Ray Optics

BBrilliant STUDY CENTRE REPEATERS PHYSICS (ONLINE) -2021
CHAPTER - 00
RAY OPTICS
(REFLECTION OF LIGHT)
Different theories of light

* Corpuscular theory : Isaac Newton, light energy is concentrated in tiny massless and elastic particles
called Corpuscles. This can explain reflection and refraction of light
Drawback : To explain refraction of light speed of light in denser medium is considered to be greater
than that in rarer medium, which is wrong
* Wave theory : Christian Huygene, it explains reflection, refraction, interference and diffraction of light,
but could not explain photoelectric effect and black body radiation
* Photon or Quantum theory : Max Plank, light is composed of particles called photons. Using this theory
Einstein explained photoelectric effect, but it could not explain interference and diffraction of light
Wave theory and quantum theory leads to dual nature of light
* Electromagnetic theory : James Clerk Maxwell, light is the propagation of variation of electric and
magnetic fields.
Ray Optics
* Introduction
* Light is represented by ray of light. A ray is a light path along which optical energy flows; the direction of
energy flow is represented by the arrow sign
* Ray paths are straight line in a homogenous medium i.e. light has rectilinear propagation
Validity of Ray Optics
Rectilinear propagation can be applied only when the size of the obstacle is very large compared to the
wave length of light. Because diffraction (bending of light) can be neglected at this condition
Validity of ray optics can be explained by wave theory of light. Since diffraction is explained by wave
theory and rectilinear propagation is possible only in the absence of diffraction.
* Beam of light : Collection of rays. Light from a source can be represented by beam of light
1
* Types of beams :
1. Parallel beam of light : It consists of parallel rays. Light from a point source at infinity consists of
parallel rays. laser beam is nearly parallel.
2. Converging beam of light: All the light rays come together to a point. Converging beam of light can be
produced by reflection and refraction
3. Diverging beam of light : Light rays travel in all directions, moving away with time
eg. Light from a point source near to it

torch light
candle flame light etc.
Real Images and Virtual Images
Real images are formed when the light rays actually converge to a point after reflection or refraction.
They can be obtained on a screen.
2
Virtual images are formed when the light rays appear to diverge from a point after reflection or refraction.
They cannot be obtained on a screen but observable. Virtual rays are represented by doted lines.
Principle of reversibility of ray : When a light, after suffering a number of reflections and refractions,
has its final path reversed, it retraces it’s own path
Mutual Independency of ray : Path of the light rays are mutually independent, i.e. they do not disturb
each other.
Reflection of light : Bouncing back of light to the same medium. Change in direction of light, without
any change in medium
Laws of Reflection
1) angle of incidence is always equal to angle of reflection (i = r)

2) incident ray, reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence all lie in the same plane
3
Deviation in Reflection
Angle between directions of incident ray and reflected ray is called angle of deviation (d)
i = angle of incidence
r = angle of reflection
 = glancing angle of reflection
 = 90 – i
from the diagram, deviation
d  2  2  90  i 
d  180  2i , direction of deviation is from incident ray to reflected ray

By sign convention anticlockwise angle is positive and clockwise angle is negative.
Deviation in multiple reflections is the sum of the deviations in each reflections, by considering the
direction of deviation
4
Phase difference due to reflection

When light is reflected from a denser medium phase difference between reflected light and incident
light is  rad or 180o
e.g. Light is travelling from air to water and reflected from water surface phase difference produced is
180o.
When light is reflected from a rarer medium phase difference between reflected light and incident light
is zero.
e.g. Light is travelling from glass to air and reflected from air phase difference produced is zero
Reflection by Plane mirror
For a real object image formed by plane mirror
 Virtual, erect and laterally inverted
 image distance = object distance, v = –u
 image size = object size
 image and object are formed in the same plane normal to the mirror
 When a parallel beam of light is incident on a plane mirror, the reflected rays are also parallel. Thus
plane mirror never produces convergence or divergence i.e. focal length of plane mirror is infinity and
power is zero.
5
When the incident ray rotates through an angle  , with an angular speed  towards or away from the
mirror, the reflected ray rotates through an angle  with an angular speed  .
Since angle of incidence = angle of reflection
If the mirror rotates through an angle  , with an angular speed  , the reflected ray rotates through an
angle 2 , with an angular speed 2 , for a fixed incident ray..
M1 and M2 are initial and final position of mirror respectively. R1 and R2 are initial and final position of
reflected ray.
angle of rotation of reflected ray
  N1BC  N 2 BD
   2       2
Velocity of image in plane mirror
Image distance = object distance  when the object moves towards or away from the mirror with a
 
velocity v , then the velocity of the image is – v
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Velocity of object and image are equal, when velocity of object is parallel to the plane of mirror.
 
 Thus generally  V0  and V0   
are the velocity of object parallel and normal to the mirror, then object
velocity
  
   V 
V0  V0
 0  and velocity of image
  
   
VI  V0  V0
 
 If the mirror moves parallel to its mirror, the velocity of image is zero.
 
 
 If VM is the velocity of mirror normal to the mirror, then the velocity of image is Z VM

  
Velocity of image, when object and mirror are in motion

   
 
VI  V0  Z V0

  
 
 2 VM

Examples : An object moves with velocity 5 m/s towards right while the mirror moves with 1 m/s
towards the left as shown. Find the velocity of image
Solution :
  
 
VI   V0

 
 2 VM


VI  5  2  1  7 m / s
= 7 m/s towards left
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Example : Find the velocity of the image of a moving object in situation as shown in figure

Solution : Velocity of object normal to the plane of mirror V0   
 20cos 37iˆ  16iˆ
Velocity of object parallel to the mirror


V  0   20 sin 37ˆj  12 ˆj
Velocity of mirror normal to its plane


V  M

 30 cos 53iˆ  18iˆ
   
Velocity of image VI  V0    V 
 0   
 2 VM


 
VI  12jˆ  16iˆ  2 18iˆ  52iˆ  12ˆj m / s
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Example :
Thick plane mirror forms a number of images of a point source of light. Which image is brightest ?
A. First B. Second C. Third D. Fourth
Answer
In the case of a thick plane mirror, reflection takes place at the two surfaces, (top and bottom surfaces)
and images are formed due to both. The second surface is silvered and therefore the second image is
the brightest. Further images are formed due to multiple reflections and due to absorption of light by
medium the images becom fainter.
If the front surface of the mirror is silvered, only on image will be formed.
Images formed by the two plane mirrors : Two plane mirrors subtends an angle  , and an object is
360
placed as shown. Calculate

360 360
Case 1 : When is even, number of images N  1
 
9
360
Case 2 : When is odd

360
a) Object is placed symmetrical between the mirrors N  1

360
b) Object is placed asymmetrically, N 

360
Case 3 : When is a fractional value

360
N = greatest integer value of

eg.
360 
 3.4 
 
N  3
360
 3.9 
 
Two mirrors are placed at an angle  between them. Prove that the angle of deviation produced
after two successive reflections is independent of angle of incident.
Consider a ray incident on first mirror at an angle  . The deviation produced by first mirror will be
1  180o  2 . The ray after reflection from first mirror, incident on the second mirror at an angle  ,
and so angle of deviation produced by second mirror will be  2  180 o  2 . The total deviation produced
by mirrors together
  1  2
 180o  2   180o  2 
 360o  2     
From the geometry     
  360o  2
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If the mirrors are perpendicular, then   90o and deviation   360  2  90  180 o , i.e. incident ray and
final ray are antiparallel
Example : A point object is placed in front of a plane mirror. The mirror is doing SHM with an amplitude
2cm, normal to its plane. The amplitude of oscillation of image is
Answer : Image distance = object distance. Then displacement of image is twice the displacement of
the mirror. Then amplitude of image = 2  amplitude of mirror = 4 cm
Example : Two plane mirrors A and B are parallel to each other and spaced 26 cm apart. An object is
placed in between them at 9 cm from A. Out of the following at which point an image is not formed in
mirror A (Distance measured from mirror A) :
1) 43 cm 2) 61 cm 3) 69 cm 4) 95 cm
Answer :
I A1 , I A 2 , I A3 , ..... are the imaes formed by A
I B1 , I B2 , I B3 , ..... are the images formed by B

Here image formed by each mirror is considered as the virtual object of the other mirror. So
I B1 , I B2 , I B3 , ..... are considered as the virtual objects of A to find out the positions of images formed by
A. Thus images formed by A are at distances 9cm, 43 cm, 61 cm, 95 cm ... from mirror A. So answer
is 69 cm.
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Law of Reflection of light from a mirror in vector form
In the above situation,
ê1 = unit vector along the incident ray
ê2 = unit vector along the reflected ray
n̂ = unit vector along outside normal

t̂ = unit vector along tangential direction
Since, eˆ1  eˆ 2  1, eˆ1  1 sin ˆt  1 cos nˆ
eˆ1  sin ˆt  cos nˆ
and eˆ 2  sin ˆt  cos nˆ
So, eˆ 2  eˆ1   2 cos   nˆ or eˆ 2  eˆ1  2cos nˆ
eˆ1.nˆ  11 cos        cos 

 eˆ 2  eˆ1  2  eˆ1.nˆ  nˆ
Vector form of law of reflection.

Example : A plane is mirror placed in the y-z plane. A ray of light is incident on the mirror along a unit
1 ˆ 1 ˆ 1 ˆ
vector ê1  i j k . Find out unit vector along the reflected ray..
3 3 3
Answer : The normal unit vector to the plane mirror is n̂  iˆ

unit vector along the reflected ray
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eˆ 2  eˆ1  2  eˆ1 .nˆ  nˆ

 1 ˆ 1 ˆ 1 ˆ  1 ˆ 1 ˆ 1 ˆ  ˆ  ˆ
 i j k   2  i j k  .i  i
 3 3 3   3 3 3  
1 ˆ 1 ˆ 1 ˆ 1 ˆ
 i j k 2 i
3 3 3 3
1 ˆ 1 ˆ 1 ˆ
ê 2   i j k
3 3 3
1 ˆ
Example : A ray of light travelling in the direction i  3jˆ  is incident on a plane mirror. After reflection,
2 
1 ˆ
it travels along the direction i  3jˆ  . The angle of incidence is :
2 
 1 ˆ  1
Solution : Vectors along incident and reflected rays A  i  3jˆ  and B  î  3jˆ  .
2  2 
  1 î  3jˆ  .  î  3jˆ 

  A.B    
Therefore angle between A and B gives angle of deviation    , cos   4
AB 1 1
1
cos    ,   120o
2
but   180  2i, 120  180  2i, i  30o
Field of View
This is the region where diverging rays from object or image are present. If our eyes are present in field
of view and receive diverging rays then only we can see image. Field of view of image is decided by
drawing extreme relected or refracted rays.
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Illustration : A point source of light S, placed at a distance L in front of the centre of a mirror of width d.
A man walks in front of the mirror along a line parallel to the mirror at a distance 2L from it as shown in
Fig.
Find the distance over which he can see the image of the light source in the mirror.
Solution : Man will see image as long as he is in the field of view of image
From similar MM / I and PQI
d PQ

L 3L
or PQ  3d
 Required distance = 3d
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What is the relative velocity of the image in mirror (1) with respect to the image in the mirror (2) in
situation as shown in figure ?
2v
a)
sin 2
b) 2vsin
2v
c)
sin 2
d) None
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angle between velocities of images is 2

  
V12  V1  V2  2V sin 
Example : Show that the minimum size of a plane mirror required to see the full image of an observer
is half the size of that observer
Answer : Let HF be the height of the man and E be the eye level. Draw the rays HM1 and FM2 incident
at the edges of the mirror. Complete the ray diagram as shown in fig. It is self-explanatory if you
consider lengths x and y as shown in the figure
Aliter.
EM1M 2 and EH ' F' are similar
M1M 2 z ' '

  or M1M 2  H F  HF
HF' '
2z 2 2
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E : position of eye
H : position of head
F : position of feet
From the diagram, height of the person
H = 2y + 2x
H
  yx
2
H
Height of the mirror h = y + x h
2
Minimum height of the mirror from the foot of the observer
H
y  2y  x  h  2y  x 
2
H H H
y x x   y
2 2 2
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Example :
A person’s eye level is 1.5m. he stands in front of a 0.3m long plane mirror which is 0.8m above the
ground. The length of the image he sees himself is :
Answer :
18
Example : A person’s eye level is 2m. he stands in front of a 0.4m long plane mirror which is 0.8m
above the ground. The length of the image he sees himself is :
19
x ' = height of the image of person observed by the person
x '  0.4m
Note : If an extended horizontal object is placed infront of a mirror inclined 45o with horizontal, the
image formed will be vertical
Spherical Mirrors
Reflective surface is a part of a sphere
Radius of curvature (R) : The radius of the sphere in which mirror forms a part.
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Pole (P) : The centre of the reflective surface.

Centre of curvature (C) : The centre of the sphere in which mirror forms a part.
Principal axis : The line passing through pole and centre of curvature
Aperture / diameter of mirror (AB) : diameter of the circular boundary of the mirror
Principal focus (F) : It is a point on the principal axis, where a beam of light parallel to the principal axis
either actually converge or appear to diverge, after reflection from a mirror
Focal length (f) : Separation between pole and focus
Focal Plane : A plane passing through focus and perpendicular to principal axis is called focal plane
Sign Conventions in Mirror :

 Pole of the mirror is taken as the origin, i.e. all the distances are measured from the pole
21
 All the measurements in the direction of incident light are +ve and measurements opposite to the
direction of incident light are –ve
 Distances upward from the principal axis are positive and vice versa
 Do not give sign to unknown quantities
 Anticlockwise angle is taken as +ve and clockwise angle is negative
 Focal length of a concave or converging mirror is negative

 Focal length of a convex of diverging mirror is positive
 Red images are formed in front of the mirror  image distance is negative. Virtual images are behind
the mirror and image distance is positive
Relation between f and R
A ray of light incident paralle to the principal axis at an angle  as shown. The reflected ray touches the
principal axis at B.
In  ABC AB = BC and AC = CD + DA
from  CDB and  ADB CD = DA  AC = 2CD
CD
In CDB cos   or CD  BCcos 
BC
AC R
So AC  2BC cos , BC   since AC = R
2 cos  2 cos 
R
 PB  PC  BC  R 
2 cos 
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R
PB  R 
2 cos 
Marginal Rays : For marginal rays  is large
R
 PB  R  . Where B is not the focus; it is just a point where a marginal ray after reflection
2 cos 
meets the principal axis.
Paraxial rays :They incident closer to the principal axis
 is very small. Thus for paraxial rays

sin   tan    and cos   1
For paraxial rays the point ‘B’ is called focus ‘F’ and PB = f = focal length
R R R
f  R  R or f 
2 cos  2 2
For convex mirror R is positive and for concave mirror R is negative. Focal length of mirror is
independent of intervening medium.
Mirror equations and lens equations can be applied only to paraxial rays, but laws of reflection and
refraction can be applied to all the rays.
Mirror Formula
Consider a concave mirror of radius of curvature R. let ‘O’ be the object placed at a distance ‘u’ from
the pole P of the mirror. Take two rays OB and OP, which on reflection makes an image at I. In OBC, 
is the exterior angle
    i or i    
In CBI   B  r, r    
From law of reflection, i = r, therefore       ,     2......... 1
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For paraxial rays B is closer to P, so M is also closer to P. Thus MO = –u, MC = -R & mI = –v
MB MB
In OMB tan     , In CMI tan    
MO MC
MB
In tan    
MI
Substitute the above values in eqn. (1)
MB MB MB 1 1 2
 2 ,  
MO MI MC MO MI MC
By applying sign convention and substituting the values in equation (1)
1 1 2
   , but R = 2f
u v 2
1 1 1 uv
   or f 
f v u uv
For plane mirror R = 
f  , so u = v
 The above derived formula can be used for convex mirror also
 In using these formulas, the signs are given only to known values
Focal length of concave mirror from graph
1 1
a) Graph between vs :
u v
1 1 1 1 1 1
We have   or  
f v u v f u
1 1
Comparing this equation with y = mx + c, y  ,c  ,
v f
1
x and m = –1
u
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1 1
 graph between and is a straight line
u v
1 1 1
From graph OA = OB = ; f  
f OB OA
b) Graph between u and v
1 1 1
  u vs v graph is hyperbolic
v f u
In the graph coordinates of C are (2f, 2f)
 OA  OB  2f
OA OB
f 
2 2
Magnification : The relative size of the image with object can be understood by magnification (m)
size of the image

i.e. m 
size of the object
Depending on the height, length and area of the object, there are three types of magnification
1) Lateral magnification (m) : It is the ratio of the size of the image and object perpendicular to the
principal axis.
height of the image h i

m 
height of the object h 0
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Consider an objct OA of height h0 is placed perpendicular to the principal axis. IB is the image formed
IB PI
with height hi in similar triangles POA and PIB  , According to sign conventions
OA PO
h i  v hi v hi v
   m 
h 0 u h0 u h0 u
‘m’ is negative for inverted images

‘m’ is positive for erect images
v  u , m 1, image is diminished
v  u , m  1, image is enlarged
v  u , m  1, same size image
‘m’ in terms of focal length
1 1 1 v v
  multiply with v   1
f v u f u
v v v f v
  1 so m  1  
u f f f
1 1 1 u u
  , multiply with u   1
f v u f v
u u f u v f
  1  ,  
v f f u f u
f
m
f u
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Longitudinal Magnification (mL) : It is the ratio of the size of the image and object along the principal
axis.
Length of the image L i

mL  
Length of the object L 0
v A  v B v
From the diagram mL  
u A  u B u
1 1 1
 
vA f u A
1 1 1
 
vB f u B
dv
For small objects m L 
du
1 1 1
From mirror equation  
f v u
1 dv 1
On differentiating w.r.t ‘u’ 0   
v 2 du u 2
dv  v 2 dv v2
 So m L    2  m 2
du u 2 du u
–ve sign shows that imae is inverted
Areal Magnification (mA) : It is the ratio of the area of the image to the area of the object.
area of the image A i

mA  
area of the object A 0
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Area of the object is perpendicular to the principal axis : h 0 and w0 are the height and width of the
object perpendicular to the principal axis.
height of the image h i  mh 0
width of the image Wi  mW0
So area of the image A i  h i Wi  m 2 h 0 W0
Ai
Ai  m 2 A 0 or mA   m2
A0
Here image formed is undistorted i.e. shape of the image = shape of the object.
28
29
Velocity of the image in spherical mirrors

a) Velocity of the object is parallel to the principal axis
1 1 1
  , on differentiating w.r.t ‘t’
f v u
1 dv 1 du dv v2 du
0  ,  2
v 2 dt u 2 dt dt u dt
dv
= velocity of image w.r.t mirror = VIM
dt
du
= velocity of object w.r.t to mirror = VOM
dt
v2
  VIM 11   2  OM 11
V   m 2  VIM 11
u
Negfative sign shows that image velocity is opposite to object velocity

The above relation is for the instantaneous velocity
displacement of the image v f  vi

Average velocity Vav  
time t
Vf  Vi are final and initial image positions
30
v2
From the above relation dv  du   m 2du
u2
where du = small change in object position
and dv = small change in image position
b) When object moves perpendicular to principal axis height of the object and image from the principal
hi
axis changes. We have m 
h 0 or h i  mh
dh i dh
  m 0 Thus  VIM    m  VOM  
dt dt
 VIM  and  VOM  are the velocities of image and object perpendicular to the principal axis
Example : Find the distance of object from a concave mirror of focal length 10cm so that image is four
times the size of the object.
Answer : When image is real and inverted m = –4, from equation
f 10
m , 4  , 40  4u  10
f u 10  u
50
u  12.5cm
4
when image is virtual and erect m = 4
10 30
4  40  4u  10 u  7.5cm
10  u 4
 12.5 cm or 7.5 cm
f
Example : A thin rod of length is placed along the optic axis of a concave mirror of focal length f such
3
that the image which is real and elongated just touches the object. Calculate the magnification produced
by the mirror.
Solution : The elongated image will be formed when object is to be placed beyond coc. The one end of
the image will touch the rod when it is placed at coc. Thus AB is the right position of the rod. Thus for
the end B, we have
31
 f  5f
u    2f   
 3 3
For concave mirror, f = –f
1 1 1
By mirror formula,   , we have
u v f
1 1 1
 
5f v f
3
5f
On solving we get v 
2
5f f
Thus the length of the image = A ' B'   2f 
2 2
length of the image

Magnification mL 
length of the object
f
2 3
f 2
3
Here negative sign shows that the image is inverted with respect to the object.
Example : Prove that for spherical mirrors the product of the distances of the object and the real image
to the principal focus is always equal to the square of the principal focal length
32
Solution :
See figure. For small aperture mirror, and in similar triangles
O x1
 ........................... (i)
I f
O f
Also 
I x 2 ....................(ii)
x1 f
 
f x2
If we place the distances with the signs, then
 x 1 f
 or x1 x 2  f 2
f x 2
f  x1x 2
Newton’s equation
Combination of Mirrors :
In combination of mirrors the position and nature of the images can be found by considering the images
formed by each mirror as the virtual object of the other mirror
Example : A concave mirror and a plane mirror are arranged as shown. Find the position and nature of
the second image formed by plane mirror
33
Answer : First find the position and nature of first image formed by concave mirror.
u = –15cm, f = –10cm
1 1 1
from mirror equation  
v f u
1 1 1
  , v = –30cm
v 10 15
v  30 
magnification m      2
u  15 
So image is real, inverted and enlarged.
After reflection from concave mirror light is incident on plane mirror. These rays are reflected to form
second image by plane mirror. Here first image by concave mirror (I1) is considered as the virtual
object of plane mirror. For plane mirror object distance u = (30 - 25) = 5cm. i.e. object 5cm behind the
plane mirror. So, image distance v = 5cm in front of the mirror magnification produced by plane mirror
v  5 
m      1 . Light rays converge after reflection from plane mirror..
u  5 
 image is real
In the above example a converging beam of light is incident on the plane mirror and the image formed
by it is real.
34
Plane mirror can produce real image for converging incident ray or for virtual object.
NOTE :
Sign convention of object distance
For diverging incident rays or for real objects
object distance is negative
For converging incident rays or for virtual objects
object distance is positive
Virtual Object
When a converging beam of light is incident on a mirror or a lens the position of the object is taken at
the point, where the incident rays converge in the absence of the mirror or lens. This assumed object
is called virtual object.
Uses of Spherical mirror

Convex mirrors : Used as rear view mirrors, diverging reflectors in street lights. Convex mirrors have
large field of view.
Concave mirrors : used as shaving mirrors, used by dentists
Power of mirror : Power measures the degree of convergence or divergence produced by a mirror.
1
Power, P   f = focal length. When focal length is in meter, unit of power is dioptre (D).
f
100
P D
f  cm 
 Power of concave or converging mirror is positive and that of convex or diverging mirror is negative
35
Note : In concave mirror for virtual object, virtual image is not possibe. In convex mirror for virtual
object, real and virtual images are possible.
36
Cutting of spherical mirror

i) Bisplit cutting : It involves cutting and moving the mirror perpendicular to principal axis. L1 behaves as
principal axis for M1 and similarly L2 for M2
(ii) Billet split cutting : It involves cutting and removing a part of mirror
L1 behaves as principal axis for M1 and L2 behaves as principal axis for M2.
Example : Find position and nature of image formed by the mirror in the given situation
37
Solution :
The converging incident rays meet at a distance 10 cm from the mirror. thus virtual object is considered
at 10 cm from mirror, so u = 10 cm
1 1 1 1 1
    , v = –20cm, negative sign shows image is infront of the mirror and real.
v f u 20 10
v  20 
Magnification m       2 , so image is enlarged and erect.
u  10 
SPHERICAL ABERRATION IN MIRRORS
In practice spherical mirrors are capapble of forming reasonably sharp images if their apertures are
small in comparison to the focal length. In case of large mirror, the rays reflected from the outer edges
cross the axis at different distances as shown in figure. This inability to focus all the incident rays at a
single point is called spherical aberration. a parabolic mirror, however, brings all rays to a focus at one
point. A small source of light located at the focal point of a parabolic reflector becomes a parallel beam
after reflection, which is used in automobiles headlights and in search lights
a) Spherical aberration in concave mirror b) No spherical aberration

REFRACTION OF LIGHT
 The phenomenon of bending away of light from the normal is known as refraction. The bending of the
light depends on the two medium that the light is traversing
 Cause of refraction : This happens because when a light travels from one medium to another, then
the speed of light also changes
38
 Refractive index : This difference in the deflecting property of light in different substances is due to
the refractive inded of a material. The refractive index of a medium is defined as the ratio of the speed
of the light in vacuum to the speed in the medium. It is denoted by  or n. Mathematically
speed of light in vacuum c

n 
speed of light in the medium 
c c
 For two mediums n1  and n 2 
1 1
n1  2
Relative RI of the mediums 
n 2 1
 The medium with higher refractive index is called optically denser medium and medium with lower
refractive index is called optically rarer medium
 If f is the frequency of light,  is the wavelength and ‘v’ the speed of light in a medium, then the v  f
 Frequency of light is independent of the medium. So for a light in two mediums
1 1 n 2
  ,  
 2  2 n1
 Colour of light depends on frequency, thus colour of light is independent of the medium
1
c
 Speed of light in vacuum 0 0 , where 0 = permittivity of free space and
 0 = permeability of free space
1 1 c
Thus in a medium speed of light v  

0 r 0r

 r r
But v = c/n, thus n  r r . So refractive index or optical density depends on both electric and
magnetic properties of the medium.
 0  4 107 TmA 1 and 0  8.8  1012 C 2 N 1m 2
0 1
  10 7 and  9  109
4 4 0
1 4 2
  9  109  107   3  108   C 2
4 0 0
39
1 1
 C2 , C 
0 0 0 0
1 n 2  n 1
  med  vac 
 2 n1  vac n med n med
 vac
 med  n med  1  med   vac
 med
 Optical density is independent of mass density.

 It is possible that mass density of an optically denser medium may be less than or greater than that of
an optically rarer medium. For example, mass density of turpentine is less than that of water but its
optical density is higher
Cauchy’s Dispersion Formula
Refractive index ‘n’ of a medium depends on wavelength of light ‘  ’ as
B C
n A   .....
2 4
where A,B,C,.... are constants for a medium usually it is sufficient to use a two term form of the
B
equation, n  A 
2
Equation shows that the refractive index of a medium is different for different colours of light.
 If  R and  V are the wavelengths of red and violet colours of light in a medium, then  R   V and
refractive index n V  n R . So speed of light VR  VV
 Refractive index depends on nature of the medium and wavelength of light.

 Some indexes of refraction (for yellow light)
Medium Index
Vacuum 1
Air 1.0003
Water 1.33
Crown glass 1.52
Flint glass 1.65
Diamond 2.42
40
Example :
A light wave has a frequency of 4  1014 Hz and a wavelength of 5 107 meters in a medium. The
refractive index of the medium is :
Answer : Speed of light V    4  1014  5  10 7
V  2  108 m / s
C 3 108 3
n  
V 2 108 2
Optical Path Length
The distance travelled by the light through vacuum in the same time interval as the light travels through
a medium is called its optical path length.
c
Consider a medium of length ‘d’ and refractive index ‘n’. Speed of light in the medium is V  or
n
C = nV.
Thus, distance travelled by the light in vacuum is ‘n’ times that travelled in the medium.
 Optical path length of the medium x  nd

 Optical path difference in vacuum and a medium
x = distance in vacuum – distance in the medium
x  nd  d  d  n  1
 Optical path length of a composite block
n1 n2 n3
d1 d 2 d 3
d1, d2 and d3 are the lengths of the mediums and n1, n2 and n3 are the refractive indices. Optical path
length x  n1d1  n 2 d 2  n 2 d 3
Fermat’s Principle :
A light ray travelling from one point to another point will traverse a path for which, compared to all
neighbouring paths, the time required is a minimum or a maximum.
This is known as Fermat’s principle
 The fundamental laws of rectilinear propagation, reflection and refraction can be derived from Fermat’s
principle
41
Laws of refraction :
1) The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal at the point of incidence all lie in the same plane
2) The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction for two mediums
is a constant
sin i
i.e.  cons tan t
sin r
where,
i = angle of incidence
r = angle of refraction
sin i n 2 v1 1
  
sin r n1 v 2  2
Where
n1 = refractive index of the first medium
n2 = refractive index of the second medium
 When light travels from denser to rarer medium, refracted ray bends away from the normal. From
Snell’s Law n1 sin i  n 2 sin r
Here n1  n 2  sin r  sin i and r > i
42
Deviation in Refraction
The angle between the incident ray and refracted ray is called angle of deviation (d).
From the diagram d  r  i
 When light travels from rarer to denser medium refracted ray bends towards the normal
Here deviation
d ir
 Phase differe between incident light and refracted light is always zero.
43
Vector form of Snell’s Law
44
Critical Angle (C) :

The angle of incidence in a denser medium at which the angle of refraction in the rarer medium becomes
90o or when the refracted ray passes along the interface is called critical angle (C).
From Snell’s Law
n d sin C  n r sin 90
n r Vd  d
sin C   
n d Vr  r
Where nr and nd are the refractive indices of rarer and denser medium respectively.
 sin C  n r  when n r  C
1
 sin C   when n d 
nd C
1 1
If rarer medium is vacuum or air nr = 1, then sin C   , n V  n R  CV  CR
nd n
CV and CR are the critical angles of violet and red colours
sin i
  cons tan t  sin r  sin i
sin r
Thus angle of refraction always increases with increase in angle of incidence
 When light is incident along the interface angle of incidence is maximum imax = 90o. In this case light
refracted to the denser medium with maximum angle of refraction rmax = critical angle (C)
45
From Snell’s Law
sin i n d

sin r n r
sin 90 n d

sin r nr
nr
or sin r 
nd
nr
but sin C 
nd
 r=c
NOTE : Maximum value of angle of refraction in a denser medium is critical angle (C)
 i max rarer  90o ,  rmax denser  C

Total Internal Reflection (TIR)
When light travels from denser to rarer medium with an angle of incidence greater than the critical
angle, the entire light is reflected back to the same medium without any refraction. This is called total
internal reflection. For TIR, i  C , sin i > sin C
nr
 sin i 
nd
46
 
TIR obeys laws of reflection i  r
1

 deviation in reflection
d = 180 – 2i
NOTE : Maximum angle of incidence in a denser medium for refraction is critical angle.
Applications of TIR
 Mirage
The mirage is caused by the total internal reflection of light at layers of air of different densities. In a
desert, the sand is very hot during day time and a result the layer of air in contact with it gets heated up
and becomes lighter. The lighter air rises up and the denser air from above comes down.
47
As a result, the successive upper layers are denser than those below them. A ray of light coming from
a distant object, like the top a tree, gets refracted from a denser to a rarer medium. Consequently the
refracted ray bends away from the normal until at a particular layer, the light is incident at an angle
greater than the critical angle. At this stage the incident ray suffers total internal reflection and is reflected
upwards. When this reflected beam of light enters the eyes of the observer, it appears as if an inverted
image of the tree is seen and the sand looks like a pool of water.
 Looming :
Definition : It is an optical illusion, seen, at sea-shore in winter evening, due to which an image of a
ship is seen formed in air in sea-sky. The actual ship is nowhere visible.
Explanation : It is due to total internal reflection. In cold evening, over sea-bed sea water becomes too
cold. Air layer is its contact is cold and denser. As we go up, air layers become less and less colder
and hence rarer. Rays from invisible ship going upward go from denser to rarer air layers. They are
totally reflected downwards and received by an observer at sea-shore. The observer sees an image
(virtual) of the ship hanging in the sky.
 Brilliance of diamond :
Diamonds are known for their spectacular brilliance, mainly due to the complete internal light reflection.
The critical angle for the diamond-air interface is very small. So when light enters a diamond, it will
probably be completely reflected internally.
In nature, diamonds rarely display the brilliance they are known for. It’s the technical ability of a diamond
cutter that brilliantly sparks diamonds.
By suitably cutting the diamond, several internal reflections can be made to a cutter that makes the
diamonds so brilliant.
By suitably cutting the diamond, multiple internal reflections can occur.
n diamond  2.42, C  24.4 o (in air)
 Prisms : Prisms designed to bend light by 90o or by 180o make use of TIR. Such a prism is also used
to invert images without changing their size. Critical angle of material of prism is less than 45o.
48
 Optical Fibres : Used for transmitting audio and video signals through long distances, by using total
internal reflection. Each fibres consists of a core and a cladding.
The refractive index of the material of the core is higher than that of the cladding. Light undergoes
repeated TIR at the core cladding interface and advances through the optical fibre
For TIR reflection at core-cladding interface angle of incidence i > C
n2
 sin i  sin C, sin i 
n1
49
n2
From the diagram i  r  90o or i  90  r , sin  90  r   cos r 
n1
2 n2 2 n 22
1  sin r  or 1  sin r  2
n1 n1
n 22
sin 2 r  1 
n12 .................(1)
For refraction at air core interface,
sin 
1 sin   n1  sin r, sin r 
n1
Put this in eqn. (1)
sin 2  n12  n 22

n12 n12
sin   n12  n 22
 sin max  n12  n 22 or max  sin 1 n12  n 22 condition of TIR at core-cladding interface
max = maximum angle of incidence from air to core for TIR at core cladding interface, which is called
acceptance angle.
 Light from a source in a denser medium enters into a rarer medium only through a circular
region due to TIR
Consider a source of light at a depth ‘d’ from the interface as shown
Light incident at critical angle (C) at the point A and B. Thus light from the source undergoes TIR to the
left of A and to the right of B. So the light from the source undergoes refraction through a circular region
of radius ‘r’ as shown
50
r
From the diagram, tan C 
d
 r  d tan C
nr 1
But sin C    n 2 1
nd n
1
 tan C 
n2 1
d
So, r  Area of the circular region A  r 2
n 2 1
 The angular width of the circular region (2C) is independent of the depth of the source
 radius ‘r’ increases with increase in depth ‘d’
 Similarly an observer in a denser medium receives light from a rarer medium only through the above
mentioned circular region.
51
Refraction at Parallel Plane Surfaces
In the given situation n1 , n 2 , n 3 and n 4 are the refractive indices of the mediums. 1 , 2 , 3 and 4 are
the angle made by the rays with normal in the mediums.
For first refraction, from Snell’s Law
sin 1 n 2
  n1 sin 1  n 2 sin 2 ............(1)
sin 2 n1
For second refraction, n 2 sin 2  n 3 sin 3 .............(2)
For third refraction, n 3 sin 3  n 4 sin 4 ...................(3)
From eqns. (1), (2) and (3)
n1 sin 1  n 2 sin 2  n 3 sin 3  n 4 sin  4
i.e. n sin   cons tan t
Thus n 4 sin 4  n1 sin 1 . If n4 = 1, then 4  1
i.e. angle of emergence = angle of incidence or incident ray and emergent ray are parallel.
Image Formation by Refraction
(i) object in denser medium and observer in rarer medium.
Consider an object ‘O’ placed in an optically denser medium. Ray diagram shows that the refracted
rays appear to diverge from the point ‘I’. Therefore a virtual image is formed at I.
52
The distance ‘AO’ is called real depth or actual depth. ‘AI’ is called apparent depth. nr and nd are the
refractive indices of rarer and denser medium respectively.
sin i n r 1
From Snell’s Law  
sin r n d n ............ (1)
dn
where n  n
r
If B is closer to A, i and r are very small, then sin i = tan i and sin r = tan r
tan i 1
Thus from (1)  .............(2)
tan r n
AB AB
In AOB tan i  and in AIB tan r 
AO AI
AB
1 AI 1
 AO 
AB n or 
AO n
AI
AO n real depth (RD)

n i.e. n  d 
AI n r apparent depth  AO 
x x
n AD 
AD n
The normal shift produced to the object is, S = real depth – apparent depth
53
RD x
= RD  x ,
n n
 1
S  x 1  
 n
Separation between observer and image is,
x
Z = EA + AI or Z  y 
n
On differentiating w.r.t time
dz dy 1 dx
 
dt dt n dt
Vobject
 Vimage   Voberver 
observer n
For example, if a bird observes a fish
Vfish
 Vfish bird  Vbird 
n
NOTE : Shift produced by a denser medium is in the direction of incident light
Sign Conventions of Velocity
Velocities of object and observer are taken as positive, when they move away from the interface.
Velocities are taken as negative, when they move towards the interface
Object is situated inside two or more optical mediums
54
Shift due to number of mediums is the sum of the shifts due to each medium.
In the example two mediums are present,
 Shift, S  S1  S2
 1  1
S  t1 1    t 2 1  
 n1   n2 
 apparent depth AD = t1 + t2 – S
t1 t 2
AD  
n1 n 2
NOTE : For n mediums of thicknesses; t1, t2, ...., tn of refractive indexes n1, n2,....nn
real depth = t1  t 2  ....t n
t1 t 2 t
Apparent depth =   ....  n
n1 n 2 nn
real depth
If n is the effective value of refractive indexes, then n 
apparent depth
t1  t 2  ....  t n
n
t1 t 2 t
  ....  n
n1 n 2 nn
(ii) Object in rarer medium and observer in denser medium
55
O is the object position and I is the image position. From Snell’s Law
sin i n d
  n ............... (1)
sin r n r
sin i tan i
If B is closer to A i and are very small, then 
sin r tan r
AB AB
From the diagram, tan i  and tan r 
AO AI
From equation (1)
AB
sin i tan i AO
  AB  n
sin r tan r
AI
AI
n
AO
Apparent depth  AD  n d
n 
Re al depth  RD  nr
AI = n(AO), AI  nx
Normal shift due to refraction

S = AD – RD = nx – x
S  x  n  1 (Shift is opposite to the direction of incident light)
Separation between observer and image
Z = EA + AI Z  y  nx
dz dy dx
On differentiating,  n
dt dt dt
V 
image observer  Vobserver  nVobject
For example, when a fish observes a bird
 Vbird fish  Vfish  nVbird

Sign conventions mentioned earlier must be applied in this equation.
56
NOTE : The above equations are used when i and r are very small or in normal observation.
 Shift produced is independent of normal separation of observer from the interface, but shift changes
when the observer moves parallel to the interface.
(iii) Shift produced by a glass slab
Conser an object at a distance ‘x’ from the left face of the glass slab. Thickness of the glass slab is ‘t’
and refractive index ‘n’. Actual distance of object from B is (x + t). But for an observer in air apparent
t t
thickness of glass slab is . Thus the apparent position of the object from B is BI  x 
n n
 Normal shift produced by the glass slab is
 t
S  BO  BI   x  t    x  
 n
 1
S  t 1  
 n
NOTE : Shift produced by the glass slab is in the direction of propagation of light through glass slab
and independent of the distance ‘x’
57
Image formed by Silvered glass slab
Because of multiple reflections and refractions, there will be infinite number of images; second of
them will be brightest, which is formed by the reflection from the silvered face.
t
Suppose M1 is the apparent position of the mirror at a distance from the unsilvered face of the
n
mirror.
1 t
The object position from M  x 
n
1 t
Thus image position from M  x 
n
(behind the mirror)
58
t
Thus final image distance from the silvered surface M, V  x   MM1
n
t  t
= x t  
n  n
2t
V xt
n
Second image is formed behind the mirror, thus it is virtual.
Lateral shift produced by a glass slab
The shortest (perpendicular) distance between the direction of incident ray and emergent ray is called
lateral shift (SL)
SL = OI = CD
AB t t
In ABC, cos r    AC 
AC AC cos r
CD
In ACD, sin  i  r   or CD  ACsin  i  r 
AC
i.e. Lateral shift SL  AC sin  i  r 
59
t sin  i  r 
SL 
cos r
When i and r are very small, then cos r = 1 and sin(i – r) = i – r
 SL  t  i  r 
sin i i i
From Snell’s law   n or r 
sin r r n
 i  1
SL  t  i   SL  ti 1  
 n  n
Example : An object is placed 21cm in front of a concave mirror of radius of curvature 20cm. A glass
slab of thickness 3cm and refractive index 1.5 is placed close to the mirror in the space between
object and the mirror. Find the position of the final image formed. The distance of the nearer surface of
the slab from the mirror is 10cm.
The shift produced by slab towards mirror
 1
S  t 1  
 
 1 
 3 1  
 1.5 
 1cm
The apparent position of the object from the mirror = 21 – 1 = 20cm
1 1 1
By mirror formula,   , we have
u v f
1 1 1
  or v = –20 cm
20 v 20
Thus mirror will form real image at a distance of 20 cm in the absence of the slab. The slab now
obstructed the reflected rays, which after refraction displaces the image by 1cm. So the final position
of the image = 20 + 1 = 21 cm from the mirror. i.e. image and object will coincide.
60
Refraction through a Triangular Prism
A monochromatic light is incident at an angle ‘i’ and emerges with an angle ‘e’ as shown. r1 is the angle
of refraction at the face AB and r2 is the angle of incidence at the face AC. np and ns are the refractive
indices of the prism and the surrounding medium respectively. From Snell’s law at the two faces,
sin i sin e n p
   n ................. (1)
sin r1 sin r2 n s
APR  AQR  90o

In Quadrilateral APRQ,
A  APR  PRQ  AQR  360o

A is the angle between the refractive faces of the prism, which is called refracting angle of the prism or
angle of prism.
A  90  PRQ  90  360o
A  PRQ  180o , PQR  180o  A
In PRQ, r1  r2  PRQ  180 o
 r1  r2  180  A  180 o
So, A  r1  r2
Angle of deviation : The angle between directions of incident ray and emergent ray is called the angle
of deviation (d)
61
Total deviation d = deviation at face AB + deviation at face AC
d  d AB  d AC   i  r1    e  r2 
d  i  e   r1  r2 
d  ieA
Variation of deviation : It first decreases with increase in angle of incidence, reaches a minimum and
then increases. Deviation has same value at two angles of incidence, except at angle of minimum
deviation (D)
In the graph deviation (d) is same at angles of incidence i1 and i2. If ‘i’ and ‘e’ are interchanged then we
get the same value of deviation because of the reversibility principle of light.
Conditions of minimum deviation
At minimum deviation r1 = r2 = r and i = e
A
Thus A  r1  r2  2r or r 
2
minimum deviation D  2i  A
AD
or i 
2
A  D
sin 
n
sin i
  2 
From Snell’s law sin r A
sin  
2
This equation is known as equation of prism

62
 When a prism is in minimum deviation position, the refracted ray inside the prism is parallel to the
base and passes symmetrically through the prism provided base angles are equal (in the equilateral
or isosceles prism)
 At minimum deviation, deviation at both the faces are equal i.e. dAB = dAC
 D  2d AB  2d AC  2  i  r 
A
 At minimum deviation r  is independent of refractive index.
2
Grazing Incidence, (Maximum deviation)
When i = 90o, r1 = C, critical angle
A  r1  r2
 r2  A  C
r2 = A – C
From Snell’s law

sin e = n sin r2
sin e = n sin(A – C)
Here deviation is maximum
d max  i max  e  A
d max  90  e  A
Grazing emergence (maximum deviation)

In grazing emergence
e = 90o,  r2  C
r1  A  r2
63
r1 = A – C
From Snell’s law

sin i = n sin r1
sin i = n sin(A – C)
dmax = i + emax – A
dmax = i + 90 – A
Condition of no emergence of light
A ray of light is incident on a prism of angle A and refractive index n, will not emerge out of the second
face of the prism, if A > 2C, whatever may be the angle of incidence. Where C is the critical angle.
Proof: For no emergence, light must undergo total internal reflection from the second face of the
prism. Thus minimum angle of incidence at second face must be greater than critical angle.
 r2 min  C, r2  A  r1  r2 min  A   r1 max

r1 is maximum, when i is maximum.
i max  90o ,   r1 max  C,  r2  min  A  C
Thus  r2  min   A  C   C A  2C
64
So, A min  2C
A 1
From above condition  C and sin (A/2) > sin C. But sin C 
2 n
1
sin  A / 2  
n
Thin Prism or Small Angled Prism
A  D
sin 
From equation n   2 
sin  A / 2 
A AD AD
When A is very small sin  A / 2   and sin  
2  2  2
AD
n  D  A  n  1
2  A / 2
deviation produced by a thin prism is independent of angle of incidence, thus at any angle of incidence
deviation,
nP
d  A  n  1 , where n  n
S
 deviation produced by a thin prism depends on the angle of the prism, material of the prism and
surrounding medium.
Dispersion of Light
Splitting up of a light into its composite colours is called dispersion of light.
Cause of Dispersion
Different colours, different frequencies, different wavelengths of light have different speeds and refractive
indices in the same medium. When white light is incident on a prism, angle of incidence is same for all
the colours.
From Snell's Law
sin i 1
sin r   sin r 
n n
So, different colours refract along diff. paths.
nV > nr (From Cauchy’s dispersion formula)
 rV  rr
65
We know; deviation, d   n  1 A
Since nv > nr
d v  dr
Angular Dispersion    :
It measures the amount of dispersion produced in angle. It is defined as the angle between extreme
rays violet and red.
  dv  dr
d v   n v  1 A d R   n R  1 A
Therefore,
  dv  dR
  n v  nR  A
Dispersive Power  
If measures the ability of material of prism of produce dispersion.
 d v  dR
 
dy dy
66
dy = deviation of (mean colour) = yellow
 d  dR  A nv  nR 
dy   v ,  
 2  A  n y  1
 
 nv  nR   n  nR 
 ny   v 
n y  1  2 
Dispersive power is also defined with blue and red colours.
dB  dR nB  nR dB  dR
  d = mean deviation 
d n 1 2
nB  nR
n = mean R.I. 
2
 Dispersive power depends on material of the prism
 But it is independent of the angle of the prism.
Condition for Deviation without Dispersion:
Two thin prisms made of different materials and different angles are used.
A  A
n  n
To produce zero dispersion, angular dispersion produced by first prism must be equal and opposite to
that of 2nd prism.
   
but n V  n R   n y  1

d V  d R   d v  d R   condition becomes
 n V  n R  A    n V  n R  A 
 A  n y  1     A  n y   1 
negative sing indicates one prism is inverted to the other.
67
Condition for Dispersion without Deviation:

Deviation is zero for mean colour yellow.
To produce zero deviation, deviation produced by one prism must be equal and opposite to that of
other one.
Two thin prisms made of different materials and different angles are used.
Therefore; d y  d y
n y  
 1 A   n y  1 A
A

 n y  1 A
n y  1
 Two identical thin prisms in the inverted positions produces no dispersion and deviation. Eg: A thin
glass slab.
A hollow prism produces no dispersion and no deviation
Because, each side of prism acts as a Glass slab.
Example: A plane glass slab is kept over various coloured letters, the letter which appears least raised is:
1) Blue 2) Violet 3) Green 4) Red
t
Answer: Apparent depth of glass slab AD  refractive index nR < nV. Then apparent depth of red colour
n
is maximum and that of violet is minimum.  least raised colour is red. Option 4) is the answer..
4
Example: A point source of light is kept at a depth h in water of refractive index . The radius of the circle
3
at the surface of water through which light emits is:
3 7 3 7
1) h 2) h 3) h 4) h
7 3 7 3
68
h h
r 
2
Answer: The radius of the circular region through which light passes n 1 16
1
9
3h
r Option (1)
7
Example: White light is incident on the interface of glass and air as shown in the figure. If green light is just
totally internally reflected then the emerging ray in air contains.
Answer: Green colour grazes along the surface, therefore angle of incidence = critical angle of green.
1
sin C  . Thus when ‘n’ increases critical angle decreases. Refractive indices of violet, indigo and
n
blue are greater than that of green. So critical angle of violet, indigo and blue are less than that of green
colour. Thus violet, indigo blue undergoes internal reflection along the same path.
But for yellow, orange and red colours refractive indices are less and critical angles are larger. Therefore,
these colours undergo refraction. So answer is option (a) form Snell’s Law sin r  n sin i
sin r  n
ny  nR
 angle of refraction ry > rR
69
Example: The refracting angle of a prism is A and refractive index of the material of the prism is cot (A/2).
The angle of minimum deviation is:
1) 180o - 2A 2) 90o - A 3) 180o + 2A 4) 180o - 3A
AD
sin  
Answer:1 we have n   2 
sin  A / 2 
AD
sin  
cos  A / 2   2 
cot  A / 2   
sin  A / 2  sin  A / 2 
AD  A AD A AD

cos  A / 2   sin   or sin  90    sin    90  
 2   2  2  2 2
D  180o  2A option (1)

Example: Angle of prism is A and its one surface is silvered. Light rays falling at an angle of incidence 2A on
first surface return back through the same path after suffering reflection at silvered surface. Refractive
index of the material of the prism is:
cos A
1) 2 sin A 2) 2 cos A 3) 4) tan A
2
Answer: 2
Light retraces the path after reflection, therefore light incident normal to the silvered surface, so
r2  0 r1  A  r2  A
sin i sin 2A 2 sin A cos A

From Snell’s Law, n   
sin r1 sin A sin A
n  2 cos A
Note: When the refractive index of the prism is doubled deviation produced by a thin prism becomes more
than twice the initial value.
Proof: deviation d  A  n  1 , An  d  A
when R.I. n   2n , deviation d  A  2n  1
70
d  2An  A  2  d  A   A
d  2d  A d  2d
Example: Variation of deviation produced by a prism with angle of incidence is shown is the graph. Refracting
angle of the prism is 60o. Angle of deviation ‘d’ is:
Answer: Graph shows that deviation d is same at angles of incidence 30o and 60o.
d  i1  e1  A  i 2  e 2  A
From principle of reversibility of ray, at same deviation i and e gets interchanged
ie, i1 = e2 and i2 = e1
d  i1  e1  A  i1  i 2  A
d  30  60  60  30o
Refraction at Spherical Surface
Consider a spherical surface of radius R. The refractive indices at left and right of the surfaces are n1
and n2 respectively.
71
 and  are small for paraxial rays
 tan    and tan    and tan    . also ‘P’ and ‘M’ are very closer..
n 2 n1 n 2  n 1
  u = object distance; v = image distance; R = radius of curvature
v u R
 This equation can be used for both convex and concave surfaces by applying sign conventions
 When light incident on convex surface R is positive
 When light incident on concave surface R is negative
72
 Here pole of the surface is the origin

 Sign conventions must be applied in the above equations
n 2 n1
For a plane surface R    0
V u
2n
or V  n u
1
Magnification:
 Lateral Magnification: It is the ratio of the size of the image and object perpendicular to the principal
axis. Thus lateral magnification,
height of theimage h i
m 
height of the object h 0
sin i tan i OA IB
For small angle of incidence  
sin r tan r PO PI
h0 V
 
u h i
73
sin i n 2
From Snell’s law, 
sin r n1
h 0 v n2 h v n1
 ,  m i 
h i u n1 h0 u n 2
m is positive for erect images

m is negative for inverted images
n1
 When v  u , m   1 , ie, image size is not equal to object size.
n2
Image formed by Glass Slab
For refraction at plane surface AB
The image formed after first refraction (I1) is considered as the object of second refraction.
 Object distance u 2    t  nx  [from CD]
74
For second refraction
i.e. Shift produced by glass slab is in the direction of propagation of lights.

Image Formed by Silvered Glass slab
Silvered glass slab can be considered as the combination of a glass slab and a plane mirror.
In first refraction through glass slab shift produced to the object is towards the silvered surface and
 1
shift S  t 1   .
 n
The image formed by glass slab is considered as the object of plane mirror
75
Image formed by plane mirror is the object of second refraction through glass slab. In second refraction
direction of propagation of light and shift is towards left.  Final image distance from silvered surface
 1
V   x  t  s   s  x  t  2s  x  t  2t 1  
 n
2t
V xt
n
Thin Lenses
A lens consists of two refracting surfaces (at least one spherical) inclined at some angle. In thin lens
the spacing between the refracting surfaces is negligibly small.
The following are the terms used with the lenses:
i) Aperture: The effective width of a lens from which refraction takes place is called aperture or diameter
of the lens (AB)
ii) Optical centre: The centre of a lens is called its optical centre. It is denoted by letter P. A ray of light
passing through optical centre does not suffer any deviation.
iii) Principal or optic axis: The line joining the centres of curvatures of the lens is known as principal
axis (PA).
iv) Principal focus and focal length: A point on the principal axis at which parallel rays of light after
refraction from the lens converge or appear to diverge from it is known as focus. It is denoted by a
letter F. The distance of focal point from optical centre is known as focal length of the lens. It is denoted
by f.
Guidelines for image formation
On the basis of laws of refractions, the following rays coming from the object are usually used for
constructing ray diagram for image:
i) A ray of light coming parallel to the principal axis; after refraction from the lens will pass or appears to
pass through focus and vice-versa.
ii) A ray of light passing through the optical centre of the lens goes straight without deviation. This is
however, is true for a thin lens because the two sides of a lens at its centre are almost parallel only
when the lens is thin.
76
Sign Conventions in lens:

 Optical centre of the lens is the origin
 All the measurements in the direction of incident light are positive.
 All the measurements opposite to the direction of incident light are negative
 Upward measurements from principal axis are positive
 Downward measurements from the principal axis are negative
 Do not give sign to unknown quantities
 Focal length of converging lens is positive
 Focal length of diverging lens is negative
 Real image distance is positive
 Virtual image distance is negative
Thin lens Formulas
Consider a thins lens made of material of refractive index n2 and is situated in a medium of refractive
index n1 on its both sides. R1and R2 are the radii of curvature of the two coaxial surfaces. Suppose an
object is placed at a distance u from the optical centre of the lens.
77
An image ‘I’ is formed by refraction at the first surface of the lens, at a distance v/ from the pole of the
surface. then by refraction formula
n 2 n1 n 2  n1
 
v' u R1 ............ (1)
Lens is thin, thus separation between pole of the surfaces and optical centre of the lens are neglected.
Image formed by first refraction can be considered as the object of second refraction.
Image formed by second refraction is the image formed by the lens. For second refraction
78
This equation is known as Lens Maker’s formula. From equations (3) and (4)
* The above equations can be used for all types of thin lenses
* Sign conventions must be appliled to this equations
* The equation derived hold only for paraxial rays and for thin lenses
Sign conventions and Lens Maker’s Formula
1  n 2  1 1 
   1  
f  n1  R 1 R 2 
 This equation can be used to all the thin lenses

 Sign conventions must be applied to this equations.
79
n1 = refractive index of surrounding medium

n2 = refractive index of lens
R1, R2 = Radius of curvature
For a convex lens; R1 = +ve, R2 = -ve

Incident light
1  1 1 
i.e., For a convex lens;   1 n 2  1   
f  R1 R 2 
1  1 1  n2
  1 n 2  1    1 n2 
f  R1 R 2  n1
 For an equiconvex lens or symmetric lens, R1 = R2 = R.
1 2 R
Then,   1 n 2  1   f 
f R 2  1 n 2  1
  For a concave lens, R1 = -ve, R2 = +ve.
i.e., For a concave lens,
1  1 1 
  1 n 2  1   
f  R1 R 2 
1  2 
 For an equiconcave lens;   1 n 2  1  
f R 
R
 f
2  1 n 2  1
80
 For a plano convex lens;
R
f
1 n 2 1
 For a plano concave lens;
R
 f
1 n 2 1
 Convexo-concave lens
R1 and R 2 are positive

1 1 1 
   1 n 2  1   
f  R1 R 2 
when R 1  R 2  R
1
 0 or f  
f
Variation of ‘f’ with refractive index of the surrounding medium:

In air; n1 = 1
1  1 1 
Therefore;   n 2  1     (1)
fa  R1 R 2 
1  n 2  n1  1 1 
In medium;      (2)
f m  n1  R 1 R 2 
f m  n 2  1 n1
Eq. (1)/(2)  
fa  n 2  n1 
81
f m  n 2  1 n1
 fa = focal length in air; fm = focal length in a medium of R.I. n1
fa  n 2  n1 
When a lens is transferred from air to a medium, with refractive index less than that of the lens, then
focal length of the lens,  ses.
When n1 < n2
n1  1
 n 2  n1 
 n 2  1   
 n1 
1 1

fm fa
 fm  fa
When n1 = n2, focal length is maximum
1
0
f
f   (No refraction).
If the refractive index of the surrounding medium is greater than that of the lens (n1 > n2), then,
 n 2  n1    ve
And f reverses it sign
i.e., A converging lens in air becomes a diverging lens in the medium and vice-versa.
Note: Convex and concave lenses can produce both divergence and convergence.
82
 When a lens is cut perpendicular to the principal axis radius of curvature changes, thus focal length
changes.
For example, an equiconvex lens is cut as shown, one of the divided parts is a plano convex lens and
focal length f   2f
 When a lens is cut parallel to the principal axis, focal length does not change, complete image is
formed, but brightness or intensity of the image decreases.
 Intensity of the image formed by the lens I  cross sectional area of the lens. If ‘d’ is the diameter of
d 2
the lens, then area A  I  d 2
4
Two lenses are made up of different materials as shown in figure. In these two situations lens has
three foci and three images are formed.
Lateral/Transverse Magnification (m)

It is the ratio of the size of the image and object normal to the principal axis.
height of theimage  h i 
m
height of the object  h 0 
83
BAP and PAB are similar
AB PA  h i v
  ; 
AB PA h 0  u
ih v
or m  h  u
0
Sign convention: ‘m’ is positive for erect images and ‘m’ is negative for inverted images.
When v  u , m  1 and diminished image
When v  u , m  1 and enlarged image
when v  u , m  1 and same size image
‘m’ interms of focal length ‘f’
1 1 1 v v
  , multiply with v   1 
f v u f u
v v v f v
  1 m  1 
u f f f
1 1 1 u u
  , multiply with u    1
f v u f v
u u f u v f
 1  m 
v f f u f u
Longitudinal Magnification (mL)
When the object is placed parallel to the principal axis, longitudinal magnification,
Length of the image L i v

mL   
Length of the object L 0 u
84
dv
For small objects, m L 
du
1 1 1
We have,  
f v u
1 dv  1 
On differentiating with respect ‘u’, 0   
v 2 du  u 2 
dv v 2 dv v 2
  mL   2  m2
du u 2 du u
85
86
87
 Convex lens cannot product virtual image of a virtual object. But concave lens can produce both real
and virtual images of a virtual object.
Velocity of the image in lenses
a) Velocity of the object is parallel to the principal axis
1 1 1
  , on differentiating with respect to ‘t’
f v u
1 dv 1 du dv v 2 du
0  
v 2 dt u 2 dt dt u 2 dt
dV
= velocity of image w.r.t. lens = VIL
dt
du
= velocity of object w.r.t lens = V0L
dt
v2
  VIL   2  0L 
V  m 2  V0 L 
u
Velocity of object and image are in the same direction.
The above relation is for the instantaneous velocity
displacement of the image Vf  Vi

average velocity VaV  
time t
Vf & Vi are final and initial image positions.
v2 2
From the above relation dV  2 du  m du
u
Where du = small change in object position and dv = small change in image position.
b) Velocity of object is perpendicular to the principal axis.
When object moves perpendicular to principal axis height of the object and image from the principal
hi
axis changes. We have m 
h 0 or hi = mh0
dh i dh
 m 0  VIL   m  V0L 
dt dt
 VIL  and  V0L   are the velocities of image and object perpendicular to the principal axis.
 For a convex lens, the minimum separation between object and its real image is 4f. Where f is the
focal length of the lens.
88
Proof:
u = object distance
V = image distance
D = separation between object and image or screen.
1 1 1 1 1
From mirror equation    
f V u D  u u
1 uDu D
 
f u  D  u  uD  u 2
 uD  u 2  fD or u 2  uD  fD  0
This is a quadratic equation in u. For real values of u b 2  4ac  0
D2  4 1 fD   0
D2  4 f D or D  4 f
Thus D min  4 f
D D
Similarly, focal length of the lens to get an image on the screen f  f max 
4 4
Displacement Method:
In displacement method, object and screen are fixed but position of the lens is displaced to produce 2
images, in which one is enlarged and other is diminished.
89
On solving, v 2  u1 and u 2  v1
From diagram, u 1 + d + v2 = D
2u1 + d = D
Dd
u1   object distance.
2
v1 = D - u 1
Dd
v1   image distance.
2
1 1 1 1 1 2  2D 
     2
f v1 u1 D  d  D  d  D  d2
 
2  2 
D2  d 2
f
4D
v1 D  d
m1  
u1 D  d
v 2 D  d magnifications
m2  
u2 D  d
h1h 2  m1h 0  m 2 h 0
h1h 2  h 02
90
h 0  h1h 2 (Relation between height of the object and heights of the images). If the area of the object
is perpendicular to the principal axis, then the area of the images,
2
A1  m12 A 0 and A 2  m 22 A 0 A1A 2   m1m 2  A 02  A 02  A 0  A1A 2
d
Also focal length
f
m1  m 2
DEVIATION PRODUCED BY A LENS

Consider a ray OB coming from the object and incident at a height h on the lens of focal length f. The
ray intersect the principal axis at I. So the deviation  produced by the lens.
  BOP  BIP
  
h h
For small angles   tan   and   tan  
u v
h h 1 1 h
   or   h    or  
u v v u f
The above formula holds for the rays, for which h is small.
Power of a Lens
When light ray is incident on a lens, it bends either towards the principal axis (in convex lens) or away
from the principal axis (in concave lens). The ability of a lens to bend the ray towards the principal axis
is called power of the lens.
The power P of a lens is defined as the tangent of the angle by which it converges or diverges a beam
of light falling at unit distant from the optical centre
91
h 1 1
tan   ; if h = 1 tan   or   for small value of  . Thus,
f f f
1
P
f
The SI unit for power of a lens is dioptre (D): ID = 1m-1. The power of a lens of focal length of 1 metre
is one dioptre. Power of a lens is positive for a converging lens and negative for a diverging lens. Thus,
when an optician prescribes a corrective lens of power +2.5D, the required lens is a convex lens of
focal length +40 cm. A lens of power of -4.0 D means a concave lens of focal length -25 cm.
Power of a lens in a medium
n med
P
f med
where, nmed = R.I. of surrounding medium fmed = focal length in the medium
Combined Focal Length
i) Two lenses are placed in contact
Consider two thin lenses of focal lengths f 1 and f2 are placed in contact on the same optic axis. An
object O is placed at a distance u from the lenses. The image I1 formed by first lens becomes the
object for second lens; second lens forms the image I at a distance v from it. If v1 is the distance of I1,
then for first lens;
92
1 1 1
  ....(i)
v1 u f1
1 1 1
For the second lens;   ....(ii)
v v1 f 2
1 1 1 1
Adding equations (i) and (ii), we get    ....(iii)
v u f1 f 2
1 1 1
If fe is the focal length of the equivalent lens, then   ....(iv)
v u fe
1 1 1
On comparing equations (iii) and (iv), we get   ....(14)
f e f1 f 2
Also equivalent power; P  P1  P2 ....(15)

The above formulas are applicable to any type and any number of thin lenses in contact.
1 1 1 1
For ‘n’ thin lenses in contact,    .... 
f e f1 f 2 f n and equivalent power P = P1 + P2 + .... + Pn
Note: Proper sign conventions must be applied in this equations.
 f1, f2, ... are the focal lengths of each lens, when they are separately placed in the medium.
ii) Total Magnification
Suppose m1 and m2 are the magnifications produced by lenses separately. For the first lens
I1
 m1
O
 I1  m1O .
The image formed by first lens becomes the object for second lens, and so O 2  I1  m1O , and
I2
 m2
O2
I2
or  m2
m1O
I2
or  m1m 2 ....(i)
O
93
If M is the total magnification produced by the system, then
I2
M ....(ii)
O
On comparing equations (i) and (ii), we get
M= m1m2.
For n-thin lenses, we can write M  m1  m 2  ......  m n
iii) Two lenses separated by a finite distance

Let two lenses of focal lengths f1 and f2 are placed on the same optic axis at a separation d.
1 1 1 d
  
f e f1 f 2 f1 f 2
Equivalent power; P  P1  P2  d P1P2
Special case: If parallel incident ray on first lens emerges parallel from the second lens, then f e   .
1 1 1 d
   
 f1 f 2 f1 f 2
or d  f1  f 2
i) If both the lenses are convex, then d  f1  f 2
ii) If second lens is concave, then d  f1    f 2   f1  f 2
Note: To find out the position and nature of final image formed by combination of lenses, image formed
by each lens is considered as the virtual object of each lens in the next stage.
Spherical Abberration:
When light rays incident parallel to the principal axis of a lens or a mirror, the marginal rays do not
coverage or diverge to a single point on the principal axis; therefore, the image formed is blurred. This
is called spherical abberration.
94
Corrective Methods:
1. By the use of ‘stops’ which cut off the marginal rays
2. By the use of two Planoconvex lenses separated by a distance, d  f1  f 2
3. For mirrors, parabolic reflectors an be used.

Chromatic Abberation:
When different colours of light incident parallel to the principal axis of a lens, different colours focused
at different points on the principal axis due to the dispersion of light. Therefore, the image formed is
blurred. This is called chromatic abberation.
1 1 1 
  n  1   
f  R R2 
nv > nR
1 1 1 
 f v  f R , power P > P and deviation d > d   n  1     change
v R v R f  R1 R 2 
1 1 1  1 1 1 
     n  0     or      n v  n R    
 f  R1 R 2  f   R1 R 2 

but n v  n R   n y  1
95
1 1 1 
      n y  1   
f   R1 R 2 
1 
  
 f  fy
Longitudinal Chromatic Abberation:
f R  f v  f y
 n v  nR 
where,  = dispersive power 
n y  1
 n  nR 
f R  fv   v  f y
 n 1
 y 
Corrective Methods:
1. By the use of Achromatic Doublet (It is the combination of a convex and concave lens placed in contact)
Condition of achromatism:
1 1
Total change in focal length produced by the two lenses is zero.        0
 1   f2 
f
1 2
  0 or  P   P  0
f1 f 2 1 1 2 2
1  f1  P2
 
2 f2 P1
Focal length of Achromatic Doublet ‘f’.

96
1 1 1
 
f f1 f 2 or Power, P  P1  P2
2  1   2
on solving f1  f and f 2  1 f
2 1
Note: Crown glass lens is convex, so f1 is positive

flint glass lens is concave, so f2 is negative
If equivalent lens is converging, then equivalent power is positive. So P1 > P2 and f1 < f2.
2 f1  1 f 2
2. By combination of two convex lenses separated by a distance; d  1  2 if 1  2 , then;
f1  f 2
d
2
3. By the use of a single lens (concavo-convex or convexo-cocave) with equal radii of curvature.
When R1 = R2 = R focal length is  for all the colours of light.

Lens with One Silvered Surface
If the back surface of a lens is silvered and an object is placed in front of it then:
1. First, light will pass through the lens and it will form the image I1.
2. The image I1 will act as an object for silvered surface which acts as curved mirror and forms an image
I2 of object I1.
3. The light after reflection from silvered surface will again pass through the lens and will form final image
I3 of object I2.
In such a situation, power of the silvered lens will be P  PL  PM  PL P  2PL  PM with
1 1
PL  , PM  
fL fM
97
1 1 2
Therefore, the silvered lens finally behaves as a mirror with an effective focal length of f  f  f
e m L
Here, fm is the focal length of the mirror and fL is the focal length of the lens.
Thus in solving the problems of silvered lens, first find the focal length by using the above formula and
1 1 1
then use mirror formula;  
u v fe
If Fe is -ve, then equivalent mirror is converging and if F is +ve, then equivalent mirror is diverging.
Silverd plano-convex lens
Case (I): Plane surface silvered:
1 1
   1  
fL R
R
fm  
2
98
1 1 2 2
   0
F fm fL fL
 FL R
F or
F
2 2    1
Case (II): Curve surface silvered:
1 1
   1  
fL R
R
fm  
2
1 1 2
 
F fm f L
1 2  n  1 R
 2 F
F R R 2
Silvered equiconvex lens
1 1 2 2 2  n  1
=    2
f f m fL R R
99
R R
f  
2  4n 4n  2
f is negative  it is equivalent to a concave mirror
1
Power P  
f
4n  2
P
R
Silvered equiconcave lens
1 1 2 2 2  n  1
    2
f fm fL R R
R
f=
4n - 2
f is positive,  it is a convex mirror
Human Eye:
Power of the eye, P = Power of the cornea + Power of the eye lens
P  Pcornea  Peyelens
 Far point of a normal eye is at infinity

 Near point of the normal eye is at 25cm (Least distance of distinct vision).
 Power of the eye and its strain is minimum, when object is at infinity or when the incident rays are
parallel. Therefore at this position eye is said to be in the relaxed position.
 Power is maximum when object is at near point.
 Objects are observable when the light rays converges at retina. Thus separation between the eye lens
and retina (d) can be taken as the image distance. So focal length ‘f’ of the eye,
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
  ,   and power P  .
f v u f d u f
 When object is at infinity  u    , power is minimum and focal length is maximum.
100
1 1 1 1 1
    f max  d
f max v u d 
1 1
Pmin  
fmax d
 When object is at near point u = -25 cm = -0.25m
1 1 1 1 1 1
    Pmax 
f min v u d 0.25 f min
 Power of accommodation of eye, which is the maximum change in power of eye

P  Pmax  Pmin
Eye changes its power by changing the power of the eye lens, which is caused by ciliary muscles.
Defects of Eye:
1) Myopia/Short sight:
Far point of the defected eye is less than infinity
Cause: Eye ball is elongated,  light from distant objects focussed infront of the retina.
Corrective lens = Concave/diverging lens
corrective lens produces a virtual image of the object at the far point of the defective eye. Therefore,
power of the lens:
1 1 1
P  
f v u
u = Object dist./ 
v = distance to the far point of the eye
u and v  -ve
101
power lens P  -ve (diverging).

2) Hypermetropia (Long sight):
Near point of the defective eye is greater than 25cm.

Cause: f of eye lens is too large, therefore light from near by objects focused behind the retina or eye
ball is short.
Corrective lens = concave/converging
Corrective lens produces a virtual image at the near point of the defected eye.
1 1 1
Power, P   
f v u
u = object distance  if not given, u = 25cm (Near point distance of normal eye).
v = Near point of defective eye
u and v  -ve
P  +ve (converging)
3) Presbyopia:
Due to the weakening of ciliary muscles, eye lens cannot change its focal length according to the
incident light.
Corrective lens: Bifocal lens (in which lower part is convex and upper part is concave)
4) Astigmatism:
Due to the defect in curvature of the cornea, light from different directions cannot be focused at a time.
Corrective lens: Cylindrical lens
Visual Angle:
 The angle made by light from the object or image at the eye is called visual angle.
size of the object or image appears to increase with the visual angle.
102
 This is the working principle of Telescope & Microscope.
Microscope:
Simple Microscope:
A converging lens is used for magnification.
Angular Magnification:
It is the angle made by the image at the eye/lens divided by angle made by object at eye/lens

M

h
From the figure; tan   
u
h
similarly; tan   
D
 D
 M u
1) Near Point Adjustment:

In near point adjustment, image formed at least distance of distinct vision on near point (25 cm).
ih v
We have, Linear Magnification, m  h  u
0
103
D
And Angular Magnification M 
u
Therefore, Angular magnification = Linear magnification only when v = D (ie, in near point adjustment)
 Here m  M (near point adjustment)
f v
Hence, M  putting v = -D,
f
f D D
M  1 (maximum)
f f
Image formed is virtual, erect and enlarged
2) Far point Adjustment/Normal Adjustment:
Image is formed at infinity, therefore, object is at focus.
Here, u = F
D D D
So, M   M
u f f
Magnification depends on both u and f
 Image formed is virtual, erect and enlarged.
 If d is the separation between observer and the lens;
 Dd 
Then; M  1    (since v = D-d]
 F 
Compound Microscope:
Two converging lenses are used for magnification. Focal length of the eye piece is slightly greater than
that object lens.
1) Near Point Adjustment:
Final image formed by the eyepiece is at near point of the normal eye (25 cm).
104
Separation between 2nd focus of the objective and 1st focus of the eyepiece is called Tube length (L) of
the microscope.
h v0
Linear Magnification of the objective lens: M 0  h  u
0
u 0 f0  v0
M0  
v0 f0
Total magnification; M = M0 Me
M0 = linear magnification of objective and
Me = angular magnification of the eye piece
u0  D
M 1   (Eye piece is equivalent to simple microscope)
v0  fe 
Separation between objective and eye piece:
S  f0  L  fe
or S  v 0  u e
Image formed by the objective is Real, inverted and enlarged. Final image formed (by eye piece) is
virtual, inverted and enlarged.
105
2) Normal setting/far point Adjustment

Final image formed by the eye piece is at infinity.
From the diagram Final image at infinity
h h h L
  M0  
f0 L h f0
Magnification, M = M0Me
L D v0  D 
M   M  
f 0  fe  u 0  fe 
Separation between the lenses,
S  f0  L  fe
S  v0  fe
Note: Separation between objective and eye piece is also considered as the length of the microscope.
Telescope:
There are two types of Telescopes - Refractive and Reflective
 In reflective type, objective is a mirror
 In refractive type, objective is a lens
 Reflective is better than refractive
Reasons:
Advantages of Reflective Telescope:
1) It is free from chromatic abberration
106
2) Spherical abberration can be solved easily, (using parabolic reflectors)

3) Mechanical support required is less because mirror is lighter than lens
4) Easy to make a mirror of large aperture
Eg. for Reflective:
1) Newtonian Telescope
2) Cassegrain Telescope
Eg. for Refractive:
1) Astronomical
2) Terrestrial
3) Galilean telescope
Astronomical Telescope
Two converging lenses are used for magnification.
Focal length and aperture of objective lens > that of eye pieces
In telescope; f0 >>>fe
1) Normal Adjustment/Far Point Adjustment
Final image is formed by the eye piece is at infinity, therefore object of the eye piece is at its focus.
 Angular size of image

Angular Magnification, M  
 Angular size of object
h
From the diagram; tan    
f0
107
h
tan    
fe
f0
 M
fe
 Separation between objective and eye piece is called length of the telescope.
L  f0  f e
 If the object is not at infinity;
Then; L  v0  f e
 Image formed by the objective is Real, inverted and diminished

 Final image formed is; virtual, inverted and enlarged
2) Near point Adjustment:
Final image is formed at near point (25 cm).
Angular magnification of telescope is defined as:
angle subtended by image   

M
anglesubtended by object at eye   
For distant object, the angle forms by object at objective lens is nearly same as that at eye, and so

M

108
  A1B1 /   u e  f
From the figure,   0
  A1B1 / f 0 ue
f0
 M ...(i)
ue
For eye piece; u   u e , v   ve and f   f e
1 1 1
By lens formula,   , we have
v u f
1 1 1
 
ve u e fe
1 1 1
or  
u e fe ve
1 fe 
 1  
fe  ve 
f0  fe 
From equation (i), we have M  1   ...(1)
fe  ve 
When final image is formed at near point

Ve = D
f0  f 
 M  1 e  ...(2)
fe  D 
Length of the telescope is equal to the distance between the lenses and so L  f 0  u e
Terrestrial telescope
The astronomical telescope forms inverted image and so it is not useful for viewing ground objects like
cricket match. To get erect image terrestrial telescope is commonly used. In terrestrial telescope an
erecting lens is fitted between objective and eyepiece. By doing so terrestrial telescope will produce
erect image. The erecting lens is adjusted in such a way that it produces magnification of –1. So
magnification derived for astronomical telescope can be used for terrestrial telescope also.
109
For two adjustments, the angular magnification is given by

i) When final image is formed at near point
f0  f 
ve = D, M  1 e 
fe  D 
and L  f 0  4 f +ue
ii) When final image is formed at infinity
f0
ve   M
fe
and L  f0  4 f + fe
Rainbow
Rainbow is produced due to the dispersion of light by small raindrops floating in the air after rain. The
rainbow is seen when the sun is behind the observer.
110
111
(i) Primary rainbow: The primary rainbow is formed when sun light suffers one reflection and two
refractions before emerging from water droplets. In this case the violet colour is on the lower side and
red colour is on upper side of the rainbow. It has been observed that violet colour makes an angle 40o
and red makes and angle 42o at eye with the axis of rainbow (see figure)
(ii) Secondary rainbow: Sometimes secondary rainbow which is fainter than primary rainbow is also
observed. This is formed by the sunrays which suffer two internal reflections and two refractions from
the water droplets and giving rise violet colour on upperside and red on lower side of the rainbow (see
figure).
Scattering & Blue Sky
When light is incident on small particles, it is absorbed by them. This absorbed light is then sends into
all directions. This phenomenon is called scattering. The blue of the sky and the red of the sunset are
due to scattering.
Rayleigh's Law of Scattering
1
Intensity of scattered light, I is proportional to when, size of particle is less than the wavelength of
4
light    .
1
i.e. I 
4
According to this law the light of short waves (violet) is scattered about ten times as the longer waves
of red light. Thus when sun light enters the earth’s atmosphere, violet and blue light are scattered the
most, followed by green, yellow, orange and red.
The red sunset
At sunrise or sunset, the sun’s rays have to pass through a larger distance in the atmosphere. Most of
the blue and other shorter wavelengths are removed by scattering. The least scattered light reaching
our eye, therefore the sun looks reddish. This explains the reddish appearance of the sun near the
horizon.
112
 Blue colour of the deep sea is also due to scattering of light

 Clouds appear white due to scattering, where particle size is larger than wavelength and scattering
amount is same for all the colours.
Example :
Answer : We will have to consider two refractions; first at S1 and the second at the surface S2.
For refraction at surface S1:
 Image formed in first refraction is at 160 cm to the right of the first surface. Image formed in first
refraction is considered as the vitual object of the second refraction. In second refraction distances
are measured from the pole of the surface S2.
113
V2 = +204 cm, i.e. final image is formed at 204 cm to the right of the pole of the second surface.
Example :
114
Answer : For refraction at spherical surface
Example : Deviation produced by a glass sphere
Thus from Snell’s law angle of emergence e = angle of incidence i

Total deviation is the angle between the incident ray and emergent ray.
d = deviation at first refraction + deviation at second refraction
d  i  r    e  r '  i  r    i  r 
d  2 i  r 
Example :
115
Answer : The arrangement consists of combination of three lenses. The thin water layer forms an
equiconcave lens.
Given that f1 = f3 = f
Example :
R
Answer : Focal length of the silvered lens f 
2n
116
30
f  10cm .  Silvered lens is a cocave mirror of focal length 10cm. Thus when image size =
2  1.5
object distance, object is at centre of curvature  u = 2f = 20cm
Example :
Example :
117
Example :
Answer : L1 and L2 are the principal axes of the lenses. For both the lenses object distance u = –30 cm
1 1 1 1 1
    v  60cm
v f u 20 30
118
For lens A height of the object h1 = –0.05 cm

–ve sign shows that object is below the principal axis
v 60
Magnification m    2
u 30
 height of the image, y  mh1   2  0.05   0.1cm

i.e. 0.1cm above the principal axis.
For lens B object is above principal axis
 height of the object h2 = +0.05cm
height of the image y  mh 2  2  0.05  0.1cm
Thus separation between the images
I1I2  2  0.05  2y  0.1  0.2  0.3cm

Ray diagram is shown below
Example :
119
Example :
120
Answer : 2.25 m/s
121
Example :
122
Answer : A
Example :
123
Answer : A,C,D
124
125

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BBrilliant STUDY CENTRE REPEATERS PHYSICS (ONLINE) -2021

Different theories of light

eg. Light from a point source near to it

1) angle of incidence is always equal to angle of reflection (i = r)

d  180  2i , direction of deviation is from incident ray to reflected ray

Phase difference due to reflection

angle of rotation of reflected ray

Velocity of image, when object and mirror are in motion

Velocity of object parallel to the mirror

Velocity of mirror normal to its plane

I A1 , I A 2 , I A3 , ..... are the imaes formed by A

I B1 , I B2 , I B3 , ..... are the images formed by B

Law of Reflection of light from a mirror in vector form

In the above situation,

ê1 = unit vector along the incident ray

ê2 = unit vector along the reflected ray

n̂ = unit vector along outside normal

Since, eˆ1  eˆ 2  1, eˆ1  1 sin ˆt  1 cos nˆ

eˆ1  sin ˆt  cos nˆ

and eˆ 2  sin ˆt  cos nˆ

So, eˆ 2  eˆ1   2 cos   nˆ or eˆ 2  eˆ1  2cos nˆ

eˆ1.nˆ  11 cos        cos 

Vector form of law of reflection.

Answer : The normal unit vector to the plane mirror is n̂  iˆ

eˆ 2  eˆ1  2  eˆ1 .nˆ  nˆ

  1 ˆi  3jˆ  .  ˆi  3jˆ 

but   180  2i, 120  180  2i, i  30o

From similar MM / I and PQI

angle between velocities of images is 2

EM1M 2 and EH ' F' are similar

M1M 2 z ' '

x ' = height of the image of person observed by the person

Pole (P) : The centre of the reflective surface.

Sign Conventions in Mirror :

 Focal length of a concave or converging mirror is negative

from  CDB and  ADB CD = DA  AC = 2CD

Marginal Rays : For marginal rays  is large

 is very small. Thus for paraxial rays

From law of reflection, i = r, therefore       ,     2......... 1

For paraxial rays B is closer to P, so M is also closer to P. Thus MO = –u, MC = -R & mI = –v

size of the image

height of the image h i

‘m’ is negative for inverted images

v  u , m 1, image is diminished

v  u , m  1, same size image

‘m’ in terms of focal length

Length of the image L i

area of the image A i

height of the image h i  mh 0

width of the image Wi  mW0

So area of the image A i  h i Wi  m 2 h 0 W0

Velocity of the image in spherical mirrors

Negfative sign shows that image velocity is opposite to object velocity

displacement of the image v f  vi

Vf  Vi are final and initial image positions

length of the image

See figure. For small aperture mirror, and in similar triangles

Uses of Spherical mirror

Cutting of spherical mirror

a) Spherical aberration in concave mirror b) No spherical aberration