See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/320333922

Chemical Contaminants for Soil, Air and Aquatic Ecosystem

Chapter · January 2018

DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-64501-8_1

CITATIONS READS

53 5,800

4 authors, including:

Huma Naz
Aligarh Muslim University
99 PUBLICATIONS 120 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Huma Naz on 24 February 2018.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Chapter 1
Chemical Contaminants for Soil, Air and
Aquatic Ecosystem

Tesfalem Weldeslassie, Huma Naz, Balwant Singh, and Mohammad Oves

Abstract Chemicals from fossil fuel use, domestic and industrial waste products,
mining and agriculture contaminate air, water and soil. Contaminant chemicals may
have considerable implications for human health and safety, welfare and the value
of nature. Air contaminants include carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous
oxide (N2O), nitrogen oxides (NOx), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons
(PFCs) and sulphur hexafluoride (SF6). These gases brings climate change by
increasing the temperature of the earth’s atmosphere and oceans. Climate change
is responsible for unpredictable changes in precipitation, rising sea level and
extreme climate events. Air contamination can be controlled by passing a law
against harmful chemicals production, introducing special devices that reduce
green houses gases, and making use of alternative sources of energy. Major water
contaminants include sewages, petroleum products (like polychlorinated biphe-
nyls), nitrates, insecticides, sediments and excess organic matters. Harmful
chemicals may reach water bodies from outlet of pipes in industries; leakage of
pipe line or storage tanks, mining operations, improper application of fertilizers and
pesticides in agricultural fields and some leakage from ships. Water contaminants
inflict vital body organs, nervous systems, and cause different types of cancers and
cardiovascular effects. Soil contamination is caused by dispersion of toxic com-
pounds, acidification, salinization and sodification, enhanced soil erosion, chemical
fertilizers, pesticides, fungicides, and the accumulation of heavy metals and other
inorganic contaminants. Like air and water contaminants, soil contaminants, if they
enter into our body, are also causative agents of many diseases. There are many

T. Weldeslassie (*) • B. Singh

Department of Land Resources and Environment, Hamelmalo Agricultural College, Keren,
Eritrea, East Africa
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]
H. Naz
Department of Plant Protection, Hamelmalo Agricultural College, Keren, Eritrea
e-mail: [email protected]
M. Oves
Center of Excellence in Environmental Studies, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Kingdom
of Saudi Arabia
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1

M. Oves et al. (eds.), Modern Age Environmental Problems and their Remediation,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-64501-8_1
2 T. Weldeslassie et al.

tangible mechanisms to control soil contaminants such as landfills, incineration or

burning, composting and recycling.

Keywords Contaminant chemicals • Contamination control • Contaminant

sources • Impacts and implications

1.1 Introduction

Environment is the physical (non-living and living) surroundings of human society.

Interactions between society and the environment are inevitable. These interactions
include the effects of society on the environment and the value of the environment
for society (Fig. 1.1).
Environmental problem, most of the time, is caused as a result of the disturbance
of the interactions between society and the environment. Such disturbance may
have several impacts such as air, water and soil contaminations. In turn, these
environmental impacts will have diverse implications for human society, including
implications for human health and safety, welfare and the value of nature. Pollution,
contamination of earth’s environment, afflicts not only the health of human but the
quality of life along with the ecosystems (IPCC 2014). Thomas (2012) and IPCC
(2014) clearly stated that it is out of question to say the cause for relentless rise of
global warming is the consequences of human-induced increases in heat-trapping
gases. Nowadays there is no a question on the credibility and maturity of climate
science (Carlton et al. 2015). The reason why climate change is dreadfull is its vital
power to shape the human planet in a different way so that life becomes very hard.
Industrial activities may have environmental impact on water contamination due to
disposal of heavy metals such as mercury, lead, copper and selenium and this
contaminated water will have implications for human health, for example after
ingesting or dermal contact with contaminated soil (Hannah et al. 2009). The risk of
climate related impacts is becoming more greater for those disadvantaged societies
in any country (IPCC 2014). Many people could understand the negative impacts of
air and soil contaminations on human’s health, but that of soil is still not fully
understood (Science Communication Unit 2013). However, many studies agreed
that increased level of soil contaminants affect soil chemisty, microbial activities
and health of the animals and plants living in the soil significantly (Hannah et al.
2009; Science Communication Unit 2013).

Fig. 1.1 Interactions

between society and
environment
1 Chemical Contaminants for Soil, Air and Aquatic Ecosystem 3

Environmental problems can be assessed at global or continental or local level

(WHO 1982). Global problems include environmental problems caused by pollut-
ants that usually stay in the environment for a long time, and that are transported
over long distances. People focus more on atmospheric pollutants as they have
large-scale and long-term effects. It does not matter where on earth the emissions
take place, because the pollutants spread into earth’s entire atmosphere within a few
years, while the effects may last for decades or centuries (GISS 2017). Therefore,
global problems, for example climate change and stratospheric ozone depletion, are
international problems that need urgent global solutions.
Continental problems are caused by pollutants that are transported at a conti-
nental scale. These problems are international and need to be solved at the conti-
nental level. Continental problems include acidification, eutrophication;
tropospheric ozone; dispersion of toxic compounds and the like.
The impact of local environmental problems is limited to more or less the
location where the causes of these problems are found. Therefore, these problems
need local solutions. Local problems include heavy metals, waste production and
disposal, excess use of agricultural chemicals (fertilizers and pesticides), domestic
wastes and industrial effulients.
Pollutants can be categorized into biodegradable and non-degradable. Biode-
gradable pollutants are those materials that are decomposable simply by natural
phenomena. They may pose a problem if their rate of addition is greater than their
rate of decomposition. The second types of pollutants are those of non-degradable.
Non-degradable pollutants decompose at a rate more slowly than their decomposi-
tion so that it is needless to say that their removal from the environment is very
difficult if not impossible.

1.2 Air Contaminants

Many human activities including fossil fuel use, industry, mining and agriculture
are sources of air pollution. Emissions of green house gases (GHG) like carbon
dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs),
perfluorocarbons (PFCs) and sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) affect the radiative balance
of the atmosphere (so-called radiative forcing). As a result of the radiative forcing,
the temperature of the earth’s atmosphere is increasing and the climate is being
changed. Climate change means occurrence of abnormal precipitation events and
rise of sea level. In addition, weather patterns will become less predictable and the
incidence of extreme climate events, such as storms, floods, and droughts, will
increase. Climate scientists clearly understand the suitation may reach to the level
whre nature and human society may not be capable of responding rapidly enough to
these changes.
According to IPCC (2006), many processes in the ecosystem are definitely
affected by management of land use which will directly affect fluxes of GHGs, to
mention some of them are combustion, respiration photosynthesis, enteric
4 T. Weldeslassie et al.

fermentation, decomposition and nitrification or denitrification.Within these pro-

cesses carbon, sulphur and nitrogen are exposed to complex transformations.
Biological (activity of microorganisms, plants, and animals) and physical processes
(combustion, leaching, and run-off) involve in the transformation of these elements.
Troposphere, 16 km wide atmospheric layer, is frequented with continuous change
of climatic variables due to change in the fluxes of GHGs. Almost all local and
global pollutions are observed in this layer.
The common air pollutants inside any house can be mentioned as tobacco
smoke, invisible radioactive gas, radon, synthetic chemicals of carpets and tools,
pesticides and chemicals that are used in cleaning household. It is realized that the
most harmful component of air pollution is the polluted air inside the homes and
buildings as in one way it is hardly identified and on the other way people
particularly children, without recognizing the pollution, spend most of their time
being exposed to polluted air (Moya et al. 2004). For example, many people suffer
from a lung disease known as asbestosis. The main cause of this disease is airborne
fibers of asbestos. Asbestos which are easily accessible in every house are used in
insulation of many electrical tools. If there is a lack of appropriate air ventilation
inside the house, it is possible that pollutants may concentrate to the level much
higher than outside. Hence, the pollutants may threaten the life of many residents of
a house at one go. Equipments which can cause unanticipated accumulation of air
pollutants are heaters which lack efficient and proper vents.

1.2.1 Major Air Contaminants and Their Sources

IPCC (2014) reported that CO2, carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides NOx,
sulphur dioxide (SO2), and tiny solid particles-including lead from gasoline
additives-called particulates are the main known results of anthropogenic GHGs
emisions. Human’s injudicious and continuous use of resources like burning coal
and oil (fossil fuels) to obtain energy for operating industries, fabrics and vehicles,
incarnation of domestic wastes, agricultural processes, is referred as the firsthand
and unparalleled sources of the major air contaminants. May be sometimes air
pollutants can be the outcomes of natural occurring forest fires, aerosols, volcanic
ash and the list is many.
Carbon Dioxide It the is one of the most important heat traping gas. Climate
scientists show that the major cause of greenhouse effect is high concentration of
CO2 in the atmosphere. Greenhouse effect is the causative agent of global warming,
increase of global temperate. Comparing with other air contaminants in terms of its
abundance, CO2 holds the first level. It constantly circulates in the environment
through a variety of natural processes known as the carbon cycle. CO2, released
from respiration of animals, combustion or oxidation of fossil fuels including
gasoline, coal, manure, soil organic matter, dead organic matter, fermentation of
sugars, chemical decomposition of carbonates and urea, and eruptions of volcanoes.
1 Chemical Contaminants for Soil, Air and Aquatic Ecosystem 5

Oxidation of soil organic matter provides energy for the soil organisms. CO2, the
product of respiration, is released into the atmosphere. But it is also removed from
atmosphere as it is absorbed into water bodies and by plants by the processes of
photosynthesis, conversion of CO2 and water into simple sugars using the energy of
light. However, deforestation, human activity that leads to creation of bare land by
cutting trees mercilessly, tremendously reduces the processes of photosynthesis
which is the ultimate increase the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere. It plays
many roles in domestic uses like manufacture of washing soda, baking soda, and
effervescence of carbonated beverages. It also helps as fire extinguisher, refrigerant
and anesthesia.
With advancement of new technologies the life of human being has been
improved drastically. Paradoxically, an increase in concentration of CO2 in the
atmosphere due to human activities is becoming much faster than its removal,
which can not be imagined with normal human mind. The problem is becoming
more severe due to the ability of CO2 to stay for more than tens of century in the
atmosphere without being disposed naturally. If you look at the history of the
concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere, there were only about 280 ppm molecules
of CO2 before industrial revolution began in the mid 1700s (Michael and Schneider
2009). However, in 2017 the concentration was risen up to 406 ppm due to global
wide spread of industrial sectors and increased consumption of fossil fuel for
vehicle transportation and electricity generation (GISS 2017).
Methane (CH4) and Other Volatile Organic Chemicals CH4 also known as
natural gas is emitted from livestock enteric fermentation, from manure manage-
ment systems, and largely from rice cultivation. About 43% of the emission of CH4
into the atmosphere is from natural wet lands and paddy fields (Wild 1993). Mining
of coal and other fossil fuels also some times aggravate the emission of methane
particularly during their production and transportation. Methane also is emitted
from decomposition of garbage in landfills, solid waste disposal sites and household
products. Comparing CH4 with CO2 in terms concentration in the atmosphere, CO2
is far greater than CH4. However, the problem with CH4 is that because it stays in
the atmosphere for longer period of time than CO2. CH4 is more effective in rising
atmospheric temperature as it traps heat more efficiently than CO2. If we compare
CH4 with CO2, for example, molecule of CH4 is nearly 30 times more efficient at
trapping infrared radiation radiated from the earth’s surface than a molecule of
CO2.
People use CH4 mainly as a source of fuel energy by burning it. But it has also
wide application in different industries to produce different types of chemicals. In
kitchens it helps to heat furnaces, stoves, heaters etc. Industries which produce
construction materials also use natural gas in large amount to burn wooden mate-
rials. Food and glass processing factories also use natural gas to get heat. CH4 is
also very essential for generating chemicals, called petrochemicals, which can be
employed for manufacturing commodities that can be used to enrich soil fertilities,
to make plastic materials and drugs.
6 T. Weldeslassie et al.

Volatile organic chemicals (VOCs) come in to the atmosphere due to lack of

inefficient burning of fossil oils. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) include
organic compounds like ethylene, propylene, benzene, or styrene. VOCS evaporate
at a relatively low temperature and contribute to air pollution.
Nitrous Oxide and Nitric Oxide N2O has a long residence time in the atmosphere
of about 150 years. It absorbs infrared radiation but because of its low concentration
it has only a small effect on global warming. Because of its long residence time it
has, however, more serious effects in the stratosphere where it reacts with excited
atomic oxygen to give nitric oxide, NO, which destroys ozone.
Soil temperature and water content affect the production of N2O after applica-
tion of ammonium nitrate as fertilizer. N2O is produced mainly by the biological
reduction of nitrate, a process known as denitrification. Most of the time, this
process occurs under anaerobic conditions. It takes place most rapidly when the
soil is warm and contains readily decomposed organic matter. Microorganisms use
NO 3 instead of O2 as an electron acceptor, producing NO, N2O and N2. Many
studies indicate that the highest values of N2O are from irrigated and fertilized soils
high in organic matter (Havlin et al. 2005).
Carbon Monoxide CO enters into the atmosphere from industrial activities and
from vehicles which consume fossil oil. If the concentration of CO in the atmo-
sphere is greater than 10 mgm 3 over 8 h or 40 mgm 3 over 1 h, it will be dreadful
for health (Engelking 2009). As the concentration of CO in the atmosphere
increases, oxygen will not reach the lungs adequately so that the accident of
asphyxia, death due to failure of blood to be oxygenated in the lungs. During the
time when CO is inhaled, it is immediately assimilated with haemoglobin in the
blood so that no more adsorption of oxygen, asphyxiation. Children/infants are
more vulnerable to the poisonousness of CO in a given confined environment
(WHO 2005). Formation of CO is prevailed if there is incomplete of burning of
fossil fuels. In fact it is difficult to get a situation free of CO even with the presence
of excess oxygen. Almost all moving vehicles are the main producers of these
poisonous gases.
CO is very fatal to life; even 1% may lead death in less than min. The major
sources of CO are urban industries, automobile exhaust and cigarette smoke. The
main symptoms of this poisoning include headache, nausea, or fatigue, followed by
unconsciousness and finally death. An automobile engine, leaking furnace and fuel
gas are the main sources of CO.
Sulphur Dioxide SO2 emits to atmosphere from generators and from oil or coal
mining containing sulphuric acids. Nowadays, it becomes a common experience to
have the incident of acid rain as their industries deposit huge amount of SO2 to the
atmosphere. If the maximum concentration of sulphuric acid is greater than 80 μgm 3
over a year or 365 μgm 3 over 24 h, it is detrimental to the life of human being
(Engelking 2009).
Particulate Matter Particulate matter, collection of individual particles, may also
be the cause of air pollution. Its composition differs from place to place depending
1 Chemical Contaminants for Soil, Air and Aquatic Ecosystem 7

on the type of industrial processes, type of vehicles, method of incineration and type
of heat and power generation. Generally, it composes of carbon, nitrates, sulphates,
and many harmful metals including lead, copper, iron, and zinc (Engelking 2009).
The health standard recommends below 50 μgm 3 over a year or 150 μgm 3 for
24 h.
Nitrogen Dioxide NO2 contributes to contamination of air after reacting with
hydrocarbons and sunlight to form photochemical oxidants. There are many ways
which lead the accumulation of NO2 in the atmosphere. To mention some of them
are improper application of fertilizers, use of nitric acid, operation of all types of
generators, during mobility of vehicles and make use of explosives to break rocks
and others. Acceptable level of this gas is less 100 μgm 3 over a year (Engelking
2009).
Ozone O3 is formed in the lower part of the atmosphere as a result of a reaction
among nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons and sunlight. That is NOx and VOCs may
affect the chemical composition of the air in such a way that O3 is formed under the
influence of sunlight in the troposphere. O3 is toxic at low concentrations for many
organisms and may cause damage to vegetation and crops. In addition it may cause
health problems to humans. According to WHO air quality guideline (2005)
concentration of O3 in the air should not be greater than 120 μgm 3 with in 8 h
duration of exposure.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) These types of compounds are derived from indus-
trial by-products. Increased concentrations of CFCs and halons in the atmosphere
are the major causes of stratospheric O3 depletion. Because O3 is a natural “filter”
for ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun, O3 depletion may result in increased
UV-radiation, which in turn may increase risks for skin cancer and disturbances of
ecosystems. People have used these compounds as a cooling agent, blowing agent,
cleaning agent, aerosol propellant and fire extinguishers. Many studies realized that
O3 is being severely attacked by different pollutants. CFCs are among the pollutants
which are responsible for the attack of O3 layer. CFC molecules are virtually
durable until they reach the stratosphere. But when they reach in the stratosphere,
they are broken by intense UV radation and chlorine atoms will result
in. Subsequently, these atoms react with O3 to break the bond between oxygen
atoms. Finally, the absorbing power of the O3 for UV-B will be reduced tremen-
dously and the earth will be then liable to direcr UV radiation. During the reaction
the chlorine remains unchanged and hundreds of thousands of O3 molecules can be
destroyed by a single chlorine atom, reacting again and again. Some reports
indicate that pollutants like N2O from fertilizers and methyl bromide from pesticide
also attack atmospheric O3. In the Montreal Protocol on substances, countries
agreed to stop using CFCs to avoid O3 layer depletion by this chemical. Even the
use of hydrochloroflurocarbons (HCFCs) will be abolished in the coming decades
completely.
Waste The main sources of air contamination due to wastes are landfills, inciner-
ation and composting. Incineration and composting may result in emissions of
8 T. Weldeslassie et al.

pollutants to the environment. Possible solutions are waste prevention, recycling

and making more efficient use of resources.

1.2.2 Consequences of Air Contaminants

Air pollution occurs inside laboratories, technical schools, rooms and offices, in
cities, across continents, and even globally (WHO 2005). Increasing the concen-
tration of contaminating substances in the atmosphere, air pollution, not only
afflicts human health but environment and quality of life as well. Particularly, air
contaminants affect the health of human being. Major problems associated with air
pollution are cancer and respiratory systems. Also, all living organisms together
with their ecosystems are the main victims of these harmful pollutants. Some air
pollutants (oxides) combine with water vapour and return to earth in the form of
acid rain and snow, which corrode statues and buildings, damage crops and forests,
and make lakes and streams unsuitable for fish and other plant and animal life.
Pollution is feared to cause ineffective atmosphere to reflect dangerous radia-
tions (UV-B from the sun). At the same time the atmosphere acts as barrier so that
no way of escaping of heat in to the atmosphere. Therefore, the absorbed heat in the
atmosphere increases dramatically. As the result the average temperature of the
globe increases so that the global warming phenomenon prevails. It is belived that
sudden rise of sea level, wide spread of contagious diseases etc will prevail due to
global warming.
A mixture of smoke and fog forms a smog which causes irritation in eyes, throat
and lungs as well as it damages plants. Smog containing O3 in the lower atmosphere
is poison which can damage any living thing and spoil artifacts and statures. The
Parthenon temple in Athens, Greece, and the Taj Mahal in Agra, India are some of
the victims of smog acids. Environmental officials measure O3 to determine the
severity of smog. With increasing the level of O3, pollutants like CO intends to
increase so that the condition going on even more worse.
Smog also has the potential to spoil the beautifulness of cities and towns. All
outdoor activities are becoming unpleasant and their efficiencies are highly
affected. It becomes harsher for those who have respiratory, headache and heart
problems. Some times smog can be fatal to mass death due to high concentration of
CO. For example, in 1952 about 4000 people were killed in Landon due to
incidence of thick smog (Ware et al. 1981).
Air pollution is not restricted only at regional level but expands to effect
globally. The stratosphere, a zone of O3, which is between 16 and 50 km above
sea level, is the most liable atmospheric layer to air contaminants.This lever saves
the earth from penetration of UV-B. If these radiations reach the earth surface,
definitely, they will damage the genetic molecule (DNA) of any living cell. This
problem then can impose cancer in human being. Thus, we can say that O3 layer is
the saver of the whole lives of our planet.
1 Chemical Contaminants for Soil, Air and Aquatic Ecosystem 9

According to the report of IPCC (2006), if the control measures of air contam-
inants are not implemented on the ground, there is high possibility that a rise of
global temperature between 1.4 and 4.8 C and sea level between 20 and 88 cm will
be occurred by the year 2100. If the sea level rises by this magnitude, costal cities
will be part of the sea, high social crisis will occur, and spread of communicable
diseases will be beyond control.

1.2.3 Control of Air Contamination

For controlling air contamination, a law should be passed against those responsible
for polluting materials and activities. However, the law will not be practical unless
it clearly specify type and level of these harmful substances.Though there are many
ways of specification of air contaminants, the common one is just sampling ambient
air and testing it for the presence of the pollutants. Generally, materials like lead,
CO, SO2, NOx, O3, VOCs, particulate and other polluting materials. Efforts are
needed to publicise and enforce acceptable population standards.Then, investiga-
tion of the existing and the newly entering pollutants in the atmosphere will be
carried smoothly.
It is the best strategy to control air contamination by decreasing the emission of
pollutants locally and globally. However, once the pollutants are formed the
contaminants should be controlled using special devices. These are fixed in any
vehicle (as catalytic converter) and industrial plants (as filters and scrubbers). The
function of catalytic converter is to reduce the harmfulness of the gasses. Protecting
air pollution is much more feasible than cleaning the polluted air. Many attempts
have been made to achieve clear air. For example let’s take the case of gasoline. It
has been tried to formulate many times to burn it without polluting the air. Another
way is using alternative sources of energy like electricity, solar energy, wind energy
etc. for automobiles. Improvement has been made in the design of buildings so that
to utilize the sun during cold times and shade and breezes during hot time in stead of
using artificial heating and cooling. If more people use public transportation rather
driving individually, the number of automobiles will be reduced significantly.
Special buildings equipped with proper ventilation should be constructed to avoid
indoor pollution. Smoking in public rooms must be prohibited. Never use asbestos
in insulation. Construction of tight foundations avoids seeping of pollutants into
buildings.

1.3 Water Contaminant Chemicals

Water has unparalleled necessity to all lives existing in the human planet. But
contaminated water resources such as streams, lakes, underground water, bays, or
oceans by chemicals are harmful to living things. Pollution even makes streams,
10 T. Weldeslassie et al.

lakes, and coastal waters unpleasant to look at, to smell, and to swim in. Water
pollutants can be in the forms of chemical, biological, or physical materials.The
ultimate consequence of these materials is to degrade the quality of water. In this
chapter more focus is given on chemical pollutants of aquatic ecosystem.

1.3.1 Types and Sources of Chemical Contaminants

There are two types of sources of water contaminants. These are point pollution and
non point pollution. Point pollution is the type of pollution in which the sources of
chemical contaminants are clearly identifiable. An example of point pollution
includes factories, processing plants etc. But non point pollution is the second
type of pollution in which the sources of chemical contaminants are not easily
identifiable. Generally, the main cause for water pollutants is thought to be human
activities. Chemical may reach water bodies from outlet of pipes in industries,
leakage of pipe line or storage tanks. Mining operations is also responsible for
significant water pollution either through the use of chemical contaminants during
ores processing in the mining area or through leaching of water through chemical
rich rocks. Large amounts of sewage are produced in cities and carried to water
bodies either through canals and flowing streams or other mechanisms. Chemical
pollutants are also produced in industries, agricultural sources like pastures,
ranches, feedlots etc. The major source of sea pollutants includes processing plant
and mining activities in the adjacent shorelines, offshore oil platforms, some
leakage from ships etc. Plastics are the most harmful materials to marine animals
if thrown and swallowed.
Significant oil is added to oceans during the flushing of tanks. There are other
sources of water pollution. The outlet of a given chimney transfer chemicals, for
example SO2, from the plant to the atmosphere. As SO2 in the air starts to mix with
moisture in the atmosphere, sulphuric acid is produced and rain to the earth. This
acid will get a way to reach the water bodies by runoff and then it will harm many
animals living in the water bodies or drinking from that water. The materials in the
garbage may be toxin so that during raining times the toxic substances can be
carried with percolating water and hence pollution of underground water will be
there.
In agricultural fields, nutrients like nitrates and phosphates from applied fertil-
izers and sewages are carried into rivers, streams and lakes. This leads to the
formation of eutrophication which causes the death of many fish and other aquatic
lives. Runoff also sometimes carries toxic algae like Pfiesteria piscicida and
pesticides together with industrial wastes into water bodies. Fine sediment which
has been carried by soil erosion is also responsible for the killing of mass aquatic
lives.
Petroleum Products People use crude oil to produce chemicals which are used for
many purposes such as lubrication activities, fuel energy, plastics and others. As a
1 Chemical Contaminants for Soil, Air and Aquatic Ecosystem 11

result of improper use and handling of these chemicals, however, they reach water
bodies and reduce the quality of water. To mention some of human activities which
lead to water contamination are leakage from perforated pipeline system, above and
underground oil containers, vehicles, ships and others. Almost all oil products are
lethal if they taken by animals in large amount. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
are harmful substances that contaminate water bodies.
Pesticides The chemical agents called pesticides include herbicides (for weed
control), insecticides (for insects control), and fungicides (for fungus control).
Chemicals used to kill unwanted animals and plants, for instance on farms or in
suburban yards, may be collected by rainwater runoff and carried into streams,
especially if these substances are applied too lavishly. Some of these chemicals are
biodegradable and quickly decay into harmless or less harmful forms, while others
are non-biodegradable and remain dangerous for a long time.When animals con-
sume plants that have been treated with certain non-biodegradable chemicals, such
as chlordane and dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), these chemicals are
absorbed into the tissues or organs of the animals. When other animals feed on
these contaminated animals, the chemicals are passed up the food chain. With each
step up the food chain, the concentration of the pollutant increases. This process is
called biomagnification. An excess of glyphosphate, a widely used ingredient in
herbicides, kills susceptible beneficial insects that prey on insect pests, and it is
extremely toxic to fish.
Nitrates Use of uncontrolled pesticides and fertilizers in the farm area contami-
nate drinking water supplies with nitrates. The NO3 ion, being negatively charged,
is not adsorbed by most soils. It remains in the soil solution until it is either taken up
by plant roots or leached out of the soil in drainage water, or denitrified. Nitrate
analysis of drinking water are reported as concentrations of nitrate in milligrams per
litre, or the amount of nitrogen possessed by nitrate (NO3 N) in milligrams per
litre. The most recent guideline from the European Commission set the ‘Maximum
Admissible Level’ for nitrate in drinking water to be 50 g of NO3 per litre of water.
The health risk from nitrate in drinking water free of faecal contamination is very
small.
Heavy Metalloids Lead, mercury, copper, and selenium are some of the harmful
heavy metals. They pollute water bodies if they get the way from their sources like
mining, factories and industries, vehicles and parent materials having these
chemicals (Oves et al. 2016). Animals can acquire these heavy metals from plants
and other animals which already consumed these chemicals.
Hazardous Waste Generally, hazardous wastes are categorized into toxic, reac-
tive, corrosive, and flammable. Most of the time the materials can reach the water
bodies due to lack of appropriate storage or treatment. The wastes can get into the
water by oil spills or any other mechanisms. Or animals can also be victims of these
wastes if they scavenge polluted dead or alive organisms. Animals can also be toxic
by their nature if they are eaten by other animals.
12 T. Weldeslassie et al.

Excess Organic Matter Excess application of fertilizers, organic matter and other
nutrients can get a way to pollute water. These leads to the high growth of algae and
aquatic plants which when die in the water leads to prevalence of high decompo-
sition processes- eutrophication phenomena, depletion of oxygen to a deadly level.
Eutrophication causes many deaths of oxygen dependent organisms like fish and
others. Pollutants used to promote plant growth on farms and in gardens, may find
their way into water. Landfills may result in landscape deterioration, and pollutants
may leach from the landfills to the groundwater.
Sediment In the absence of good vegetation cover and appropriate soil water
conservation measures too many soil particles are discharged into water bodies
from agricultural lands, mining areas and roads. This sediment may impose water
contamination not only because of having high nutrient matter but it may be laden
with harmful contaminants. Wildlife living in wells, lakes, rivers and streams are
extremely vulnerable to contaminant chemicals. Pollutants that reach sea may kill
and disturb aquatic ecosystem. Though the oceans are vast, but they are vulnerable
to pollution. Polluted water is not only responsible for health problems for humans
but cause the deaths of unimaginable amount of wildlife.

1.3.2 Consequences of Water Contamination

Human beings at the top of food chains may, as a result of these chemical
concentrations, suffers cancers, reproductive problems, and death. High intake of
water and food contaminated with high concentration of nitrates can lead to
methemoglobinemia or blue baby syndrome in infants, a potentially lethal form
of anemia. This disease is not caused by nitrate but by nitrite, produced in the
gastro-intestinal tract by nitrate-reducing organisms. Highly consumption of nitrate
also leads to gastric cancer.
Like pesticides and herbicides heavy metals can result in long-term health
problems as they reach high levels in the body. That is, if humans eat crops and
vegetables, which already absorbed cadmium excessively from organic fertilizers
particularly sewages, can lead to the damage of essential body organs. Consump-
tion of Lead is also responsible for mental retardation (Morgan 2013). Fish and
shellfish harvested from polluted waters may be unsafe to eat. People who ingest
polluted water can become ill, and, with prolonged exposure, may develop cancers
or bear children with birth defects. Industrial pollutants that run into streams, rivers,
or lakes can have serious effects on wildlife, plants and humans.
A change in the nutrient status in soils and sediments may have an effect on
species distribution in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems; increased nitrate levels in
ground water may result in toxic nitrate levels in drinking water, health hazards.
Eutrophication is one of the common consequences of water contaminated with
nutrients. It is an enrichment of lake, river and sea waters with nutrients (such as
nitrogen, phosphorous and sulphur) that increase the growth of aquatic plants. It is
1 Chemical Contaminants for Soil, Air and Aquatic Ecosystem 13

due to agricultural and industrial activities underlying losses of nitrogen, sulphur

and phosphorus to the environment. That is, though it is a natural process, but it is
accentuated by human activities like discharge of industrial wastewaters, sewage
effluent, runoff, leaching from heavily fertilized or manured agricultural land and
deposition from atmosphere. Eutrophication is always underway if the levels of
nitrogen and phosphorus in natural ecosystems and groundwater have increased.
There are some events in which acid rain or acid snow can have disturbance of
the aquatic ecosystems. Moreover, spilled oil from ship and industries in coastal
waters may cause the poisoning of fish and the loss of feathers and furs. If the
animals swallow the chemicals in large amount, there is high possibility of death.

1.3.3 Control of Water Contamination

Governments, policy makers, and managers should give priority to reduce water
contaminants coming from eroded soils, agricultural chemicals and wastes, pesti-
cides and excessive fertilizers. Increasing vegetative covers help being as barriers
against to those harmful chemicals which come along with eroded soils. To reduce
the amount of sediments, well planned soil and water conservation should be
implemented in the water shed and along the river banks. Farmers and foresters
should work to stabilize the banks of rivers and streams by increasing the vegetation
cover. Farmers should be aware of not tilling their land up and down along the slope
to reduce the accumulation of sediments in water bodies. Animals should be
confined in a certain places so that their wastes can be controlled and treated
conveniently. If possible wet land area should be reserved to help for retaining
sediments and nutrients.

1.4 Soil Contaminants

Wild (1993) defined soil pollution in his book as a build-up of toxic chemical
compounds, salts, pathogens (disease-causing organisms), or radioactive materials
that can affect plant and animal life. Soil is a mixture of mineral, plant, and animal
materials that form during a long process that may take thousands of years. It is the
growing house of plants and microorganisms. These living things get their nutrients
with the help of chemical processes. Shortly soil is a source of food for most living
things and without which agricultural production is impossible. Therefore, the
chemical situations like pH, structure of organic compounds and minerals, soil
ventilation system, and liquid phase affect the growth of plants and organisms
living in the soil (Havlin et al. 2005).
14 T. Weldeslassie et al.

1.4.1 Types and Sources of Soil Contaminants

In addition to metallurgical activity and addition of sewage sludge to the soil, there
are several possible causes of soil contamination such as dispersion of toxic
compounds, acidification, salinization and sodification, enhanced soil erosion,
chemical fertilizers, pesticides, fungicides, and the accumulation of heavy metals
and other inorganic contaminants (Meerschman et al. 2011).
Dispersion of Toxic Compounds Human activities, for example the use of bio-
cides, are the main sources of toxic compounds which pollute air, soil and water.
Dispersion of these compounds may result in toxic levels in the environment.
Toxicity may cause health problems for many organisms.
Acidifying Compounds Soil acidification is accelerated by deposition of acids
and acid forming substances from the atmosphere, fossil fuel use, industry and
traffic, excessive use of agriculture fertilizers containing ammonium salts or Urea,
by biological nitrogen fixation and nutrient removal by crops.
The most common types of acidifying compounds are SO2, various NOx that
include NO, nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and N2O, and ammonia (NH3).These com-
pounds (SO2 and NOx) after making some transformation in the atmosphere they
come down to the earth surface in the form of acid rain. The main chemical
compounds which cause soil acidifications are carbonic acid (H2CO3), nitric acid
(HNO3), sulphuric acid (H2SO4), hydrochloric acid (HCl) in precipitation falling on
to soil, direct absorption of gases like CO2, SO2 and SO3 from the atmosphere by
soil and deposition of aerosols onto soils. In Europe, North America and some
Asian countries, deposition of acidifying compounds is becoming common for
causing acidification of soil and aquatic systems. Soil acidification can cause
problems to natural ecosystems with respect to diversity and distribution of species.
As a result of an inappropriate use of agricultural fertilizers, ammonium involves in
the acidifying processes after being nitrified in soils to NO3 .
Salt Buildup The accumulation of salts particularly sodium (Na+), chlorine (Cl ),
and boron (B), is an existing danger in irrigated agriculture of arid and semiarid
regions (Havlin et al. 2005). Significant buildup of these salts in the upper soil can
be toxic enough to inhibit crop yields. Na+ is particularly determinant because of
both its toxic effect on plants and spoiling effect on soil structure. The sources of
salts can be from the weathering of minerals and accumulation of such salts in areas
where the precipitation is too low to provide leaching. Salinization (buildup salts)
of land is particularly prevalent in areas with high water tables and poor lateral
drainage that experience high evaporation rates and lack opportunities for leaching
excess salts. Salinization affects not only agriculture but also structure and living
standards of society particularly women and children, emigration, collapse of
metropolitan cities, and health problems (including stomach diseases, breathing
difficulties and skin conditions).
1 Chemical Contaminants for Soil, Air and Aquatic Ecosystem 15

Heavy Metals and Radionuclides Any element can be harmful to plants or

animals if it presents in a soil in excess concentration. Heavy metals and radionu-
clide (also called radioactive nuclides or radioactive isotopes which decay with
time, in contrast to stable isotopes) are known to contaminate soils. Generally, their
path into the soil is through mining and smelting activities, deposition from the
atmosphere, seepage from disposal sites, and application of sewage and sludge, pig
manure and certain fertilizers and pesticides.
During mining operation the contamination of adjacent soils with metal mined
(blown or washed), low grade ore, solid waste and associated heavy metals is
inevitable. Metal mining particularly during purification processes emits harmful
particles and gases, especially SO2. Blown particles are deposited on the soils
around the mining activities. However, those very fine particles are removed by
rain. Deposition of metals is greatest near the smelter and decreases exponentially
with distance. Sewage and sludge is the organic material produced from domestic
and industrial wastewater and direct run-off from roads. If not properly treated,
sewage will have bad smell and may pollute the environment. Globally, billions of
tons of solid wastes including resistant plastics, animal products, metal and wood
pieces and unwanted papers are disposed into water bodies and agricultural area
annually. More solid wastes per capita are observed in the cities of developed
countries than in economically developing countries. Moreover, waste from devel-
oped countries typically contains a high percentage of synthetic materials that take
longer to decompose than the primarily biodegradable waste materials of develop-
ing countries. Hazardous wastes are solid, liquid, or gas wastes that may be deadly
or harmful to people or the environment and tend to be persistent or nondegradable
in nature. Such wastes include toxic chemicals and flammable or radioactive sub-
stances, including industrial wastes from chemical plants or nuclear reactors,
agricultural wastes such as pesticides and fertilizers, medical wastes, and household
hazardous wastes such as toxic paints and solvents.
Hazardous wastes of particular concern are the radioactive wastes from the
nuclear power and weapons industries. To date there is no safe method for perma-
nent disposal of old fuel elements from nuclear reactors. Most are kept in storage
facilities at the original reactor sites where they were generated. With the end of the
Cold War, nuclear warheads that are decommissioned, or no longer in use, also pose
storage and disposal problems.
Organic substances such as pesticides like atrazine (chloroethylaminoisopropyla),
Bordeax mixtures (solutions of copper sulphate and calcium hydroxide), herbicide
(2, 4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid), DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichlorothane) and others
can also contaminate soil. Pesticides reach the soil in drip from plants, as seed
treatments, root dips, spray which does not contact the target organism, and in the
tissues of plants and insects that have been killed. Some pesticides are applied
directly to the soil.
Heavy metals which are considered as hazardous elements to plants or animals
include arsenic, As; cadmium, Cd; chromium, Cr; copper, Cu; lead, Pb; mercury,
Hg; nickel, Ni; and zinc, Zn (WHO 2013). However, the most common known
hazardous elements in soil are Cd, Pb, Zn, and F. Heavy metals are more strongly
16 T. Weldeslassie et al.

held as complexes on the surfaces of clay aluminosilicates, hydrated oxides and

humus. They also occur in solution as cations and are adsorbed by the negatively
charged soil particles.
Soil is usually regarded as the ultimate sink for heavy metals discharged into the
environment, yet relatively little is known about the way that heavy metals are
bound to soils and the ease with which they may be released. The concentration of
heavy metals in soils can be influenced by variation in their texture, composition,
reduction/oxidation reactions, adsorption/desorption, and physical transport or
sorting in addition to anthropogenic metal input (Hannah et al. 2009). Metal
concentrations in time and space and metal bioavailability from soils fluctuate
due to the above processes. Researchers have studied metal inputs to soil from
and/or around various industrial sources such as mining, smelters, cement
factories etc.
Several elements have caused fatalities of animals and humans due to the
ingestion of excessive amounts, although very few of these fatalaties have been
caused by contamination of soils, and hence of food, by metals of anthropogenic
origin. The four elements to be discussed here include cadmium, lead, zink and
fluorine, which is not a heavy metal.
Cadmium This is relatively rare metal, its concentration in the earth’s crust and in
soils is very low. Generally, it is found in zinc sulphide ores, and in lesser
concentration in zinc carbonates and silicaes and in lead and copper sulphides. It
is covered as a byproduct during the processing of zinc ores, but its removal is often
incomplete. Its increasing industrial use in batteries, alloys and pigments, as
stabilizing agent for polyvinyl plastics, and electroplating metals, has caused
concern about its effects in the environment.
One of the most widespread sources of cadmium in soils is phosphatic fertilizer,
which has an average concentration of about 7 μg Cd per gram fertilizer, although
this varies with the source of the phosphate rock from which the fertilizer is
manufactured. However, much more cadmium is added in one application of
sewage sludge than in a normal application of fertilizer. Cadmium and solutions
of its compounds are highly toxic, with cumulative effects similar to those of
mercury poisoning.
Lead The distribution of lead over the world is in the form of its sulphide called
lead sulphide (PbS), the ore galena. Waste materials, such as battery scrap, recov-
ered from various industrial processes, are also smelted and constitute an important
source of lead. Uses of lead are many viz. in storage batteries, in sheathing electric
cables, in industry for lining pipes, tanks, in paints and pigments, X-ray apparatus
and as protective shielding for radioactive material.
Contamination occurs near to, and downstream from, old lead mining areas and
by deposition from the atmosphere of particulate material released from smelters.
The toxicity of lead to humans has long been recognized. With wider use of
alternative materials, exposure to lead from water pipes, house paints, children’s
toys and food containers is becoming less; the use of unleaded petrol is also
becoming more common. The lead is added to petrol as lead tetraethyl and
1 Chemical Contaminants for Soil, Air and Aquatic Ecosystem 17

tetramethyl and is emitted from car exhaust as PbBrCl in particulate form. Most of
the suspended particulates are deposited within 50 m of highways but small
particles can be transported several kilometres. The greatest hazard to humans
from this source of lead occurs through inhalation of the particles and consumption
of leafy vegetables grown in urban gardens on which the particles have been
deposited. Analysis of contaminated soils shows that lead is concentrated near the
soil surface, very little moving down the soil profile. The low mobility is due to
adsorption onto the surfaces of iron and manganese oxides and clay
aluminosilicates.
Zinc Zinc plays many roles in making coatings, galvanizers, alloys, wood pre-
servatives, soldering fluid, paint pigment, filler in rubber tires, screens of television
tubes and fluorescent coatings, and antiseptics. At high concentrations in soil zinc
can be phytotoxic, reducing the growth of plants or killing them at tissue concen-
trations that would not be toxic to animals. The principal hazard with zinc is
therefore with plants, and the problems are associated with the mining and smelting
of zinc ores, the application of sewage sludge, which usually contains more zinc
than other metal known to harm plants, and sites beneath galvanized wire netting
and electric cables.
Fluorine Fluorine compounds have many applications. Toxicity is not limited to
heavy metals only. High concentrations of fluorine or its compounds are toxic to
plants and animals. Various industries, especially aluminium smelters, cement and
brick kilns, and phosphate fertilizer factories emit fluorine compounds to the
atmosphere in both in particulate and gaseous forms. The particulate emissions
are deposited close to the source and although they do not damage plants, they may
harm animals grazing affected pastures. Gaseous fluorides, principally hydrogen
fluoride (HF) and silicon tetrafluoride (SF4), can harm plants and grazing animals,
even present in very low concentrations. Fluorine compounds are also emitted from
some volcanoes, giving high concentrations in drinking water.
Radionuclides The radionuclides in soil that have concern have come from the
testing of nuclear weapons, accidents at nuclear power stations, and poor waste
disposal and storage. Three most important radionuclides of caesium, iodine and
strontium, will be discussed below. An elevated level of each radionuclide causes
considerable environment hazard.
Caesium It is one of the most reactive elements. It is produced in nuclear reactors;
it can be present in the discharging liquid of the reactors. It was released in large
amounts to the atmosphere from the accident of Chernobyl reactor and was
deposited over much of Europe and contaminated soil and pastures. Caesium ions
(Cs+) are adsorbed by soils. When they displace more hydrated ions, e.g. Na+, Ca2+,
Mg2+, from the interlayer spaces of clay minerals like smectites and illite, the layers
collapse and trap the caesium ions in cavities. The adsorption of small amounts of
Cs+ by these clay minerals and especially by illite is difficult to reverse. It is difficult
to remove the adsorbed caesium from top few centimetres. However, it is taken up
from the soil by plants and passes into the food chain.
18 T. Weldeslassie et al.

Iodine Escape of this radionuclide happened as a result of accidents to nuclear

reactors in UK (1957) and in Ukraine (1986). Contamination of soils with 131I is
less hazardous than with 134Cs and 137Cs because most will decay during the course
of a growing season. But if contaminated herbage is eaten by diary cows, it can be
transferred to milk (Hannah et al. 2009). In the soil solution iodine is present as I .
The ions are retained by soils by reaction with organic matter, oxides of iron and
aluminium and clay aluminosilicates. An other isotope, 129I, is present in waste
from reprocessing plants, and as it has a half-life of 1.7  107 years its retention in
soil can be a long-term hazard.
Strontium It has been released into the atmosphere from the testing nuclear and
from accidents at nuclear power stations. It has been a cause of great concern
because it behaves like calcium in the food chain, the radionuclides passing into
bones from milk and other foods. In solution strontium is present as Sr2+ and
undergoes cation exchange reactions in a similar way to Ca2+. It is readily taken
up by plant roots and translocated to leaves, fruit and seeds. Uptake can be reduced,
especially in soils low in calcium by the application of gypsum or lime.

1.4.2 Consequences of Soil Contaminants

Increase or decrease of pH beyond optimum level may affect the soil’s natural
processes. Acidic soils cause toxicity of aluminium and manganese, deficiencies of
basic elements like calcium, phosphorus, magnesium and reduction of nitrogen
mineralization as affected by microbial activity (Havlin et al. 2005). It also leads to
reduction of boron, zinc, molybdenum and copper availability. Alkaline soils
damage the health of physical properties of soils through surface sealing and
crusting. More importantly, availability of iron, manganese, zinc, phosphorus and
copper is reduced due to the presence of excessive sodium on the exchange
complex of the colloids. Many cities like ancient Sumerian cities in Mesopotamia
were collapsed due to extreme soil alkalinity.
Applying chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and fungicides on the soil for unlim-
ited period of time will have negative influences soil physical and chemical
properties (Hannah et al. 2009). Contaminated soil also kills soil fauna which are
beneficial to soil fertility (Science Communication Unit 2013). For example, soil
treated with methyl bromide totally damage strawberry seedlings. If the application
of these chemicals continues, important microorganisms will be damaged. In the
long term the soil will be sterile and finally the soil’s potential productivity will be
highly dependent up on the application of chemical fertilizers. Excessive applica-
tion of fertilizers also leads to lakes and streams pollution.
Soil contaminants have high health risks during their use, storage, transportation,
and disposal. They also pose serious environmental risks. Long term exposure to
these harmful materials, in the long term, they may cause cancer, disorders of
nervous system, sexual dysfunction and birth defects and even death (Science
1 Chemical Contaminants for Soil, Air and Aquatic Ecosystem 19

Communication Unit 2013). If the hazardous materials are released in large amount
due to weak controlling mechanisms, they will cause thousands of deaths of people.
The chemicals also will last for many years contaminating air, water and soil. It will
take long time and unbearable cost to reclaim such contaminated soil (European
commission 2012)
According to Beckett and Davis (1988) phytotoxicity can be defined as the
accumulation of harmful substances in the plant tissue so that optimal growth and
development of that plant is highly affected. This is mainly because the response of
the plant to phytotoxic materials varies from plant to plant. Additionally, the
intensity of heavy metals and nature of soil type are the key factors which affect
the phyototoxic effects in soils (Science Communication Unit 2013).
Wild (1993) listed three mechanisms of plants to fight the phytotoxic effects.
Plants can tolerate the effects of heavy metals by excluding from the roots by
forming mycorrhizas, restricting their translocation from roots to shoots and
forming complexes with organic acids inside the plant to avoid the metals interfer-
ences with metabolic processes.

1.4.3 Control of Soil Contaminants

There are many tangible ways to control soil contaminants such as landfills,
incineration or burning, composting, recycling etc.
• Landfills: solid wastes can be disposed and buried. However, careful prepara-
tion and management are often required to avoid unnecessary contamination of
air, soil and water from landfills.
• Incineration or burning: this is mainly done to reduce the volume of solid
waste. But here well planned activity of burning is required to avoid the
production of airborne dense ashen wastes which can have hazardous materials
like heavy metals and toxic compounds.
• Composting: it is essential natural processes to decompose the organic wastes
instead of burning. Compost is natural fertilizer which has several benefits in
agricultural.
• Recycling, extracting and reusing: countries should develop a mechanism to
recycle the solid wastes so that the materials can be used as raw materials in
different industries as part of waste management strategies. The by-products also
can be utilized in agriculture as organic fertilizers. Every country, particularly
developed countries, should get help to expand recycling programs worldwide
so that pollution due to solid wastes will be reduced significantly.
• Waste prevention: the best practice in the management of solid wastes is waste
prevention. During the manufacturing of goods and commodities injudious use
of resources has to be reduced systematically, such as altering the way products
are designed or manufactured to make them easier to reuse and reduce the high
costs associated with environmental pollution.
20 T. Weldeslassie et al.

• Law and Legal regulations: law should be enforced to protect or to restrict the
dumping of potentially hazardous materials into water bodies and soils. The law
and regulation should state the way how to dump and bury the hazardous
materials safely. In addition, the law should fight against the waste trade,
enforcing poorer countries to accept shipment of solid and hazardous wastes
after getting nominal payments from developed countries.
• Contaminated soils with heavy metals can be limed so that to reduce the
availability of these metals to plants. Addition of organic matter has the same
effect as that of liming. Improved drainage can also be remedial because the
most oxidized forms of iron (Fe3+) and manganese (Mn4+) oxides adsorb the
metals. Where contamination is extreme new topsoil should be added. Tolerant
plant species should be grown, if necessary using genotypes transferred from
metalliferous sites.

1.5 Conclusion and Future Prospects

All developmental activities such as agriculture, mining, construction, industrial

processes, energy generation plants, transportation facilities directly or indirectly
and knowingly or unintentionally have vital contribution in producing contaminant
chemicals for air, water and soil. The consequence of air contamination is becom-
ing evident as the earth experiences abnormal precipitation patterns, relentless
increase of global temperature and melting of polar ices, ever increasing ocean
acidity and sea level, and frequenting of unpredictable and exteme change of
weather events. In turn this climate change reflected back against human being
interms of health and safety of societies and the value of the whole ecosystem.
Generaly, both soil and water contaminats have being produced in a large amount
with the advancement of industrial processes. Many studies confirmed that con-
taminant chemicals are the causative agents of many chronic and acute diseases. In
addition to the effects of contaminant chemicals on health aspects, they (chemicals)
are affecting the environment negatively.
Many assessments reported that surface temperature is projected to rise even
beyond our expectation. It is very likely that heat waves will occur more often and
last longer, and that extreme precipitation events will become more intense and
frequent in many regions. The ocean will continue to warm and acidify, and global
mean sea level to rise. Despite increasing awareness of climate change, our
emissions of GHGs continue on a relentless rise. In 2017, the daily level of CO2
in the atmosphere recorded more than 406 ppm. Though the effects of soil and
water contaminants on health and environment is not fully understood, we are
already beginning to see the implications of chemical contaminants.
Climate change can be responded using two approaches: mitigation and adap-
tation. Heat trapping gases can be reduced by decreasing the use of their sources or
enhancing sinks of the gases. It is also the right time to think on how to reduce our
vulnerability to the harmful effects of climate change. The major source of all
1 Chemical Contaminants for Soil, Air and Aquatic Ecosystem 21

chemical contaminations is the fight to get energy in commodities productions,

transportation and other necessary requirements. Therefore, it is vital and timely to
boost the alternative sources of energy: solar, hydropower and wind energy. If
proper and efficient use of agricultural chemicals, recycling of domestic and
industrial effulents are introduced, contamination hazards of soil and water can
be stepped down.

References

Beckett PHT, Davis RD (1988) Upper critical levels of toxic elements in plants. New Phytol 79
(95):106
Carlton JC, Perry-Hill R, Huber M, Prokopy LS (2015) The climate change consensus extends
beyond climate scientists. Environ Res Lett 10
Engelking, Paul (2009). “Pollution.” Microsoft® Encarta® (2009) (DVD). Redmond: Microsoft
Corporation, 2008
European Commission (2012) The State of Soil in Europe – a contribution of the JRC to the
European Environment Agency’s State and Outlook Report – SOER 2010. Publications Office
of the European Union, Luxembourg. Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/jrc/downloads/jrc_
reference_report_2012_02_soil.pdf
Hannah S, Murray M, Ellen H (2009) Sources and impacts of contaminants in soils. Cornell Waste
Management Institute, Department of Crop & Soil Sciences
Havlin JL, Beaton JD, Tisdale SL, Nelson WL (2005) Soil Fertility and Fertilizers, an introduction
to nutrient management, 7th edn. Pearson Education, Inc, Upper Saddle River
IPCC (2006) 2006 IPCC guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories: glossary, Japan.
Available at: http://nggip.iges.or.jp/public/gpglulucf/gpglulucf_files/Glossary_Acronyms_
BasicInfo/Glossary.pdf
IPCC (2014) IPCC Fifth Assesment Report, Summary for Policy makers. Available at: https://
www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/
Mastrandrea M, Schneider SH (2008) “Global warming.” Microsoft® Encarta® 2009 (DVD).
Microsoft Corporation, Redmond
Meerschman E, Cockx L, Islam MM, Meeuws F, Van Meirvenne M (2011) Geostatistical
assessment of the impact of World War I on the spatial occurrence of soil heavy metals.
Ambio 40(4):417–424
Morgan R (2013) Soil, heavy metals, and human health. In: Brevik EC, Burgess LC (eds) Soils and
human health. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 59–80
Moya J et al (2004) Children’s behavior and physiology and how it affects exposure to environ-
mental contaminants. Pediatrics 113:996–1006
NASA’s Goddard Institute for Space Studies (GISS) (2017) Responding to climate change.
New York, 212-678-5507. Available at: https://data.giss.nasa.gov
Oves M, Saghir Khan M (2016) Heavy metals: biological importance and detoxification strategies.
J Bioremed Biodegr 07(02)
Science Communication Unit, University of the West of England, Bristol (2013) Science for
environment policy in-depth report: soil contamination: impacts on human health. Report
produced for the European Commission DG Environment, September 2013. Available at:
http://ec.europa.eu/science-environment-policy
Thomas A (2012) Global Change Research Program (USGCRP): thirteen agencies, one vision.
USGCRP White House Office of Science and Technology Policy, Washington, DC
Ware JH et al (1981) Assessment of the health effects of atmospheric sulfur oxides and particulate
matter: evidencefrom observational studies. Environ Health Perspect 41:255
 22 T. Weldeslassie et al.

WHO (2005) Children’s health and the environment: a global perspective. A resource guide for the
health sector, Geneva
WHO (2013) Ten chemicals of major health concern. (online). Retrieved from: www.who.int/ipcs/
assessment/public_health/chemicals_phc/en/index.html
Wild A (1993) Soils and the environment: an introduction. Cambridge University, Cambridge
World Health Organization (1982) Rapid Assessment of sources of air, water, and land pollution.
WHO Offset Publication No. 62. WHO, Geneva

View publication stats