INTRODUCTION TO MATRIX

For the arrangement of matrix, let the users to systematically express large systems of
equations. For example, assume that we have four equations with four unknown parameters a,
b, c, and d. The following are the system of equations

(Equation-1)
2 + +5 + =4
+ − 2 + 3 = −2
3 +6 −3 + =9
2 +2 + −4 =2

The matrix equation for the system of Equation-1

The matrix form for the system of Equation-1 can be presented in a compact matrix notation
as = .

Note:
A = coefficient matrix
X = unknown matrix
L = constant matrix
A. Dimension of a Matrix is identified by its number of rows m and its number of columns n. Hence,
the coefficient matrix (A) of (Equation-1) has a dimension of 4D4( 4 x 4 matrix ), or there are four
rows and four columns ( m = 4, n = 4 ). Another example,

(Matrix form-1)

As you can observe in Matrix form-1 that the subscript (number of rows) and the superscript
(number of columns) has the notation of 2D5 . Therefore, equation-2 is equivalent to 2 x 5
matrix.

B. Types of Matrices
1. Column matrix: The number of rows can be any positive integer, but thenumber of column is
one. This matrix is also known as a vector.

Example:
2. Row matrix: The number of columns can be any positive integer, but thenumber of rows is
one.
Example:

3. Rectangular matrix: The number of rows and columns are m and n, respectively,where m and
n are any positive integers.
Example:

4. Square matrix: The number of rows equals the number of columns. A square matrix, for
which the determinant is zero, is termed singular. If the determinant is nonzero it is termed
non-singular.
Example:

5. Symmetric matrix: The matrix is mirrored about the main diagonal going from top left to
bottom right. A symmetric matrix is always a square matrix.
Example:
6. Diagonal matrix: Only the elements on the main diagonal are not zero.The diagonal matrix is
always a square matrix.

Example:

7. Unit matrix: This is a diagonal matrix with 1’s along the main diagonal.It is also called the
identity matrix and is usually identified by the symbol I.
Example:

8. Transpose of a matrix: This matrix is obtained by interchanging rows and columns. Thus, the
dimensions of AT are the reverse of the dimensions of A.
Example:
 Transpose Matrix of A:

C. Matrix Equality
Two matrices are said to be equal if they have the same size or the corresponding elements are
analogous.
Example:

D. Addition and Subtraction of Matrices

The general rule for the sum and difference of matrices can be applied if they have the same
dimensions. Observe the following example
E. Scalar Multiplication of a Matrix
Matrices can be multiplied by a scalar (i.e., a constant). Let k be any scalar quantity; then

=
Illustrated example:

F. Matrix Multiplication
For matrix multiplication, the number of columns in the first matrix must be identical to the
number of rows in the second matrix. Hence, the following are possible:
3
4A x 3B2 = 4C2
2
3A x 2B1 = 3C1
Numerical example of multiplication:
2
3A x 2B1 = 3C1
 Inverse Matrix

If a square matrix is nonsingular (its determinant is not zero), it possesses an inverse matrix.
When a system of simultaneous linear equations consisting of n equations and involving n
unknowns is expressed as AX=B, the coefficient matrix (A) is a square matrix of dimensions n ×
n. Consider this system of linear equations AX = B

The inverse of matrix A, symbolized as A−1, is defined as A−1A = I where I is the identity matrix.
Premultiplying both sides of matrix equation by A−1 yields
A−1 AX = A−1B
Reducing
I X = A−1B
X = A−1B

Thus, the inverse is used to find the matrix of unknowns, X. The following
points should be emphasized regarding matrix inversions:
1. Square matrices have inverses, with the exception noted below.
2. When the determinant of a matrix is zero, the matrix is said to be singular and its inverse
cannot be found.
3. The inversion of even a small matrix is a tedious and time-consuming
operation when done by hand. However, when done by a computer, the
inverse can be found quickly and easily.
 8 5
Example: = , .
3 12

Solution

Compute the determinant ‖ ‖

Note: downward diagonal arrow-upward

arrow diagonal arrow

*Red arrow-Green
Green arrow
‖ ‖ = 8(12) − 3(5) = 81

18 5 1 8 5
= =
‖ ‖ 3 12 81 3 12

INVERSES BY ADJOINTS
The inverse of A can be found using the method of adjoints with the following equation:

The adjoint of A is obtained by first replacing

repla each matrix element by its signed minor or
cofactor and then transposing the resulting matrix. The cofactor of element aij equals (−1)i+j
times the numerical value of the determinant for the remaining elements after row i and
column j have been removed from the matrix.
Example:

For this A matrix, the cofactors are calculated as follows

(−1)1+2(a21a33 − a31a23) = a31a23 − a21a33

= (−1) [3(3) − (−1)(−1

)( 1)] = 8

= (−1) [−1(3) − (0)(−1

)( 1)] = 3

= (−1) [−1(−1) − ((0)(3

)(3)] = 1

= (−1) [−1(3) − (−1)(0

)(0)] = 3
= (−1) [3(3) − (0)(0)] = 9

= (−1) [3(−1) − (0)(−1)] = 3

= (−1) [−1(−1) − (3)(0)] = 1

= (−1) [3(−1) − (−1)(0)] = 3

= (−1) [3(3) − (−1)(−1)] = 8

 8 3 1
= = 3 9 3
1 3 8

Transposing this cofactor matrix produces the following adjoint of A:

8 3 1
= = 3 9 3
1 3 8

The determinant of A is the sum of the products of the elements in the first row of the original
matrix times their respective cofactors. Since the cofactors were already obtained in the
preceding step, this simplifies to

‖ ‖ = 3(8) + (−1)(3) + 0(1) = 21

The inverse of A is now calculated as

8 1 1
⎡ ⎤
1 8 3 1 1 8 3 1 ⎢21 7 21⎥
1 3 1⎥
= 3 9 3 = 3 9 3 =⎢
‖ ‖ 21 ⎢7 7 7⎥
1 3 8 1 3 8
⎢1 1 8⎥
⎣21 7 21⎦
Example:
Suppose that an EDM instrument is placed at point A and a reflector is placed successively at B,
C, and D. The observed values AB, AC, and AD are shown in the figure. Calculate the unknowns
X1, X2, and X3 by matrix methods. The observed values are
AB = 125.27 m
AC = 259.60 m
AD = 395.85 m

Solution:

Formulate the basic equations:

X1 = 125.27
X1 + X2 = 259.60
X1 + X2 + X3 = 395.85

Represented in matrix notation, these equations are AX = L. In this matrix

equation, the individual matrices are

1 0 0 125.27
= 1 1 0 = = 259.60
1 1 1 395.85
 =( ) ( )

1 1 1 1 0 0 3 2 1
= 0 1 1 1 1 0 = 2 2 1
0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 125.27 780.72
= 0 1 1 259.60 = 655.45
0 0 1 395.85 395.85

3 2 1 780.72 125.27
=( ) ( )= 2 2 1 655.45 = 134.33
1 1 1 395.85 136.25

= .
= .
= .
 CONCEPTS OF ERRORS

A. Direct and Indirect Measurements

Direct measurements are made by applying an instrument directly to the unknown quantity
and observing its value, usually by reading it directly from graduated scales on the device.
(Ghilani, 2010)

Indirect measurements are obtained when it is not possible or practical to make direct
measurements. In such cases the quantity desired is determined from its mathematical
relationship to direct measurements. (Ghilani, 2010)

B. Error Properties of Measurement

1. No observation is exact,
2. every observation contains errors,
3. the true value of an observation is never known, and, therefore,
4. the exact error present is always unknown.
(Ghilani & Wolf, 2012)

C. Types of Errors

Systematic errors, also known as biases, result from factors that comprise the “measuring
system” and include the environment, instrument, and observer. So long as system conditions
remain constant, the systematic errors will likewise remain constant. If conditions change, the
magnitudes of systematic errors also change. Because systematic errors tend to accumulate,
they are sometimes called cumulative errors. (Ghilani & Wolf, 2012)

Random error (also known as accidental or compensating) is a type of error whose magnitude
and direction are just by accident and are beyond the control of the surveyor. (Ogundare, 2016)
D. Sources of Errors

1. Instrumental errors - These errors are caused by imperfections in instrument

construction or adjustment.
(Ghilani, 2010)

2. Natural errors - These errors are caused by changing conditions in the surrounding
environment. These include variations in atmospheric pressure, temperature, wind,
gravitational fields, and magnetic fields. (Ghilani, 2010)

3. Personal errors - These errors arise due to limitations in human senses, such as the
ability to read a micrometer or to center a level bubble. The sizes of these errors are
affected by the personal ability to see and by the observer’s manual dexterity. (Ghilani,
2010)

E. Mistakes

Mistakes (or blunders) must be detected and removed from observations; they are usually due
to carelessness of the observer.
(Ogundare, 2016)
F. Precision and Accuracy

Precision refers to the degree of refinement or consistency of a group of observations and is

evaluated on the basis of discrepancy size. If multiple observations are made
ade of the same
quantity and small discrepancies result, this indicates high precision. The degree of precision
attainable is dependent on equipment sensitivity and observer skill. (Ghilani & Wolf, 2012)

Accuracy denotes the absolute nearness of observed quantities to their true values. The
difference between precision and accuracy is perhaps best illustrated with reference to target
shooting. (Ghilani & Wolf, 2012)

(Ghilani & Wolf, 2012)

 POPULATION VERSUS SAMPLE

1. Population consists of all possible measurements that can

Be made on a particular item or procedure. Often, a population has an infinite number of data
elements.

2. Sample is a subset of data selected from the population.

PROBABILITY
Probability may be defined as the ratio of the number of times a result should occur to its
total number of possibilities.
The theory of probability is applicable in many sociological and scientific observations. It
was pointed out that random errors exist in all surveying work. This can perhaps be better
appreciated by considering the measuring process, which generally involves executing several
elementary tasks. Besides instrument selection and calibration, these tasks may include setting
up, centering, aligning, or pointing the equipment; setting, matching, or comparing index
marks; and reading or estimating values from graduated scales, dials, or gauges. Because of
equipment and observer imperfections, exact observations cannot be made, so they will always
contain random errors. The magnitudes of these errors, and the frequency with which errors of
a given size occur, follow the laws of probability.
MOST PROBABLE VALUE
The most probable value is that value for a measured quantity which, based on the
observations, has the highest probability of occurrence. It is derived from a sample set of data
rather than from the population and is simply the mean if the repeated observations have the
same precision. However, the most probable value can be calculated if redundant observations
have been made. Redundant observations are measurements
in excess of the minimum needed to determine a quantity.
∑M
M=
n
where : M = most probable value
∑ M = the sum of individual measurements M

n= total number of observations

RESIDUALS
A residual is simply the difference between the most probable value and any observed value of
a quantity, which in equation form is = −

where v is the residual in any observation M, and M is the most probable value for the quantity.
Residuals are theoretically identical to errors, with the exception that residuals can be
calculated whereas errors cannot because true values are never known. Thus, residuals rather
than errors are the values actually used in the analysis and adjustment of survey data.

GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION OF DATA

Histograms are bar graphs that show the frequency distributions in data. To create a histogram,
the data are divided into classes. These are subregions of data that usually have a uniform
range in values, or class width.

Shape of the histogram

Bell-shaped: A bell-shaped picture, shown below, usually presents a normal distribution.

https://www.pqsystems.com/qualityadvisor/DataAnalysisTools/interpretation/histogram_shap
e.php
Bimodal: A bimodal shape, shown below, has two peaks. This shape may show that the data
has come from two different systems. If this shape occurs, the two sources should be separated
and analyzed separately.

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e.php

Skewed right: Some histograms will show a skewed distribution to the right, as shown below. A
distribution skewed to the right is said to be positively skewed. This kind of distribution has a
large number of occurrences in the lower value cells (left side) and few in the upper value cells
(right side). A skewed distribution can result when data is gathered from a system with has a
boundary such as zero. In other words, all the collected data has values greater than zero.

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e.php
Skewed left: Some histograms will show a skewed distribution to the left, as shown below. A
distribution skewed to the left is said to be negatively skewed. This kind of distribution has a
large number of occurrences in the upper value cells (right side) and few in the lower value cells
(left side). A skewed distribution can result when data is gathered from a system with a
boundary such as 100. In other words, all the collected data has values less than 100.

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e.php

Uniform: A uniform distribution, as shown below, provides little information about the system.
An example would be a state lottery, in which each class has about the same number of
elements. It may describe a distribution which has several modes (peaks). If your histogram has
this shape, check to see if several sources of variation have been combined. If so, analyze them
separately. If multiple sources of variation do not seem to be the cause of this pattern, different
groupings can be tried to see if a more useful pattern results. This could be as simple as
changing the starting and ending points of the cells, or changing the number of cells. A uniform
distribution often means that the number of classes is too small.

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e.php
Random: A random distribution, as shown below, has no apparent pattern. Like the uniform
distribution, it may describe a distribution that has several modes (peaks). If your histogram has
this shape, check to see if several sources of variation have been combined. If so, analyze them
separately. If multiple sources of variation do not seem to be the cause of this pattern, different
groupings can be tried to see if a more useful pattern results. This could be as simple as
changing the starting and ending points of the cells, or changing the number of cells. A random
distribution often means there are too many classes.

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e.php
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

Arithmetic mean-For a set of n observations, x1, x2, . . . , xn , the arithmetic mean is the average
of the observations. Its value, , is computed from the following equation:

∑
=

Median-As mentioned previously, this is the midpoint of a sample set when arranged in
ascending or descending order. One-half of the data are
above the median and one-half are below it. When there are an odd number of quantities, only
one such value satisfies this condition. For a data set with an even number of quantities, the
average of the two observations that straddle the midpoint is used to represent the median.

Mode-Within a sample of data, the mode is the most frequently occurring

value. It is seldom used in surveying because of the relatively small number of values observed
in a typical set of observations.

STATISTICAL INDEXES

Variance σ2: the theoretical mean of the squared residual errors that can
be computed as follows:

∑ (x − x) ∑ (v )
σ = =
n−1 n−1

The denominator n-1 is called the redundancy ‘r’ or the degree of freedom. The minimum
observations we need to determine the variance is only 1 value, which is termed as no;
accordingly, the rest of the observations are redundant, and ‘r’ can be formulated as:
r=n-no
Standard deviation σ: the square root of the variance that expresses by how much the
observations differ from the MPV or the mean value. Further, it is a measure of how spread out
the observations are.

∑ (v )
σ=
n−1

When the reference values are available, the standard deviation is termed as the Root Mean
Squared Error (RMSE), which indicates by how much the observed or derived quantities deviate
from the reference (true) values.

∑ (x − x )
RMSE =
n−1

Standard error : represents the standard deviation of the mean, which

is computed as:

σ ∑ (v )
= =
√n n(n − 1)
Example 1: Suppose that a 1-second
second (1)
(1) micrometer theodolite is used to read a direction 50
times. The seconds’ portionss of the readings are shown in table.
t

A.Compute the MPV, median and mode

B.Compute the standard deviation
C.Construct a histogram

Solution:
A.
Arrange the data in ascending order

20.1 20.5 21.2 21.7 21.8 21.9 22.0 22.2 22.3 22.3 22.5 22.6 22.6 22.7 22.8 22.8 22.9 22.9 23.0
23.1 23.1 23.2 23.2 23.3 23.4 23.5 23.6 23.7 23.8 23.8 23.8 23.9 24.0 24.1 24.1 24.2 24.3 24.4
24.6 24.7 24.8 25.0 25.2 25.3 25.3 25.4 25.5 25.9 25.9 26.1

∑ M 1175
M= = = 23.5ʹʹ
n 50

For the median determine the 25th and 26th rank since the total number of observation is even.
 23.4 + 23.5
median = = 23.45ʹʹ
2

mode= 23.8’’

B.

∑ (v ) 92.36
σ= = = ±1.3729ʹʹ
n−1 50 − 1
 C.
Range=highest value-lowest value
Range=26.1-20.1
Range= 6’’

ʹʹ
Class width= = = 0.86ʹʹ
( )

Class Interval Class frequency Relative class

frequency
Lower Value Upper Value

20.1 20.96 2 2/50=0.04

20.96 21.82 3 3/5=0.06

21.82 22.68 8 8/50=0.16

22.68 23.54 13 13/50=0.26

23.54 24.4 11 11/50=0.22

24.4 25.26 6 6/50=0.12

25.26 26.12 7 7/50=0.14

Total=50 Total=1
Histogram

A summary of items seen easily on a histogram include:

• Whether the data are symmetrical about a central value.
• The range or dispersion in the measured values.
• The frequency of occurrence of the measured values.
• The steepness of the histogram, which is an indication of measurement
precision.