europe), where treated of water cycle dynamics (cf. IPCC, 2013). As a result,
wastewater is often used for irrigation, given the discrepancies in water supply and demand are
increasing competition for water between agriculture becoming increasingly aggravated.
and other sectors. Recent research has demonstrated that two-thirds
The persistent expansion of sewerage and the of the world’s population currently live in areas that
consequent increases in wastewater volume generate experience water scarcity for at least one month a
pressure on existing treatment facilities, and in some year (see Figure 2). Noteworthy is that about 50%
cases can lead to suboptimal performance. of the people facing this level of water scarcity live in

10 W W D R 2 0 1 7
 Figure 3 Projected changes in flood frequency*

Increase Decrease

* Illustrated as the change of the return period of a 100-year flood. The simulations show the median of the outputs of 11 Global Circulation
Models (GCMs) under the future scenario RCP 8.5 and the difference between periods 2071–2100 and 1971–2000 are compared.
Source: Hirabayashi et al. (2013, Fig. 1a).
Reprinted with permission from Macmillan Publishers Ltd: Nature Climate Change, © 2013

China and India. Such a month-by-month assessment of floods and droughts have changed in many river
of water scarcity is essential, as the water stress that basins worldwide, often due to a combination of
results from dry periods can be masked by annual climate change and human activities. Land use
averages of water availability. Grid-based assessments, changes, including urbanization, river channelization
as shown in Figure 2, can be easily aggregated to and other human activities, modify the storage
the country scale, and provide more insights into the capacity of catchments and impact high flows as well
variability within the country. Average numbers can be as groundwater recharge and low flows. Changed
misleading, particularly in countries with distinct spatial storage capacity and runoff generation processes can
variations of water resources and uses as, for instance, increase the occurrence of water-related disasters.
Australia, Brazil, Chile, Russia and the USA. The frequencies of floods (Hirabayashi et al., 2013)
and droughts (IPCC, 2013) are likely to change with
About 500 million people live in areas where water increasing temperatures. The results of an ensemble
consumption exceeds the locally renewable water of projections (see Figure 3) show a large increase in
resources by a factor of two (Mekonnen and Hoekstra, flood frequency (represented by the blue areas, where
2016). This includes parts of India, China, the events that are now considered 100-year floods would
Mediterranean region and the Middle East, Central increase in frequency) in many areas, including India,
Asia, arid parts of Sub-Saharan Africa, Australia, Southeast Asia and Central and Eastern Africa, while
Central and Western South America, and Central and in other areas the projected flood frequency decreases
Western North America. Areas, where non-renewable (represented by the yellow/red areas).
resources (i.e. fossil groundwater; never a sustainable
source) continue to decrease, have become highly Having too much (floods) or too little (drought) water,
vulnerable and dependent on water transfers from which is often accompanied by too dirty water (higher
areas with abundant water. pollution concentrations in both extremes), make the
necessity for wastewater use even greater.
Even though floods and droughts are a natural
phenomenon and part of the spatio-temporal variable The economic costs arising from river flooding
water cycle dynamics, the frequency and severity worldwide could increase twentyfold by the end of the

Prolog u e 11
 Figure 4 Estimated in-stream concentrations of faecal coliform bacteria (FC) for Africa, Asia and Latin
America (February 2008–2010)*

© CESR, University of Kassel, April 2016, WaterGAP3.1

Latin
America
February 2008–2010
FC [cfu/100ml]
Africa
Not computed Moderate pollution (200<x=1000)
Low pollution (=200) Severe pollution (>1000)
Asia

0 200 000 400 000 600 000 800 000 1 000 000
Notes: Low: Suitable for primary contact; Moderate: Suitable for irrigation; Severe: Exceeds thresholds
river km
Minimum Maximum

* Bar charts show minimum and maximum monthly estimates of river stretches in the severe pollution class per continent in the period
from 2008 to 2010.

Source: UNEP (2016, Fig. 3.3, p. 20).

twenty-first century, if no further actions on flood risk land, in spite of the knowledge and technology
reduction are taken. Over 70% of this increase can be that were available. The livelihoods of thousands of
attributed to economic growth in flood-prone areas, in farmers were impacted, which led to a rural-to-urban
addition to climate change (Winsemius et al., 2016). migration accompanied by an increased dependence
The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and on food imports, and to higher food prices, informal
Development (OECD, 2015a) cites climate scenarios settlements, unemployment and social unrest.
based on modelling undertaken by Winsemius and Ward Consequently, brought about by civil war and
(2015), which shows that the flood damage in urban other reasons, a large-scale migration movement
areas could reach US$0.7-1.8 trillion per year by 2080. started (Kelley et al., 2015). Some of the measures
to increase the resilience to drought events include
Globally, drought is arguably the greatest single the acceptance of wastewater as a reliable source of
threat from climate change but locally, sea-level rise water for agriculture and many other uses.
(affecting coastal areas) or other threats could be larger
(e.g. areas that are extremely vulnerable to floods or Global water demand is predicted to increase
landslides). Consequences of drought can be very significantly over the coming decades. In addition
significant from a socio-economic and environmental to demand from the agricultural sector, which is
perspective. Its impacts range from lower agricultural currently responsible for 70% of water abstractions
productivity and disruptions of ecosystem functioning worldwide, large increases are predicted for industry
to increased food prices, while insecurity and famine and energy production (WWAP, 2015). Changing
can trigger mass migration. The crisis in Syria was consumption patterns, including shifting diets
triggered, among other factors, by a historic drought towards highly water-intensive foods such as meat
in 2007–2010, which saw very little winter rainfall (i.e. 15,000 litres of water are needed for 1 kg
(partially due to climate change), and which made of beef) will worsen the situation. It is therefore
farming impossible on about 60% of the agricultural unsurprising that the World Economic Forum (WEF)

12 W W D R 2 0 1 7
 Figure 5 Estimated in-stream concentrations of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) for Africa, Asia and
Latin America (February 2008–2010)*

© CESR, University of Kassel, April 2016, WaterGAP3.1

Latin
February 2008–2010 America
BOD [mg/l]
Africa
Not computed Moderate pollution (4<x=8)
Low pollution (=4) Severe pollution (>8)
Asia

Note: Levels adapted from German water quality standards. 0 100 000 200 000 300 000

river km
Minimum Maximum

* Bar charts show minimum and maximum monthly estimates of river stretches in the severe pollution class per continent in the period
from 2008 to 2010.

Source: UNEP (2016, Fig. 3.13, p. 33).

has consecutively assessed the water crisis as one of the production generates physical, chemical and
major global risks over the past five years. In 2016, the biological pollution, impacting both human and
water crisis was determined as the global risk of highest environmental health.
concern for people and economies for the next ten
years (WEF, 2016). The presence of faecal coliforms, which originate
from human and animal excreta, is used as an
indicator of the presence of all potential pathogens
Ambient water quality1 in surface waters. Early findings from the global
water quality monitoring programme show that
The availability of water resources is intrinsically linked severe pathogen pollution affects around one-
to water quality. The pollution of surface water and third of all river stretches in Africa, Asia and
groundwater may prohibit its different uses in the Latin America (see Figure 4), putting the health
absence of costly pre-treatment. The deterioration of millions of people at risk (UNEP, 2016). Even
of water quality is expected to increase further in the though sanitation coverage has increased and
next decades, particularly in resource-poor countries treatment levels have improved in some countries
in dry areas, which will further endanger human (UNICEF/WHO, 2015), such improvements need to
health and the environment, while constraining happen simultaneously in order to avoid increased
sustainable economic development (Veolia/IFPRI, contaminant loadings. This could probably explain
2015). The release of untreated wastewater from the increased loadings of faecal coliform bacteria
expanding human settlements and increasing industrial (FC) observed in Africa, Asia and Latin America
over the last two decades.

1
This section is largely based on the Snapshot report (UNEP, 2016), Organic pollution (measured in terms of
which provides a comprehensive overview of the current water biochemical oxygen demand – BOD) can have
quality significant impacts on inland fisheries, food

Prolog u e 13
 Figure 6 Trend in BOD concentrations in rivers between 1990–1992 and 2008–2010*

© CESR, University of Kassel, April 2016, WaterGAP3.1

Trend of BOD in-stream concentration

Not computed Increasing trend

Not increasing Increasing trend of particular concern

* River stretches marked with orange or red have increasing concentrations between these two periods. River stretches marked with red have
an “increasing trend of particular concern” meaning that in these stretches, the pollution level increased into the severe pollution category in
2008–2010, or that they were already in the severe pollution category in 1990–1992 and further increased in concentration by 2008–2010.

Source: UNEP (2016, Fig. 3.15, p. 34).

The release of nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus

and potassium) and agrochemicals from
intensive agriculture and animal waste can
Globally, it is likely that further accelerate the eutrophication of
freshwater and coastal marine ecosystems
over 80% of wastewater and increase groundwater pollution. Most
is released to the of the largest lakes in Latin America and
Africa have seen increasing anthropogenic
environment without loads of phosphorus, which can accelerate
adequate treatment eutrophication processes.

Increased discharges of inadequately treated

wastewater, resulting from economic and
industrial development, intensification and
security and livelihoods, severely affecting expansion of agriculture, and growing volumes
poor rural communities that rely on of sewage from rapidly urbanizing areas are
freshwater fisheries. Severe organic contributing to the further degradation of
pollution already affects around one- water quality in surface and groundwater
seventh of all river stretches in Africa, Asia around the world. As water pollution critically
and Latin America (see Figure 5), and has affects water availability, it needs to be
been steadily increasing for years (see properly managed in order to mitigate the
Figure 6) (UNEP, 2016). impacts of increasing water scarcity.

14 W W D R 2 0 1 7
 W O R L D W A T E R D E V E L O P M E N T R E P O R T
2017

PART I

BASELINE
AND CONTEXT

Chapter 1 | Introduction

Chapter 2 | Wastewater and the

Sustainable Development Agenda

Chapter 3 | Governance

Chapter 4 | Technical aspects of

wastewater
 CHAPTER 1
WWAP | Richard Connor, Angela Renata Cordeiro Ortigara, Engin Koncagül and Stefan Uhlenbrook
With contributions from: Birguy M. Lamizana-Diallo (UNEP); Sara Marjani Zadeh (FAO); and
Manzoor Qadir (UNU-INWEH)

INTRODUCTION
Wastewater treatment plant
This introductory chapter frames the report by presenting the main issues and
challenges related to the management of wastewater flows in the broader context
of water resources management, underlying the importance of wastewater as a
neglected but valuable resource, particularly under conditions of water scarcity.

Wastewater is a critical component of the wastewater has been defined as “water that
water cycle and needs to be managed has been used and contains dissolved or
across the entire water management cycle: suspended waste materials” (US EPA, n.d.a.),
from freshwater abstraction, treatment, or “water that has been adversely affected in
distribution, use, collection and post- quality by anthropogenic activity” (Culp and
treatment to its reuse and ultimate return to Culp, 1971, p. 614). The term wastewater
the environment, where it replenishes the has also been equated with sewage,
source for subsequent water abstractions implying that the definition is limited to
(see Figure 1.1). More often than not, used water (from domestic, industrial or
however, attention to the management institutional sources) carried off by sewers,
of water after it has been used has often thus excluding the uncollected runoff from
been an overlooked component of the urban settlements and agricultural systems.
water management cycle. Wastewater However, as urban and agricultural runoff
management generally receives little social can be heavily polluted (and potentially
and political attention in comparison to become mixed with other wastewater
water supply challenges, especially in the streams), they are also important elements of
context of water scarcity. Yet, the two are the wastewater management cycle.
intrinsically related – neglecting wastewater
can have highly detrimental impacts on This report adopts a broad and inclusive
the sustainability of water supplies, human definition of wastewater, adapted from
health, the economy and the environment. Raschid-Sally and Jayakody (2008), which is
used notably in the document ‘Sick Water’
Wastewater remains an undervalued produced by the United Nations Environment
resource, all too often seen as a burden Programme (UNEP), the United Nations
to be disposed of or a nuisance to be Human Settlement Programme (UN-Habitat)
ignored. This perception needs to change to (Corcoran et al., 2010) and the UN-Water
correctly reflect its value – wastewater is a Analytical Brief on Wastewater Management
potentially affordable and sustainable source (UN-Water, 2015a):
of water, energy, nutrients, organic matter
and other useful by-products. Improved Wastewater is regarded as a combination
wastewater management, including the of one or more of: domestic effluent
recovery and safe reuse of water and other consisting of blackwater (excreta, urine
key constituents, provides a great deal of and faecal sludge) and greywater (used
opportunities. This is especially true in the water from washing and bathing); water
context of a circular economy,2 whereby from commercial establishments and
economic development is balanced with the institutions, including hospitals; industrial
protection of resources and environmental effluent, stormwater and other urban
sustainability, and where a cleaner and more runoff; and agricultural, horticultural and
sustainable economy has a positive effect on aquaculture runoff (Raschid-Sally and
water quality. Jayakody, 2008, p. 1).

Wastewater, which is also been referred to Several other related terms are equally
as ‘used water’ or ‘effluent’, can and has difficult to define. For example, the terms
been defined in several different ways. As ‘reused’, ‘recycled’ and ‘reclaimed’ have
such, there is no single universally accepted in some cases been used synonymously,
definition for the term. For example, whereas in other cases each has been
specifically defined – albeit in different ways.

2
Definition provided in Lexicon (Annex 1).

Int ro d u c ti o n 17
The terms used in this report reflect the definitions multiple terminologies and to recognize that efforts
adopted in the context of the 2030 Agenda for will be required to develop a clear set of definitions
Sustainable Development (see Chapter 2) and several in order to ensure consistency in monitoring and
other international ‘standards’. These are described reporting related to wastewater. This is particularly
in the Lexicon (see Annex 1). Unfortunately, these critical for the selection of suitable indicators (see, for
terms do not always distinguish between treated, example, Box 1.1: The terms ‘safe’ and ‘improved’ in
partly treated or untreated wastewater, which is the MDG context (WWAP, 2015, p. 15)).
essential information in many contexts. Attempts
have therefore been made throughout this report Historically, surface waters have been used as a means
to explicitly specify the existing or required ‘level’ of for the direct disposal of wastewater and other forms
treatment where appropriate. However, it is important of waste, polluting water bodies downstream from
to acknowledge the existing dilemma regarding cities, towns and villages (see Box 1.1). This practice

BOX 1.1 ARCHAEOLOGICAL WASTEWATER SYSTEMS: THE CASE OF ANCIENT ROME

Wastewater management has been practised for several millennia, evolving and improving throughout
human history. The Etruscans, for example, developed channel systems to collect different water flows,
and the Romans subsequently assimilated these techniques, improving and adapting them to their needs.

The first sewers of ancient Rome were built by Tarquinius Superbus around the seventh century BC. They
consisted of an open-air channel system that drained water from the marshes at the bottom of the valleys
of the seven hills (inhabitable land at the time) and conveyed it to the Tiber. These drainage systems slowly
evolved and the Romans eventually built a complex system of sewers covered by stones, similar to modern
drains. The exhaust of the latrines was sent into the main sewage system and then, through a central
channel, into the closest river or stream.

The most advanced segment of the Roman sewage system was the covered Cloaca Maxima, the largest
among the various wastewater collectors. First built as an open freshwater canal, it was transformed around
the second and first centuries BC into a monumental underground tunnel with tuff walls and vaults.

Known as the “greatest sewer” (literal translation of its name) of Rome, the Cloaca Maxima is a
masterpiece of hydraulic engineering and architecture. It is one of the most impressive sanitation artefacts
of the ancient world, which provided the necessary drainage for the creation of the Roman Forum and
became the central piece of a sanitation network that delivered hygiene services to the hills around Rome.
An engraving by Piranesi shows the manifold, as it appeared in 1778, where wastewater was discharged
into the Tiber River near Ponte Palatino.

However, the Tiber River eventually became highly polluted, creating a severe problem for the Romans
who used its water for drinking, cooking, washing and other purposes. Discharging sewers downstream
of the city were not sufficient to guarantee adequate water quality upstream. Furthermore, because the
drainage system conveyed sewage and urban runoff (i.e. a ‘combined sewer system’), reflux from the
large openings along the streets would often occur during heavy precipitation events, thus exposing
Romans to raw sewage.

To drain the rainwater from the streets into the Cloaca, the Romans built special circular drains shaped as
large masks, representing river gods swallowing water (the famous Mouth of Truth was probably one of
these). Another distinctive feature of the Roman sewage system was the required fee for using the public
latrines or renting chamberpots, making it one of the first historical examples of a user-pays approach to
sanitation services.

An 1889 study of the Cloaca Maxima and some other sewers led to the restoration of parts that could be
connected to the ‘modern’ sewer system and used in a project that continues to benefit Rome to this day.

Sources: Ammerman (1990); Bauer (1993); Narducci (1889); Lanciani (1890); and Bianchi (2014).
Contributed by Chiara Biscarini and Lucio Ubertini (UNESCO-IHP Italy).

18 W W D R 2 0 1 7
Figure 1.1 Wastewater in the water cycle

agriculture WTP WWTP municipal water

fit-for-purpose Industrial recreational desalination
residential
commercial
institutional

surface water

ocean

Groundwater

LEGEND:
natural water cycle raw water source treated wastewater agricultural runoff
groundwater flow treated water untreated wastewater urban runoff
wtp = water treatment plant wwtp = wastewater treatment plant

Source: WWAP

has decreased in most developed countries since the 1.1 Wastewater flows
late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries with the
development of wastewater collection and treatment Wastewater flows are as varied as its sources and the
systems (UNEP, 2015a) and advances in solid waste types of constituents they contain, with the latter
management, which led to significantly public being a function of the former. Figure 1.2 provides
health benefits. However, the release of untreated an overview of the main wastewater flows, from
wastewater into the environment remains common their generation at the source to their ultimate fate.
practice, especially in developing countries, with Uncollected wastewater (and all its constituents)
direct impacts on human health (with notably greater ultimately ends up in the aquatic environment. This
risks to women), the environment and economic is also the case for wastewater that is collected and
productivity (see Table 1.1). disposed of without treatment, the proportion of
which can in some cases be considerable (see Figures
With so little wastewater undergoing treatment, 4.4 and 4.5). Wastewater treatment can allow for the
and even less being used after treatment, there separation of water and other constituents, which can
remains an enormous opportunity to reuse treated then be reused or disposed of.
water in a sustainable way, and to extract some of
the recoverable by-products that it contains. Under 1.1.1 The wastewater management cycle
appropriately controlled conditions, the use of
Controlling and regulating the various wastewater
untreated wastewater also offers great potential for
flows is the ultimate purpose of wastewater
lessening the burden on surface and underground
management. The wastewater management cycle
freshwater supplies, especially in arid and semi-arid
can be broken down into four basic interconnected
regions, and other locations that experience chronic
phases or steps:
or recurring water scarcity.

Int ro d u c ti o n 19
Table 1.1 Examples of negative impacts of untreated wastewater on human health, the environment and
productive activities

Impacts on Examples of impacts

Health • Increased burden of disease due to reduced drinking water quality
• Increased burden of disease due to reduced bathing water quality
• Increased burden of disease due to unsafe food (contaminated fish, vegetables and other
produce irrigated)
• Increased risk of disease when working or playing in wastewater-irrigated area

Environment • Decreased biodiversity

• Degraded aquatic ecosystems (e.g. eutrophication and dead zones)
• Foul odours
• Diminished recreational opportunities
• Increased greenhouse gas emissions
• Increased water temperature
• Bioaccumulation of toxins

Economy • Reduced industrial productivity

• Reduced agricultural productivity
• Reduced market value of harvested crops, if unsafe wastewater is being used for irrigation
• Reduced opportunities for water-based recreational activities (reduced number of tourists, or
reduced willingness to pay for recreational services)
• Reduced fish and shellfish catches, or reduced market value of fish and shellfish
• Increased financial burden on healthcare
• Increased barriers to international trade (exports)
• Higher costs of water treatment (for human supply and other uses)
• Reduced prices of properties near contaminated water bodies

Source: Adapted from UNEP (2015b, Table 1, p. 15).

Figure 1.2 Wastewater flows

WASTEWATER FLOWS
Monitoring and Inspection
Red list of contaminants
Product formulation wastewater
product use
Treatment
Regulation
incentives components
Penalties

WASTEWATER SOURCES
Nutrients Heavy metals Solid wastes
wastewater emerging pollutants Pathogens
Heat
Municipal sewerage (treated for purpose)
Energy Sediments/sludge Radioactivity
households other Toxins
Collected

untreated
urban runoff discharge
industry
energy
landfills Dilution safe direct safe
other sources or
discharge use
recovery
disposal
diversion

Agricultural runoff
Not collected

urban runoff
indirect
households use
industry
energy rivers
Agriculture
lakes Burial
landfills energy
Incineration
ocean
other sources industry
aquifers composting
municipal
estuaries Other methods
other uses
wetlands

Uncontrolled discharge, direct

runoff and percolation use

Source: WWAP.

20 W W D R 2 0 1 7
a) The prevention or reduction of pollution at reuse more affordable than providing extensive water
the source, in terms of pollution load and treatment at each point of abstraction along a river
volume of wastewater produced. Prohibiting basin (UNEP, 2015c).
or controlling the use of certain contaminants to
eliminate or limit their entering into wastewater
streams through regulatory, technical and/or 1.2 Wastewater as a resource:
other means. This step also includes measures Seizing the opportunities
to reduce the volumes of generated wastewater
(e.g. demand management and increased water In practice, the goal is to go beyond mere pollution
use efficiency). abatement and to seek to gain value from wastewater,
if for no other reason, as an additional means
b) The removal of contaminants from of paying for wastewater management and for
wastewater streams. Operational systems enhancing the economic sustainability of the system.
(including collection infrastructure) and treatment
processes that remove various constituents of However, wastewater management is already an
wastewater (i.e. contaminants) so that it can be important part of several different resource cycles
safely used or returned to the water cycle with and is well-positioned to play a central role in the
minimal environmental impacts. There are several circular economy. Using appropriately treated water
types and levels of wastewater treatment, the for agriculture and power generation enhances
choice of which is dependent on the nature of opportunities for food and energy security, and
the contaminants, the pollution load and the can help alleviate the stresses brought about by
anticipated end use of the effluent. increasing demand for water. This will have positive
repercussions on freshwater supplies, human and
c) The use of wastewater (i.e. water reuse). environmental health, income generation (livelihoods)
Safe use of treated or untreated wastewater and poverty alleviation. Furthermore, water reuse can
under controlled conditions for beneficial generate new business opportunities and support the
purposes. Historically used primarily for irrigation, advancement of a green economy.
wastewater treatment technologies have
now advanced to allow for the use of treated Aquatic ecosystems (e.g. ponds, wetlands and lakes)
wastewater for other uses, provided that the offer additional, low-cost solutions for enhancing
level of treatment and the quality of the effluent wastewater management, provided they are
are ‘fit-for-purpose’. managed sustainably. Although planned use and
functional markets of wastewater for ecosystem
d) The recovery of useful by-products: Various services is a relatively recent phenomenon, the
constituents of wastewater can be extracted, valuation of treated wastewater use for ecosystem
either directly (e.g. heat, nutrients, organic services reveals favourable environmental and
matter and metals) or via supplementary economic benefits.
transformation processes (e.g. biogas from
sludge or biofuels from microalgae). There is a The informal use of untreated wastewater is already
growing number of potentially cost-effective occurring widely, out of simple convenience or as
opportunities for extracting useful materials from a matter of sheer need, and all too often in the
wastewater, such as nitrogen and phosphorus, absence of appropriate safety control measures.
that can be transformed into fertilizer. While measures that promote the direct use of certain
types of untreated wastewater may be relatively
An additional role of the wastewater management easy to implement, the cost of developing treatment
cycle is to mitigate any negative impacts on human systems for recovering wastewater from certain
health, the economy and the environment. specific human activities may be prohibitive in some
cases. There can also be a mismatch between the
When taking into account the multiple benefits of
location and timing of the source of wastewater,
improved wastewater management, several of these
and its eventual use. Wastewater management
processes can be considered cost-effective, thus
systems, therefore, need to be designed based on
adding value across the wastewater management
its characteristics (e.g. origin, components and level
cycle while supporting the further development of
of contaminants) and the intended end use of the
water supply and sanitation systems.
effluent stream, including any useful by-products, as
Based on the assumption that it is possible to align these will dictate the most appropriate and practical
water quality requirements with water use locations, wastewater source.
multiple use systems with cascading reuse of water
from higher to lower water quality can make water

Int ro d u c ti o n 21
Figure 1.3 Framing wastewater management from a resource perspective

Resources in Resource management options Technical system options Multiple potential

excreta and benefits
wastewater

Water reuse and recycling

Potable and non-potable water / industrial use / recharge of water bodies Health protection
Water Centralized vs decentralized
Combined water and nutrient reuse Environmental protection
Agricultural irrigation / forestry irrigation / aquaculture
Waterborne vs non-waterborne
Nutrients excreta management Livelihoods
Nutrient reuse or combined organic matter/nutrient reuse Gender equity
Solid and liquid fertilizer and soil conditioner for agriculture and forestry Separate greywater management
Energy content Water security
Energy generation Sludge management
Biogas generation / incineration / Biomas production Off-site vs on-site treatment Food security
Organic matter
Ecosystem services Wastewater treatment Energy security
i.e. constructed wetland
Other Excreta and sludge treatment Climate mitigation and
Other outputs adaptation
i.e. protein feed for livestock / building material

Source: Andersson et al. (2016, Fig. 3.1, p. 27).

There are strong economic arguments in as well as accountability and compliance with
favour of optimizing freshwater-use efficiency, regulations for wastewater use and the extraction/
managing wastewater as a resource and use of recovered by-products. Above all, wastewater
eliminating (or at least reducing) pollution management needs to be planned from ‘upstream’,
at the point of use. Utilizing wastewater at the source, in order to complement end-of-pipe
at, or as close as possible to, its source solutions ‘downstream’.
generally increases cost-efficiency due to the
lower costs of conveyance. The fact that so A number of pressures on water resources
little wastewater management is currently are driving the need for the enhanced use of
occurring, particularly in developing countries, wastewater. Population growth, urbanization,
means that there are vast opportunities for changing consumption patterns, climate
water reuse and for the recovery of useful by- change, loss of biodiversity, economic growth
products, provided the appropriate incentives and industrialization all have an impact on
and business models are in place to help cover water resources and wastewater streams, with
the substantial costs. Recent market studies repercussions on atmospheric, land and water
also show that there is a positive trend in pollution. An improved approach to wastewater
water and wastewater treatment investments management will help alleviate the impact of some
in developing countries. Worldwide, the of these pressures.
annual capital expenditures on water From a resource perspective (see Figure 1.3),
infrastructure and wastewater infrastructure sustainable wastewater management requires:
by utilities have been estimated at US$100 i) supportive policies that reduce the pollution
billion and US$104 billion, respectively load upfront; ii) tailored technologies that enable
(Heymann et al., 2010). fit-for-purpose treatment to optimize resource
Since wastewater management is utilization; and iii) taking account of the benefits of
implemented at the local level, responses and resource recovery. Such a perspective promotes the
technical solutions will need to be location- implementation of innovative financial mechanisms,
specific (see Chapter 3). In this respect, while embracing a precautionary approach and
there are opportunities in further integrating the polluter-pays principle. It is the responsibility
wastewater management, including sanitation of national governments to provide the policy
and faecal sludge management (FSM), with environment for equitable tariff structures that help
water resources and solid waste management. ensure the operation and maintenance of existing
This requires governance structures that foster infrastructure, and attract new investments along
collaboration across institutional boundaries, the wastewater management cycle.

22 W W D R 2 0 1 7
CHAPTER 2
WWAP | Angela Renata Cordeiro Ortigara and Richard Connor
With contributions from: Birguy M. Lamizana-Diallo (UNEP); Marianne Kjellén (UNDP);
Carlos Carrión-Crespo and María Teresa Gutiérrez (ILO); Pay Drechsel (IWMI);
Manzoor Qadir (UNU-INWEH); Kate Medlicott (WHO); and Shigenori Asai (Japan Water Forum)

WASTEWATER
and the SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT
AGENDA

Rooftop garden in The University of Warsaw (Poland)

This chapter examines wastewater management in the context of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development, with particular attention given to the efforts required in promoting synergies and
addressing potential conflicts between the water goal and other SDGs.

2.1 2030 Agenda for specific goal was needed for water, going beyond
Sustainable Development the issues of supply and sanitation, which SDG 6
of the 2030 Agenda has addressed by calling for
On 25 September 2015, 193 Member the improvement of water resource management
States of the United Nations (UN) General in a broad, inclusive and integrated way. As
Assembly adopted the 2030 Agenda for such, it places a particular emphasis on: drinking
Sustainable Development with a set of goals water, sanitation and hygiene; water quality and
to end poverty, protect the environment, wastewater; water use efficiency and scarcity;
and ensure prosperity for all. The Agenda integrated water management; protection of
includes 17 Sustainable Development Goals ecosystems; international cooperation and
(SDGs) (see Figure 2.1), each with specific capacity building; and stakeholder participation
targets to be achieved over a 15-year period (see Table 2.1).
(UNGA, 2015a). The SDGs are interlinked
and indivisible, and build on the progress Goals and targets will be monitored and reviewed
and lessons learned from the Millennium using a set of global indicators, but it is up to
Development Goals (MDGs, 2000-2015). each country to define its national objectives
concerning both wastewater treatment and water
quality (UNGA, 2015a).
Figure 2.1 The Sustainable Development Goals
Measuring progress in the 2030 Agenda depends
on how specific, measurable, attainable, relevant
and time-bound (SMART) the indicators are
for this task. The Inter-agency Expert Group on
SDG Indicators (IAEG-SDGs) was established to
develop an indicator framework for measuring
progress towards monitoring the goals and
targets of the 2030 Agenda at the global level,
and to support its implementation. Member
States will also likely develop their own national-
and regional-level indicators to complement the
proposed global level indicators to be approved
Source: UN (n.d.a.).
by the UN General Assembly.
Within the MDG framework, MDG Target Two global-level indicators have been proposed
7c called on Member States to halve the to track progress for SDG Target 6.3, which is the
proportion of people without sustainable most closely related to wastewater management
access to safe drinking water and basic (UN-Water, 2016a):
sanitation by 2015. Whereas the target
related to drinking water was reported 6.3.1 Proportion of wastewater safely
as achieved three years ahead of time treated: Safely treated wastewater generated
(UNICEF/WHO, 2012), the sanitation by households (sewage and faecal sludge) and
target was not achieved. In fact, while 2.1 economic activities (e.g. industries) in proportion
billion have gained access to improved to total wastewater generated by households
sanitation facilities since 1990, 2.4 and economic activities.
billion people still do not have access to
improved sanitation and nearly 1 billion 6.3.2 Proportion of water bodies with
people worldwide still practice open good ambient quality: Proportion of water
defecation (UNICEF/WHO, 2015). bodies (area) in a country with good ambient
water quality compared to all water bodies
The experience of the MDGs showed that in the country. ‘Good’ indicates an ambient
a broader, more detailed and context- water quality that does not damage ecosystem

24 W W D R 2 0 1 7
 Improved wastewater treatment and the increase in water
reuse, as called for in SDG Target 6.3, will support the
transition to a circular economy

Table 2.1 SDG 6 targets and indicators

SDG 6
Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all

TARGET INDICATORS

6.1 By 2030, achieve universal and equitable access to safe and 6.1.1 Proportion of population using safely
affordable drinking water for all managed drinking water services

6.2 By 2030, achieve access to adequate and equitable sanitation 6.2.1 Proportion of population using safely
and hygiene for all and end open defecation, paying special managed sanitation services, including a
attention to the needs of women and girls and those in handwashing facility with soap and water
vulnerable situations

6.3 By 2030, improve water quality by reducing pollution, 6.3.1 Proportion of wastewater safely treated
eliminating dumping and minimizing release of hazardous
6.3.2 Proportion of bodies of water with good
chemicals and materials, halving the proportion of untreated
ambient water quality
wastewater and substantially increasing recycling and safe
reuse globally

6.4 By 2030, substantially increase water use efficiency across 6.4.1 Change in water use efficiency over time
all sectors and ensure sustainable withdrawals and supply of
6.4.2 Level of water stress: freshwater withdrawal
freshwater to address water scarcity and substantially reduce
as a proportion of available freshwater
the number of people suffering from water scarcity
resources

6.5 By 2030, implement integrated water resources management 6.5.1 Degree of integrated water resources
at all levels, including through transboundary cooperation as management implementation (0–100)
appropriate
6.5.2 Proportion of transboundary basin area
with an operational arrangement for water
cooperation

6.6 By 2020, protect and restore water-related ecosystems, 6.6.1 Change in the extent of water-related
including mountains, forests, wetlands, rivers, aquifers and ecosystems over time
lakes

6a By 2030, expand international cooperation and capacity- 6.a.1 Amount of water- and sanitation-related
building support to developing countries in water- and official development assistance that is part
sanitation-related activities and programmes, including of a government-coordinated spending plan
water harvesting, desalination, water efficiency, wastewater
treatment, recycling and reuse technologies

6b Support and strengthen the participation of local communities 6.b.1 Proportion of local administrative units
in improving water and sanitation management with established and operational policies
and procedures for participation of local
communities in water and sanitation
management

*Source of indicators: UN-Water (2016a).

Source: UNGA (2015a).

Was tewate r a n d th e Su s ta i n a b l e Development Agen da 25

Figure 2.2 Percentage of untreated wastewater in 2015 in countries with different income levels and
aspirations for 2030 (50% reduction over 2015 baseline)

46
Low-income countries
92

36
Lower middle-income countries
72

Upper middle-income countries

31
62
Untreated wastewater in 2030 (Aspiration)

15 Untreated wastewater in 2015 (Baseline)

High-income countries
30

0 20 40 60 80 100

Wastewater treatment (%)

Source: Based on data from Sato et al. (2013).

functions and human health according to core 2.2 Potential synergies and
ambient water quality indicators.
conflicts
One of the challenges to monitoring SDG Target
Achieving the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
6.3 indicators is the lack of data relating to virtually
Development will require concerted efforts to manage
all aspects of water quality and wastewater
the potential conflicts and synergies between SDG 6
management, particularly in developing countries.
and other SDGs. A careful analysis of goals and targets
Reliable data generate social, economic and
may highlight conditions, where the achievement of
environmental benefits in both public and private
one goal may favour the achievement of another.
sectors as they can underpin advocacy, stimulate
Conversely, situations where achieving one goal may
political commitment and investments, and inform
hinder the achievement of another will require the
decision-making on all levels (UN-Water, 2016a).
identification of acceptable trade-offs (UN-Water,
In order to achieve SDG Target 6.3, significant 2016b).
investments will be required in new infrastructure
(grey and green, in locally appropriate
2.2.1 Potential synergies
combinations) and appropriate technologies to SDG 6 cannot be fully achieved by addressing each
increase the treatment and use of wastewater. target independently. For example, “increased access
Investments are also needed to upgrade the to sanitation (6.2) must be harmonised with increased
current infrastructure, operate and maintain wastewater treatment (6.3) in order to support good
existing and new infrastructure, develop capacity ambient water quality (6.3) and to guarantee healthy
in water resources management, and monitor water-related ecosystems (6.6). Similarly, good ambient
and control the quality of water and wastewater water quality (6.3) greatly facilitates the provision of safe
(UN-Water, 2015a). Due to the differences in the drinking water (6.1), which must be provided sustainably
current levels of wastewater treatment overall, (6.4), without negative consequences for water-related
the efforts required to achieve SDG Target 6.3 will ecosystems (6.6). Increasing recycling and safe reuse (6.3)
place a higher financial burden on low-income and water-use efficiency (6.4) make more water available
and lower middle-income countries (see Figure for drinking (6.1) and other uses (6.4), and can reduce
2.2), putting them at an economic disadvantage impacts on water-related ecosystems (6.6). Sustainable
compared to high-income and upper middle- water supply and use (6.4), good ambient water quality
income countries (Sato et al., 2013). (6.3), and healthy water-related ecosystems (6.6) are inter-
dependent” (UN-Water, 2016b).

26 W W D R 2 0 1 7
BOX 2.1 POVERTY, WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT– MULTIPLE
CONNECTIONS

The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (UNGA, 2015a) recognizes that eradicating poverty is the greatest
of all global challenges. Poverty is multidimensional and includes deprivations, such as poor health and nutrition,
lack of access to services, deficient schooling, and the psychological trauma of having to cope with rudeness and
humiliation (Narayan et al., 2000; UNDP, 2010). Populations living in the poorest regions of the world are most
affected by environment-related health issues (WHO, 2016a).

Diarrhoeal disease prevalence is linked to problems related to water, sanitation and hygiene (Prüss-Üstün et al.,
2014). Access to improved sources of water and to sanitation is remarkably lower among poorer communities in
low-income countries (UNICEF/WHO, 2015; UNICEF/WHO, 2014).

The health burden of poor sanitation and wastewater management is primarily borne by children: among children
under 5 years old, 361,000 deaths could have been prevented in 2012 through reduction of risks related to inadequate
hand hygiene, sanitation and water (Prüss-Üstün et al., 2014), while daily collection of water is mainly undertaken by
girls and women (UNICEF/WHO, 2011). Household duties are more onerous under conditions of poverty, implying that
the maintenance of family health falls disproportionately on women.

The most vulnerable and poorest members of society have the most to gain from improved sanitation and
wastewater management. Investments in rural and urban sanitation as well as wastewater collection and treatment
can therefore have high returns in terms of social and economic development. The average return on investments
in sanitation is US$5.5 for each US$1 invested (Hutton and Haller, 2004). Certain solutions to the wastewater
problem, such as recycling nutrients or extracting energy, can also bring in new opportunities for income generation
and enlarge the resource base available to poor households (Winblad and Simpson-Hébert, 2004). An example is
composting toilets, which have the potential of providing a low-cost solution to improved agricultural productivity
alongside increased nutrition and the reduction of health and environmental impacts from open defecation
(Kvarnström et al., 2014).

Contributed by Marianne Kjellén (UNDP) and Johanna Sjödin (UNDP Water Governance Facility at SIWI).

The achievement of SDG Target 6.3 is also a BOX 2.2 GENDER ROLES AND THE
precondition to the achievement of other SDGs and the INTRODUCTION OF SAFE WASTEWATER USE
overarching goal of eradicating poverty (see Box 2.1).
Appropriate wastewater collection and treatment helps Where wastewater treatment is insufficient and
protect the water quality in river basins and the goods wastewater irrigation common, safety measures
and services that these provide, while significantly can be implemented at critical control points along
reducing the number of people exposed to water- the food chain (from ‘farm to fork’) as described by
related diseases (SDG Targets 3.3 and 3.9), providing the World Health Organization (WHO, 2006a) and
related health and economic benefits and contributing illustrated by Amoah et al. (2011), among others.
to poverty alleviation (SDG Targets 1.1 and 1.2). Care has to be taken about gender roles which can
change from the farm level to wholesale, and to
Water-related diseases and malnutrition prevent
retail (Drechsel et al., 2013). Where risk awareness
people from working and attending school, both of
is low and not easy to develop, it is important
which strengthen the cycle of poverty (UNDP, 2006).
to determine how best to motivate and trigger
Investing in water and wastewater management
behaviour change, and encourage the adoption of
would provide particularly high returns by breaking
gender-sensitive risk mitigation measures (Drechsel
the link between unsafe water and diseases that
and Karg, 2013). In many cultures, women do
causes diarrhoea, particularly in developing countries.
not only carry the main responsibility for hygiene
Prolonged diarrhoea intensifies poor health and
and health, but are also in charge of greywater
malnutrition in children, and often leads to stunted
or wastewater use, as seen for example in Jordan
growth due to poor nutrient absorption and loss of
(Boufaroua et al., 2013), Tunisia (Mahjoub, 2013)
appetite (UNICEF/WHO, 2009). Therefore, improved
and Vietnam (Knudsen et al., 2008). This connection
sanitary conditions and wastewater management
offers significant potential for innovative training
contribute to the success of nutrition enhancement
approaches to improve the social acceptance of safe
strategies (SDG Target 2.2), reduces preventable
wastewater use (Boufaroua et al., 2013).
deaths among children (SDG Target 3.2) and
enhances children’s attendance and performance in Contributed by Carlos Carrión-Crespo and María Teresa Gutiérrez (ILO).
school (SDG Target 4.7).

Was tewate r a n d th e Su s ta i n a b l e Development Agen da 27

 BOX 2.3 WATER ‘LOSS’ FROM FOOD WASTAGE
Reducing the burden of disease also reduces the time
spent taking care of sick family members, leaving Agriculture is the world’s largest consumer of water.
more time to participate in the formal economy Several types of food, like vegetables, have very high
(SDG 8) and in social and political decision-making. water content (in some cases well above 90%). In
Women, who are often the main caregivers and Europe, for example, the manufacturing of food
who are responsible for the water supply within products consumes on average about 5 m3 of water
households, would also benefit from improved per person per day (Förster, 2014). At the same time,
sanitation conditions and wastewater management, with as much as 1.3 billion tonnes of food wasted
as they are frequently responsible for the annually (WWF, 2015), 250 km3 of water is being
management and use of greywater or wastewater ‘lost’ per year due to food waste worldwide (FAO,
in agriculture (see Box 2.2). Inclusive and gender- 2013a). Food waste can be defined as the discarding
sensitive water management policies also support the of food that was fit for human consumption but has
achievement of gender equality (SDG 5). become spoiled, expired or otherwise unwanted (FAO,
2015). It can also include crops that are not harvested
Improved wastewater treatment and the increase (because of low market prices, for example). At the
in water reuse, as called for in SDG Target 6.3, will global level, meat and cereals clearly stand out in
support the transition to a circular economy by helping the global proportion of food waste by 21.7% and
reduce water withdrawals and the loss of resources 13.4%, respectively (Lipinski et al., 2013).
in production systems and economic activities. The
exchanges of energy, water and material flows Contributed by University of Kassel.
in wastewater by-products can allow businesses
to enhance their environmental performance
and competitive capacity. These exchanges are
often mutually beneficial, favouring a reduction pesticides and fertilizers, with a consequent decline in
in production costs, water consumption and/or water quality and quantity if resources are not properly
wastewater treatment costs (SDG Targets 8.2 and 8.4). managed. The use of best agricultural practices needs
to be promoted in parallel with the reduction of food
Building climate-resilient wastewater infrastructure
waste (see Box 2.3).
networks can decrease the direct economic losses
caused by disasters (SDG Target 11.5), while Improving drinking water coverage in formal
increasing the capacity of human settlements to and informal settlements (SDG 11) is a matter of
recover from natural hazards such as floods and fundamental importance to the fulfilment of the
droughts (SDG Target 13.1). Improved wastewater human right to water and sanitation. This needs to
management also has great potential for reducing go alongside the expansion of wastewater collection
GHG emissions (SDG Target 13.2). Wastewater and treatment so as to avoid impacts on water quality,
can be considered a reliable source of water in the human health and the environment.
planning and development of new settlements and
water resource projects (SDG Target 11.6). Increasing economic growth (SDG 8) and the
development of small-scale industries (SDG Target 9.3)
The achievement of SDG Target 6.3 also contributes also present potential conflicts with the achievement
to the reduction of land-based pollution in terrestrial of SDG Target 6.3 where pollution and the release
and marine ecosystems (SDGs 14 and 15). of untreated wastewater are concerned. Economic
development or improving ‘the access of small-scale
2.2.2 Potential conflicts industries in developing countries to financial services’
In cases where interlinkages between SDG Target needs to occur in compliance with environmental health
6.3 and the other SDGs are not mutually beneficial, and safety regulations. The creation of an enabling
it will be important to balance conflicting needs and environment where small-scale industries are required to
manage trade-offs. respect environmental regulations in order to access to
financial services can be a positive incentive.
Ending hunger, increasing food sufficiency (SDG
Target 2.1), and doubling smallholders’ productivity Finally, reducing inequality within and between countries
and incomes (SDG Target 2.3) are essential to (SDG Target 10.1) means that ensuring adequate
support poverty eradication (SDG 1). However, wastewater management services are available to
the achievement of SDG 2 also implies an increase all. This is one of the keys to achieving sustainable
in agricultural productivity, which may lead to an development and ensuring that enough water of good
increase in water demand and the use of herbicides, quality will be available for future generations.

28 W W D R 2 0 1 7
CHAPTER 3
UNDP | Marianne Kjellén and Johanna Sjödin
Centre for Water Law Policy and Science (under the auspices of UNESCO), University of Dundee | Sarah Hendry
With contributions from: Erik Brockwell and Anna Forslund (SIWI); Florian Thevenon and Lenka Kruckova (WaterLex); and
Nataliya Nikiforova (UNECE)

GOVERNANCE

Regional meeting on sustainable development in Uganda

This chapter describes the governance frameworks through which wastewater is managed, including
the many actors and their different roles, legal and regulatory instruments, financial challenges and
opportunities for financing, and social and cultural aspects.

Wastewater management presents numerous The coordination of actors across sectors is a

challenges. In cases where wastewater is challenge that goes well beyond wastewater
discharged untreated, those affected may be management. There are several integrated and
geographically or temporally far away from the intersectoral approaches towards water and land
polluter. For this and other reasons, society must management (upstream-downstream dynamics,
act collectively to promote human health and urban water resources, etc.) that help to
protect water resources from pollution. The related overcome ‘silo’ thinking, without which actors
governance challenges involve legal, institutional, may pursue narrow or conflicting interests (cf.
financial, economic and cultural issues. UNDESA, 2004; GWP, 2013). The coordination
of systems with multiple technologies or patchy
This chapter delves into the processes for policy- coverage is a particular challenge, which can
making, regulation and financing, and the be resolved either by ensuring that sewer
related socio-cultural challenges of compliance connections are extended to all parts of a service
and policy implementation. area, or by integrating the actual solutions on
the ground (e.g. FSM by vehicles or latrines
managed by households into a coherently
3.1 Actors and roles functioning system).
In order to realize the goals of water quality Public-private partnerships in the provision of
improvement and the protection of water wastewater services have spurred a wave of
resources, individuals and organizations must revisiting regulation, particularly during the
comply and act in the collective interest. The 1990s. In order to contract private local or
policy intentions, or wastewater management international firms to conduct services previously
goals, are translated into laws and regulations, carried out by government departments
with responsibilities assigned to different actors. or parastatals, new ways of licencing and
Policy outcomes depend largely on the way in overseeing operations were instituted in many
which such responsibilities are implemented, countries (Finger and Allouche, 2002). It is
at all levels, taking account of costs. Table 3.1 increasingly recognized that improved regulatory
gives an overview of the governance functions oversight is required for both private and public
relating to wastewater management. Ranging service providers (Kjellén, 2006; Gerlach and
from policy-making and legislation to research Franceys, 2010).
and capacity development, it outlines typical
primary and secondary roles and the necessary Important differences exist in the scale of
cross-collaborations in order to achieve operations. Large-scale infrastructure, which
coordinated policy implementation. Most roles is predominant in high-income countries,
relate to the more centralized solutions for benefits from economies of scale, but requires
managing wastewater, where alternative and strong centralized management and technical
local sanitation and drainage may involve many capacities. In low-income countries, large-
additional actors. Moreover, in relation to low- scale centralized systems have a tendency to
income or remote areas, there may be a lack bypass informal or low-income settlements.
of responsible or capable actors to lead policy Decentralization can be a strategy to overcome
development and implementation, requiring the patchy service coverage of centralized
special support and attention from policy-makers. systems, but also occurs as a community
Everywhere, regulation must be well-designed response to incomplete service coverage (see
and resources need to be made available for Chapter 15).
enforcement. Overcoming the practical difficulties
of implementing water quality regulations can About two thirds of the world’s population
be particularly challenging for public sector have access to improved sanitation (UNICEF/
organizations, even in highly developed countries. WHO, 2015). Sewer connections to large
centralized systems are most common in high-

30 W W D R 2 0 1 7
Figure 3.1 Institutional levels of policy-making and implementation

Sustainable development: Universal access

Polluter pays principle
Policy-making Equality, efficiency and environmental sustainability to basic sanitation

Policy: Wastewater management goals

Precautionary and Inter- and intra-

Cause no significant harm
preventive principles generational equity

Laws
Regulations
Policy implementation

Plans, programmes and policy instruments in implementation

REGULATORY ECONOMIC AGREEMENTS AND DEVELOPMENT OF NEW

INSTRUMENTS INSTRUMENTS INFORMATION INSTRUMENTS SERVICES
• Standards • Changes • Advocacy campaigns • National plans and
• Bans • Tariffs • Self-regulation by industry programmes
• Permits/quotas • Subsidies • Guidelines • Projects by external
• Water quality support agencies
• Zoning
markets • Household investment

Source: Developed by authors; design by Johanna Sjödin.

income countries, and in urban areas in China and other global policy instruments for water, environment
middle-income countries of Latin America (Kjellén et al., and development as well as environmental principles,
2012). The majority of people rely on some form of such as the prevention and precautionary principles
decentralized or self-provided services, sometimes with and the polluter pays principle (UNCED, 1992). The
NGO support but commonly without any assistance from global recognition of the human right to water and
central authorities (see Figure 5.1). SDG 6 (see Chapter sanitation (UNGA, 2010; UNGA, 2015b) also has
2) sets a target of ‘access to adequate and equitable implications for wastewater policy, by calling upon
sanitation and hygiene for all’ by 2030 (UNGA, 2015a), Member States to adopt policies to increase access
recognizing that waterborne systems are unlikely to to sanitation and to ensure that water resources are
become universal. protected from pollution (UNGA, 2014).
The planning, construction, financing and operation Regional bodies and national governments reflect
of alternative systems should attentively involve the these global agendas in their policies on water
inhabitants themselves, which helps the development resource management, the provision of water
of local leadership, entrepreneurship and practical services, and the management of wastewater and
engineering. Property owners can take action, and solid waste. Policy-makers set goals, embracing or
may have responsibilities to reduce runoff volumes and relating to more general principles (see the circles in
impacts, but issues like drainage are not easy to manage Figure 3.1), which may be enshrined into general law
at the local level. Municipal authorities or public works and detailed regulations (see layers in Figure 3.1).
departments tend to have the primary responsibility for
urban runoff. Yet, to avoid pollution, littering and the 3.2.1 Legal frameworks
dumping of waste, the collaboration of all residents and Like the policies discussed above, the applicable laws
businesses is crucial – and this requires a combination also operate at different levels.
of advocacy, incentives and regulation. The Orangi Pilot
Project in Karachi, Pakistan is a classic example where International obligations can become relevant when
the community, aided by philanthropists, managed to wastewater (e.g. effluents or agricultural runoff)
construct an affordable condominium sewage system flows into international rivers and lakes or aquifers.
paid for by the local community (Hasan, 1988). There are two main global treaties addressing the
management of transboundary freshwater:

3.2 Policy, law and regulation 1. The UN Convention on the Law of the Non-
Navigational Uses of International Watercourses
Global policy frameworks for wastewater include the (UN, 1997, entered into force in 2014) requires
2030 Agenda (UNGA, 2015a), which builds further on that States take all appropriate measures to

Gove r n a n ce 31
 Table 3.1 Actors, roles and functions to govern wastewater

Actors Legislator/politician/ Regulators (environment, System owner (city, ministry,

Functions policy-maker health, economic) basin agency)

Law-making Define and adopt laws Share expectations as to Share expectations as to

through inclusive consultative governance role governance role
process
Policy-making Define and adopt policies to Share information
info on current
on situation Share information
info on current
on situation
implement the law through current
and policy
situation
preferences
and policy current
and policy
situation
preferences
and policy
inclusive consultative preferences preferences
processes

Planning, coordination and Define modalities for planning, Share preferences through Lead consultations, define
budgeting coordination and budgeting constructive participation standards for service delivery;
allocate and disburse budget
Financing wastewater Decide on subsidies and Regulate tariffs and service Strategic financial planning,
management modalities for financing quality decision on tariffs

Wastewater infrastructure Guide standards/regulations Regulate tariffs and service Coordinate spatial planning,
development and operation for construction and operation quality siting/zoning decisions;
of wastewater services and of infrastructure prepare call for tenders,
facilities depending on the type of
services/goods
Regulation – monitoring and Define regulatory framework Implementation of regulatory Report suspect actions
enforcement framework (including
collection of information from
service providers and permit
holders, ensuring compliance,
inspections, etc.)
Redress mechanisms Define competent authorities Accountable or party to Accountable or party to
(including judiciary) for redress complaint complaint

Compliance and pollution Develop incentives for Implement incentives Support implementation
prevention prevention and disincentives (including monitoring and
for pollution advocacy for pollution
prevention and water-use
efficiency)

Advocacy and Define policy goals and defend Advocacy for pollution Awareness-raising and
communications space for communication prevention and water-use information to the public;
efficiency solicit compliant behaviours
from industry and households
Capacity development Defining policy goals for Monitor capacities and Support development
sector; and develop capacities incentivize development

Research and innovation Highlight research needs, Highlight research needs; Highlight research needs; guide
ensure support to research incentivize R&D and engage in R&D
and development (R&D)

*Shading relates to typical level of responsibility: darkest = leading, lightest = least involved

Source: Developed by authors and contributors.

32 W W D R 2 0 1 7
 Producer/consumer
Academia/policy institutes/
Operator/service provider (agriculture, industry, Civil society, NGOs
think tanks
households)

Share expectations as to Provide input for law design Share expectations as to Share civil society opinions as
governance role governance role through to governance processes to
participation provide input into law design
Share information
info on current
on situation Share evidence-based input Share information
info on current
on situation Share information
info on current
on situation
current
and policy
situation
preferences
and policy for policy design current
and policy
situation
preferences
and policy current
and policy
situation
preferences
and policy
preferences preferences preferences

Share preferences through Share preferences through Share preferences through Share preferences through
constructive participation constructive participation constructive participation constructive participation

Collect information on May provide information and Pay tariffs and provide Monitor financial
investment needs and supply advice information on willingness and accountability; raise
costs ability to pay awareness regarding the cost
of services.
Construction; maintenance;
maintenance, Can monitor processes Should be involved in issues Can monitor processes
operation; billing; revenue and act as social witness in like siting/zoning decisions, and act as social witness in
collection,
collection; customer relations integrity pacts (corruption acceptability, etc. integrity pacts (corruption
prevention tool) prevention tool)

Provide information on Conduct long-term studies Industry to provide Report suspect actions to law
request and analyse processes information on request enforcement authorities

Accountable or party to Expert (amicus curiae) Accountable or party to Party to complaint and/or
complaint complaint expert (amicus curiae)

Comply with regulation; Support implementation Implement cleaner production Advocacy for pollution
improve technology and and reuse technology; correct prevention and water use
organization waste disposal; improve efficiency
agricultural practices

Advocacy for pollution Long-term studies and analysis Dialogue with partners and Raise awareness
prevention and water use of processes; awareness- general audience about policy
efficiency raising messages

Skills development and Provide training and education

professionalization of
wastewater management and
services delivery
Participate in research, Research on contaminants, Participate in research, Highlight research needs,
development and test new pollution loads, ecological development and testing of participate in research
technology solutions functions, system interactions, new technology solutions
human behaviour

*Shading relates to typical level of responsibility: darkest = leading, lightest = least involved

Gove r n a n ce 33
 BOX 3.1 INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTIONAL
prevent causing ‘significant harm’ to other States FRAMEWORK FOR JOINTLY PROTECTING
sharing an international watercourse (Art. 7) and WATER QUALITY IN THE DANUBE AND THE
that States cooperate to protect international BLACK SEA
watercourses (Art. 8). Many regional conventions
also use these principles as they reflect customary The Danube River Basin is Europe’s second longest
international law. river, draining water from 19 states into the Black
Sea. Historically, the International Commission for
2. The Convention on the Protection and Use of the Protection of the Danube River* dealt with
Transboundary Watercourses and International navigational uses. The cooperation in the Danube /
Lakes (the Water Convention) was developed Black Sea area is an example of partnerships working
as a regional instrument by the UN Economic at different scales to meet multiple objectives,
Commission for Europe (UNECE, 1992). It has involving different actors and within the frameworks
come into force in 1996 and has been open to UN of transboundary, regional and national laws.
member states from across the globe since 2013.
The Water Convention addresses transboundary The Commission, being the overarching management
impacts, the sustainability, precautionary and group, has produced a Participation Strategy
polluter pays principles (Art. 2), and includes to involve stakeholders. Significant funding has
obligations to control emissions of pollutants and been provided through the International Waters
for the prior licensing of wastewater discharges. projects of the Global Environment Facility (GEF).
This has included working with States and with the
These Conventions have framed the development Commission to identify and implement an investment
of regional and bilateral treaties and agreements. portfolio of nearly 500 projects, representing
International environmental law is applicable to the pollution reduction investments totalling over US$5
management of solid waste, including hazardous billion (Hudson, 2012).
waste, and the management of air pollution, all of
which may affect water quality, sometimes far from the Lack of wastewater treatment was an important
point of discharge. driver in this investment programme. In 2010, the
Budapest Central Wastewater Treatment Plant began
At the regional level, the European Union (EU) Water operation as part of the ‘Living Danube’ project. It
Framework Directive (2000/60/EC) (EU, 2000) applies ensures that 95% of the wastewater from Budapest
to the management of water quality, including is treated before its return to the environment, whilst
wastewater. The Framework Directive on Waste uses also recovering nutrients and energy.
the ‘3R’s’ approach – reduce, recycle, reuse – as well
as the precautionary and polluter pays principles
*For further information, see www.icpdr.org/main/danube-basin
(2008/98/EC) (EU, 2008). Solid waste legislation is
highly relevant to non-waterborne sanitation and to
the management of sludge. The Protocol on Water
International and regional frameworks can assist states
and Health to the Water Convention (UNECE/WHO,
in managing these cross-border effects. Box 3.1 shows
1999, entry into force in 2005) requires Parties to set
an example of action taken at the regional, national and
national and local targets covering the entire water
local levels to manage water and wastewater.
cycle, including sanitation, with the aim of protecting
human health and well-being through improved water 3.2.2 Regulation
management, protection of water ecosystems, and
preventing, controlling and reducing water-related In relation to environmental protection, regulation usually
diseases. Other regional water treaties, such as the relates to the use of permits and licenses, the application
Protocol on Shared Watercourses in the Southern of emission or wastewater quality standards, or zoning
African Region, first signed by the Southern African for land use (Sterner, 2003). Regulation also underpins
Development Community (SADC) in 1995 and revised the establishment of collection systems and treatment
in 2000 (SADC, 2000), and the Agreement on the facilities by setting appropriate standards for treatment
Cooperation for the Sustainable Development of the and reuse for different purposes. ‘Economic’ regulation
Mekong River Basin (MRC, 1995), reflect the general is used in urban services, which includes the provision of
provisions of the UN Watercourses Convention (UN, drinking water and municipal wastewater management.
1997) and customary international law, such as the no- This ensures that technical and service standards are
harm rule and notification of planned measures, but do met, and that tariffs and investment levels are sufficient
not have the level of detail with regard to cross-border to cover the costs of the service, while providing a
wastewater management. reasonable rate of return for future investments (Groom
et al., 2006). Solutions also need to be context-specific
Most pollution control laws are developed and enforced and reflect the different stages of development.
at national or local levels. However, in a transboundary Controlling or banning the use of certain substances
river basin, wastewater discharged in one country is another means of preventing them from entering
may have downstream effects in another country. wastewater flows (see Box 4.2 and Section 5.4.1).

34 W W D R 2 0 1 7
Regulations may address the treatment level or the While blackwater use may provide valuable nutrients, it
process itself, by specifying ‘secondary treatment’, can also present hazards, not only for workers but also for
or the use of ‘best available techniques’ that may the consumers of food products (WHO, 2006a).
then be further defined. These may also regulate the
quality of the effluent by setting emission standards.
If there are downstream ambient standards for the 3.3 Financing
receiving waters, these can be made to address trends
and cumulative effects. Wastewater management is costly and suffers from
collective action problems; the benefits accrue to the
Where a State has little or no regulation regarding public and future generations, rather than directly to
wastewater and its resources are limited, the WHO those who invest in improved treatment or reduced
recommends measuring a small number of key pollution. Further, the real benefits are only realized
parameters that have the highest relevance to water once everyone (or a sufficient number of actors) abides
quality, rather than a wider set of standards that cannot by the rules to protect water resources from pollution.
be enforced (Helmer and Hespanhol, 1997). Guidelines In this way, sanitation and wastewater management is
can be issued that include a wider range of parameters, significantly more complicated and costly than drinking
in order to help manage impacts downstream. water supply (Jackson, 1996; Hophmayer-Tokich, 2006).

Large centralized systems benefit from economies of Economic instruments can be used to incentivize
scale, but they take time to develop and are difficult pollution prevention, but to be effective, they must be
to adapt to different socio-economic circumstances combined with information, advocacy and effective
(see Chapter 12). In low-income countries, it is regulation. Liability rules for the release of pollutants or
common to find that the practices described in taxes on effluent can be established in accordance with
policy intentions and regulatory instructions differ the polluter pays principle (Olmstead, 2010).
considerably from what is actually taking place on the
ground (Ekane et al., 2012 and 2014). Financing centralized wastewater infrastructure is
dominated by capital costs. In most countries, new
Informal urban settlements across the globe also face infrastructure has been financed through transfers
particular challenges. Wastewater-related services of public money (OECD, 2010). Several low-income
(e.g. pit emptier and desludging companies) may countries rely primarily on aid transfers to finance their
be provided by informal private providers without water and sanitation sectors (WHO, 2014a). Middle-
appropriate control or support from relevant income countries also rely on aid transfers. In Panama,
authorities. If the collection and transport, or recycling, where strong political objection exists against tariff
of faecal sludge is not managed properly, this can have increases, tariffs have remained the same for more than
significant repercussions on human health. two decades (WHO, 2014a; Fernández et al., 2009).

Industrial wastewater may be treated on-site and The reluctance to assign direct resources to sanitation and
recycled immediately, or discharged into the municipal wastewater is shown by the TrackFin3 initiative that was
wastewater stream (see Chapter 6). piloted in Brazil, Ghana and Morocco. As reported in the
UN-Water Global Analysis and Assessment of Sanitation
The feasibility of water reuse depends on its origin and and Drinking-Water (GLAAS) survey, most funds were
the intended reuse. In Australia, several states have found to be directed to drinking water supply in the urban
targets for wastewater use and the Commonwealth sector, even though the rural sanitation service coverage
government provides extensive guidance on the reuse was much lower (WHO, 2014a). Pro-poor policies or
of water (NRMMC/EPHC/NHMRC, 2009). Some States affordability measures can be applied across both water
have developed regulatory frameworks, including for and wastewater tariffs. According to the GLAAS survey,
direct potable use (ATSE, 2013). more than 60% of countries indicated that affordability
Safety precautions are particularly important in the schemes for sanitation are in place, but only in half of the
case of wastewater reclamation for drinking water cases were they widely used (WHO, 2014a).
purposes. It requires the use of multiple barriers, Once the infrastructure is in place, the operation,
using several techniques in series in order to secure maintenance and future capital costs are increasingly
water quality, as well as advanced control systems being covered through user tariffs. Full cost recovery,
and, above all, excellent water quality records. As however, is often problematic. In low- and middle-
a result, these systems often present higher water income countries, it is more common that sanitation
quality standards than other (raw) water sources. operation and maintenance costs are covered by
Notwithstanding, extensive information campaigns government subsidies (WHO, 2014a). Alternatively, if
and participation by the public are required to build insufficient government subsidies are forthcoming, the
trust in the system (see Chapter 16).

Untreated wastewater is regularly used for agricultural 3

TrackFin: Tracking financing to sanitation, hygiene and drinking water.
irrigation and for aquaculture (see Chapters 7 and 16). For further information, see http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_
health/monitoring/investments/trackfin/en/

Gove r n a n ce 35
 Figure 3.2 Financial flow model for faecal sludge management

Faecal Household
Use/
sludge sanitation Emptying Transport Treatment
application
flow technology

Financial
Household Private enterprise Public utility End-use industry
flow

Emptying fee Discharge fee Purchase price

Source: Strande et al. (2014, Fig. 13.3, p. 279).

lack of financing may lead to deferred maintenance, 3.4 Socio-cultural aspects

faulty operations and system deterioration.
Involving citizens in decision-making at all levels promotes
The benefits to society of managing human waste engagement and ownership. This includes decisions as
are considerable, both for public health and the to what types of sanitation facilities are desirable and
environment. For every US$1 spent on sanitation, the acceptable, and how they can be securely funded and
estimated return is US$5.5 (Hutton and Haller, 2004). maintained in the future (see Table 3.1). It is especially
Although often difficult to measure in monetary important to reach out to marginalized groups, ethnic
terms, it is important to acknowledge and identify minorities, people living in extreme poverty in remote rural
ways to assess these wider social and environmental areas or in informal urban settlements, and to engage with
benefits, and to funnel financial resources into the women who will bear the brunt of the health consequences
realization of such investments (UNEP, 2015b). in case of unsafe management of human waste.
The potential economic and environmental benefits Public perception influences decision-making and limits
from wastewater use are substantial (UNEP, 2015b), what is possible to implement, especially when it comes
but it may be difficult to finance such projects to water reuse. Sometimes, economically rational reuse
through tariffs, since users in most urban areas options are not viable, for example because of the
are charged for drinking water, sewerage and perception that faecal material may still be present in
wastewater treatment in one bill (so it is not possible potentially insufficiently treated wastewater. Hence, it is
to pay just for one service and not for the others) important to consider which uses are safe, appropriate
and the benefits are difficult to capture in monetary and acceptable with which type of water. Perceptions,
terms. Hence, most water reuse projects rely on tax- risk awareness and gendered divisions of labour are also
financed subsidies (Molinos-Senante et al., 2011). important determinants for how people will protect their
own and others’ health in relation to wastewater use in
When it comes to nutrient recovery through FSM,
food production (see Box 2.2).
several business models are feasible (see Chapter
16). Figure 3.2 shows a simple one, where a utility Additionally, policy implementation can involve complex
achieves full cost recovery through discharge fees socio-political problems. Corruption is common in water
and revenues from selling treated faecal sludge and wastewater services, partly due to the monopoly
(Strande et al., 2014). position of providers and the frequency of large-capital
projects (Transparency International, 2008). With regard
The cost-benefit analysis (CBA) is the most widely
to pollution permits and monitoring and enforcement, the
used and accepted tool for economic analysis
incentives for corrupt practices are rife, and ‘turning a blind
for project evaluation. An analysis of the cost of
eye’ allows the problem to persist. Where corruption is
no action versus the cost of action is useful for
common, it will be important to advocate for impartiality in
evaluating the economic benefits of investing in
regulatory enforcement (Rothstein and Tannenberg, 2015).
wastewater (UNEP, 2015b). Guest et al. (2009)
emphasize the importance of early stakeholder Integrity in the process of water resources management
involvement in any decision-making to ensure can be promoted by building systems that are more
acceptance of proposals, independently of any resistant to corruption. By enhancing transparency,
evidence of economic benefits or cost savings. accountability and participation in the sector, the
opportunities for corruption can be reduced (UNDP WGF at
SIWI/Cap-Net/Water-Net/WIN, 2009; WIN, 2016).

36 W W D R 2 0 1 7
CHAPTER 4
WWAP | Angela Renata Cordeiro Ortigara and Richard Connor
With contributions from: Jack Moss (AquaFed); Kate Heal (IAHS); Birguy M. Lamizana-Diallo (UNEP); Peter
van der Steen and Tineke Hooijmans (UNESCO-IHE); Sarantuyaa Zandaryaa (UNESCO-IHP); Manzoor Qadir
(UNU-INWEH); and Kate Medlicott (WHO)

TECHNICAL
ASPECTS of
WASTEWATER

Aerial view of biogas plant for sewage treatment

This chapter summarizes, for the non-water specialist, some basic technical aspects about
the different sources of wastewater, the potential impacts of inappropriate treatment,
collection and treatment technologies, and data and information needs.

4.1 Wastewater sources BOX 4.1 EMERGING POLLUTANTS

and components Emerging pollutants are found in varying
There is an often-cited statistic that concentrations in treated and untreated municipal
wastewater is roughly composed of 99% wastewater, industrial effluents and agricultural
water and 1% suspended, colloidal and runoff that seeps into rivers, lakes and coastal
dissolved solids (see for example UN-Water, waters (UNESCO, 2011). They have also been
2015a). Although the exact composition detected in drinking water (Raghav et al., 2013),
of wastewater obviously varies between as conventional wastewater treatment and
different sources and over time, water water purification processes are not effective in
remains, by far, its principal constituent. removing them. Advanced wastewater treatment
Different sources of wastewater can present technologies (membrane filtration, nanofiltration,
other types of components in varying ultrafiltration and reverse osmosis) can partially
concentrations (see Table 4.1). remove some chemicals and pharmaceutically
active compounds (González et al., 2016).
Domestic and municipal wastewater is likely Potential human health risks of emerging
to contain high bacterial loads, though pollutants through exposure via drinking water, as
most of the bacteria present in human well as via agricultural products, remain a concern.
faeces are not inherently pathogenic.
However, when an infection occurs, a large The effects of individual pollutants on human
number of pathogenic microorganisms and ecosystem health have been only marginally
(such as bacteria, viruses, protozoa and evaluated, whereas the cumulative effects have
helminths) are spread in the environment not been studied at all. There is scientific evidence
through faeces. In order to reduce the that many chemicals recognized as emerging
disease burden, the removal of pathogens pollutants can potentially cause endocrine
is often the primary objective of wastewater disruption in humans and aquatic wildlife (causing
treatment systems. birth defects and developmental disorders, and
affecting fertility and reproductive health), even
Wastewater from industrial and mining at very low concentrations (Poongothai et al.,
activities, as well as from solid waste 2007), as well as cancerous tumours and the
management (e.g. landfill leachate), may development of bacterial pathogen resistance,
also contain toxic organic compounds such including multi-drug resistance.
as hydrocarbons, polychlorinated biphenyls
(PCBs), persistent organic pollutants (POPs), Source: Adapted from Muñoz et al. (2009).
volatile organic compound (VOCs) and Contributed by Sarantuyaa Zandaryaa (UNESCO-IHP).
chlorinated solvents. Very small amounts of
certain organic compounds can contaminate
large volumes of water. One litre of gasoline,
for example, is enough to contaminate one psychiatric drugs, etc.), steroids and hormones
million litres of groundwater (Government (i.e. contraceptive drugs), personal care
of Canada, n.d.). products (e.g. fragrances, sunscreen agents,
insect repellents, microbeads and antiseptics),
‘Emerging pollutants’ (see Box 4.1) can pesticides and herbicides, surfactants and
be defined as “any synthetic or naturally surfactant metabolites, flame retardants,
occurring chemical or any microorganism industrial additives and chemicals and
that is not commonly monitored in the plasticizers and gasoline additives. Emerging
environment but has the potential to pollutants are rarely controlled or monitored
enter the environment and cause adverse and further research is needed to assess their
ecological and (or) human health effects” impacts on human health and the environment.
(USGS, n.d.). The main categories of It is possible to reduce/mitigate the use and
emerging pollutants present in wastewater release of certain types of emerging pollutants
are pharmaceuticals (e.g. antibiotics, through government regulation (see Box 4.2)
analgesics, anti-inflammatory drugs, and private sector engagement.

38 W W D R 2 0 1 7
 Table 4.1 Advantages and disadvantages of selected types of wastewater treatment systems

Sources of wastewater Typical components

Domestic wastewater Human excreta (pathogenic microorganisms), nutrients and organic matter. May
also contain emerging pollutants (e.g. pharmaceuticals, drugs and endocrine
disruptors)
Municipal wastewater Very wide range of contaminants, such as pathogenic microorganisms, nutrients
and organic matter, heavy metals and emerging pollutants

Urban runoff Very wide range of contaminants, including incomplete products of combustion
(e.g. polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and black carbon/soot from fossil fuel
combustion), rubber, motor oil, heavy metals, non degradable/organic trash
(especially plastics from roads and parking lots), suspended particulate and
fertilizers and pesticides (from lawns)

Agricultural runoff (surface flow) Pathogenic microorganisms, nutrients from fertilizers applied to the soils, and
pesticides and insecticides derived from the agricultural practices

Livestock production Organic loadings (often very high) and veterinary residues (e.g. antibiotics and
artificial growth hormones)

Land-based aquaculture Effluents from settlement ponds are typically rich in organic matter, suspended
solids (particulates), dissolved nutrients, and heavy metals and emerging
pollutants
Industrial wastewater Contaminants depend on the kind of industry (see Table 6.4 for details)

Mining activities Drainage from tailings, often contains suspended solids, alkalinity, acidity (needs
pH adjustment) dissolved salts, cyanide and heavy metals. May contain also
radioactive elements, depending on the mine activity (see Table 6.4 for details)

Energy generation Water generated in the energy sector is often a source of thermal pollution
(heated water) and usually contains nitrogen (e.g. ammonia, nitrate), total
dissolved solids, sulphate and heavy metals (see Table 6.4 for details)

Landfill leachate Organic and inorganic contaminants, with potentially high concentrations of
metals and hazardous organic chemicals

Source: Based on US EPA (2015 and n.d.b.); UN (n.d.b.); Akcil and Koldas (2006); Government of British Columbia (1992); and Tchobanoglous et al.
(2003).

BOX 4.2 BANNING WASTEWATER CONTAMINANTS: THE EXAMPLE OF MICROBEADS

Microbeads are found in certain consumer products, such as facial cleansers and toothpaste. After use, these
spherical particles made of polyethylene or polypropylene end up in wastewater. Once microbeads enter the
wastewater system, few wastewater treatment facilities are able to remove them from the water streams. Risks
to aquatic life and public health are not yet well understood, but the particles themselves may contain toxins or
attract other toxins in the water (Copeland, 2015).

In December 2015, the US Government required US manufacturers to end the use of microbeads in products by
1 July 2017 and the sale of products containing microbeads by 1 July 2018. In June 2016, Canada added
microbeads to the list of toxic substances under the Canadian Environmental Protection Act (CEPA), thus enabling
the government to regulate and ban the use of microbeads (Government of Canada, 2016). In September 2016,
the Government of the United Kingdom announced plans to ban microbeads in cosmetics and personal care
products (DEFRA, 2016).

Microbeads can easily be replaced with natural ingredients like almond and apricot shells, and several large companies
have already announced that they will end the use of these microplastic products. The joint action between public
and private sectors effectively eliminated economic arguments for delaying a ban on these substances.

Te c h n i c a l a s p e c ts of wa s tewater 39
 Figure 4.1 Wastewater components and their effects 4.2 Impacts of
releasing untreated or
inadequately treated
Smelly
TOXICITY wastewater
Solid waste The discharge of untreated or
Suffocate/block partially treated wastewater into the
environment results in the pollution of
Poisonous surface water, soil and groundwater.
Pharmaceutical Once discharged into water bodies,
wastewater is either diluted and
Corrosive transported downstream or it infiltrates
Organic matter into aquifers, where it can affect the
Inorganic
particular quality (and therefore the availability)
material of freshwater supplies. The ultimate
Biological
destination of wastewater discharged
Radioactive
into rivers and lakes is often the ocean.
Chemicals
The consequences of releasing
Microbes
Heavy metals untreated or inadequately treated
Infectious
wastewater can be classified into
three groups: adverse human health
effects associated with reduced water
IMPACT
Decreased ecosystem health quality; negative environmental effects
(i.e. dead zones) Increased production costs due to the degradation of water
bodies and ecosystems; and potential
Contaminated Decreased Contaminated drinking
effects on economic activities (UNEP,
food human health and bathing water 2015b). Figure 4.1 shows wastewater
components and their effects.

Source: Adapted from Corcoran et al. (2010, Fig. 5, p. 21). 4.2.1 Human health effects
Even though household sanitation
facilities have increasingly been
improved since 1990, risks to public
Figure 4.2 Faecal waste framework for estimating proportion of
health remain due to poor containment,
safely managed sanitation and wastewater leakages during emptying and
transport, and ineffective sewage
Containment Emptying Transport Treatment Reuse and treatment (see Figure 4.2). It is
disposal
estimated that only 26% of urban and
34% of rural sanitation and wastewater
services effectively prevent human
Safe contact with excreta along the entire
reuse and sanitation chain and can therefore be
disposal
of faecal considered safely managed (Hutton and
wastes Varughese, 2016).

Sanitation and wastewater-related

diseases remain widespread in
countries where the coverage of
these services is low, where informal
use of untreated wastewater for
food production is high, and where
reliance on contaminated surface
water for drinking and recreational
Unsafe discharge of faecal wastes
use is common. In 2012, an estimated
842,000 deaths in middle- and low-
Source: Adapted from UNICEF/WHO (2015, Fig. 39, p. 44). income countries were caused by

40 W W D R 2 0 1 7
 Figure 4.3 Sanitation transitions and associated reductions in diarrhoeal disease

UNIMPROVED SANITATION FACILITIES HIGH

16%

RISK TO HEALTH
28%
IMPROVED SANITATION
WITHOUT SEWER
CONNECTIONS

69%*

GROUPED:
63%* IMPROVED SANITATION
(INCLUDING SEWER CONNECTIONS)

COMMUNITY SANITATION OR
SEWER CONNECTIONS LOW

*These estimates are based on limited evidence and should therefore be considered as preliminary, and
have not been used in the current burden of disease estimate.
Source: WHO (2014b, Fig. 11, p. 12).

contaminated drinking water, inadequate handwashing and the services they provide (Corcoran et al., 2010)
facilities, and inappropriate or inadequate sanitation (see Chapter 8).
services (WHO, 2014b).
Eutrophication, driven by excess nitrogen and
Improving sanitation and wastewater treatment phosphorus, can lead to potentially toxic algal blooms
is also a key intervention strategy to control and and declines in biodiversity. The discharge of untreated
eliminate many other diseases, including cholera wastewater into seas and oceans partially explains
and some neglected tropical diseases (NTDs), such why de-oxygenated dead zones are rapidly growing:
as dengue fever, dracunculiasis, lymphatic filariasis, an estimated 245,000 km2 of marine ecosystems are
schistosomiasis, soil-transmitted helminths and affected, and this affects fisheries, livelihoods, and food
trachoma (Aagaard-Hansen and Chaignat, 2010). chains (Corcoran et al., 2010).
Access to improved sanitation facilities can contribute
significantly to the reduction of health risks (see Figure 4.2.3 Economic effects
4.3), and further health gains may be realized through As the availability of freshwater is critical to sustaining
the provision of safely managed sanitation services and the economic welfare of any human community, poor
safely treated wastewater. water quality constitutes an additional obstacle to
economic development. Poor water quality hampers
4.2.2 Environmental effects agricultural productivity in rural and peri-urban settings.
The discharge of untreated wastewater into the Contaminated water can directly affect economic
environment has an impact on water quality, which in activities that use water, such as industrial production,
turn affects the amount of water resources available fisheries, aquaculture and tourism (UNEP, 2015b), and
for direct use. Concerns over water quality are rising as can indirectly limit the export of certain goods due to
an important dimension of water security worldwide restrictions (and even bans) on contaminated products.
(see Prologue). Since 1990, water pollution has been
increasing in most rivers in Africa, Asia and Latin For example, in the Caribbean, many small island
America, due to the increasing amounts of wastewater economies are almost entirely dependent on the
as a result of population growth, increased economic health of their reefs for tourism, fisheries and
activity and expanding agriculture, as well as the shoreline protection (Corcoran et al., 2010), but these
release of sewage with no (or only minimal levels reefs are threatened by the discharge of untreated
of) treatment (UNEP, 2016). Inadequate wastewater wastewater. While pollution of natural environments
management has also a direct impact on ecosystems may hinder economic activities, tourism itself and

Te c h n i c a l a s p e c ts of wa s tewater 41
 When the discharge Wastewater generated in industries can be treated
of wastewater causes on-site or released to municipal systems, but it is
necessary that discharge permissions have been
environmental damages, granted and that quality limits are being respected.
external costs (externalities) Wastewater generated in the agricultural sector (e.g.
livestock production, green houses), if collected and
are generated and the treated, can be used within the establishment for
potential benefits of using irrigation or other purposes.
wastewater are lost Figures 4.4 and 4.5 show wastewater management
systems in Kampala (Uganda) and Dhaka
(Bangladesh), respectively, illustrating how they
can differ among countries. The illustrations also
the growing demand for environmentally friendly reveal the urgent need to improve the efficiency
facilities can provide leverage for investments in the of wastewater management systems in order to
maintenance of natural environments, and therefore increase the proportion of wastewater that is safely
act as an additional motivating factor for improved managed.
wastewater management.
4.3.1 Wastewater collection
When the discharge of wastewater causes The sewerage network used for wastewater
environmental damages, external costs (externalities) transportation can be separated or combined. In
are generated and the potential benefits of using separate systems, different sets of pipes are used
wastewater are lost. An economic argument for to transport the sewage and urban runoff, while in
improved wastewater management can be made in combined systems both flows are conveyed together.
order to minimize the negative impacts it can cause and Properly installed, operated and controlled, separate
to maximize the benefits it can generate. If wastewater systems are expected to reduce the amount of
is recognized as an economic good, appropriately sewage to be treated, to avoid overflows, and to
treated wastewater can have a positive value to both deal more effectively with periodic and potentially
those producing it and those consuming it (UNEP, large volumes of urban runoff occurring under storm
2015b). conditions. However, separate sewers do not always
operate as efficiently as expected, for example
when insufficient controls favour illegal sewage
4.3 Wastewater collection and connections to the runoff pipelines.
treatment
The endpoint of a sewerage network should be a
While opportunities for enhancing wastewater treatment plant, which aims to remove contaminants
collection and treatment systems are discussed in from wastewater so that it can be either safely used
Chapter 15, this section describes the basic processes again (fit-for-purpose treatment) or returned to the
from a more technical point of view. There are water cycle with minimal environmental impacts.
essentially two types of wastewater collection and
treatment systems: Wastewater treatment can follow a centralized or
decentralized approach. In centralized systems,
–– Off-site systems, where waste is transported wastewater is collected from a large number of
through a sewerage network to a treatment plant users, like an urban area, and treated at one or
or disposal point. more sites. Collection costs account for over 60% of
the total budget for wastewater management in a
–– On-site systems, where waste is accumulated in centralized system, particularly in communities with
a pit or septic tank. This tank can be periodically low population densities (Massoud et al., 2009).
emptied or a new pit/septic tank can be opened
in another location. Certain on-site systems have Decentralized systems employ a combination of
leaching beds that infiltrate the partiality treated on-site and/or cluster systems for wastewater
water from septic tanks into the ground (old and treatment, and are often used for individual houses,
overstressed systems are a significant cause of scattered and low-density communities, and rural
pollution in some areas). In the case of emptying, areas. Even though decentralized treatment systems
waste is transported for treatment and/or disposal. often reduce collection costs, they may not provide
On-site systems can also include small-scale the same level of benefits and still require a level
sewerage systems that convey wastewater to of operation and maintenance as effective as in
treatment plants located nearby. centralized systems.

42 W W D R 2 0 1 7
 Figure 4.4 Water management system in Kampala (Uganda)

CONTAINMENT EMPTYING TRANSPORT TREATMENT REUSE/DISPOSAL

WC to sewer
Not effectively
treated 41%
Effectively
treated 20%
Legally
dumped
Safely emptied Not effectively
treated
Illegally
dumped

On-site Unsafely emptied

facility
Unsafely
abandoned when
full

Safely abandoned
when full 21%

Open 22% 28% 2% 4% 2%

defecation
1%

59% Residential
environment
Drainage
system
Receiving
waters

Unsafely managed Safely managed

Source: Peal et al. (2014, Fig. 6, p. 571).

Figure 4.5 Water management system in Dhaka (Bangladesh)

CONTAINMENT EMPTYING TRANSPORT TREATMENT REUSE/DISPOSAL

Leakage Not effectively

treated 2%
WC to sewer
Effectively 2%
treated

Safely Illegally
emptied dumped

Unsafely
On-site emptied
facility

Left to
overflow or
abandoned
69% 9% 9% 1% 9%
Open 1%
defecation

98% Residential
environment
Drainage
system
Receiving
waters

Unsafely managed Safely managed

Source: Peal et al. (2014, Fig. 4, p. 570).

Te c h n i c a l a s p e c ts of wa s tewater 43