Journal of

Marine Science
and Engineering

Article
Experiments on Cavitation Control around a Cylinder Using
Biomimetic Riblets
Ebrahim Kadivar 1,2 , Mazyar Dawoodian 1, * , Yuxing Lin 1 and Ould el Moctar 1

1 Institute of Ship Technology and Ocean Engineering, University of Duisburg-Essen, 47057 Duisburg,
Germany; [email protected] (E.K.)
2 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran 1411713116, Iran
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: Experimental investigations were conducted to uncover the impact of cavitation

control—through the use of biomimetic riblets on cavitating flows around a circular cylinder. First,
the dynamics of cavitation in the flow behind a finite cylinder (without riblets) was unveiled by
visualizing the cavitation clouds and measuring the lift force fluctuations acting on the cylinder.
Second, in a significant step forward, a comprehensive explanation was provided for the cavitation
control methods using two bio-inspired riblet morphologies positioned in different orientations and
locations on the cylinder. For the first time, the impacts of these tiny formations on the flow dynamics
and the associated cavitation process were scrutinized. This showed that scalloped riblets, with
their curved design, induced secondary vortices near their tips and distorted primary streamwise
vortices, and that high velocity gradients near the jagged pattern peaks of sawtooth riblets delayed
flow separation, which affected cavitation.

Keywords: hydrodynamic cavitation; cavitation control; biomimetic riblets; cylinder

1. Introduction
Cavitation appears as an undesirable phenomenon in diverse industrial applications.
To elaborate, cavitation leads to erosion on the surface of propellers/rudders of ships, or it
Citation: Kadivar, E.; Dawoodian, M.; generates unwelcome vibration/noise within the components of hydraulic systems (see,
Lin, Y.; el Moctar, O. Experiments on e.g., Reisman et al. [1], Dular et al. [2], Haosheng [3], Patella et al. [4], Kadivar et al. [5], and
Cavitation Control around a Cylinder Lin et al. [6]). Franc and Micheal [7] noted that, at a constant temperature, cavitation may
Using Biomimetic Riblets. J. Mar. Sci. occur around immersed objects when the local pressure falls below the vapor pressure of the
Eng. 2024, 12, 293. https://doi.org/ liquid. Additional factors, including turbulent flow characteristics, surface roughness [8,9],
10.3390/jmse12020293 temperature and viscosity of the liquid [10], and density and radius of the nuclei [11],
Academic Editor: Stefano Gaggero may affect cavitation or contribute to its initiation on immersed bodies. Yuan et al. [12,13]
compared the difference in ice breaking between a non-cavitating and a cavitating water
Received: 9 January 2024 jet, and they found that the collapse of cavitation produces additional pressure loads on
Revised: 27 January 2024
the wall, which performs better in the later continuous damage process. Different types of
Accepted: 5 February 2024
cavitation commonly encountered on ship rudders and on the components of hydraulic
Published: 6 February 2024
systems manifest as sheet-like cavitation, partial cavitation, or cloud cavitation. Among
these, cloud cavitation is the most hazardous because it tends to induce severe erosion
damage, thereby provoking surface vibrations on the immersed bodies, as highlighted by
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
Kadivar [14].
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. Prior investigations dealt with diverse cavitation dynamics that occur on hydrofoils.
This article is an open access article For instance, Li et al. [15] examined the partial cavitation dynamics in various regimes of
distributed under the terms and cavitations on a hydrofoil surface. Callenaere et al. [16] investigated the partial cavitation
conditions of the Creative Commons occurring on a hydrofoil, along with the formation of a re-entrant jet that may arise within
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// this specific cavitation regime. Their findings revealed that a re-entrant jet generates and
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ progresses towards the leading edge of the hydrofoil in a regime of partial cavitation. This
4.0/). observation led them to conclude that this phenomenon is the predominant mechanism

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, 293. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse12020293 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/jmse

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, 293 2 of 19

responsible for the shedding of cavities from the surface of the hydrofoil. Meanwhile,
Stutz and Reboud [17] conducted experimental analyses to dissect the sheet cavitation
formations on a geometry such as Venturi. They scrutinized the behavior of attached
cavitation, including the length patterns of cavities and the phenomenon of reversed flow.
Leroux et al. [18,19] showed that two primary mechanisms contribute to the shedding of
cavities on a hydrofoil surface in the partial cavitation regime. These mechanisms include
the formation of a re-entrant jet and the formation of a shockwave subsequently causing
the cavity’s collapse. The shockwave alters the cavitation dynamics. Over recent decades,
numerous investigations focused on comprehending the dynamics of cloud cavitation,
specifically aiming to elucidate the mechanisms of cavity shedding and cavitation fluc-
tuations. For instance, Ganesh et al. [20] explored the intricacies of unsteady cavitation
emerging on an apex geometry through the use of a X-ray densitometer method. Their
observations showed that a distinct shockwave contributes to the oscillation of unsteady
cavitation at the aft part.
Ghahramani [21] showed that the small-scale cavities not only are important at the
inception and collapse steps, but also influence the development of large-scale structures.
Furthermore, they explain the effects of flow vorticity, pressure variation rate, bubble inertia
and surface tension effects on the cavity dynamics. Kadivar et al. [22,23] investigated
the unsteady cavitation dynamics and surge cavitation occurring over both a hydrofoil
and a semicircular flat plate. They concluded that the evolution of the sheet cavity to
a cloud cavity diverges from the cavity structure dynamics within the cloud cavitating
regime. Their findings pointed out that within the surge cavitation regime, the cavity
fluctuations’ dynamics are driven by pressure waves generated within the cavity due to
the collapsing of the cavity. In other words, the mechanism of the cavity shedding was not
directly generated by a re-entrant jet in the cavitation surge regime. Long [24] investigates
the cavitating flow around a Delft Twist-11 hydrofoil using the Zwart–Gerber–Belamri
cavitation model combined with an LES turbulence model. They studied the behaviors
of the re-entrant and side-entrant jets from both Euler and Lagrangian viewpoints, and
they utilized the three-dimensional LCSs obtained with the three-dimensional Lagrangian
technology to investigate the influence of U-type structures on local flow patterns. Pelz
et al. [25] examined the influence of a re-entrant jet on unsteady cloud cavitation. Their
research also presented insights into how the nucleation rate affects the cavity length and
how the Reynolds number influences the formation of the re-entrant jet on the hydrofoil.
Wang et al. [26,27] present a multi-scale Euler–Lagrange method to provide deep
insight into the unsteady instability mechanism and internal structures of cloud cavitation
around the Delft Twist-11 hydrofoil. With their method, they analyzed the cloud cavitation
evolution mechanism and the internal cavity structure, and they explained the bubble
size distribution spectra in the unsteady cavitating flow. Circular cylinders or similar
geometries are commonly employed in marine contexts. Extensive prior studies have
addressed cavitation around circular cylinders and the mechanism of cavitation shedding.
For instance, Matsudaira et al. [28] examined the flow characteristics within the vortex
cavitation. They discovered that the vortices’ shedding frequency aligns closely with the
pressure pulsations caused by the collapse of the cavity. Saito and Sato [29] examined the
formation of Karman vortex-like cavity structures behind a cylinder. They analyzed the
cavitation pulsations and the erosion induced by the cavity collapse on a plate made of
aluminum mounted to the test section’s wall. Their hypothesis suggested that the erosion
on the plate is caused by strong impulsive forces resulting from collapsing cavities.
Kumar et al. [30] studied experimentally the cavitation behind a cylinder at a Reynolds
number of around 64,000. They revealed that reducing the cavitation number leads to a
decrease in the frequency of cavity shedding. Geike [31] calculated macroscopic forces
between moving rough surfaces, and the tensile stresses that affect the wear in mixed
lubrication applications, and developed a model for the numerical simulation of cavita-
tion in mixed lubrication contacts that reproduces tensile stresses on short time scales.
Moreover, they identified that lower cavitation numbers correlate with higher pressure
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, 293 3 of 19

pulsations. Gnanaskandan and Mahesh [32], by numerically analyzing the pressure waves
induced by the cavitation collapses, illustrated the significant impact of cavitation on the
pressure distribution, and the resultant forces. Dobroselsky [33] performed an experimental
study of cavitating flows around a cylinder at critical Reynolds numbers. He found the
quasi-periodic nature of the cavity shedding mechanism from the surface of the cylinder.
Additionally, he indicated the dependence of cavitation onset on the Reynolds number.
Brandao et al. [34] performed a numerical simulation of the cavitation behind a cylin-
der at various cavitating regimes and low Reynolds numbers from the laminar to turbulent
flows. Their findings revealed a significant alteration in cavitation within the Karman
vortices caused by the initiation of the propagation of condensation front. Gu et al. [35] em-
ployed the Large Eddy Simulation (LES) technique to explore cavitation dynamics behind
a cylinder at a Reynolds number of around 9500. Their findings highlighted that vortex
cavitation plays an important role in influencing the shedding frequency of the cylinder’s
wake. Sadri and Kadivar [36] investigated the behavior of unsteady cavitation and the
noise generated by the cavity collapses around one and two cylinders. They specifically
analyzed the cavitation in scenarios where two cylinders were positioned side by side
with varying gaps between them. Their study indicated that, through gap reduction, the
wake patterns formed behind these cylinders coalesce, giving rise to a singular vortex
street. Zhang [37] established a novel theory for oscillating bubble dynamics, which can
simultaneously consider complex physical factors such as boundaries, bubble interaction,
ambient flow field, gravity, bubble migration, fluid compressibility, viscosity, and surface
tension. Their theory achieves the unification of classical bubble theories. They showed
that their theory has higher accuracy and applicability compared to the classical ones, and
may provide new references for future explorations in bubble dynamics, cavitation, and
other multiphase flow-related problems.
Regarding cavitation control, extensive studies were conducted to explore various
passive methods aimed at mitigating cavitation effects around immersible bodies. Custodio
et al. [38] examined the impact of protuberances on cavitation. Their findings indicated
that medium to large protuberance amplitudes hinder cavitation development at the aft
part of the protuberance troughs. Hao et al. [39] analyzed the dynamics of cavitation
around hydrofoils with different surfaces and they emphasized that the presence of a
roughness across the hydrofoil’s surface may affect the cloud cavitation. They deduced that
hydrofoils with a rough surface pattern experience heightened intensity of cloud cavitation.
Zhao and Wang [40] investigated unsteady cloud cavitation control by implementing
a bio-inspired structure situated on the suction side of the hydrofoil, showing that the
bio-inspired structure possesses the capability to control the levels of turbulent kinetic
energy. Furthermore, they demonstrated that hydrodynamic efficiency improves due to
the presence of the bio-inspired structure. Zhang et al. [41] conducted both experimental
and numerical studies focused on controlling the cavitation by incorporating an obstacle
on the hydrofoil. They showed that the obstacle restricts the cavity fluctuations.
Che et al. [42,43] investigated the control of partial cavitation on a hydrofoil through
the use of micro vortex generators. Their findings revealed that these micro vortex gen-
erators effectively shifted the location of cavitation inception closer to the point of flow
separation within the hydrofoil’s unsteady cavitating regime. Kadivar et al. [44,45] showed
that utilizing bubble generators effectively mitigates cavitation. They also conducted cavi-
tation control on a hydrofoil surface, employing passive methods including cylindrical and
wedge-type vortex generators. Their study demonstrated effective suppression of cloud
cavitation on the hydrofoil with the vortex generators, leading to a substantial reduction in
high-pressure pulsations resulting from the cloud cavitation collapse. Simanto et al. [46]
showed that leading-edge protuberances mitigate the cavitation, and these protuberances
reduce the noise, particularly at higher Reynolds numbers when the cavitation is the pri-
mary source of noise. Yu et al. [47] experimentally and numerically studied controlling
cavitation using a porous pattern on a cylinder, demonstrating that a porous layer mitigated
the generated vortices and the inception of cavities.
 cavitation collapse. Simanto et al. [46] showed that leading-edge protuberances mitigate
the cavitation, and these protuberances reduce the noise, particularly at higher Reynolds
numbers when the cavitation is the primary source of noise. Yu et al. [47] experimentally
and numerically studied controlling cavitation using a porous pattern on a cylinder,
demonstrating that a porous layer mitigated the generated vortices and the inception of
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, 293 4 of 19
cavities.
To the authors’ knowledge, the current work presents a unique experimental analysis
that goes deeper than previous analyses to effectively reveal the detailed mechanism of
To the authors’ knowledge, the current work presents a unique experimental analysis
cavitation control using riblets. The objective was to significantly enhance our
that goes deeper than previous analyses to effectively reveal the detailed mechanism of
understanding of cavitation dynamics and control mechanisms. The paper was organized
cavitation control using riblets. The objective was to significantly enhance our understand-
as follows. Section 2 describes the experimental setup, the experimental conditions, and
ing of cavitation dynamics and control mechanisms. The paper was organized as follows.
the test cases considered. Section 3 portrays the main results, including the dynamics of
Section 2 describes the experimental setup, the experimental conditions, and the test cases
cavitation in the flow region behind a cylinder, the morphological analysis of riblets, and
considered. Section 3 portrays the main results, including the dynamics of cavitation in the
the effects of flow conditions on cavitation control. Finally, Section 4 summarizes the
flow region behind a cylinder, the morphological analysis of riblets, and the effects of flow
conclusions.
conditions on cavitation control. Finally, Section 4 summarizes the conclusions.
2. Experimental
2. Experimental Setup
Setup
The investigations
The investigationswere wereperformed
performed in in
thethe cavitation
cavitation tunnel
tunnel K23K23at theatInstitute
the Institute of
of Ship
Ship Technology
Technology of the Duisburg-Essen
of the Duisburg-Essen University.University.
This tunnelThisfunctioned
tunnel functioned
as a closedascavitation
a closed
cavitation
tunnel, tunnel, comprising
comprising an electrican electric motor-driven
motor-driven impeller, aimpeller,
vacuumapump, vacuum pump,
and and an
an array of
array of pressure transducers and temperature sensors. The tunnel reached
pressure transducers and temperature sensors. The tunnel reached inlet velocities of up to inlet velocities
of up
9.0 to with
m/s, 9.0 m/s, with fluctuations
fluctuations of typically
of typically less thanless
0.1 than
m/s.0.1The m/s. The tunnel’s
tunnel’s test section
test section (1.1 m
(1.1
in m in encompasses
length) length) encompasses
a square ainlet
square inletofsection
section of m
0.3 by 0.3 2
0.3. by
This0.3test
m section,
2. This test section,
consisting
consisting
of of fourwalls,
four Plexiglas Plexiglas walls,
offered offeredobservation
optimal optimal observation
from various fromperspectives.
various perspectives.
A high-
A high-speed
speed camera, positioned
camera, positioned at one sideat of
one
theside
test of the test
section, section, the
monitored monitored the flow.
flow. During the
During the experiments,
experiments, cylinders were cylinders were
vertically vertically
installed installed
on the on thewall.
test section test section
Figure wall. Figure
1 illustrates
1 illustrates
the the experimental
experimental setup, and thesetup,
top viewandofthe
twotop view of
different two differentofconfigurations
configurations riblet placement, of
ribletan
with placement, with an
arrow pointing in arrow
the flowpointing in the flow direction.
direction.

Figure1.1.Schematic
Figure Schematicplanplan
viewview
of theof the
test test section
section with instrument.
with instrument. Thepresents
The top view top view
twopresents
different
two different configurations of riblet placement, with an arrow pointing
configurations of riblet placement, with an arrow pointing in the flow direction. in the flow
direction.
A high-speed camera was used to capture the cavitation around a cylinder with and
without riblet structures. A six DOF freedom load sensor, located on one side of the tunnel’s
test section between the tunnel wall and the cylinder, measured the lift and drag forces
acting on the circular cylinder. A pressure transducer, mounted at the outlet of the tunnel,
measured the pressure fluctuations behind the cylinder and in the cylinder’s wake. The
experiments were conducted at different Reynolds numbers: R = 1.0 × 105 , 1.25 × 105 , and
1.5 × 105 ; and at three cavitation numbers of σ = 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0. The cavitation number
σ [2] and the Reynolds number Re were here defined as follows:

pre f − pv
σ= (1)
1/2ρre f Vre2 f
 J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, 293 5 of 19

Vre f lre f
R= (2)
ν
where pre f and pv are the reference static pressures at the middle of the inlet section and
the saturation vapor pressure of the operating liquid, respectively; Vre f is the inlet flow
velocity; and ρre f and ν are the reference density and kinematic viscosity of the water,
respectively. The experimental conditions were constantly adjusted during the tests to
assess the cavitation dynamics between comparative cases. To reduce the effect of varying
air content, the air inside the cavitation tunnel was kept within the range of 1.2 mg/L
and the water temperature was about 16 ◦ C with a tolerance of 0.1 ◦ C. Consequently, the
uncertainty of the vapor pressure was almost 24 Pa; the uncertainty of the inlet pressure
ranged between 100 and 200 Pa; the uncertainty of the cavitation number ranged between
0.05 and 0.10; and the uncertainty of the Reynolds number was between 1 and 2%. The
high-speed imaging was captured at a frequency of 1000 Hz with an exposure time of 30 µs.
The resolution of the captured images was 1632 × 1200 pixel counts. A sampling rate of
about 5 Hz was specified for the acquisition system that measures the force. Employing a
measuring amplifier MX1601B, the six DoF force sensor relied on an HBM data acquisition
system to capture the force fluctuations on the cylinder. A LaVision high-speed control
system enabled the acquisition and post-processing of the captured images. A 5V trigger
signal from this control system to the HBM measuring amplifiers synchronized the captured
images with the data acquisition system.
Figure 2 shows the cylinders with horizontal/vertical scalloped/sawtooth riblets.
The 13.0 cm long cylinders had a diameter of 2.5 cm. The riblets on the manufactured
cylinders were 1.5 mm in height and the spacing between riblets measured 3.0 mm. The
top width of the scalloped riblets was 0.5 mm, and the groove radius between these riblets
was 1.0 mm. The section of the manufactured riblets on the cylinder was 8.0 cm, that is, the
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 23
riblets extended over only one part of the cylinder’s circumference and not over the rest of
the cylinder.

Figure
Figure2.2.(a)
(a)Schematic
Schematic view
view of the cylinder
cylinderwith
withvertical
verticaland
andhorizontal
horizontal sawtooth
sawtooth riblets
riblets andand photos
photos
ofofthe manufactured sawtooth riblets on the cylinders. (b) Schematic view of the cylinder
the manufactured sawtooth riblets on the cylinders. (b) Schematic view of the cylinder with verticalwith
vertical
and horizontal scalloped riblets and photos of the manufactured scalloped riblets on the cylinders. the
and horizontal scalloped riblets and photos of the manufactured scalloped riblets on
cylinders.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Cavitation Dynamics
Figure 3 presents the cavity dynamics behind the cylinders caused by the flow at ℜ =
1.25 × 105 and 𝜎 = 1.0. Figure 3a illustrates the cylinder without riblets. Figure 3b,c depict
the cylinder with horizontal and vertical sawtooth riblets, respectively. Similarly, Figure
 J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, 293 6 of 19

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Cavitation Dynamics
Figure 3 presents the cavity dynamics behind the cylinders caused by the flow at
R = 1.25 × 105 and σ = 1.0. Figure 3a illustrates the cylinder without riblets. Figure 3b,c
depict the cylinder with horizontal and vertical sawtooth riblets, respectively. Similarly,
Figure 3d,e represent the cylinder equipped with horizontal and vertical scalloped riblets,
respectively. As can be seen, the flow interacted with the cylinder, and miniature riblets
induced the creation of small vortex structures nearby, where they significantly affected any
instabilities caused by the absence of the riblets. In the scenario in which a smooth cylinder
(without riblets) of finite length and with a free-end (tip) was exposed to an incident flow,
a pair of counter-rotating trailing vortices emerged near the cylinder’s tip, as shown by
the purple-colored vectors in Figure 3a. The formation of these vortices arose due to a
phenomenon termed upwash; this is caused by a weak upward-directed local velocity
field at the cylinder’s tip [48]. As the flow proceeded over the tip, a downwash occurred,
whereby the flow descended into the low-pressure region immediately behind the cylinder.
The combination of an upwash flow on the sides and the downwash at the center triggered
the formation of two counter-rotating trailing vortices [49]. Additionally, a segment of the
incident flow close to the base moved downward as it approached the cylinder [50], and
it subsequently circulated upstream of the junction between the cylinder and the wall. In
this region, the horseshoe vortex took on its shape, wrapped around the cylinder, as shown
by the yellow vectors in Figure 3a, and then progressed downstream [51]. The combined
presence of upwash and downwash vortices led to shedding patterns of varying frequency
and amplitude and generated unstable Karman vortices, as shown by the white vectors in 7 of 23
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Figure 3a, and this intricate, dancing vortex trio added another layer of complexity to the
formation of cavitation.

Figure
Figure3. 3.
AtAtℜR == 1.25 ××10105 5and
1.25 and𝜎σ =
= 1.0
1.0,, cavitation
cavitationpatterns
patterns behind
behind thethe circular
circular cylinder
cylinder withoutwithout
riblets (a),(a),
riblets with
withhorizontal sawtoothriblets
horizontal sawtooth ribletsSA-H
SA-H (b),
(b), with
with vertical
vertical sawtooth
sawtooth riblets
riblets SA-VSA-V (c), with
(c), with
horizontal
horizontal scalloped
scallopedriblets
riblets SC-H (d), and
SC-H (d), andwith
withvertical
vertical scalloped
scalloped riblets
riblets SC-VSC-V (e).the
(e). As Asflow
the flow
interacted with the cylinder, miniature riblets induced the creation of small vortex structures
interacted with the cylinder, miniature riblets induced the creation of small vortex structures nearby, nearby,
andand
these
these small vortices significantly impacted the instabilities that typically formed on the plain plain
small vortices significantly impacted the instabilities that typically formed on the
cylinder’s
cylinder’ssurface.
surface.

Cavitation on the cylinder occurred akin to hydrofoil cavitation, particularly in the

proximity of the laminar separation bubble (LSB) and close to the flow reattachment point
[23]. It started with the generation of linear instability-driven Tollmien–Schlichting (T–S)
waves, i.e., constant-frequency traveling waves within the boundary layer. These T–S
waves in particular contributed to laminar separation bubble formation. Subsequently,
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, 293 7 of 19

Cavitation on the cylinder occurred akin to hydrofoil cavitation, particularly in the

proximity of the laminar separation bubble (LSB) and close to the flow reattachment
point [23]. It started with the generation of linear instability-driven Tollmien–Schlichting
(T–S) waves, i.e., constant-frequency traveling waves within the boundary layer. These
T–S waves in particular contributed to laminar separation bubble formation. Subsequently,
nonlinear three-dimensional (3D) instabilities arose from these linear waves that led to
turbulence. Turbulent spots formed and expanded in both streamwise and spanwise di-
rections. This T–S wave development within the stable laminar boundary layer crucially
triggered the transition to turbulent flow. Pressure fluctuations, caused by flow instabil-
ities on the cylinder surface, induced cavitation when the local water pressure dropped
below the vapor pressure [52]. We focused our cavitation control strategy on managing
flow instabilities, as well as pressure fluctuations, and mitigating LSB formation using
miniature riblets.

3.2. Morphology of Riblets

Riblets come in a range of shapes, which are often inspired by biological forms, and
they are commonly employed to manage flow separation and reduce drag [53–55]. The
most common riblets include sawtooth and scalloped riblets. The usefulness of riblets is
based on their capacity to generate vortices behind them, enabling control of the boundary
layer. As shown in Figure 3b–e, the geometric configuration of riblets and the method of
their implementation on the cylinder’s surface significantly influenced flow control and,
thus, the inception of cavitation. When considering flow control, the choice of riblet type
plays a significant role. Optimal selection involves selecting riblets capable of directing
fluid with higher momentum to the boundary layer, where momentum is comparatively
low. This strategic selection aids in enhanced control of the boundary layer; a critical factor
for effective flow management.
The mechanism behind controlling cavitation achieved through the utilization of
riblets has been elucidated in our prior published research [44,45]. As the flow interacts
with the cylinder, the presence of miniature riblets gives rise to the formation of small
vortex structures in their vicinity. These compact vortices play a pivotal role in influencing
the instabilities present within the boundary layer, which would otherwise emerge on
the cylinder’s surface in the absence of riblets. This mechanism operates through the
generation of streamwise vortices by the riblets, facilitating the transfer of fluid with higher
momentum from the upper layer into the boundary layer. A key outcome of implementing
riblets is the enhancement of boundary layer velocities near the cylinder surface, leading
to a reduction in velocity pulsations within the boundary layer. Thus, employing riblets
enabled us to manage the large-scale cavity pulsations generated behind the cylinder.
This was achieved by decreasing the instabilities in the upstream boundary layer on the
cylinder surface.
Figure 4 presents flow patterns developed near the scalloped riblet’s tip. As can be seen,
scalloped riblets altered the roll-up and breakdown of streamwise vortices in different ways,
leading to decisive changes in behavior and interaction with the surrounding flow. Thus,
their effects varied, based on their ability to generate vortices influencing the boundary layer.
The presence of scalloped riblets resulted in the generation of secondary vortices [56] inside
the valleys near the tip of the riblets (see Figure 4a). In certain instances, both the primary
large-scale streamwise vortices and these secondary vortices, induced by the riblet tips,
underwent distortion (as seen in Figure 4b) and acquired an elongated shape. This altered
vortex morphology significantly affected the flow dynamics and cavitation inception. These
alterations in vortex structure hold substantial implications for flow dynamics.
 vortices [56] inside the valleys near the tip of the riblets (see Figure 4a). In certain
instances, both the primary large-scale streamwise vortices and these secondary vortices,
induced by the riblet tips, underwent distortion (as seen in Figure 4b) and acquired an
elongated shape. This altered vortex morphology significantly affected the flow dynamics
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, 293 and cavitation inception. These alterations in vortex structure hold substantial8 of 19
implications for flow dynamics.

Figure4.4.Scalloped
Figure Scallopedriblets
ribletsinduced
induced secondary
secondary vortices
vortices (a).(a). In certain
In certain instances,
instances, bothboth the primary
the primary
large-scalestreamwise
large-scale streamwisevortices
vorticesandand these
these secondary
secondary vortices
vortices underwent
underwent distortion
distortion and became
and became
elongated(b).
elongated (b).Reproduced
Reproduced withwith permission
permission fromfrom the journal
the journal Experiments
Experiments in [56];
in Fluids Fluids [56]; published
published by
by Springer Nature (2024).
Springer Nature (2024).

In
Inthe
thecase of sawtooth
case of sawtoothriblets, Goldstein
riblets, et al. [57]
Goldstein et observed
al. [57]a observed
distinctiveaflow behavior.flow
distinctive
Close to the peaks of sawtooth riblets, the velocity gradient increased notably,
behavior. Close to the peaks of sawtooth riblets, the velocity gradient increased notably, suggesting a
region of high velocity gradients. Conversely, within the valleys between
suggesting a region of high velocity gradients. Conversely, within the valleys between the the riblets, the
velocity gradient
riblets, the is notably
velocity gradientreduced. Recall
is notably that, occasionally,
reduced. Recall that,vorticities do extend
occasionally, into do
vorticities
these valleys, but they are usually concentrated near the tips of the riblets.
extend into these valleys, but they are usually concentrated near the tips of the riblets. However, as
seen in Figure 3b,c, while the jagged pattern of sawtooth riblets actively controlled the
However, as seen in Figure 3b,c, while the jagged pattern of sawtooth riblets actively
near-wall flow by delaying flow separation, the curved pattern of scalloped riblets depicted
controlled the near-wall flow by delaying flow separation, the curved pattern of scalloped
in Figure 3d,e delayed the transition to turbulence.
riblets depicted in Figure 3d,e delayed the transition to turbulence.
Horizontal riblets modified the near-wall flow, predominantly affecting turbulence
Horizontal
levels, while verticalriblets modified
riblets smoothed the the
near-wall flow, 3b,d
flow. Figure predominantly
demonstrateaffecting turbulence
that horizontal
levels,promote
riblets while vertical
a stableriblets smoothedflow.
and predictable the Inflow. Figure
contrast, 3b,d 3c,e
Figure demonstrate thatvertical
illustrate that horizontal
riblets promote a stable and predictable flow. In contrast, Figure 3c,e illustrate
riblets alter the intensity and behavior of turbulence structures. Thus, riblets with different that vertical
patterns, i.e., scalloped or sawtooth mounted horizontally or vertically, offered unique
ways to alter flow dynamics [58] as well as the associated turbulence and separation
characteristics of the Karman vortices. Consequently, it is crucial to select riblets capable of
redirecting the fluid with higher momentum into the boundary layer, even when the flow’s
momentum is relatively low.
Figures 5 and 6 present five sequential images at five time intervals (periodic) depicting
the cavitation process behind the cylinder with horizontal scalloped (SC-H) riblets and ver-
tical scalloped (SC-V) riblets, both caused by the flow at R = 1.25 × 105 and σ = 1.0. These
specific images were chosen from half of a standard period T (cyclic) that characterized the
dynamics of cavity shedding. The red areas indicate regions where the riblets exerted their
most significant influence on cavitation. Notably, the pressure increasing behind the riblets
led to a reduction in the cavity volume behind the plain cylinder. As expected, in the case
of SC-H riblets, an effective vortex interaction with the boundary layer is seen (Figure 5).
This occurred because flow moved through the tips and valley curves of the horizontal
(SC-H) riblets, generating strong longitudinal vortices that affected the boundary layer. In
comparison, the flow over the vertical scalloped riblets (SC-V) primarily engaged with the
riblets’ sharp edges (Figure 6), promoting the merging of vortices further downstream.
 cylinder. As expected, in the case of SC-H riblets, an effective vortex interaction with the
boundary layer is seen (Figure 5). This occurred because flow moved through the tips and
valley curves of the horizontal (SC-H) riblets, generating strong longitudinal vortices that
affected the boundary layer. In comparison, the flow over the vertical scalloped riblets
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, 293 (SC-V) primarily engaged with the riblets’ sharp edges (Figure 6), promoting the merging
9 of 19
of vortices further downstream.

Figure 5. At R = 1.25 × 105 and σ = 1.0, five sequential images captured at regular intervals, showing
Figure 5. At ℜ = 1.25 × 105 and 𝜎 = 1.0 , five sequential images captured at regular intervals,
the progression of cavitation behind
showing the progression of cavitation the cylinder
behind the with SC-H riblets.
cylinder Theseriblets.
with SC-H specificThese
images were chosen
specific images
from
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEWhalf of a standard cyclic period T that characterized shedding of cavitation.
were chosen from half of a standard cyclic period T that characterized shedding of cavitation. Red Red surrounded10 of 23
areas indicate
surrounded regions
areas whereregions
indicate the riblets
whereexerted their most
the riblets significant
exerted influence
their most on cavitation.
significant influenceThe
on
pressure increasing
cavitation. behind the
The pressure SC-H riblets
increasing reduced
behind the the cavity
SC-H volume
riblets whenthe
reduced compared
cavity to this volume
volume when
compared
behind to thiscylinder.
the plain volume The
behind the plain
images cylinder.
(a1), (a2), The and
(a3), (a4) images
(a5)(a1),
show(a2),
the (a3), (a4) and
cavitation (a5) show
dynamics at
the cavitation
time dynamics
steps 0 T, 1/10 at T,
T, 2/10 time steps
3/10 0 T, 1/10
T, 4/10 T, 2/10 T, 3/10 T, 4/10 T, respectively.
T, respectively.

5
Figure
Figure 6. AtRℜ==1.25
6. At 1.25
×× 1010
5 and σ =𝜎1.0,
and = five
1.0 ,sequential
five sequential images captured
images captured at regular
at regular intervals, intervals,
showing
showing
the progression of cavitation behind the cylinder with SC-V riblets. These images were chosen fromwere
the progression of cavitation behind the cylinder with SC-V riblets. These images
chosen
half of afrom half cyclic
standard of a standard cyclic
period T that period T that
characterized characterized
shedding shedding
of cavitation. of cavitation.
Red surrounded areasRed
surrounded areas indicate regions where the riblets exerted their most significant influence
indicate regions where the riblets exerted their most significant influence on cavitation. The flow over
on
cavitation. The flow over SC-V riblets primarily engaged with the sharp edges of the riblets,
SC-V riblets primarily engaged with the sharp edges of the riblets, promoting the merging of vortices
promoting the merging of vortices further downstream. The images (a1), (a2), (a3), (a4) and (a5)
further downstream. The images (a1), (a2), (a3), (a4) and (a5) show the cavitation dynamics at time
show the cavitation dynamics at time steps 0 T, 1/10 T, 2/10 T, 3/10 T, 4/10 T, respectively.
steps 0 T, 1/10 T, 2/10 T, 3/10 T, 4/10 T, respectively.

For
For the cylinderwith
the cylinder withSC-V
SC-Vriblets,
riblets, depicted
depicted in Figure
in Figure 3e, the
3e, the flow flow around
around these
these riblets
riblets
mostly
mostlyinteracted
interacted withwith the
the sharpness
sharpness of of the
theriblets.
riblets.Instead
Instead of of longitudinal
longitudinal vortices,
vortices, thisthis
resulted in a vortex sheet forming behind the riblets. SC-H riblets
resulted in a vortex sheet forming behind the riblets. SC-H riblets facilitate better interaction facilitate better
interaction
as flow moves as flow moves
through through
valleys at bothvalleys at the
sides of both sides
riblet of theofriblet
instead merely instead
passingof over
merely
passing
them, asoverwiththem, as withThis
SC-V riblets. SC-V riblets.interaction
increased This increased
along theinteraction along the
top and bottom top and
surfaces
of each surfaces
bottom riblet ledof to each
the merging
riblet led of to
vortices downstream,
the merging and created
of vortices strongerand
downstream, vortices.
created
Consequently, the horizontal (SC-H) riblets effectively directed higher-momentum
stronger vortices. Consequently, the horizontal (SC-H) riblets effectively directed higher- fluid
into the boundary
momentum layer
fluid into due
the to their enhanced
boundary layer dueinteraction with the interaction
to their enhanced flow. with the flow.
We also conducted a more comprehensive analysis
We also conducted a more comprehensive analysis of how riblet of how riblet shape
shape and orientation
and orientation
impacted cavitation dynamics in flows at constant Reynolds
impacted cavitation dynamics in flows at constant Reynolds and cavitation numbers. and cavitation numbers.
Riblets modified large-scale cavity structures into smaller ones. Consequently, the cylinder
Riblets modified large-scale cavity structures into smaller ones. Consequently, the
with riblets anticipated lower pressure fluctuations, resulting from detachment and also
cylinder with riblets anticipated lower pressure fluctuations, resulting from detachment
collapse of these smaller cavities. In essence, riblets mitigated lift force fluctuations and
and also collapse of these smaller cavities. In essence, riblets mitigated lift force fluctuations
cavitation-induced vibrations on the cylinder surface, resulting in reduced amplitude and
and cavitation-induced
shedding frequency. Thisvibrations
representson the cylinder
a significant surface,of
advantage resulting in reduced amplitude
riblet implementation. Note
and
thatshedding
the cavityfrequency. This represents
shedding frequency a significant
was slightly higher foradvantage
the cylinder of riblet implementation.
with riblets because
Note
the newthatsmall-scale
the cavity cavities
shedding frequency
generated by was
theseslightly higher
riblets had for thefrequency
a higher cylinder ofwith riblets
cavity
because the new small-scale cavities
shedding compared to the large-scale cavities. generated by these riblets had a higher frequency of
cavity shedding compared to the large-scale cavities.
Figure 7 presents comparative distributions of lift force Fy versus frequency f for the
cylinder without and with riblets, caused by the flow at 𝑅 = 1.25 × 105 and 𝜎 = 1.0 .
Figure 7a plots these distributions for the cylinder with SC-H and SA-H riblets; Figure 7b
does so for the cylinder with SC-H and SC-V riblets. The frequencies with highest
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, 293 10 of 19

Figure 7 presents comparative distributions of lift force Fy versus frequency f for

the cylinder without and with riblets, caused by the flow at R = 1.25 × 105 and σ = 1.0.
Figure 7a plots these distributions for the cylinder with SC-H and SA-H riblets; Figure 7b
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW
does so for the cylinder with SC-H and SC-V riblets. The frequencies with highest11ampli-
of 23
tudes corresponded to the shedding frequency of large-scale cavity structures.

5
Figure AtℜR==
Figure7.7.At 1.25 ××
1.25 1010 and 𝜎σ
5 and ==1.01.0
(a)(a)
distributions of of
distributions the
thefrequency
frequencybased
basedononthe
thelift
liftforce
force
measurement for the plain cylinder, SC-H, and SA-H cylinders; and (b) for the plain cylinder, and
measurement for the plain cylinder, SC-H, and SA-H cylinders; and (b) for the plain cylinder, and
SC-H and SC-V cylinders. F requencies with the highest amplitudes corresponded to the shedding
SC-H and SC-V cylinders. Frequencies with the highest amplitudes corresponded to the shedding
frequency of large-scale cavity structures. For cylinders with riblets, lift force amplitudes were
frequency
reduced of and
by 41 large-scale
43% forcavity structures.
SA-H and For cylinders
SC-H cylinders, with riblets,
respectively; and bylift
43 force amplitudes
and 30% were
for the SC-H
reduced by 41 and 43% for SA-H
and SC-V cylinders, respectively. and SC-H cylinders, respectively; and by 43 and 30% for the SC-H
and SC-V cylinders, respectively.
As can be seen in Figure 7a, when the riblets were mounted horizontally, the
As can be seen in Figure 7a, when the riblets were mounted horizontally, the amplitude
amplitude of the lift force was substantially reduced; specifically, by 41% (from 1.44 to
of the lift force was substantially reduced; specifically, by 41% (from 1.44 to 0.84 N) for
0.84 N) for SA-H, and by 43% (from 1.44 to 0.82 N) for SC-H. Furthermore, the shedding
SA-H, and by 43% (from 1.44 to 0.82 N) for SC-H. Furthermore, the shedding frequency of
frequency of cavities increased for SA-H and SC-H cases compared to the plain cylinder;
cavities increased for SA-H and SC-H cases compared to the plain cylinder; specifically,
specifically, from 31.6 Hz to 43.8 Hz. In Figure 7b, for the SC-H cylinder, the lift force was
from 31.6 Hz to 43.8 Hz. In Figure 7b, for the SC-H cylinder, the lift force was also reduced
also reduced by 43% (from 1.44 to 0.82 N), and by 30% (from 1.44 to 1.01 N) for SC-V. Here
by 43% (from 1.44 to 0.82 N), and by 30% (from 1.44 to 1.01 N) for SC-V. Here too, the
too, the shedding increased for the cylinder with scalloped riblets (SC-H and SC-V)
shedding increased for the cylinder with scalloped riblets (SC-H and SC-V) compared to the
compared to the smooth cylinder; specifically, from 31.6 to 44.4 Hz. Remarkably,
smooth cylinder; specifically, from 31.6 to 44.4 Hz. Remarkably, horizontal scalloped riblets
horizontal scalloped riblets (SC-H) reduced the amplitude of lift fluctuations more
(SC-H) reduced the amplitude of lift fluctuations more effectively than vertical scalloped
effectively than vertical scalloped riblets (SC-V).
riblets (SC-V).
Figure 8 illustrates a comparison between the lift force amplitude and cavitation
Figure 8 illustrates a comparison between the lift force amplitude and cavitation
shedding
sheddingfrequency
frequencyforforplain
plaincylinders
cylindersandandthose
thosewith
withriblets
ribletsmounted
mountedhorizontally
horizontallyand and
vertically. The findings indicate that, in the case of scallop riblets, horizontal installation
vertically. The findings indicate that, in the case of scallop riblets, horizontal installation
results ina smaller
results in a smaller lift range.
lift force force Conversely,
range. Conversely,
for sawtoothforriblets,
sawtooth
verticalriblets, vertical
implementation
implementation has a more pronounced impact on reducing the amplitude
has a more pronounced impact on reducing the amplitude of lift forces. Nonetheless, of lift forces.
the
Nonetheless, the shedding frequency is higher for cylinders with horizontal
scalloped/sawtooth riblets compared to their vertical counterparts, with the cylinders
without riblets having the lowest shedding frequency. One reason for this increase in
shedding frequency is the reduced time required for cavities to detach from the surface of
the cylinder due to the presence of riblets. Consequently, riblet structures can be inferred
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, 293 11 of 19

shedding frequency is higher for cylinders with horizontal scalloped/sawtooth riblets

compared to their vertical counterparts, with the cylinders without riblets having the
lowest shedding frequency. One reason for this increase in shedding frequency is the
reduced time required for cavities to detach from the surface of the cylinder due to the
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW of riblets. Consequently, riblet structures can be inferred to reduce the amplitude
presence 12 of 23
of lift fluctuations while slightly increasing the shedding frequency.

Figure8.8.At
Figure AtR ℜ== 1.25
1.25 × 1055 and
× 10 and σ𝜎= = 1.0, lift force
1.0, lift force (blue
(blue columns,
columns, left
left scale)
scale)and
andvortex
vortexshedding
shedding
frequency (coral dots, right scale) for the plain cylinder, SC-H, SC-V, SA-H, and SA-V cylinders.
frequency (coral dots, right scale) for the plain cylinder, SC-H, SC-V, SA-H, and SA-V cylinders.
Horizontal scalloped riblets and vertical sawtooth riblets led to smaller lift force amplitudes. The
Horizontal scalloped riblets and vertical sawtooth riblets led to smaller lift force amplitudes. The
shedding frequency of the cavity for SC-H and SA-H cylinders was higher compared to the
shedding
frequencyfrequency of the
of the cavity cavity for
shedding forSC-H and SA-H
the cylinders cylinders
with was
vertical higher
riblets, compared
while to the frequency
the shedding frequency
ofwas
thelowest
cavity shedding for the cylinders
for the plain cylinder. with vertical riblets, while the shedding frequency was lowest
for the plain cylinder.
Although placing riblets on the upstream face of the cylinder mostly altered the
Although
attached placing
flow and riblets stability,
the flow’s on the upstream face
rear riblets of the cylinder
influenced mostlyofaltered
the shedding vorticesthe
in
attached flow and the flow’s stability, rear riblets influenced the shedding of vortices in
the wake region, thereby also mitigating cavitation. To explore the effects of placing riblets
the wake region, thereby also mitigating cavitation. To explore the effects of placing riblets
on the cylinder’s rear side, the cylinder with SC-H riblets was rotated 150 deg clockwise.
on the cylinder’s rear side, the cylinder with SC-H riblets was rotated 150 deg clockwise.
Figure 9 shows the riblets situated on the upstream/downstream face of the cylinder,
Figure 9 shows the riblets situated on the upstream/downstream face of the cylinder,
caused by the flow at ℜ = 1.25 × 105 and 𝜎 = 1.0. As can be seen, the riblets affected the
caused by the flow at R = 1.25 × 105 and σ = 1.0. As can be seen, the riblets affected the
attached flow and the flow’s stability, whereas rear riblets impacted vortex shedding in the
attached flow and the flow’s stability, whereas rear riblets impacted vortex shedding in
wake region, potentially mitigating cavitation. The red surrounded area in Figure 9a shows
the wake region, potentially mitigating cavitation. The red surrounded area in Figure 9a
the extensive cavitation cloud generated behind the plain cylinder as this cloud was
shows the extensive cavitation cloud generated behind the plain cylinder as this cloud was
transformed into smaller and less dense clouds for the cylinder with horizontal scalloped
transformed into smaller and less dense clouds for the cylinder with horizontal scalloped
riblets (SC-H) facing upstream. The green surrounded areas in Figure 9b,c represent these
riblets (SC-H) facing upstream. The green surrounded areas in Figure 9b,c represent these
cavitation clouds for the cylinder with unrotated and rotated SC-H riblets. While upstream-
cavitation clouds for the cylinder with unrotated and rotated SC-H riblets. While upstream-
facedSC-H
faced SC-Hriblets
ribletspromoted
promotedaasmoother
smootherflowflowover
overthe
thecylinder’s
cylinder’ssurface
surfaceand
anddelayed
delayedthethe
transition to
transition to turbulence,
turbulence,thetherotated
rotatedSC-H
SC-Hriblets generated
riblets generated unstable
unstableandand
unpredictable flow
unpredictable
patterns. These flow patterns reduced the shedding frequency of cloud cavitation.
flow patterns. These flow patterns reduced the shedding frequency of cloud cavitation.
 transformed into smaller and less dense clouds for the cylinder with horizontal scalloped
riblets (SC-H) facing upstream. The green surrounded areas in Figure 9b,c represent these
cavitation clouds for the cylinder with unrotated and rotated SC-H riblets. While upstream-
faced SC-H riblets promoted a smoother flow over the cylinder’s surface and delayed the
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, 293 12 flow
transition to turbulence, the rotated SC-H riblets generated unstable and unpredictable of 19
patterns. These flow patterns reduced the shedding frequency of cloud cavitation.

Figure 9. At R = 1.25 × 105 and σ = 1.0, placing riblets on the upstream face of the cylinder
affected the attached flow and the flow’s stability, whereas rear riblets impacted vortex shedding
in the wake region, thereby mitigating cavitation. The extensive cavitation cloud observed behind
the smooth cylinder (a), indicated by the red surrounded area, was transformed into smaller and
less dense clouds for the cylinder with upstream-faced SC-H riblets (b) and for the cylinder with
rotated SC-H riblets (c), as indicated by the green surrounded areas. Although upstream-faced SC-H
riblets promoted a smoother flow over the cylinder’s surface and delayed the transition to turbulence,
rotated SC-H riblets generated unstable and unpredictable flow patterns.

Figure 10 presents five sequential images, captured at regular intervals, showing the
progression of cavities around a cylinder with SC-H riblets rotated 150 deg clockwise,
caused by the flow at R = 1.25 × 105 and σ = 1.0. While the upstream-oriented SC-H
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 23
riblets resulted in a smoother flow and delayed the transition to turbulence, the rotated
SC-H riblets induced unstable and unpredictable flow patterns. Although the rotated riblets
had a lesser effect on modifying the wake behavior, they caused unstable and unpredictable
flow patterns.

Figure10.
Figure 10. At
AtRℜ== 1.25
1.25 × 1055 and 𝜎
× 10 σ= = 1.0
1.0,, five
five sequential
sequential images captured at at regular
regular intervals,
intervals,
showing the progression of cavitation dynamics around a cylinder with rotated
showing the progression of cavitation dynamics around a cylinder with rotated (150 degree clockwise) (150 degree
clockwise) SC-H riblets. These images were chosen from half of a standard
SC-H riblets. These images were chosen from half of a standard cyclic period T that characterized cyclic period T that
characterized cavitation shedding dynamics. Red surrounded areas indicate regions where the
cavitation shedding dynamics. Red surrounded areas indicate regions where the riblets exerted
riblets exerted their most significant influence on cavitation. While the upstream-oriented SC-H
their most significant influence on cavitation. While the upstream-oriented SC-H riblets resulted
riblets resulted in a smoother flow and delayed the transition to turbulence, the rotated SC-H riblets
ininduced
a smoother flow and
an unstable anddelayed the transition
unpredictable to turbulence,
flow pattern. The images the (a1),
rotated SC-H
(a2), (a3),riblets
(a4) andinduced an
(a5) show
unstable and unpredictable flow pattern. The images (a1), (a2), (a3), (a4) and
the cavitation dynamics at time steps 0 T, 1/10 T, 2/10 T, 3/10 T, 4/10 T, respectively. (a5) show the cavitation
dynamics at time steps 0 T, 1/10 T, 2/10 T, 3/10 T, 4/10 T, respectively.
Figure 11 presents comparative plots of lift force amplitude (columns) versus
Figure 11 presents comparative plots of lift force amplitude (columns) versus cavitation
cavitation shedding frequency (squares for 0 deg rotation, dots for 150 deg clockwise
shedding frequency (squares for 0 deg rotation, dots for 150 deg clockwise rotation) for the
rotation) for the plain cylinder and for the cylinders equipped with horizontal and vertical
plain cylinder and for the cylinders equipped 5with horizontal and vertical riblets, caused
riblets, caused by the flow at ℜ = 1.25 × 10 and 𝜎 = 1.0 . Shown is the morphological
by the flow at R = 1.25 × 105 and σ = 1.0. Shown is the morphological variation for
variation for the 0 and 150 deg cylinder rotation, displaying lift force amplitude (columns)
the 0 and 150 deg cylinder rotation, displaying lift force amplitude (columns) and vortex
and vortex shedding frequency (squares and dots) for the plain cylinder, SC-H, SC-V, SA-
shedding frequency (squares and dots) for the plain cylinder, SC-H, SC-V, SA-H, and SA-V
H, and SA-V riblets. Only the SC-H riblets caused a significant reduction of lift force
amplitudes when rotated. In contrast, the other riblet configurations hardly affected the
lift force amplitudes compared to those of the plain cylinder. Furthermore, the shedding
frequency for the cylinders with the rotated riblets was similar to that for the plain
cylinder.
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, 293 13 of 19

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW

riblets. Only
the SC-H riblets caused a significant reduction of lift force amplitudes when15 of 23
rotated. In contrast, the other riblet configurations hardly affected the lift force amplitudes
compared to those of the plain cylinder. Furthermore, the shedding frequency for the
cylinders with the rotated riblets was similar to that for the plain cylinder.

5
Figure11.
Figure 11.At ℜ=
At R = 1.25
1.25 ×× 10 and 𝜎σ ==1.0,
105 and 1.0,the
themorphological
morphologicalvariations
variationsforfor
thethe
cylinder rotated
cylinder 150
rotated
deg clockwise, displaying lift force amplitude (columns) and vortex shedding frequency (squares
150 deg clockwise, displaying lift force amplitude (columns) and vortex shedding frequency (squares
and dots) for the cylinder without riblets, with horizontal scalloped riblets (SC-H), with vertical
and dots) for the cylinder without riblets, with horizontal scalloped riblets (SC-H), with vertical
scalloped riblets (SC-V), with horizontal sawtooth riblets (SA-H), and with vertical sawtooth riblets
scalloped riblets
(SA-V). Only (SC-V),
the SC-H with horizontal
riblets caused a sawtooth
significantriblets (SA-H),
reduction andforce
of lift withamplitudes
vertical sawtooth riblets
when rotated.
(SA-V). Onlythe
In contrast, theother
SC-Hriblet
riblets caused
kinds a significant
hardly affected thereduction
lift forceofamplitudes
lift force amplitudes
compared when rotated.
to those for the
Insmooth
contrast, the other
cylinder. riblet kinds rotating
Furthermore, hardly affected the also
the riblets lift force
hardlyamplitudes compared
affected the sheddingto frequency,
those for
resembling
the the shedding
smooth cylinder. frequency
Furthermore, for the the
rotating cylinder
ribletswithout riblets.
also hardly affected the shedding frequency,
resembling the shedding frequency for the cylinder without riblets.
3.3. Effect of Reynolds Number
3.3. Effect of Reynolds Number
Cavitation effects may be more intense at higher Reynolds numbers, where the
Cavitation effects (T–S)
Tollmien–Schlichting may be moregrow
waves intense at higher Reynolds
in magnitude and becomenumbers,
more where the
prominent.
Tollmien–Schlichting (T–S) waves grow in magnitude and become more
However, the impacts of riblets on cavitation are influenced by the specific flowprominent. How-
ever, the impacts of riblets on cavitation are influenced by the specific flow conditions.
conditions. Although they may still be effective in controlling cavitation at different
Although they may still be effective in controlling cavitation at different Reynolds num-
Reynolds numbers, their effectiveness may be limited by stronger turbulence and pressure
bers, their effectiveness may be limited by stronger turbulence and pressure fluctuations
fluctuations associated with turbulent flows. Figure 12 shows cavitation structures behind
associated with turbulent flows. Figure 12 shows cavitation structures behind the plain
the plain cylinder, SA-H, SA-V, SC-H, and SC-V riblets, which are caused by the flow at
cylinder, SA-H, SA-V, SC-H, and SC-V riblets, which are caused by the flow at the lower
the lower ℜ = 1.0 × 105 . As can be seen, the transition occurred further downstream,
R = 1.0 × 105 . As can be seen, the transition occurred further downstream, where flow
where flow separation from the cylinder’s surface was less effective. Comparing Figure 12a
separation from the cylinder’s surface was less effective. Comparing Figure 12a with
with Figure 12b–e one can see that, at this lower ℜ = 1.0 × 105 , both the SA-H and the SA-V
Figure 12b–e one can see that, at this lower R = 1.0 × 105 , both the SA-H and the SA-V
riblets reduced cavitation by improving flow stability although the SA-V riblets were more
riblets reduced cavitation by improving flow stability although the SA-V riblets were more
effective in mitigating cavitation. The SC-H and the SC-V riblets also effectively inhibited
effective in mitigating cavitation. The SC-H and the SC-V riblets also effectively inhibited
cavitationalthough
cavitation although the
the SC-H
SC-Hriblets
ribletshad
had a greater effect
a greater on mitigating
effect cavitation.
on mitigating All riblets
cavitation. All
stabilized the flow, reduced pressure fluctuations, and led to more stable and
riblets stabilized the flow, reduced pressure fluctuations, and led to more stable and smallersmaller
cavitationstructures;
cavitation structures;however,
however,their
theireffect
effecton oncavitation
cavitationpatterns
patternsdiffered
differedslightly.
slightly.
J. J.Mar.
Mar.Sci.
Sci.Eng. 2024,12,
Eng.2024, 12,293
x FOR PEER REVIEW 1614ofof2319

5
Figure 12.
Figure 12. At
At the lower ℜ
the lower R==1.01.0××10 and 𝜎σ =
105 and =1.0,
1.0,cavity
cavitystructures
structuresbehind
behindthe
theplain
plaincylinder
cylinder(a),
(a),
SA-H (b), SA-V (c), SC-H (d), and SC-V (e) cylinders.
SA-H (b), SA-V (c), SC-H (d), and SC-V (e) cylinders.

Figure1313shows
Figure shows fivefive sequential
sequential images images
capturedcaptured at intervals
at regular regular intervals of the
of the progression
progression of cavitation around
of cavitation around the cylinder with the cylinder
SC-H. This series of images, caused by the flow atby
with SC-H. This series of images, caused the
5
the flow at the lower5 ℜ = 1.0 × 10
lower R = 1.0 × 10 , visualized the flow passing , visualized the flow passing
between between
riblet tips riblet tips
and valleys, and
thereby
valleys, thereby
generating generating
longitudinal vortices longitudinal
and facilitatingvortices and vortex
effective facilitating effective
interaction vortex
within the
interaction within the boundary layer. Figure 14 shows cavitation
boundary layer. Figure 14 shows cavitation dynamics around the plain cylinder, SA-H, with dynamics around the
plain cylinder,
SA-V, SC-H, and SA-H,
SC-Vwithriblets,SA-V, SC-H,
which and
are SC-Vby
caused riblets, which
the flow at are
the caused
higher by R= the1.5
flow
× 10at5 .
5
the higher ℜ = 1.5 × 10 . As can be seen, now separation
As can be seen, now separation and flow reattachment occurred more readily due toand flow reattachment occurred
more
the readilyturbulence
stronger due to thegeneratedstronger turbulence
by the T–S generated
waves. Thus, by thethe T–S waves.number
Reynolds Thus, the did
Reynolds
influence
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, x FOR PEER
number did influence the cavitation patterns. Comparative
REVIEW the cavitation patterns. Comparative flow patterns shown in Figures 12a and
flow patterns shown
17 of14a
23
in Figures 12a
demonstrated and
that, for14a
thedemonstrated
cylinder withoutthat, ribletsforcaused
the cylinder without
by the flow riblets
at the lower caused
Reynoldsby
the flow the
number, at the lower Reynolds
cavitation patternsnumber,
becamethe lesscavitation
structured patterns
and lessbecame
dense.less structured
While riblets and
were
less dense. While riblets were still effective in mitigating cavitation
still effective in mitigating cavitation at higher Reynolds numbers, their effectiveness at higher Reynoldswas
numbers, their
diminished dueeffectiveness
to the increased was flow
diminished
energy.due to the increased flow energy.

Figure
Figure13.13. At
Atthe lowerRℜ=
thelower = 1.0 × 105 and
× 10 and σ𝜎 = 1.0
1.0,, five sequential
sequential images
images captured
captured atat regular
regular
intervals,showing
intervals, showingthe the progression of cavitation
cavitationbehind a cylinder
behind withwith
a cylinder SC-HSC-H
riblets. TheseThese
riblets. images were
images
chosen
were fromfrom
chosen half half
of a standard cycliccyclic
of a standard period T thatT characterized
period cavitation
that characterized shedding
cavitation dynamics.
shedding Red
dynamics.
Red surrounded areas indicate regions where the riblets exerted their most significant influenceon
surrounded areas indicate regions where the riblets exerted their most significant influence on
cavitation. The images (a1), (a2), (a3), (a4) and (a5) show the cavitation dynamics at time steps 0 T,
cavitation. The images (a1), (a2), (a3), (a4) and (a5) show the cavitation dynamics at time steps 0 T,
1/10 T, 2/10 T, 3/10 T, 4/10 T, respectively.
1/10 T, 2/10 T, 3/10 T, 4/10 T, respectively.
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 23

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, 293 15 of 19

5
Figure 14.
Figure 14. At
At the higher ℜ
the higher R== 1.5
1.5 ×
×10 𝜎=
and σ
105 and = 1.0, cavity dynamics
1.0, cavity dynamics behind
behind the
the plain
plain cylinder
cylinder (a),
(a),
with SA-H (b), SA-V (c), SC-H (d), and SC-V (e) riblets.
with SA-H (b), SA-V (c), SC-H (d), and SC-V (e) riblets.

Figure 14b–e show that, at this Reynolds number, SA-H, SA-V, and SC-V riblets pro-
vided only slight benefits although their effectiveness differed compared to the cases at
lower Reynolds numbers. Notably, the SC-H riblets remained the most effective at miti-
gating the onset of cavitation. Furthermore, at R = 1.5 × 105 , cavitation occurred further
upstream, and the cavitation patterns were more pronounced and elongated. Figure 15
presents five sequential images captured at regular intervals, showing the progression
of cavitation dynamics behind a cylinder with SC-H riblets at higher Reynolds number
R = 1.5 × 105 . Red surrounded areas indicate regions where the riblets exerted their most
significant influence on cavitation. As can be seen, the SC-H riblets influenced the genera-
tion and distribution of the cavitation cloud, and they remained effective at delaying the
onset of cavitation at this higher Reynolds number. Figure 16 plots comparative lift force
amplitudes and cavitation shedding frequencies for cylinders with different kinds of riblets,
caused by the flow at three different Reynolds numbers. Notably, at all Reynolds numbers,
the SC-H riblets consistently reduced lift force amplitudes significantly. At R = 1.0 × 105
and 1.25 × 105 , the other kinds of riblets also had a notable effect on lift force amplitudes. It
was important to highlight that the introduction of riblets consistently led to an increase in
shedding frequency at all Reynolds numbers. Interestingly, the shedding frequency of the
cylinder with the SC-H riblets surpassed all other cases. This was due to the significantly
reduced time required for cavities to detach themselves from the surface of the cylinder
with SC-H riblets.
 significantly. At ℜ = 1.0 × 105 and 1.25 × 105 , the other kinds of riblets also had a notable
effect on lift force amplitudes. It was important to highlight that the introduction of riblets
consistently led to an increase in shedding frequency at all Reynolds numbers.
Interestingly, the shedding frequency of the cylinder with the SC-H riblets surpassed all other
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, 293 cases. This was due to the significantly reduced time required for cavities to 16 detach
of 19
themselves from the surface of the cylinder with SC-H riblets.

Figure 15. At
Figure15. At the
thehigher = 1.5 × 1055 and σ
higherRℜ = 𝜎== 1.0
1.0,, five sequential images
images captured
captured at
at regular
regular
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, x FOR PEER intervals,
REVIEW
intervals,showing
showingthe
theprogression
progressionof
ofcavitation
cavitationbehind
behindaacylinder
cylinderwith
withSC-H
SC-Hriblets. These20
riblets.These of 23
images
images
werechosen
were chosen from
from half
half of
of aastandard
standardcyclic
cyclicperiod
periodT T
that characterized
that characterizedcavity shedding
cavity sheddingdynamics. Red
dynamics.
surrounded areas indicate regions where the riblets exerted their most significant influence
Red surrounded areas indicate regions where the riblets exerted their most significant influence on on
cavitation. The images (a1), (a2), (a3), (a4) and (a5) show the cavitation dynamics at time
cavitation. The images (a1), (a2), (a3), (a4) and (a5) show the cavitation dynamics at time steps 0 T,steps 0 T,
1/10 T, 2/10 T, 3/10 T, 4/10 T, respectively.
1/10 T, 2/10 T, 3/10 T, 4/10 T, respectively.

Figure 16. At σ = 1.0, lift force amplitude F and vortex shedding frequency f at R = 1.0 × 105 ,
Figure 16.5 At 𝜎 = 1.0 , 5lift force amplitude F and vortex shedding frequency f at ℜ = 1.0 × 105 ,
1.25 × 10 , and 1.5 × 10 for the plain cylinder and cylinders with SC-H, SC-V, SA-H, and SA-V riblets.
1.25 × 105 , and 1.5 × 105 for the plain cylinder and cylinders with SC-H, SC-V, SA-H, and SA-V
riblets.
4. Conclusions
This study initially examined cavitation dynamics behind a smooth cylinder, obtain-
4. Conclusions
ing high-speed images and measuring lift force fluctuations and shedding frequencies.
This study
Subsequently, theinitially examined
comprehensive cavitationfocused
investigation dynamics behind acontrol
on cavitation smooth cylinder,
mechanisms
obtaining high-speed
using different mesoscale images
ribletsand measuring
inspired lift force
by biological fluctuations
structures; and shedding
for example, sawtooth
frequencies.
and scalloped Subsequently,
riblets. Thethe comprehensive
riblets, known forinvestigation
controlling flow focused on cavitation
separation control
and reducing
mechanisms using different mesoscale riblets inspired by biological
drag, effectively generated streamwise vortices, influencing the formation of large-scale structures; for
example, sawtooth and scalloped riblets. The riblets, known for
cavity structures. The key to their effectiveness lies in their ability to create vortices and controlling flow
separation
control theand reducing
boundary layerdrag, effectively generated
by transferring streamwise
higher-momentum vortices,
fluid influencing the
to the low-momentum
formation of large-scale
layer. Scalloped ribletscavity
inducedstructures.
secondaryThe vortices
key to theirnear effectiveness lies in theirprimary
their tips, distorting ability
to create vortices
streamwise and control
vortices. Sawtooth the riblets
boundary layer by
exhibited transferring
high higher-momentum
velocity gradients near peaks fluid
but
to the low-momentum
reduced layer. Scalloped
gradients in valleys. Scallopedriblets
riblets,induced secondary
with their curvedvortices
design, near theirturbu-
delayed tips,
distorting primary
lence transition, streamwise
while sawtooth vortices. Sawtooth
riblets mostly ribletsflow
delayed exhibited high velocity
separation. gradients
Horizontal riblets
near peaks but reduced gradients in valleys. Scalloped riblets, with
modified near-wall flow and turbulence, whereas vertical riblets created a smoother flow. their curved design,
delayedTheturbulence
consideredtransition, while sawtooth
riblets influenced riblets and
flow dynamics mostly
vondelayed
Karman flow vortexseparation.
character-
Horizontal ribletsreducing
istics, effectively modifiedthenear-wall flow and turbulence,
cavitation-induced vibrations ofwhereas vertical
the cylinder. SA-Hriblets
and
created a smoother
SC-H riblets notablyflow.
decreased lift force fluctuations, reducing cavitation-induced vibration
amplitudes by about 41%
The considered for SA-H
riblets and 43%
influenced flowfor dynamics
SC-H. Cavitation and von shedding
Karman frequencies
vortex
increased to 43.8
characteristics, Hz for SA-H
effectively reducingandthe44.4 Hz for SC-H compared
cavitation-induced vibrations to the smooth
of the cylinder
cylinder. SA-
(31.6 Hz). Upstream SC-H riblets provided a smoother flow, delaying
H and SC-H riblets notably decreased lift force fluctuations, reducing cavitation-induced turbulence onset,
while rotated
vibration SC-H riblets
amplitudes by aboutinduced
41%an forunstable
SA-H and flow. Thefor
43% shedding frequency shedding
SC-H. Cavitation of rotated
riblets was increased
frequencies similar to tothe43.8
smooth
Hz for cylinder.
SA-H and Riblets
44.4 exhibit varying
Hz for SC-H effectiveness
compared to thein cavita-
smooth
tion control
cylinder (31.6atHz).
different
Upstream Reynolds numbers.
SC-H riblets At lower
provided Re (1.0 ×
a smoother 105 ),
flow, they enhance
delaying flow
turbulence
onset, while rotated SC-H riblets induced an unstable flow. The shedding frequency of
rotated riblets was similar to the smooth cylinder. Riblets exhibit varying effectiveness in
cavitation control at different Reynolds numbers. At lower Re (1.0 × 105 ), they enhance
flow stability and reduce cavitation, with SA-V riblets showing a pronounced effect.
However, at higher Re (1.5 × 105 ), turbulence influences separation and reattachment,
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, 293 17 of 19

stability and reduce cavitation, with SA-V riblets showing a pronounced effect. However,
at higher Re (1.5 × 105 ), turbulence influences separation and reattachment, with SC-H
riblets remaining the most effective at mitigating the onset of cavitation. The limitation of
the passive control method such as riblets could be the high angle of attack of immersible
bodies in cavitating regimes. At a high attack angle, a full flow separation may be achieved
and, therefore, such a full separated flow cannot be affected using a passive control method.
Therefore, this limitation should be considered in future works regarding implementation
of the riblets on the hydrofoil surface and other industrial applications.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, E.K.; methodology, E.K.; validation, E.K. and Y.L.; formal
analysis, E.K., Y.L. and M.D.; investigation, E.K. and Y.L.; resources, E.K. and Y.L.; data curation, E.K.,
Y.L. and M.D.; writing—original draft preparation, E.K., Y.L. and M.D.; writing—review and editing,
E.K., Y.L. and M.D.; visualization, E.K., Y.L. and M.D.; supervision, O.e.M.; project administration,
O.e.M.; funding acquisition, E.K. and O.e.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was supported by the German Research Foundation with a Project Number of
469042952.
Data Availability Statement: The data supporting these findings were documented in this paper.
Acknowledgments: The design of the test cases was performed with the help of students Ataei
and Ardalan.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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