ABSTRACT ALGEBRA:

A STUDY GUIDE
FOR BEGINNERS

John A. Beachy

Northern Illinois University

2013
Contents

PREFACE vi

1 INTEGERS 1
1.1 Divisors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Primes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Congruences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4 Integers Modulo n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Review problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

2 FUNCTIONS 13
2.1 Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2 Equivalence Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.3 Permutations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Review problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

3 GROUPS 23
3.1 Definition of a Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.2 Subgroups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.3 Constructing Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.4 Isomorphisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.5 Cyclic Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.6 Permutation Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.7 Homomorphisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.8 Cosets, Normal Subgroups, and Factor Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Review problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

4 POLYNOMIALS 51
4.1 Fields; Roots of Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.2 Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.3 Existence of Roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.4 Polynomials over Z, Q, R, and C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Review problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

iii
8 J.A.Beachy CHAPTER 1. INTEGERS

57.†Solve the following system of congruences.

2x ≡ 3 (mod 7) x ≡ 4 (mod 6) 5x ≡ 50 (mod 55)

58. Prove that if the system

x ≡ 1 (mod m) x ≡ 0 (mod n)
has a solution, then m and n are relatively prime.
59.†Use congruences to prove that 52n − 1 is divisible by 24, for all positive integers n.
Note: This is Problem 1.1.38, which at that point required a proof by induction.
60. Prove that n5 − n is divisible by 30, for all integers n.
n m
61.†Prove that if 0 < n < m, then 22 + 1 and 22 + 1 are relatively prime.

1.4 Integers Modulo n

The ideas in this section allow us to work with equations instead of congruences, provided
we think in terms of equivalence classes. To be more precise, any linear congruence of the
form
ax ≡ b (mod n)
can be viewed as an equation in Zn , written
[a]n [x]n = [b]n .
This gives you one more way to view problems involving congruences. Sometimes it
helps to have various ways to think about a problem, and it is worthwhile to learn all
of the approaches, so that you can easily shift back and forth between them, and choose
whichever approach is the most convenient. For example, trying to divide by a in the
congruence ax ≡ b (mod n) can get you into trouble unless gcd(a, n) = 1. Instead of
thinking in terms of division, it is probably better to think of multiplying both sides of the
equation [a]n [x]n = [b]n by [a]−1 −1
n , provided [a]n exists.
It is well worth your time to learn about the sets Zn and Z× n . They will provide an
important source of examples in Chapter 3, when we begin studying groups. We should
mention that we can use negative exponents in Z× n , because if k < 0 and [x]n 6= [0]n , we
can define [x]kn = ([x]−1
n ) |k| .

The exercises for Section 1.4 of the text contain several definitions for elements of Zn .
If (a, n) = 1, then the smallest positive integer k such that ak ≡ 1 (mod n) is called the
multiplicative order of [a] in Z× ×
n . The set Zn is said to be cyclic if it contains an element of
multiplicative order ϕ(n). Since |Z× ×
n | = ϕ(n), this is equivalent to saying that Zn is cyclic
×
if has an element [a] such that each element of Zn is equal to some power of [a]. Finally,
the element [a] ∈ Zn is said to be idempotent if [a]2 = [a], and nilpotent if [a]k = [0] for
some k.
1.4. INTEGERS MODULO N J.A.Beachy 9

SOLVED PROBLEMS: §1.4

31. Find the multiplicative inverse of each nonzero element of Z7 .

32. Find the multiplicative inverse of each nonzero element of Z13 .

33. Find the multiplicative order of each element of Z×

7.

34. Find the multiplicative order of each element of Z×

9.

35. Find [91]−1 ×

501 , if possible (in Z501 ).

36. Find [3379]−1 ×

4061 , if possible (in Z4061 ).

37. In Z20 : find all units (list the multiplicative inverse of each); find all idempotent
elements; find all nilpotent elements.

38. Show that Z×

17 is cyclic.

j
39. Show that Z× i
35 is not cyclic but that each element has the form [8]35 [−4]35 , for some
positive integers i, j.

40. Solve the equation [x]211 + [x]11 − [6]11 = [0]11 .

41. Prove that [a]n is a nilpotent element of Zn if and only if each prime divisor of n is a
divisor of a.

42. Show that if n > 1 is an odd integer, then ϕ(2n) = ϕ(n).

MORE PROBLEMS: §1.4

43.†Make multiplication tables for the following sets.

(a) Z×
9

(b) Z×
10

(c) Z×
12

(d) Z×
14

44. Find the multiplicative inverses of the given elements (if possible).
†(a) [12] in Z15
(b) [14] in Z15
†(c) [7] in Z15
(d) [12] in Z23
(e) [14] in Z32
10 J.A.Beachy CHAPTER 1. INTEGERS

45. Find the multiplicative orders of the following elements.

(a) [5] and [7] in Z×
16
†(b) [5] and [7] in Z×
17
(c) [5] and [7] in Z×
18

46. Find the multiplicative order of each element of the following sets.
(a) Z×
8
†(b) Z×
10
(c) Z×
11

47.†Is Z×
14 cyclic?

48.†Is Z×
16 cyclic?

49.†Is Z×
18 cyclic?

50. Find all idempotent elements in the following sets.

†(a) Z14
(b) Z16

51. Find all nilpotent elements in the following sets.

(a) Z14
(b) Z16

52.†In Z24 : find all units (list the multiplicative inverse of each); find all idempotent
elements; find all nilpotent elements.

53.†Find {n ∈ Z+ | ϕ(n) = 2} and {n ∈ Z+ | ϕ(n) = 4}.

54. Prove that if m, n are positive integers with m | n, then ϕ(m) | ϕ(n).

55. Show that n = 7, 9, 14, 18 are the only positive integers n such that ϕ(n) = 6.

56. Use Fermat’s “little” theorem (Corollary 1.4.12) to prove that n5 − n is divisible by
30, for all integers n.

Chapter 1 Review Problems

1. Prove that if a, b, c are integers for which b | a and b | (a − c), then b | c.

2. Find gcd(7605, 5733), and express it as a linear combination of 7605 and 5733.

3. Find the prime factorizations of 1275 and 495 and use them to find gcd(1275, 495).
1.4. INTEGERS MODULO N J.A.Beachy 11

4. Find ϕ(1275) and ϕ(495).

5. Solve the congruence 24x ≡ 168 (mod 200).

6. Find the additive order of 168 modulo 200.

7. Solve the system of congruences 2x ≡ 9 (mod 15) x ≡ 8 (mod 11) .

8. Find [50]−1 −1 ×
501 and [51]501 , if possible (in Z501 ).

9. List the elements of Z×

15 . For each element, find its multiplicative inverse, and find its
multiplicative order.

10. Show that 3n + 4n − 1 is divisible by 6, for any positive integer n.

2.3. PERMUTATIONS J.A.Beachy 19

30.†Let ∼ be an equivalence relation on the set S. Show that [a] = [b] if and only if a ∼ b.

2.3 Permutations
This section introduces and studies the last major example that we need before we begin
studying groups in Chapter 3. You need to do enough computations so that you will feel
comfortable in dealing with permutations.
If you are reading another book along with Abstract Algebra, you need to be aware
that some authors multiply permutations by reading from left to right, instead of the way
we have defined multiplication. Our point of view is that permutations are functions, and
we write functions on the left, just as in calculus, so we have to do the computations from
right to left.
In the text we noted that if S is any set, and Sym(S) is the set of all permutations
on S, then we have the following properties. (i) If σ, τ ∈ Sym(S), then τ σ ∈ Sym(S); (ii)
1S ∈ Sym(S); (iii) if σ ∈ Sym(S), then σ −1 ∈ Sym(S). In two of the problems, we need the
following definition.

If G is a nonempty subset of Sym(S), we will say that G is a group of permutations if

the following conditions hold.
(i) If σ, τ ∈ G, then τ σ ∈ G;
(ii) 1S ∈ G;
(iii) if σ ∈ G, then σ −1 ∈ G.
We will see later that this agrees with Definition 3.6.1 of the text.

SOLVED PROBLEMS: §2.3

 
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
17. For the permutation σ = , write σ as a product of
7 5 6 9 2 4 8 1 3
disjoint cycles. What is the order of σ? Write σ as a product of transpositions. Is σ
an even permutation? Compute σ −1 .
 
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
18. For the permutations σ = and
2 5 1 8 3 6 4 7 9
 
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
τ = , write each of these permutations as a product
1 5 4 7 2 6 8 9 3
of disjoint cycles: σ, τ , στ , στ σ −1 , σ −1 , τ −1 , τ σ, τ στ −1 .
19. Let σ = (2, 4, 9, 7, )(6, 4, 2, 5, 9)(1, 6)(3, 8, 6) ∈ S9 . Write σ as a product of disjoint
cycles. What is the order of σ? Compute σ −1 .
 
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
20. Compute the order of τ = . For σ =
7 2 11 4 6 8 9 10 1 3 5
(3, 8, 7), compute the order of στ σ −1 .
20 J.A.Beachy CHAPTER 2. FUNCTIONS

21. Prove that if τ ∈ Sn is a permutation with order m, then στ σ −1 has order m, for any
permutation σ ∈ Sn .
22. Show that S10 has elements of order 10, 12, and 14, but not 11 or 13.
23. Let S be a set, and let X ⊆ S. Let G = {σ ∈ Sym(S) | σ(X) = X}. Prove that G is
a group of permutations.
24. Let G be a group of permutations, with G ⊆ Sym(S), for the set S. Let τ be a fixed
permutation in Sym(S). Prove that
τ Gτ −1 = {σ ∈ Sym(S) | σ = τ γτ −1 for some γ ∈ G}
is a group of permutations.

MORE PROBLEMS: §2.3

25. Consider the following permutations in S7 .

   
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
σ= and τ =
3 2 5 4 6 1 7 2 1 5 7 4 6 3
Compute the following products.
†(a) στ (b) τ σ †(c) στ σ −1 (d) τ στ −1
26.†Using the permutations σ and τ from Problem 25, write each of the permutations στ ,
τ σ, τ 2 σ, σ −1 , στ σ −1 , τ στ −1 and τ −1 στ as a product of disjoint cycles. Write σ and
τ as products of transpositions.
 
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
27. Write as a product of disjoint cycles and as a
3 4 10 5 7 8 2 6 9 1
product of transpositions. Construct its associated diagram, find its inverse, and find
its order.
28. Let σ = (3, 6, 8)(1, 9, 4, 3, 2, 7, 6, 8, 5)(2, 3, 9, 7) ∈ S9 .
(a) Write σ as a product of disjoint cycles.
†(b) Is σ an even permutation or an odd permutation?
†(c) What is the order of σ in S9 ?
(d) Compute σ −1 in S9 .
29. Let σ = (2, 3, 9, 6)(7, 3, 2, 5, 9)(1, 7)(4, 8, 7) ∈ S9 .
(a) Write σ as a product of disjoint cycles.
†(b) Is σ an even permutation or an odd permutation?
†(c) What is the order of σ in S9 ?
(d) Compute σ −1 in S9 .
30. Find a formula for the number of cycles of length m in Sn , for 2 ≤ m ≤ n.
2.3. PERMUTATIONS J.A.Beachy 21

Chapter 2 Review Problems

1. For the function f : Z16 → Z16 defined by f ([x]16 ) = [x2 ]16 , for all [x]16 ∈ Z16 ,
describe the equivalence relation ∼f on Z16 that is determined by f .

2. Define f : Z7 → Z7 by f ([x]7 ) = [x3 + 3x − 5]7 , for all [x]7 ∈ Z7 . Is f a one-to-one

correspondence?

3. On the set Q of rational numbers, define x ∼ y if x − y is an integer. Show that ∼ is

an equivalence relation.

4. In S10 , let α = (1, 3, 5, 7, 9), β = (1, 2, 6), and γ = (1, 2, 5, 3). For σ = αβγ, write σ
as a product of disjoint cycles, and use this to find its order and its inverse. Is σ even
or odd?

5. Define the function φ : Z× × −1 ×

17 → Z17 by φ(x) = x , for all x ∈ Z17 . Is φ one to one? Is
φ onto? If possible, find the inverse function φ−1 .

6. (a) Let α be a fixed element of Sn . Show that φα : Sn → Sn defined by φα (σ) = ασα−1 ,

for all σ ∈ Sn , is a one-to-one and onto function.
(b) In S3 , let α = (1, 2). Compute φα .

7. Let S be the set of all n × n matrices with real entries. For A, B ∈ S, define A ∼ B
if there exists an invertible matrix P such that B = P AP −1 . Prove that ∼ is an
equivalence relation.

8. Show that Sn contains n(n − 1)/2 transpositions.

Chapter 3

GROUPS

The study of groups, which we begin in this chapter, is usually thought of as the real
beginning of abstract algebra. The step from arithmetic to algebra involves starting to use
variables, which just represent various numbers. But the operations are still the usual ones
for numbers, addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.
The step from algebra to abstract algebra involves letting the operation act like a vari-
able. At first we will use ∗ or · to represent an operation, to show that ∗ might represent
ordinary addition or multiplication, or possibly operations on matrices or functions, or
maybe even something quite far from your experience. One of the things we try to do with
notation is to make it look familiar, even if it represents something new; very soon we will
just write ab instead of a ∗ b, assuming that everyone knows the convention that we are
using.
Our general approach in the text is to study specific examples before giving an abstract
definition. In particular, you have studied the “most typical” groups in Section 2.3. Sec-
tion 2.3 of the Study Guide includes the definition of a group of permutations, a preview
of Definition 3.6.1. Theorem 3.6.2 shows that every group is isomorphic to a group of
permutations. Here the term “isomorphic to” means that there is a one-to-one correspon-
dence between the two sets that preserves the algebraic structure, so the elements of the
two groups behave the same way, but may be named differently. (See Definition 3.4.1 for
the formal definition.) You will also see that Z and Zn serve as examples for the class of
“cyclic” groups, since Theorem 3.5.2 shows that any cyclic group is isomorphic to Z or Zn ,
for some n. (Recall from Section 1.4 that Z× n is said to be cyclic if it contains an element
[a]n of multiplicative order ϕ(n), so that it consists of all powers of [a]n .)
If you would like to know more about the history of group theory, I would suggest
that you look at the online resource The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive. This
web site is maintained by St. Andrew’s University, in Scotland. In their section on the
history of group theory, you will find a discussion of various attempts to find appropriate
axioms to describe the notion of a group, which had come up in several different areas of
mathematics. There is a close tie to Galois theory, and if you take the time to read the
historical background and the notes at the ends of sections in our text, you will begin to
understand the connection. The process the ended in the formal definition of a group given
in Definition 3.1.4 took about fifty years. No wonder it may seem a bit mysterious at first!

23
24 J.A.Beachy CHAPTER 3. GROUPS

3.1 Definition of a Group

This section contains the definitions of a binary operation, a group, an abelian group, and
a finite group. These definitions provide the language you will be working with, and you
simply must know this language. Try to learn it so well that you don’t have even a trace
of an accent!
Loosely, a group is a set on which it is possible to define an associative binary operation
that has an identity element, and which includes inverses for each of its elements. The
precise statement is given in Definition 3.1.4; you must pay careful attention to each part,
especially the quantifiers (“for all”, “for each”, “there exists”), which must be stated in
exactly the right order.
From one point of view, the axioms for a group give us just what we need to work
with equations involving the operation in the group. For example, one of the rules you are
used to states that you can multiply both sides of an equation by equal quantities, and the
equation will still hold. This still works for the operation in a group, since if x and y are
elements of a group G, and x = y, then a · x = a · y, for any element a in G. This is a part
of the guarantee that comes with the definition of a binary operation. It is important to
note that on both sides of the equation, a is multiplied on the left. We could also guarantee
that x · a = y · a, but we can’t guarantee that a · x = y · a, since the operation in the group
may not satisfy the commutative law.
The existence of inverses allows cancellation (see Proposition 3.1.7 for the precise state-
ment). Remember that in a group there is no mention of division, so whenever you are
tempted to write a ÷ b or a/b, you must write a · b−1 or b−1 · a. If you are careful about
the side on which you multiply, and don’t fall victim to the temptation to divide, you can
be pretty safe in doing the familiar things from high school algebra when working with an
equation that involves elements of a group.
Understanding and remembering the definitions will give you one level of understanding.
The next level comes from knowing some good examples. The third level of understanding
comes from using the definitions to prove various facts about groups.
Here are a few of the important examples. First, the sets of numbers Z, Q, R, and
C form groups under addition. Next, the sets Q× , R× , and C× of nonzero numbers form
groups under multiplication. The sets Z and Zn are groups under addition, while Z× n
is a group under multiplication. It is common to just list these sets as groups, without
mentioning their operations, since in each case only one of the two familiar operations can
be used to make the set into a group. Similarly, the set Mn (R) of all n × n matrices with
entries in R is a group under addition, but not multiplication, while the set GLn (R) of
all invertible n × n matrices with entries in R is a group under multiplication, but not
under addition. There shouldn’t be any confusion in just listing these as groups, without
specifically mentioning which operation is used.
In the study of finite groups, the most important examples come from groups of matrices.
I should still mention that the original motivation for studying groups came from studying
sets of permutations, and so the symmetric group Sn still has an important role to play.
We give multiplication tables for three different groups of order 8. Various problems in
this section and later sections refer to these groups.
3.1. DEFINITION OF A GROUP J.A.Beachy 25

Table 3.1: Multiplication Table for O

e a a 2 a3 b ab a2 b a3 b
e e a a 2 a3 b ab a2 b a3 b
a a a 2 a 3 e ab a2 b a3 b b
a2 a 2 a 3 e a a2 b a3 b b ab
a3 a3 e a a 2 a3 b b ab a2 b
b 2 3
b ab a b a b e a a 2 a3
ab ab a2 b a3 b b a a2 a3 e
a2 b 2 3
a b a b b ab a 2 a3 e a
a3 b 3
a b 2
b ab a b a 3 e a a2

Table 3.2: Multiplication Table for P

e a a 2 a3 b ab a2 b a3 b
e e a a 2 a3 b ab a2 b a3 b
a a a 2 a 3 e ab a2 b a3 b b
a2 a 2 a 3 e a a2 b a3 b b ab
a3 a3 e a a 2 a3 b b ab a2 b
b 3 2
b a b a b ab e a3 a2 a
ab ab b a3 b a2 b a e a 3 a2
a2 b 2
a b ab 3
b a b a 2 a e a3
a3 b a3 b a2 b ab b a3 a2 a e

Table 3.3: Multiplication Table for Q

e a a 2 a3 b ab a2 b a3 b
e e a a 2 a3 b ab a2 b a3 b
a a a 2 a 3 e ab a2 b a3 b b
a2 a 2 a 3 e 2
a a b a b3 b ab
a3 a3 e a a 2 a3 b b ab a2 b
b b a3 b a2 b ab a2 a e a3
ab ab b a3 b a2 b a3 a2 a e
a2 b 2
a b ab b a3 b e a3 a2 a
a3 b a3 b a2 b ab b a e a 3 a2
26 J.A.Beachy CHAPTER 3. GROUPS

SOLVED PROBLEMS: §3.1

25. Use the dot product to define a multiplication on R3 . Does this make R3 into a
group?

26. For vectors (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and (x2 , y2 , z2 ) in R3 , the cross product is defined by

(x1 , y1 , z1 )×(x2 , y2 , z2 ) = (y1 z2 − z1 y2 , z1 x2 − x1 z2 , x1 y2 − y1 x2 ) .

Is R3 a group under this multiplication?

27. On the set G = Q× of nonzero rational numbers, define a new multiplication by

ab
a ∗ b = , for all a, b ∈ G. Show that G is a group under this multiplication.
2
28. Write out the multiplication table for Z×
9.

29. Write out the multiplication table for Z×

15 .

30. Let G be a group, and suppose that a and b are any elements of G. Show that if
(ab)2 = a2 b2 , then ba = ab.

31. Let G be a group, and suppose that a and b are any elements of G. Show that
(aba−1 )n = abn a−1 , for any positive integer n.

32. In Definition 3.1.4, replace condition (iii) with the condition that there exists e ∈ G
such that e · a = a for all a ∈ G, and replace condition (iv) with the condition that
for each a ∈ G there exists a0 ∈ G with a0 · a = e. Prove that these weaker conditions
(given only on the left) still imply that G is a group.

33. The previous exercise shows that in the definition of a group it is sufficient to require
the existence of a left identity element and the existence of left inverses. Give an
example to show that it is not sufficient to require the existence of a left identity
element together with the existence of right inverses.

34. Let F be the set of all fractional linear transformations of the complex plane.
az + b
That is, F is the set of all functions f (z) : C → C of the form f (z) = , where
cz + d
the coefficients a, b, c, d are integers with ad − bc = 1. Show that F forms a group
under composition of functions.

35. Let G = {x ∈ R | x > 1} be the set of all real numbers greater than 1. For x, y ∈ G,
define x ∗ y = xy − x − y + 2.
(a) Show that the operation ∗ is closed on G.
(b) Show that the associative law holds for ∗.
(c) Show that 2 is the identity element for the operation ∗.
(d) Show that for element a ∈ G there exists an inverse a−1 ∈ G.
3.1. DEFINITION OF A GROUP J.A.Beachy 27

MORE PROBLEMS: §3.1

36.† For each binary operation ∗ defined on a set below, determine whether or not ∗ gives
a group structure on the set. If it is not a group, say which axioms fail to hold.
(a) Define ∗ on Z by a ∗ b = min{a, b}.
(b) Define ∗ on Z+ by a ∗ b = min{a, b}.
(c) Define ∗ on Z+ by a ∗ b = max{a, b}.

37.† For each operation ∗ defined on a set below, determine whether or not ∗ gives a group
structure on the set. If it is not a group, say which axioms fail to hold.
(a) Define ∗ on R by x ∗ y = x + y − 1.
(b) Define ∗ on R× by x ∗ y = xy + 1.
1 1
(c) Define ∗ on Q+ by x ∗ y = + .
x y
38. For each binary operation ∗ defined on a set below, determine whether or not ∗ gives
a group structure on the set. If it is not a group, say which axioms fail to hold.
(a) Define ∗ on Z by x ∗ y = x2 y 3 .
(b) Define ∗ on Z+ by x ∗ y = 2xy .
(c) Define ∗ on Z+ by x ∗ y = xy .

39.† For each binary operation ∗ defined on a set below, determine whether or not ∗ gives
a group structure on the set. If it is not a group, say which axioms fail to hold.
  
x y
(a) Use matrix multiplication to define ∗ on x, y ∈ R .
0 0
(b) Define ∗ on R2 by (x1 , y1 ) ∗ (x2 , y2 ) = (x1 x2 , y1 x2 + y2 ).

40. Let G be a group, and suppose that a, b, c ∈ G. Solve the equation axc = b.

41. In each of the groups O, P , Q in the tables in Section 3.1 of the Study Guide, find
the inverse of each of the eight elements.

42. In each of the groups O, P , Q in the tables in Section 3.1 of the Study Guide, solve
the equations ax = b and bx = a.

43. Let G be a group with operation · and let a ∈ G. Define a new operation ∗ on the set
G by x ∗ y = x · a · y, for all x, y ∈ G. Show that G is a group under the operation ∗.

44.† Let G be a group, with operation ·. Define a new operation on G by setting by

x ∗ y = y, for x, y ∈ G. Determine which group axioms hold for this operation.

45. Let C[0, 1] be the set of all continuous functions from [0, 1] to R. Show that C[0, 1] is
a group under addition of functions: [f + g](x) = f (x) + g(x), for f (x), g(x) ∈ C[0, 1].
28 J.A.Beachy CHAPTER 3. GROUPS

46. Let G be a nonempty finite set with an associative binary operation ·. Exercise 3.1.20
shows that if the cancellation law holds on both sides, then G is a group. Give an
example in which the cancellation law holds on one side, but G is not a group.

47. Let T be the set of functions tc,d : R2 → R2 defined by tc,d (x1 , x2 ) = (x1 + c, x2 + d),
where c, d are any elements of R. Show that T is a group under composition of
functions.

48. Let G be a group. For x, y ∈ G, define x ∼ y if there exists some element a ∈ G such
that y = axa−1 . Show that ∼ defines an equivalence relation on G.
Note: This is a general case of Exercise 2.3.15 in the text, where the problem is stated
for the group G = Sn .

3.2 Subgroups
Many times a group is defined by looking at a subset of a known group. If the subset is
a group in its own right, using the same operation as the larger set, then it is called a
subgroup. For instance, any group of permutations is a subgroup of Sym(S), for some set
S. Any group of n × n matrices (with entries in R) is a subgroup of GLn (R).
If the idea of a subgroup reminds you of studying subspaces in your linear algebra course,
you are right. If you only look at the operation of addition in a vector space, it forms an
abelian group, and any subspace is automatically a subgroup. Now might be a good time
to pick up your linear algebra text and review vector spaces and subspaces.
Lagrange’s theorem (Theorem 3.2.10) is a very important result. It states that in a
finite group the number of elements in any subgroup must be a divisor of the total number
of elements in the group. This is a useful fact to know when you are looking for subgroups
in a given group. In particular, any group of prime order contains no proper nontrivial
subgroups and must therefore be cyclic.
It is also important to remember that every element a in a group defines a subgroup
hai, consisting of all powers (positive and negative) of the element. This subgroup has o(a)
elements, where o(a) is the order of a. If the group is finite, then to find hai you only need
to calculate the positive powers of a, since in that case the inverse a−1 of any element can
be expressed in the form an , for some n > 0.
Lagrange’s Theorem implies that the order of any element of a finite group is a divisor
of the order of the group. This can be extremely helpful, as the following example shows.
Suppose that we are attempting to show that [2]17 is a generator of the group Z× 17 . Since
×
|Z17 | = 17, the possible orders of [2] are 2, 4, 8, or 16. We do not have to calculate all
powers of [2] to find its order. We have [2]2 = [4], [2]4 = [16] = [−1], so [2] does not have
order 2 or 4, but the [2]8 = ([2]4 )2 = [−1]2 = [1] so [2] has order 8, showing that [2] is not
a generator. A similar argument shows that [3]2 = [9], [3]4 = [−4], and [3]8 = [16], so [3] is
a generator of Z× 17 since it must have order 16.
3.2. SUBGROUPS J.A.Beachy 29

SOLVED PROBLEMS: §3.2

28. In Zn , show that if gcd(a, n) = d, then h[a]n i = h[d]n i.

Note: This result is very useful when you are trying to find cyclic subgroups of Zn .

29. Find all cyclic subgroups of Z12 .

30. Find all cyclic subgroups of Z×

24 .

31. In Z×
20 , find two subgroups of order 4, one that is cyclic and one that is not cyclic.

32. (a) Find the cyclic subgroup of S7 generated by the element (1, 2, 3)(5, 7).
(b) Find a subgroup of S7 that contains 12 elements. You do not have to list all of
the elements if you can explain why there must be 12, and why they must form a
subgroup.

33. Let G be an abelian group, and let n be a fixed positive integer. Show that

N = {g ∈ G | g = an for some a ∈ G}

is a subgroup of G.

34. Let K be the following subset of GL2 (R).

  
a b
K= d = a, c = −2b, ad − bc 6= 0
c d

Show that K is a subgroup of GL2 (R).

35. In G = Z×21 , show that H = {[x]21 | x ≡ 1 (mod 3)} and K = {[x]21 | x ≡ 1 (mod 7)}
are subgroups of G.

36. Suppose that p is a prime number of the form p = 2n + 1.

(a) Show that in Z×
p the order of [2]p is 2n.
(b) Use part (a) to prove that n must be a power of 2.

37. In√the multiplicative ×

√ √group√ C of complex numbers, find the order of the elements
2 2 2 2
− + i and − − i.
2 2 2 2
38. In the group G = GL2 (R) of invertible 2 × 2 matrices with real entries, show that
  
cos θ − sin θ
H= θ∈R
sin θ cos θ

is a subgroup of G.
 
2 1
39. Compute the centralizer in GL2 (R) of the matrix .
1 1
30 J.A.Beachy CHAPTER 3. GROUPS

40. Prove that any infinite group has infinitely many subgroups.

MORE PROBLEMS: §3.2

41.† Let G be a group, and let a ∈ G, with a 6= e. Prove or disprove these statements.
(a) The element a has order 2 if and only if a2 = e.
(b) The element a has order 3 if and only if a3 = e.
(c) The element a has order 4 if and only if a4 = e.

42. In each of the groups O, P , Q in the tables in Section 3.1 of the Study Guide, find hbi
and habi. That is, find the cyclic subgroups generated by b and ab.

43.† Is {(x, y) ∈ R2 | y = x2 } a subgroup of R2 ?

44.† Is {(x, y) ∈ R2 | x, y ∈ Z} a subgroup of R2 ?

45. Let G = C[0, 1], the group defined in Problem 3.1.45. Let Pn denote the subset of
functions in G of the form an xn + . . . + a1 x + a0 , where the coefficients ai all belong
to R. Prove that Pn is a subgroup of G.

46. Let G = C[0, 1], the group defined in Problem 3.1.45. Let X be any subset of [0, 1].
Show that {f ∈ C[0, 1] | f (x) = 0 for all x ∈ X} is a subgroup of G.

47. Show that the group T defined in Problem 3.1.47 is a subgroup of Sym(R2 ).

48. In G = S5 , let H = {σ ∈ S5 | σ(5) = 5}. Find |H|; show that H is a subgroup of G.

49. Let G be a group, and let H, K be subgroups of G. Show that H ∩ K is a subgroup

of K.

50. Let G be a group, and let H, K be subgroups of G.

(a) Show that H ∪ K is a subgroup of G if and only if either H ⊆ K or K ⊆ H.
(b) Show that a group cannot be the union of 2 proper subgroups. Give an example
to show that it can be a union of 3 proper subgroups.

51. Let G be a group, let H be any subgroup of G, and let a be a fixed element of G.
Define aHa−1 = {g ∈ G | g = aha−1 for some h ∈ H}. Show that aHa−1 is a
subgroup of G.

52.† Let G be a group, with a subgroup H ⊆ G. Define N (H) = {g ∈ G | gHg −1 = H}.

Show that N (H) is a subgroup of G that contains H.

53. Let G be a group.

(a) Show that if H1 and H2 are two different subgroups of G with |H1 | = |H2 | = 3,
then H1 ∩ H2 = {e}.
(b) Show that G has an even number of elements of order 3.
(c) Show that the number of elements of order 5 in G must be a multiple of 4.
3.2. SUBGROUPS J.A.Beachy 31

(d) Is the number of elements of order 4 in G a multiple of 3? Give a proof or a

counterexample.

54.† In each of the groups O, P , Q in the tables in Section 3.1 of the Study Guide, find
the centralizers C(a) and C(ab). That is, find the elements that commute with a, and
then find the elements that commute with ab.
 
1 0
55. In G = GL2 (R), find the centralizer C .
1 1

56. Let G be a group, and let a, b ∈ G. Show that if either ab ∈ C(a) or ba ∈ C(a), then
b ∈ C(a).

57. Let G be an abelian group, and let Gn = {x ∈ G | xn = e}.

(a) Show that Gn is a subgroup of G.
Note: This is a generalization of Exercise 3.2.13 in the text.
(b) Let G = Z×
11 . Find Gn for n = 2, 3, . . . , 10.

58.† (a) Characterize the elements of GL2 (R) that have order 2.
(b) Which of the elements in part (a) are upper triangular?
(c) Is {A ∈ GL2 (R) | A2 = I} a subgroup of GL2 (R)?
(d) Does the set of upper triangular matrices in {A ∈ GL2 (R) | A2 = I} form a
subgroup of GL2 (R)?
 
a b
59. †(a) Characterize the elements of order 3 in GL2 (R) that have the form .
c 0
Show that there are infinitely many such elements.
(b) Show that there are no upper triangular matrices in GL2 (R) that have order 3.

60. Let G = R+ , and for any integer n > 1 define Hn = {x ∈ R+ | xn ∈ Q}.

(a) Show that Hn is a subgroup of G.
(b) Show that Q+ ⊂ H2 ⊂ H4 ⊂ · · · ⊂ H2n ⊂ · · · is an infinite ascending chain of
subgroups of G.
   
1 1 0 1
61.† In GL2 (R), let A = , which has infinite order, and let B = . Find
0 1 −1 0
the order of B, and find the order of AB.

62. Let K be a subgroup of R× . Show that H = {A ∈ GLn (R) | det(A) ∈ H} is a

subgroup of GLn (R).

63. Let A = {fm,b | m 6= 0 and fm,b (x) = mx + b for all x ∈ R}, which is shown to be a
group in Exercise 3.1.10.
(a) Show that {f1,n | n ∈ Z} is a cyclic subgroup of A.
(b) Find the cyclic subgroup hf2,1 i of A generated by the mapping f2,1 (x) = 2x + 1.
32 J.A.Beachy CHAPTER 3. GROUPS

64. †(a) Find the cyclic subgroup of S7 generated by the element (1, 2, 3)(5, 7).
(b) Find a subgroup of S7 that contains 12 elements. You do not have to list all of
the elements if you can explain why there must be 12, and why they must form a
subgroup.

65. (a) What are the possibilities for the order of an element of Z×
27 ? Explain your answer.
(b) Show that Z×
27 is a cyclic group.

3.3 Constructing Examples

The most important result in this section is Proposition 3.3.7, which shows that the set of
all invertible n × n matrices forms a group, in which we can allow the entries in the matrix
to come from any field. This includes matrices with entries in the field Zp , for any prime
number p, and this allows us to construct very interesting finite groups as subgroups of
GLn (Zp ).
The second construction in this section is the direct product, which takes two known
groups and constructs a new one, using ordered pairs. This can be extended to n-tuples,
where the entry in the ith component comes from a group Gi , and n-tuples are multiplied
component-by-component. This generalizes the construction of n-dimensional vector spaces
(that case is much simpler since every entry comes from the same set, and the same operation
is used in each component).

SOLVED PROBLEMS: §3.3

19. Show that Z5 × Z3 is a cyclic group, and list all of the generators of the group.

20. Find the order of the element ([9]12 , [15]18 ) in the group Z12 × Z18 .

21. Find two groups G1 and G2 whose direct product G1 × G2 has a subgroup that is not
of the form H1 × H2 , for subgroups H1 ⊆ G1 and H2 ⊆ G2 .

22. In the group G = Z×

36 , let H = {[x] | x ≡ 1 (mod 4)} and K = {[y] | y ≡ 1 (mod 9)}.
Show that H and K are subgroups of G, and find the subgroup HK.

23. Let F be a field, and let H be the subset of GL2 (F ) consisting of all upper triangular
matrices. Show that H is a subgroup of GL2 (F ).

24. Let p be a prime number.

(a) Show that the order of the general linear group GL2 (Zp ) is (p2 − 1)(p2 − p).
Hint: Count the number of ways to construct two linearly independent rows.
(b) Show that the subgroup of GL2 (Zp ) consisting of all invertible upper triangular
matrices has order (p − 1)2 p.
48 J.A.Beachy CHAPTER 3. GROUPS

58. Prove that the center of any group is a characteristic subgroup.

59. Let H and K be characteristic subgroups of G.

(a) Show that HK is a subgroup of G.
(b) Show that HK is a characteristic subgroup of G.

60. Let n be a positive integer, and let G be a group that has only one subgroup H of
order n. Show that H is a characteristic subgroup of G.

Chapter 3 Review Problems

§3.1–3.5

1. (a) What are the possibilities for the order of an element of Z×

13 ? Explain your answer.
(b) Show that Z×
13 is a cyclic group.

2. What is the largest order of an element in Z12 × Z18 ? Use your answer to show, in
particular, that the group is not cyclic.

3. Find all subgroups of Z×

11 , and give the diagram which shows the inclusions between
them.

4. Which of the groups in this list are isomorphic to each other?

G1 = Z8 , G2 = Z4 × Z2 , G3 = Z2 × Z2 × Z2 , G4 = Z× ×
24 , G5 = Z30 , G6 = D4 .
 
1 a b
5. Let G be the subset of GL3 (R) consisting of all matrices of the form  0 1 0 
0 0 1
such that a, b ∈ R. Show that G is a subgroup of GL3 (R).

6. Show that the group G in Problem 5 is isomorphic to the direct product R × R.

§3.6–3.8

7. List the cosets of the cyclic subgroup h9i in Z× ×

20 . Is Z20 / h9i cyclic?

8. Let F be a field, let G = GL2 (F ), let H be the subset of upper triangular matrices
 in

a b
G, and let N be the subset of GL2 (F ) consisting of all matrices of the form .
0 1
(a) Show that H is a subgroup of G, but that H is not normal in G.
(b) Show that N is a normal subgroup of H.
(c) Show that H/N is isomorphic to the multiplicative group F × .
3.8. COSETS, NORMAL SUBGROUPS, AND FACTOR GROUPS J.A.Beachy 49

9. Assume that the dihedral group D4 is given as {e, a, a2 , a3 , b, ab, a2 b, a3 b}, where a4 =
e, b2 = e, and ba = a3 b. Let N be the subgroup a2 = {e, a2 }.
(a) Show by a direct computation that N is a normal subgroup
(b) Is the factor group D4 /N a cyclic group?
(c) Find all subgroups of D4 /N .

10. Let G = D8 , and let N = {e, a2 , a4 , a6 }.

(a) List all left cosets and all right cosets of N , and verify that N is a normal subgroup
of G.
(b) Show that G/N has order 4, but is not cyclic.

11. (a) Show that R× /R+ is cyclic of order 2.

(b) Let H be a subgroup of R× that contains R+ . Show that either H = R× or
H = R+ .

12. (a) Show that every element of the group Q/Z has finite order.
(b) Show that for each n ∈ Z+ , the group Q/Z contains an element of order n.