Aquifer Storageand Recovery ASR
Aquifer Storageand Recovery ASR
Aquifer Storageand Recovery ASR
net/publication/295854388
Aquifer Storage and Recovery (ASR) Design and operational experiences for
water storage through wells
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Title
Aquifer Storage and Recovery (ASR). Design and operational experiences for water storage
through wells
Report number
PREPARED 2012.016
Deliverable number
Del. 5.2.2
Author(s)
Femke Rambags, MSc.
Dr. Klaasjan J. Raat
Koen G. Zuurbier, MSc.
Dr. Gerard A. van den Berg
Dr. Niels Hartog
Quality Assurance
Prof. Dr. Pieter J. Stuyfzand (KWR), Dr. Ing. Edvard Sivertsen (Sintef)
Cover figure
Koen G. Zuurbier MSc
Document history
Version Team member Status Date update Comments
This document presents the opportunities that Aquifer storage and recovery
(ASR) projects may provide in urban, agricultural and industrial areas and is
intended to be used by urban water utilities (such as drinking water
companies), horticulture, industries and municipalities. At an introductory
level, this document summarizes the relevant information needed to consider
ASR projects. It introduces different ASR applications and two varieties on
the ASR concept (ASTR and ATR) . In addition, it presents showcases to
illustrate the diversity of methods that can be used. The report is built upon
(scientific) literature and operational experiences in the United States, the
Netherlands and Australia.
Temporal storage of water can help overcome this mismatch in water supply and
demand in time, allowing seasonally variable sources of water to be used as
reliable water supply. Therefore, one of the main concerns for the coming
decades is the provision of sufficient storage capacity to enhance the buffer
capacity of water supply systems. Aquifer storage and recovery (ASR) is often
cost–effective in comparison to aboveground alternatives that require the
construction of water treatment plants and surface reservoirs. In addition, there
may be insufficient space or desire for aboveground water storage, such as in
urban areas. In these cases, aquifer storage of water provides an attractive
alternative to increase storage capacity, as it results in a relatively very small
footprint aboveground.
ASR through wells is a specific type of technology for the infiltration of water
into aquifers, more generally known as managed aquifer recharge (MAR).
Recent technical advances and operational experiences have demonstrated that
the use of wells during ASR is a feasible and cost-effective method for recharging
aquifers, as confirmed by research pilots and operational plants worldwide.
Several relatively recent ASR concepts include aquifer storage transfer and
recovery (ASTR) and aquifer transfer recovery allow ASR to be applied for a
wider number of purposes under a wider range of conditions. The development
of these new techniques has led to improved ASR recoveries, satisfying water
demands. Recent developments in ASR techniques and applications demonstrate
that ASR is feasible in aquifers with very different settings, including conditions
that were previously deemed unsuitable. For example, ASR can be applied in
very thin aquifers and unconfined aquifers using horizontal wells. and in
brackish/saline aquifers using 'Multiple Partially Penetrating Wells' (MPPWs) or
separate wells that extract saline groundwater (Freshkeeper and Freshmaker
concepts).
Careful planning and design are essential to develop a successful ASR set-up.
Water availability, water demand and source water characteristics guide the
initial design and type of the ASR system to be constructed. The evaluation of
both hydrogeological aquifer properties and operational parameters is essential
to determine ASR feasibility and design criteria.
Future research and pilot projects are expected to increase application and
optimization of ASR. New developments will likely further enhance the number
of aquifer and water types suitable for ASR. Dissemination of knowledge of
existing and upcoming projects is required to facilitate project development and
risk assessment for new projects.
Summary 3
Content 5
1 Introduction 7
4 Operational experiences 19
4.1 Aquifer Storage and Recovery (ASR) 19
4.2 Aquifer Storage Transfer Recovery (ASTR) 21
4.3 Aquifer Transfer Recovery (ATR) 27
5 Conclusions 31
6 Literature 33
Appendices 35
Reading guide
In Chapter 2 different reasons for implementing an ASR system are
highlighted and different concepts of ASR are introduced. Subsequently the
relevant information needed to design an ASR system is summarized in
Chapter 3 at an introductory level, taking into account factors such as water
availability and demand, aquifer characteristics, costs and environmental
effects. To illustrate the diversity of methods that can be used for ASR, the
operational experiences are discussed and different showcases are presented
in Chapter 4. A short summary of the most important facts and suggestions
for dissemination of knowledge and ideas about expected developments and
possible future uses of ASR are presented in Chapter 5.
There are many different factors that have to be taken into account when
designing an ASR system. At an introductory level, this chapter summarizes
the relevant elements that need to be taken into account to determine the
feasibility of an ASR project.
Water demand
Sufficient demand for the recovered water is a prerequisite for a successful
ASR system. One of the first steps in an ASR feasibility study is therefore to
evaluate the current and projected water demand. Ideally, daily water
demand data over a period of 10-15 years should be analyzed, including
averages, monthly variability, observed trends and expectations. These data
give insight into the volume of water required for recovery to meet system
demands and gives insights into the amount of idle supply, treatment and
transmission capacity required.
Storage requirement
Based upon the variability in water demand, water supply and water quality
the amount of water that needs to be stored can be estimated (see example in
Figure 3 Analysis of water availability (in this case precipitation) and demand shows
that there are 150 days of surplus (200 mm) and 120 days of shortage (120 mm). The
storage requirement is the amount of shortage of water that occurs when demand is in
excess of temporal availability (From: Knowledge for Climate, 2012)
3.3 Hydrogeology
All ASR projects require a thorough characterization of the hydrogeological
conditions in the vicinity of the project site. Careful evaluation of the
hydrogeology is required because the recovery efficiency (see paragraph 2.1
for recovery efficiency) is dependent on the specific hydrogeology at the site.
Some of the main aquifer characteristics that should be assessed are:
- lithology and structural elements (fractures, bedding, joints),
- thickness, depth and extent of the aquifer,
- thickness, depth and extent of surrounding aquitards (if any),
- water quality in the target aquifer,
- geochemical composition (reactivity) of the aquifer matrix,
- salinity and water quality of ambient groundwater, and
- regional groundwater flow.
Figure 4 Loss of fresh water during recovery due to lateral groundwater flow (“bubble
drift”, left) and buoyancy effects caused by differences in density between fresh and
salt water (right) (Zuurbier, 2012)
As briefly discussed in Paragraph 2.3 there are various ASR types. Choosing
the appropriate type is not always straight-forward. The main considerations
in choosing a concept include:
After selection of an ASR system a preliminary design can be set up, which
contains a layout of the facilities and controls. There are many choices for the
design of an ASR facility. A design might consist of shallow or deep
infiltration wells, vertical or horizontal wells, wells that can both inject and
recover water, or a combination thereof. Also, pre- and post treatment
facilities and monitoring wells may have to be incorporated in the design.
To guide the project design through the next project phases several aspects
should be clearly defined during the preliminary design phase, such as:
Applications of ASR
Operational ASR systems are widely applied including countries such as
USA, Spain, Australia and the Netherlands. Most operational ASR systems
are for long-term or seasonal storage of water (Showcase 1 & 2). However an
increasing number of water managers is constructing ASR systems to ensure
reliability of supply during emergencies such as floods, contamination
incidents, pipeline breaks or to ensure supply during periods of maintenance.
Because of the wide range in applications there is also a wide range in size for
different ASR systems. ASR systems reported in literature range in scale from
single well systems for domestic or horticultural irrigation to ASR well fields
consisting of over 20 wells to meet water demand for urban areas or
industrial use (Showcase 4). Typical storage volumes for individual wells can
hereby range from 0.04 Mm3 for a small ASR plant to 2 Mm3 for a large plant
(Pyne, 2005). The largest ASR well fields in operation have design storage
volumes in excess of 4 Mm3, enabling a seasonal water supply of 30 to 280
ML/d (Pyne, 2005).
Design issues
A fundamental objective of an ASR system is to recover a high percentage of
injected water at a quality that is ready to be put to beneficial use, i.e. to
maximize the recovery efficiency. The recovery efficiency of an ASR well is
dependent on the specific hydrogeology at the site and benefits from a low or
absent groundwater flow and low groundwater salinity. A low regional
groundwater flow prevents lateral bubble drift (Figure 4). The salinity of the
native water also impacts on the recovery efficiency of the system. Density
differences between saline and fresh water cause the lighter freshwater to
float up (upward bubble drift, Figure 4) increasing the risk of saline water
extraction during recovery. To maximize the recovery efficiency in situations
with upward bubble drift a technique has been developed which allows for
infiltration and extraction at different depth levels; the Multiple Partially
Penetrating Well (Showcase 2). Additionally, mixing between the infiltrate
Operational issues
One of the main problems in the operation of ASR systems is a decrease in the
capacity of the wells as a result of well clogging, especially when the
infiltration water contains significant concentrations of total suspended solids
in combination with a fine grained clastic aquifer. ASR wells are much less
susceptible to clogging than ATR and ASTR wells thanks to flow reversal.
Well clogging can be prevented by pretreatment of the infiltration water or by
frequent backflushing. A clogged well can be rehabilitated by physical
scrubbing, acidification, jetting and purging (Olsthoorn, 1982).
In addition, problems related to adverse changes in water quality in the target
aquifer are possible, which would necessitate post-treatment of the recovered
water and thereby make ASR less cost-effective. For example, a Mn-increase
in recovered water of an ASR pilot in the Province of Limburg above the
drinking water standard of 0.05 mg/L was one of the reasons to skip ASR as a
viable option for optimizing drinking water supply (Antoniou et al. 2012).
Showcase 1:
The Peace River ASR well field, Florida, United States (based on Eckman
et al., 2004)
In the Southeast, Southwest and Western states of the United States ASR has
become a prevalent tool for providing a reliable supply of water throughout
the year. The Peace River ASR well field is comprised of 21 ASR wells (in
2004) with a combined capacity of 68 ML/day. It was built as an expansion of
the Peace River Regional Water Supply Facility. The principal objective of the
ASR system is to provide seasonal storage. Long term storage is a secondary
objective.
The water supply facility relies on surface water from the Peace River, a
variable water source with flows ranging from billions of liters per day to
periods of almost no flow. During a period of approximately 9 months raw
water from the Peace River is pumped to a 2.5 billion-liter, off-stream, raw-
water reservoir (Figure 7). Raw water is subsequently pumped to the water-
treatment plant, where it is treated using a conventional coagulation process.
Following treatment, the water is pumped to clear-water storage. From the
clear water storage water is delivered to meet supply contracts. The surplus
treated water remaining after delivery of contract water is injected into the
ASR wells. The ASR wells are designed for injection and recovery rates of
about 3,8 ML/day per well. In the periods when the facility is unable to
divert enough water from the river to meet supply contracts, water is
recovered from the same wells and used for delivery.
Figure 7 Peace River Water Supply Facility layout (Eckman et al., 2004)
Figure 8 Principle of MPPW: injection takes place in all 4 wells but at a higher rate
at the bottom of the aquifer, whereas recovery takes place only in the upper part of the
aquifer (Zuurbier et al., 2012).
Applications of ASTR
ASTR system can be used for the same applications as ASR (e.g. seasonal,
long-term or emergency storage, for the reuse of effluents). However, the use
of separate wells for injection and recovery in ASTR may improve the system
performances (i.e. greater recovery efficiencies). Better system performances
can for instance be obtained at sites where an ASR well will experience
problems with bubble drift as a result of regional flow (for an explanation on
bubble drift see Fig.4). Two separate wells for injection and recovery can also
be preferred when a (partly) continuous supply is required. Additionally the
use of separate wells may be desirable to improve stored water quality by
providing additional residence time and to take advantage of an aquifer’s
natural self-purification.
Design issues
The success of an installed ASTR system is mainly dependent on the aquifer
characteristics and the water quality of the infiltration water. Both operational
experiences and research show that the elimination of pathogenic
microorganisms through natural filtering by the aquifer requires a certain
transport distance and residence time in the aquifer. Hydrological
calculations should be made to provide insight in the travel times of
infiltrating water.
When fresh water is infiltrated into a brackish or saline aquifer the density
differences between saline and fresh water causes the lighter freshwater to
float up (upward bubble drift, see Figure 4). In an ASR system this can lead to
a decreased recovery efficiency. In such situations the recovery efficiency of
an ASTR system can be maximized by injecting and extracting fresh water at
different depths in the aquifer.
Operational issues
One of the main challenges in the operation of ASTR systems is a decrease in
the capacity of the wells as a result of well clogging. Well clogging can be
prevented by pretreatment of the infiltration water or by frequent
backflushing. A clogged well can be rehabilitated by physical scrubbing,
acidification, jetting and purging (Olsthoorn, 1982)..
The storm water harvesting system consists of a weir which diverts water into
an in-stream basin which serves as an initial settling basin for the storm water
(see Figure 11). From the in-stream basin, water is pumped at 3 ML/hour to
the 48 ML holding storage until capacity of the holding storage is reached.
Water in the holding storage then flows by gravity into the cleansing reedbed.
The capacity of the reedbed is approximately 25 ML, and it has a surface area
of 2 ha. Water is pumped from the reedbed outlet to two storage tanks, and
from there it is pumped to the ASTR well field. The ASTR system comprises
four injection wells surrounding two recovery wells with 50 m inter-well
spacing. The well configuration was designed to produce a mean residence
time in the aquifer of 6 months. Water is recovered from the ASTR well field
back into two storage tanks, from where it enters the distribution pipeline
and is pumped to end-users.
The project has demonstrated that recovered water at the ASTR site generally
meets the Australian Water Recycling Guidelines without further treatment.
However, further research is needed to test the robustness of the concept, to
explore options for harvesting and use of storm water and to assess impacts
of its use on water distribution systems.
Applications
The principal reasons for ATR applications are disinfection and leveling of
the water quality of the infiltrated water by aquifer passage, together with the
creation of a buffer to overcome short periods of water scarcity. Research at
an ATR site in the Netherlands (Showcase 5) has shown that extraction of
water can be continued for a period of at least one month when the
infiltration, for example in the case of an emergency, is discontinued. A
review by Stuyfzand et al. (2012) shows that ATR systems in the Netherlands
range from small scale systems with 4 injection wells to large scale systems
consisting of 20 injection wells with recovery wells on both sides of the
injection wells. The infiltration capacity of two currently active ATR systems
in the Netherlands ranges from 4 to 5.5 Mm3 per year (Stuyzand et al., 2012).
Design issues
The success of an installed ATR system is mainly dependent on the aquifer
characteristics and the quality of the infiltration water. To eliminate
pathogenic microorganisms a certain transport distance and residence time in
the aquifer is required. In sandy aquifers a travel time of 60 to 100 days is
generally considered sufficient to remove viruses and bacteria by aquifer
passage and to safeguard microbiological safety of the water (Van der Wielen
et al., 2008). Hydrological calculations should be made to provide insight in
the travel times of infiltrating water.
The Provincial Water Authority of North Holland (PWN) started with the ATR
project DWAT in 1990. In a review by Stuyfzand et al. (2012) a short description of
this system is given.
The objectives of the DWAT system (Figure 12) were storage of water, disinfection,
attenuation of the water quality fluctuations in the infiltration water and to meet the
drinking water demand. The DWAT system is still operational, although with
reduced efficiency. The well field in the coastal dune area consists of 20 infiltration
wells with screens at 60-90 m below land surface. The system has a total infiltration
capacity of 5.5 Mm3 per year (600 m3 per hour). The maximum realized infiltration
is, however, 4.9 Mm3 per year. Recovery takes place using 12 pumping wells with
screen at 55-80 m below land surface. The total withdrawal capacity of the system is
540 m3 per hour. During normal conditions the DWAT system is in constant
operation with a production of approximately 510 m3 per hour. On an annual basis
this amounts to 4.5 Mm3. Less water is abstracted than infiltrated (10% less) to
prevent the upconing of saline or brackish water and to allow for extraction in
periods when infiltration is discontinued (for example, in the case of an emergency).
Research has shown that when infiltration stops, water extraction can be continued
for a period of at least one month without extracting saline groundwater (Rolf et al.,
2010 and Stuyfzand et al., 2012). Clogging is prevented by reversing infiltration and
recovery on a daily basis for about twenty minutes.
Figure 13 Left: Planar view of ATR well field Watervlak (DWAT). The 20 red triangles are
infiltration wells, blue dots are the 12 extraction wells.
Future research and pilot projects are expected to increase and optimize the
application of ASR. New developments will likely further extend the types of
aquifers and water types that can be used. Dissemination of knowledge of
existing and upcoming projects is essential as it will facilitate project
development and risk assessment for new projects. Within the EU FP7 project
DEMEAU, the integration of information on many different examples of
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