MICROBIOLOGY NOTES

Respiration and Respiratory Organs

Respiration is simply defined as an oxidative process in which oxygen is taken into the tissue
(from lungs) to oxidize the food in order to release energy and carbon dioxide.
The released energy is utilized to perform various life activities.
The metabolic waste like CO2 is removed from the body through lungs.
The compounds oxidized in respiration are called respiratory substrates.
Respiration is categorized into two types on the basis of site of gaseous exchange:
i. External respiration- exchange of gases between lungs and blood. It is the process of
absorption of oxygen and removal of carbon dioxide from the body through lungs.
ii. Internal respiration- exchange of gases between blood and cells. It is the process of
utilization of oxygen to produce energy and carbon dioxide by oxidation of food material
inside the cell.
Respiration is of two types on the basis of availability of oxygen:
i. Aerobic respiration: The process which consists external and internal respiration occurs in
higher animals including human beings are called aerobic respiration.
ii. Anaerobic respiration: In some organisms (such as bacteria, fungi, parasitic worms),
glucose can be broken down to produce energy without utilizing oxygen. This process is
referred to as anaerobic respiration.

Respiratory organs
Organs involved in respiratory system are:

1. Nose and nasal cavity, Pharynx, Larynx, Trachea, Bronchi,lungs, alveoli.

1. Nose and nasal cavity
Nose is a part of respiratory tract lying above mouth. It is made by hyaline cartilage.It is
divided into right and left nasal cavity by nasal septum. Its anterior portion is cartilaginous
and posterior portion is bony.The nasal cavities open outside through nostrils or external
nares. The nasal cavities open posteriorly into the nasopharynx through internal nares.
The opening of paranasal sinuses and nasolacrimal ducts lie in the nasal cavities.Internally,
nasal cavity is lined with mucous membrane and ciliated columnar epithelium. It contains
nasal hairs.
Function
i. It prevents the entry of dust particles into the lungs by trapping those dust on mucus or by
nasal hair.Mucus secretory glands i.e. goblet cells are found in nasal chamber that produce
mucus. Smoke or dust particles attached with mucus.
ii. The ciliated epithelium prevents infection by sweeping out microorganisms.
iii. It warms the cold air and moisten the dry air.
iv. It detects smell. The superior one third of nasal mucosa is the olfactory area which
contains olfactory cells. These cells are involved in perception of smell.
2.Pharynx
It is both digestive and respiratory organ.It is a tube of 12-14 cm that extends the base of
skull to the level of 5th cervical vertebra.It lies behind mouth, nose and larynx.
It is connected to nasal cavity through the internal opening of nares and to the mouth.
It is divided into three parts:
a.Nasopharynx
b.Oropharynx
c. Laryngopharynx
a.Nasopharynx:It is the nasal part of pharynx.Lies behind the nose and superior to the soft
palate.Lined with ciliated epithelium that help in cleaning inspired air.
On the lateral wall, there are two opening of auditory tubes and on posterior wall, there is a
pharyngeal tonsils, consisting of lymphoid tissues.
b.Oropharynx:Oral part o-f pharynxLies at the posterior part of mouth, extends from soft
palate to epiglottis.It is separated from mouth by a pair of membranous narrow passage called
fauces.
c.LaryngopharynxIt is the lower most portion of pharynx and has a slit like aperture called
glottis. This can be closed by leaf like bilobed cartilage, epiglottis, during swallowing of the
food.
Function of larynx
i. Pharynx helps in passage of air from nose to trachea.
ii. The air is further warmed and moistened as it passes through pharynx.
iii. There are olfactory nerve endings of the sense of smell.
iv. Protection: The lymphatic tissue of the pharyngeal and laryngeal tonsils produces
antibodies in response to antigen.v. Hearing: The auditory tube, extending from the
nasopharynx to each middle ear, allows air to enter the middle ear.
3.Larynx
Also called sound box or voice box.It is situated in the anterior neck i.e. in front of
esophagus.It is small, thin walled, tubular part present in the neck at the apex of trachea.
It connects the lower part of pharynx and trachea.Pharynx opens in larynx through glottis
which is guarded by a leaf like unpaired cartilage which is called epiglottis. It prevents the
entrance of food into trachea.It is composed of several irregular shaped cartilages- they are: 1
thyroid cartilage, 1 cricoid cartilage and 2 arytenoids cartilage. They prevent the larynx from
collapsing.There are two vocal folds (true vocal cords) situated in the cavity of larynx
between thyroid and arytenoid cartilage. Also a pair of vestibular folds are protective in
function.
Function
i. It plays important role in sound production.
ii. It links pharynx with trachea, thus it allows passage of air.
iii. Humidifying, filtering and warming of air occurs in larynx.
iv. Speech is produced when sound produced by vocal cords are manipulated by
tongue,cheeks and lips.
v. During swallowing the larynx moves upward, blocking the opening into it from the
pharynx. In addition the epiglottis also closes over the larynx. This ensures the food passes
into oesophagus and not into trachea.
4.Trachea (Wind pipe)
It is hollow tube of about 11-12 cm in length and 2.5 cm in diameter.It extends from the base
of larynx to thoracic cavity.It runs in the neck in front of oesophagus.
It is supported by 16-20 C-shaped cartilaginous tracheal ring. These rings prevent the trachea
from collapsing due to continuous relaxation and expansion.
Internally, the wall of trachea is lined by pseudostratified ciliated epithelium with mucus
secreting goblet cells. The secretion of mucus cells keep the wall of tube moist and trap dust
particles.
Function
i. The mucus lubricate the passage and cilia help to filter out dust.
ii. The constant beating of cilia carry mucous and debris upward into pharynx where upon it
isswallowed or coughed up.
iii.Help in cough reflex.
iv. It supports head and neck.
5.Bronchi
As the trachea reaches into the thoracic cavity, it divides into two branches called bronchi-
right and left bronchi.Each bronchus has the structure similar to trachea. The right bronchus
is wider and shorter than left bronchus. It is about 2.5 cm long and left bronchus is about 5
cm in length.Each bronchus when enter into corresponding lungs, it divides into smaller
secondary bronchi and then into tertiary bronchi. These bronchi progressively subdivide into
smaller and smaller tube called bronchioles and then into terminal bronchioles. Bronchioles
continue to branch, and open into respiratory bronchioles which in turn branch into alveolar
duct that lead into alveoli (microscopic air sac).
Function
i. Bronchi connects the trachea to the lungs, allowing air from external respiratory openings
into the lungs.
6.Alveoli
Bronchioles continue to branch, and open into respiratory bronchioles which in turn branch
into alveolar duct that lead into microscopic air sac called alveoli. Gaseous exchange takes
place in alveoli. The alveoli are richly supplied with blood capillaries. The wall of alveoli is
lined with type I pneumocytes which help in gaseous exchange and type II pneumocytes
produce surfactant. The surfactant reduces the surface tension so that the lungs do not
collapse.
Function
i. Alveoli helps in purification of blood. Allows exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide in
the lungs.
7.Lungs
Lungs are a pair of conical organ situated one on either side of thoracic cavity.
They are hollow, soft, spongy, elastic, light and pink colored.
There are one pair of lungs- they are right lung and left lung.
Lungs are externally surrounded by two layers called pleural membrane. The outer membrane
is called parietal pleural membrane and the inner layer is called visceral pleural membrane.
These membranes protect lungs and stop leaking of air into thoracic cavity. The space
between two layers is called pleural cavity which is filled with pleural fluid. The pleural fluid
performs following function:
i. Allows smooth/ free frictionless movement of lungs.
ii. Protects the lungs from mechanical shocks.
iii. Keeps the pleura together and lungs expanded.
Lobesoflungs
Lungs are divided into distinct lobes. Right lung has three lobes- right superior, middle and
inferior lobe. These lobes are demarcated by transverse and oblique fissures.
Left lung has two lobe- superior and inferior lobe. The left lung is smaller than right lung and
has a cardiac notch to accommodate heart.

Internally, each lung is composed of numerous alveoli. These large number of alveoli provide
about 100 sq meter of surface. Alveoli are extremely thin walled and vascular structure. The
alveoli are richly supplied with blood capillaries. Alveoli are the primary structures which
facilitates the exchange of gases. Alveoli helps in purification of blood.
The human digestive system consists of the alimentary tract and accessory organs.

 The alimentary canal begins at the mouth, passes through the thorax, abdomen and
pelvis and ends at the anus.
 It is thus a long tube through which food passes. It has various parts which are
structurally remarkably similar. The parts include:
1. Mouth
2. Pharynx
3. Oesophagus
4. Stomach
5. Small intestine
6. Large intestine
7. Rectum and Anal can
8. The mouth or oral cavity is bounded by muscles and bones: anteriorly —by the lips,
posteriorly — it is continuous with the oropharynx, laterally —by the muscles of the
cheeks, superiorly —by the bony hard palate and muscular soft palate, inferiorly —by
the muscular tongue and the soft tissues of the floor of the mouth.
9. It is lined throughout with mucous membrane, consisting of stratified squamous
epithelium containing small mucus-secreting glands.
10. The palate forms the roof of the mouth and is divided into the anterior hard palate and
the posterior soft palate. The soft palate is muscular, curves downwards from the
posterior end of the hard palate and blends with the walls of the pharynx at the sides.
11. The uvula is a curved fold of muscle covered with mucous membrane, hanging down
from the middle of the free border of the soft palate.
12. It consists of the following important parts:
13. The tongue is a voluntary muscular structure which occupies the floor of the mouth.
14. It is attached by its base to the hyoid bone and by a fold of its mucous membrane
covering, called the frenulum, to the floor of the mouth.
15. The superior surface consists of stratified squamous epithelium, with numerous
papillae (little projections), containing nerve endings of the sense of taste, sometimes
called the taste buds.
16. The tongue plays an important part in:
mastication (chewing)
deglutition (swallowing)
17. speech
18. The teeth are embedded in the alveoli or sockets of the alveolar ridges of the mandible
and the maxilla.
The Pharynx
 Food passes from the oral cavity into the pharynx then to the oesophagus below, with
which it is continuous.
 The pharynx is divided for descriptive purpose into three parts, the nasopharynx,
oropharynx and laryngopharynx.
 The nasopharynx is important in respiration. The oropharynx and laryngopharynx are
passages common to both the respiratory and the digestive systems.
Function of Pharynx
The pharynx has roles in both the respiratory and digestive systems, and can be thought of as
the point where these systems diverge.
For the digestive system, its muscular walls function in the process of swallowing, and it
serves as a pathway for the movement of food from the mouth to the esophagus.
  The constrictive circular muscles of the pharynx’s outer layer play a big role in
peristalsis. A series of contractions will help propel ingested food and drink down the
intestinal tract safely.
 The inner layer’s longitudinal muscles, on the other hand, will widen the pharynx
laterally and lift it upward, thus allowing the swallowing of ingested food and drink.
C. The Oesophagus
 The oesophagus is about 25 cm long and about 2 cm in diameter and lies in the
median plane in the thorax in front of the vertebral column behind the trachea and the
heart.
 It is continuous with the pharynx above and just below the diaphragm it joins the
stomach.
 The upper and lower ends of the oesophagus are closed by sphincter muscles.
 The upper circopharyngeal sphincter prevents air passing into the oesophagus during
inspiration and the aspiration of oesophageal contents.
 The cardiac or lower oesophageal sphincter prevents the reflux of acid gastric
contents into the oesophagus.
Functions of Oesophagus
 The esophagus serves to pass food and liquids from the mouth down to the stomach.
This is accomplished by periodic contractions (peristalsis).
 The esophagus is an important connection to the digestive system through the thoracic
cavity, which protects the heart and lungs.
 Two sphincters on either side of the esophagus separate food into small units known
as a bolus.
 The stomach is a J-shaped dilated portion of the alimentary tract situated in the
epigastric, umbilical and left hypochondriac regions of the abdominal cavity.
 The stomach is continuous with the oesophagus at the cardiac sphincter and with the
duodenum at the pyloric sphincter.
 It has two curvatures. The lesser curvature is short, lies on the posterior surface of the
stomach and is the downwards continuation of the posterior wall of the oesophagus.
Just before the pyloric sphincter it curves upwards to complete the J shape.
 Where the oesophagus joins the stomach the anterior region angles acutely upwards,
curves downwards forming the greater curvature then slightly upwards towards the
pyloric sphincter.
 The stomach is divided into three regions: the fundus, the body and the antrum.
 At the distal end of the pyloric antrum is the pyloric sphincter, guarding the opening
between the stomach and the duodenum.
 Stomach size varies with the volume of food it contains, which may be 1.5 litres or
more in an adult.
 In the stomach, gastric muscle contraction consists of a churning movement that
breaks down the bolus and mixes it with gastric juice, and peristaltic waves that
propel the stomach contents towards the pylorus.
 About 2 litres of gastric juice are secreted daily by special secretory glands in the
mucosa.
 It consists of: Water, mineral salts, mucus secreted by goblet cells in the glands and
on the stomach surface, hydrochloric acid, Intrinsic factor , inactive enzyme
precursors etc.
Functions of the Stomach
 Temporary storage allowing time for the digestive enzymes, pepsins, to act.
 Chemical digestion — pepsins convert proteins to polypeptides.
  Mechanical breakdown — the three smooth muscle layers enable the stomach to act
as a churn, gastric juice is added and the contents are liquefied to chime.
 Performs limited absorption of water, alcohol and some lipidsoluble drugs
 Non-specific defence against microbes — provided by hydrochloric acid in gastric
juice.
 Preparation of iron for absorption further along the tract — the acid environment of
the stomach solubilises iron salts, which is required before iron can be absorbed
 Production of intrinsic factor needed for absorption of vitamin B12 in the terminal
ileum
 Regulation of the passage of gastric contents into the duodenum. When the chyme is
sufficiently acidified and liquefied, the pyloric antrum forces small jets of gastric
contents through the pyloric sphincter into the duodenum.
E. The Small Intestine
 The small intestine is continuous with the stomach at the pyloric sphincter and leads
into the large intestine at the ileocaecal valve.
 It is a little over 5 metres long and lies in the abdominal cavity surrounded by the
large intestine.
 In the small intestine the chemical digestion of food is completed and most of the
absorption of nutrients takes place.
 The small intestine comprises three main sections continuous with each other:
1. The duodenum: It is about 25 cm long and curves around the head of the pancreas.
Secretions from the gall bladder and pancreas are released into the duodenum through
a common structure, the hepatopancreatic ampulla, and the opening into the
duodenum is guarded by the hepatopancreatic sphincter (of Oddi).
2. The jejunum: It is the middle section of the small intestine and is about 2 metres
long.
3. The ileum, or terminal section, is about 3 metres long and ends at the ileocaecal
valve, which controls the flow of material from the ileum to the caecum, the first part
of the large intestine, and prevents regurgitation.
 The surface area of the small intestine mucosa is greatly increased by permanent
circular folds, villi and microvilli.
 The villi are tiny finger-like projections of the mucosal layer into the intestinal lumen,
about 0.5 to 1 mm long.
 Their walls consist of columnar epithelial cells, or enterocytes, with tiny microvilli (1
μm long) on their free border.
Functions of the small intestine
 The small intestine is the part of the intestines where 90% of the digestion and
absorption of food occurs, the other 10% taking place in the stomach and large
intestine.
 The main function of the small intestine is absorption of nutrients and minerals from
food.
F. The Large Intestine
 It is about 1.5 metres long, beginning at the caecum in the right iliac fossa and
terminating at the rectum and anal canal deep in the pelvis.
 Its lumen is larger than that of the small intestine. It forms an arch round the coiled-up
small intestine.
 The colon is divided into the caecum, ascending colon, transverse colon, descending
colon, sigmoid colon rectum and anal canal.
The caecum
  This is the first part of the colon. It is a dilated region which has a blind end inferiorly
and is continuous with the ascending colon superiorly.
 Just below the junction of the two the ileocaecal valve opens from the ileum.
 The vermiform appendix is a fine tube, closed at one end, which leads from the
caecum. It is usually about 13 cm long and has the same structure as the walls of the
colon but contains more lymphoid tissue.
The ascending colon
 This passes upwards from the caecum to the level of the liver where it curves acutely
to the left at the hepatic flexure to become the transverse colon.
The transverse colon
 This is a loop of colon which extends across the abdominal cavity in front of the
duodenum and the stomach to the area of the spleen where it forms the splenic flexure
and curves acutely downwards to become the descending colon.
The descending colon
 This passes down the left side of the abdominal cavity then curves towards the
midline. After it enters the true pelvis it is known as the sigmoid colon.
The sigmoid colon
 This part describes an S-shaped curve in the pelvis then continues downwards to
become the rectum.
. The Rectum and the Anal Canal
 It is a slightly dilated section of the colon about 13 cm long. It leads from the sigmoid
colon and terminates in the anal canal.
 The anal canal is a short passage about 3.8 cm long in the adult and leads from the
rectum to the exterior.
 Two sphincter muscles control the anus; the internal sphincter, consisting of smooth
muscle fibres, is under the control of the autonomic nervous system and the external
sphincter, formed by skeletal muscle, is under voluntary control.
Functions of the large intestine, rectum and anal canalAbsorption
 The contents of the ileum which pass through the ileocaecal valve into the caecum are
fluid, even though some water has been absorbed in the small intestine.
 In the large intestine absorption of water continues until the familiar semisolid
consistency of faeces is achieved.
 Mineral salts, vitamins and some drugs are also absorbed into the blood capillaries
from the large intestine.
Microbial activity
 The large intestine is heavily colonised by certain types of bacteria, which synthesise
vitamin K and folic acid. They include Escherichia coli, Enterobacter aerogenes,
Streptococcus faecalis and Clostridium perfringens (welchii).
Defaecation
 Usually the rectum is empty, but when a mass movement forces the contents of the
sigmoid colon into the rectum the nerve endings in its walls are stimulated by stretch.
 Defaecation involves involuntary contraction of the muscle of the rectum and
relaxation of the internal anal sphincter.
 Contraction of the abdominal muscles and lowering of the diaphragm increase the
intra-abdominal pressure (Valsalva’s manoeuvre) and so assist the process of
defaecation.
Accessory Organs
 Various secretions are poured into the alimentary tract, some by glands in the lining
membrane of the organs, e.g. gastric juice secreted by glands in the lining of the
stomach, and some by glands situated outside the tract.
  The latter are the accessory organs of digestion and their secretions pass through ducts
to enter the tract. They consist of:
1. 3 pairs of salivary glands
2. Pancreas
3. Liver and the biliary tract.
 The organs and glands are linked physiologically as well as anatomically.
A. The Salivary glands
 Salivary glands are present in the oral cavity and pour their secretions into the mouth.
Saliva is the combined secretions from the salivary glands and the small mucus-secreting
glands of the lining of the oral cavity. About 1.5 litres of saliva is produced daily and it
consists of:
 Water,mineral salts,enzyme: salivary amylase, mucus, lysozyme, immunoglobulins
 blood-clotting factors.
There are three pairs: the parotid glands, the submandibular glands and the sublingual
glands.
Parotid glands
 These are situated one on each side of the face just below the external acoustic
meatus.
 Each gland has a parotid duct opening into the mouth at the level of the second upper
molar tooth.
Submandibular glands
 These lie one on each side of the face under the angle of the jaw.
 The two submandibular ducts open on the floor of the mouth, one on each side of the
frenulum of the tongue.
Sublingual glands
 These glands lie under the mucous membrane of the floor of the mouth in front of the
submandibular glands.
 They have numerous small ducts that open into the floor of the mouth.
Functions of Salivary Glands and Saliva
 Chemical digestion of polysaccharides. Saliva contains the enzyme amylase that
begins the breakdown of complex sugars, reducing them to the disaccharide maltose.
 Lubrication of food. Dry food entering the mouth is moistened and lubricated by
saliva before it can be made into a bolus ready for swallowing.
 Cleansing and lubricating. An adequate flow of saliva is necessary to cleanse the
mouth and keep its tissues soft, moist and pliable. It helps to prevent damage to the
mucous membrane by rough or abrasive foodstuffs.
 Non-specific defence. Lysozyme, immunoglobulins and clotting factors combat
invading microbes.
 The taste buds are stimulated only by chemical substances in solution. Dry foods
stimulate the sense of taste only after thorough mixing with saliva.
B. The Pancreas
 .333.33
 The pancreas is a pale grey gland weighing about 60 grams.
 It is about 12 to 15 cm long and is situated in the epigastric and left hypochondriac
regions of the
 abdominal cavity.
 It consists of a broad head, a body and a narrow tail. The head lies in the curve of the
duodenum, the body behind the stomach and the tail lies in front of the left kidney and
just reaches the spleen.
 The pancreas is both an exocrine and endocrine gland.
The exocrine pancreas
 It consists of a large number of lobules made up of small alveoli, the walls of which
consist of secretory cells.
 Each lobule is drained by a tiny duct and these unite eventually to form the pancreatic
duct, which extends the whole length of the gland and opens into the duodenum.
 Just before entering the duodenum the pancreatic duct joins the common bile duct to
form the hepatopancreatic ampulla. The duodenal opening of the ampulla is controlled
by the hepatopancreatic sphincter (of Oddi).
 The function of the exocrine pancreas is to produce pancreatic juice containing
enzymes that digest carbohydrates, proteins and fats.
The endocrine pancreas
 Distributed throughout the gland are groups of specialized cells called the pancreatic
islets (of Langerhans).
 The islets have no ducts so the hormones diffuse directly into the blood.
 The function of the endocrine pancreas is to secrete the hormones insulin and
glucagon, which are principally concerned with control of blood glucose levels.
Functions of the Pancreas
As part of the exocrine system, the pancreas secretes enzymes that work in tandem with bile
from the liver and gallbladder to help break down substances for proper digestion and
absorption.
Enzymes produced by the pancreas for digestion include:
 lipase to digest fats
 amylase to digest carbohydrates
 chymotrypsin and trypsin for digesting proteins
 The pancreas produces enzymes as soon as food reaches the stomach.
 These enzymes travel through a series of ducts until they reach the main pancreatic
duct.
  The main pancreatic duct meets the common bile duct, which carries bile from the
gallbladder and liver towards the duodenum. This meeting point is called the ampulla
of Vater.
 Bile from the gallbladder and enzymes from the pancreas are released into the
duodenum to help digest fats, carbohydrates, and proteins so they can be absorbed by
the digestive system.
Endocrine Function
As part of the endocrine system, the pancreas secretes two main hormones that are vital to
regulating glucose (also known as blood sugar) level:
Insulin.The pancreas secretes this hormone to lower blood glucose when levels get too high.
Glucagon:The pancreas secretes this hormone to increase blood glucose when levels get too
low.
Balanced blood glucose levels play a significant role in liver, kidneys, and even brain. Proper
secretion of these hormones is important to many bodily systems, such as your nervous
system and cardiovascular system.
C. The Liver

;l
 The liver is the largest gland in the body, weighing between 1 and 2.3 kg.
 It is situated in the upper part of the abdominal cavity occupying the greater part of
the right hypochondriac region, part of the epigastric region and extending into the
left hypochondriac region.
 Its upper and anterior surfaces are smooth and curved to fit the under surface of the
diaphragm; its posterior surface is irregular in outline.
 The liver is enclosed in a thin inelastic capsule and incompletely covered by a layer of
peritoneum. Folds of peritoneum form supporting ligaments attaching the liver to the
inferior surface of the diaphragm. It is held in position partly by these ligaments and
partly by the pressure of the organs in the abdominal cavity.
 The liver has four lobes. The two most obvious are the large right lobe and the
smaller, wedge-shaped, left lobe. The other two, the caudate and quadrate lobes, are
areas on the posterior surface.
 The lobes of the liver are made up of tiny lobules just visible to the naked eye.
 These lobules are hexagonal in outline and are formed by cubical-shaped cells, the
hepatocytes, arranged in pairs of columns radiating from a central vein.
 Between two pairs of columns of cells there are sinusoids (blood vessels with
incomplete walls) containing a mixture of blood from the tiny branches of the portal
vein and hepatic artery.
 Amongst the cells lining the sinusoids are hepatic macrophages (Kupffer cells) whose
function is to ingest and destroy any foreign particles present in the blood flowing
through the liver.
 Blood drains from the sinusoids into central or centrilobular veins. These then join
with veins from other lobules, forming larger veins, until eventually they become the
 hepatic veins which leave the liver and empty the inferior vena cava just below the
diaphragm.
Functions of the liver
 Secretion of bile. The hepatocytes synthesise the constituents of bile from the mixed
arterial and venous blood in the sinusoids. These include bile salts, bile pigments and
cholesterol.
 Carbohydrate metabolism. Conversion of glucose to glycogen in the presence of
insulin, and converting liver glycogen back to glucose in the presence of glucagon.
These changes are important regulators of the blood glucose level.
 Fat metabolism. Desaturation of fat, i.e. converts stored fat to a form in which it can
be used by the tissues to provide energy.
 Protein metabolism. Deamination of amino acids removes the nitrogenous portion
from the amino acids not required for the formation of new protein; urea is formed
from this nitrogenous portion which is excreted in urine.
 It also breaks down genetic material of worn-out cells of the body to form uric acid
which is excreted in the urine.
 Transamination — removes the nitrogenous portion of amino acids and attaches it to
other carbohydrate molecules forming new non-essential amino acids.
 Synthesis of plasma proteins and most of the blood clotting factors from the
available amino acids occurs in the liver.
 Breakdown of erythrocytes and defence against microbes. This is carried out by
phagocytic Kupffer cells (hepatic macrophages) in the sinusoids.
 Detoxification of drugs and noxious substances. These include ethanol (alcohol) and
toxins produced by microbes.
 Metabolism of ethanol.
 Inactivation of hormones. These include insulin, glucagon, cortisol, aldosterone,
thyroid and sex hormones.
 Synthesis of vitamin A from carotene. (Carotene is the provitamin found in some
plants, e.g. carrots and green leaves of vegetables).
 Production of heat. The liver uses a considerable amount of energy, has a high
metabolic rate and produces a great deal of heat. It is the main heat-producing organ
of the body.
 It is involved in the storage of:
1. fat-soluble vitamins: A, D, E, K
2. iron, copper
3. some water-soluble vitamins, e.g. riboflavine, niacin,
4. pyridoxine, folic acid and vitamin B12.
Functions of Gall-Bladder:
.
Gall Bladder: Functions and
i. It is an efficient storehouse of bile.
ii. It absorbs water and concentrates bile about 10 times.
iii. It absorbs inorganic salts from bile to some extent and reduces the alkalinity of liver
bile.
iv. It excretes cholesterol to some degree.
v. It secretes mucus, which is the main source of mucin in bile.
Bile is essential for life. Although it does not contain any enzyme, yet, it acts as a very
important digestive juice. Its importance is so much that, life cannot be maintained without it.
If a cannula is inserted in the common bile duct and all bile is collected outside, it is seen that
the dog develops various abnormalities of bone, anaemia, lack of nutrition and eventually
dies.Bile is essential for the complete digestion of fats and to some extent of proteins and
carbohydrates.
This action is due to the presence of bile salts, which act in the following ways:

a. By reducing surface tension, so that fats are converted into an emulsion. The fine globules
of fat, due to their innumerable number, render a larger surface area for the enzyme (lipase)
to act. Due to this the process of digestion is quickened.
The bile salts, by virtue of the cholic acid radicle, act as a specific activator for different
lipases.
c. Solvent Action:
Bile acts as a good solvent. Due to this property, it serves as a good medium for the
interacting fats and fat-splitting enzymes.
2. Absorption:
Bile helps in the absorption of various substances. This is also due to presence of bile salts.
The following things are absorbed with the help of bile:
i. Fats:
Bile is essential for fat absorption.
(1) Hydrotropic Action:
By this property the insoluble fatty acids, cholesterol, calcium, soaps, etc., – are made readily
soluble in the watery contents of intestinal canal. In this way they are made easily diffusible
and thus suitable for absorption. [This action is brought about by the combination of these
substances with bile acids. Fatty acids, cholesterol and many such insoluble substances make
loose compounds with desoxycholic acid. Such compounds are soluble in water and are
called cholic acids.]

(2) Bile Salts:

Bile salts reduce the surface tension of the absorbing epithelium, increase their permeability
and thus facilitate absorption

a. Iron, Calcium:
Iron, calcium and probably other mineral constituents of diet.

b. Vitamins:
Bile salts help in the absorption of lipid-soluble vitamins A, D, E and K; and pro-vitamin
carotene.

Bile: Functions of Bile | Digestive Juice | Human Body | Biology

5. Bile is essential for life. Although it does not contain any enzyme, yet, it acts as a very
important digestive juice. Its importance is so much that, life cannot be maintained
 without it. If a cannula is inserted in the common bile duct and all bile is collected
outside, it is seen that the dog develops various abnormalities of bone, anaemia, lack
of nutrition and eventually dies (Whipple).
6. Bile serves the following functions:
7. 1. Digestion:
8. ADVERTISEMENTS:
9. Bile is essential for the complete digestion of fats and to some extent of proteins and
carbohydrates.
10. This action is due to the presence of bile salts, which act in the following ways:
11. a. By reducing surface tension, so that fats are converted into an emulsion. The fine
globules of fat, due to their innumerable number, render a larger surface area for the
enzyme (lipase) to act. Due to this the process of digestion is quickened.
12. b. Activating Action:
13. ADVERTISEMENTS:
14. The bile salts, by virtue of the cholic acid radicle, act as a specific activator for
different lipases. [That this action is not due to emulsification is proved by the fact
that, although emulsification is unnecessary for the digestion of water-soluble
triacetin by pancreatic lipase, yet the action of the enzyme is accelerated by bile salts.]
15. c. Solvent Action:
16. Bile acts as a good solvent. Due to this property, it serves as a good medium for the
interacting fats and fat-splitting enzymes.
17. 2. Absorption:
18. Bile helps in the absorption of various substances. This is also due to presence of bile
salts.
19. The following things are absorbed with the help of bile:
20. i. Fats:
21. Bile is essential for fat absorption.
22. This is carried out in two ways:
23. ADVERTISEMENTS:
24. (1) Hydrotropic Action:
25. By this property the insoluble fatty acids, cholesterol, calcium, soaps, etc., – are made
readily soluble in the watery contents of intestinal canal. In this way they are made
easily diffusible and thus suitable for absorption. [This action is brought about by the
combination of these substances with bile acids. Fatty acids, cholesterol and many
such insoluble substances make loose compounds with desoxycholic acid. Such
compounds are soluble in water and are called cholic acids.].
26. (2) Bile Salts:
27. Bile salts reduce the surface tension of the absorbing epithelium, increase their
permeability and thus facilitate absorption.
28. ADVERTISEMENTS:
29. a. Iron, Calcium:
30. Iron, calcium and probably other mineral constituents of diet.
31. b. Vitamins:
32. Bile salts help in the absorption of lipid-soluble vitamins A, D, E and K; and pro-
vitamin carotene.
33. ADVERTISEMENTS:
34. 3. Excretion:
35. Certain substances are excreted through bile, for instance:
36. i. Some metals like copper, zinc, mercury, etc.
37. ii. Toxins, bacteria, etc.
38. Bile: Functions of Bile | Digestive Juice | Human Body | Biology
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40.[7.] ADVERTISEMENTS:
41.[8.] Bile is essential for life. Although it does not contain any enzyme, yet, it acts as a
very important digestive juice. Its importance is so much that, life cannot be
maintained without it. If a cannula is inserted in the common bile duct and all bile is
collected outside, it is seen that the dog develops various abnormalities of bone,
anaemia, lack of nutrition and eventually dies (Whipple).
42. Bile serves the following functions:
43. 1. Digestion:
44. ADVERTISEMENTS:
45. Bile is essential for the complete digestion of fats and to some extent of proteins and
carbohydrates.
46. This action is due to the presence of bile salts, which act in the following ways:
47. a. By reducing surface tension, so that fats are converted into an emulsion. The fine
globules of fat, due to their innumerable number, render a larger surface area for the
enzyme (lipase) to act. Due to this the process of digestion is quickened.
48. b. Activating Action:
49. ADVERTISEMENTS:
50. The bile salts, by virtue of the cholic acid radicle, act as a specific activator for
different lipases. [That this action is not due to emulsification is proved by the fact
that, although emulsification is unnecessary for the digestion of water-soluble
triacetin by pancreatic lipase, yet the action of the enzyme is accelerated by bile salts.]
51. c. Solvent Action:
52. Bile acts as a good solvent. Due to this property, it serves as a good medium for the
interacting fats and fat-splitting enzymes.
53. 2. Absorption:
54. Bile helps in the absorption of various substances. This is also due to presence of bile
salts.
55. The following things are absorbed with the help of bile:
56. i. Fats:
57. Bile is essential for fat absorption.
58. This is carried out in two ways:
59. ADVERTISEMENTS:
60. (1) Hydrotropic Action:
61. By this property the insoluble fatty acids, cholesterol, calcium, soaps, etc., – are made
readily soluble in the watery contents of intestinal canal. In this way they are made
easily diffusible and thus suitable for absorption. [This action is brought about by the
combination of these substances with bile acids. Fatty acids, cholesterol and many
such insoluble substances make loose compounds with desoxycholic acid. Such
compounds are soluble in water and are called cholic acids.].
62. (2) Bile Salts:
63. Bile salts reduce the surface tension of the absorbing epithelium, increase their
permeability and thus facilitate absorption.
64. ADVERTISEMENTS:
65. a. Iron, Calcium:
66. Iron, calcium and probably other mineral constituents of diet.
67. b. Vitamins:
68. Bile salts help in the absorption of lipid-soluble vitamins A, D, E and K; and pro-
vitamin carotene.
69. ADVERTISEMENTS:
70. 3. Excretion:
71. Certain substances are excreted through bile, for instance:
72. i. Some metals like copper, zinc, mercury, etc.
73. ii. Toxins, bacteria, etc.
74. ADVERTISEMENTS:
75. iii. Bile pigments. [A portion of these pigments is then excreted in the faeces and in
urine in various forms.]
76. iv. Cholesterol and lecithin are probably chiefly excretory products.
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79.[10.] ADVERTISEMENTS:
80.[11.] Bile is essential for life. Although it does not contain any enzyme, yet, it acts as a
very important digestive juice. Its importance is so much that, life cannot be
maintained without it. If a cannula is inserted in the common bile duct and all bile is
collected outside, it is seen that the dog develops various abnormalities of bone,
anaemia, lack of nutrition and eventually dies (Whipple).
81. Bile serves the following functions:
82. 1. Digestion:
83. ADVERTISEMENTS:
84. Bile is essential for the complete digestion of fats and to some extent of proteins and
carbohydrates.
85. This action is due to the presence of bile salts, which act in the following ways:
86. a. By reducing surface tension, so that fats are converted into an emulsion. The fine
globules of fat, due to their innumerable number, render a larger surface area for the
enzyme (lipase) to act. Due to this the process of digestion is quickened.
87. b. Activating Action:
88. ADVERTISEMENTS:
89. The bile salts, by virtue of the cholic acid radicle, act as a specific activator for
different lipases. [That this action is not due to emulsification is proved by the fact
that, although emulsification is unnecessary for the digestion of water-soluble
triacetin by pancreatic lipase, yet the action of the enzyme is accelerated by bile salts.]
90. c. Solvent Action:
91. Bile acts as a good solvent. Due to this property, it serves as a good medium for the
interacting fats and fat-splitting enzymes.
92. 2. Absorption:
93. Bile helps in the absorption of various substances. This is also due to presence of bile
salts.
94. The following things are absorbed with the help of bile:
95. i. Fats:
96. Bile is essential for fat absorption.
97. This is carried out in two ways:
98. ADVERTISEMENTS:
99. (1) Hydrotropic Action:
100. By this property the insoluble fatty acids, cholesterol, calcium, soaps, etc., –
are made readily soluble in the watery contents of intestinal canal. In this way they are
made easily diffusible and thus suitable for absorption. [This action is brought about
by the combination of these substances with bile acids. Fatty acids, cholesterol and
 many such insoluble substances make loose compounds with desoxycholic acid. Such
compounds are soluble in water and are called cholic acids.].
101. (2) Bile Salts:
102. Bile salts reduce the surface tension of the absorbing epithelium, increase their
permeability and thus facilitate absorption.
103. ADVERTISEMENTS:
104. a. Iron, Calcium:
105. Iron, calcium and probably other mineral constituents of diet.
106. b. Vitamins:
107. Bile salts help in the absorption of lipid-soluble vitamins A, D, E and K; and
pro-vitamin carotene.
108. ADVERTISEMENTS:
109. 3. Excretion:
110. Certain substances are excreted through bile, for instance:
111. i. Some metals like copper, zinc, mercury, etc.
112. ii. Toxins, bacteria, etc.
113. ADVERTISEMENTS:
114. iii. Bile pigments. [A portion of these pigments is then excreted in the faeces
and in urine in various forms.]
115. iv. Cholesterol and lecithin are probably chiefly excretory products.
116. ADVERTISEMENTS:
117. 4. Laxative Action:
118. Bile salts stimulate peristalsis. When introduced directly into the colon it
stimulates peristalsis of these parts.
119. 5. Cholagogue Action:
120. Bile acts as its own stimulant. Bile salts are the strongest cholagogues. They
are absorbed from intestine, carried to liver and stimulate further bile secretion. The
taurocholate is stronger in this respect than the glycocholate.
121. 6. Bile Helps to Maintain a Suitable pH:
122. Bile helps to maintain a suitable pH of the duodenal contents and thus helps
the action of all the enzymes. Bile is an important source of alkali for neutralising the
hydrochloric acid entering the intestine from stomach.
123. 7. Lecithin and Cholesterol:
124. Lecithin and cholesterol, present in bile, also help in some ways:
125. First, they are treated as food and are reabsorbed.
126. Secondly, they act as adjuvants to bile salts in the process of emulsification of
fats (but on the whole they are regarded as excreted products).
127. 8. Mucin of Bile:
128. Mucin of bile acts as a buffer and a lubricant.
129. 9. Regurgitation of Bile:
130. Regurgitation of bile in the stomach helps to neutralise gastric acidity and thus
prevents the injurious effect of acids on gastric mucosa.
131. From the above it will be evident that bile is important not only as a digestive
juice but for also various other purposes.