CONTENTS

S.NO TOPIC PAGE NO.

UNIT I OVERVIEW OF MANAGEMENT 1
1.1 Definition 1
1.2 Management 1
1.3 Role of managers 7
1.4 Evolution of Management thought 8
1.5 Organization and the environmental factors 18
1.6 Trends and Challenges of Management in Global nario. 27
UNIT II PLANNING 29
2.1 Nature and purpose of planning 29
2.2 Planning process 31
2.3 Types of plans 34
2.4 Objectives Managing by objective (MBO) Strategies 40
2.5 Types of strategies 45
2.6 Policies 49
2.7 Decision Making 51
2.8 Types of decision 51
2.9 Decision Making Process 53
2.10 Rational Decision Making Process 55
2.11 Decision Making under different conditions. 57
UNIT III ORGANIZING 59
3.1 Nature and purpose of organizing 59
3.2 Organization structure 64
3.3 Formal and informal groups organization 65
3.4 Line and Staff authority 70
3.5 Departmentation 72
3.6 Span of control 78
3.7 Centralization and Decentralization 80
3.8 Delegation of authority 82
3.9 Staffing 84
3.10 Selection and Recruitment 85
3.11 Orientation 91
3.12 Career Development 93
3.13 Career stages 97
3.14 Training 97
3.15 Performance Appraisal. 98
UNIT IV DIRECTING 102
4.1 Creativity and Innovation 102
4.2 Motivation and Satisfaction 105
4.3 Motivation Theories 109
4.4 Leadership Styles 115
4.5 Leadership theories 118
4.6 Communication 122
 4.7 Barriers to effective communication 126
4.8 Organization Culture 131
4.9 Elements and types of culture 133
4.10 Managing cultural diversity. 135
UNIT V CONTROLLING 138
5.1 Process of controlling 138
5.2 Types of control 141
5.3 Budgetary and non-budgetary control techniques 144
5.4 Managing Productivity 147
5.5 Cost Control 150
5.6 Purchase Control 151
5.7 Maintenance Control - Quality Control - Planning operations. 152
Question bank 155
 UNIT I
OVERVIEW OF MANAGEMENT

DEFINITION
According to Harold Koontz, “Management is an art of getting things done through and with the
people in formally organized groups. It is an art of creating an environment in which people can
perform and individuals and can co-operate towards attainment of group goals”.

LEVELS OF MANAGEMENT
The three levels of management are as follows

The Top Management

It consists of board of directors, chief executive or managing director. The top
management is the ultimate source of authority and it manages goals and policies for an
enterprise. It devotes more time on planning and coordinating functions.
The role of the top management can be summarized as follows –
 Top management lays down the objectives and broad policies of the enterprise.
It issues necessary instructions for preparation of department budgets, procedures,
schedules etc.
It prepares strategic plans & policies for the enterprise.
It appoints the executive for middle level i.e. departmental managers.
It controls & coordinates the activities of all the departments.
It is also responsible for maintaining a contact with the outside world.
It provides guidance and direction.
The top management is also responsible towards the shareholders for the
performance of the enterprise.

Middle Level Management

The branch managers and departmental managers constitute middle level. They are
responsible to the top management for the functioning of their department. They devote
more time to organizational and directional functions. In small organization, there is only
one layer of middle level of management but in big enterprises, there may be senior and
junior middle level management. Their role can be emphasized as –
They execute the plans of the organization in accordance with the policies and
directives of the top management.
They make plans for the sub-units of the organization.
They participate in employment & training of lower level management.
They interpret and explain policies from top level management to lower level.
They are responsible for coordinating the activities within the division or
department.
It also sends important reports and other important data to top level
management.
They evaluate performance of junior managers.
They are also responsible for inspiring lower level managers towards better
performance.

Lower Level Management

Lower level is also known as supervisory / operative level of management. It consists of
supervisors, foreman, section officers, superintendent etc. According to R.C. Davis,
“Supervisory management refers to those executives whose work has to be largely with
 personal oversight and direction of operative employees”. In other words, they are
concerned with direction and controlling function of management. Their activities include
Assigning of jobs and tasks to various workers.
They guide and instruct workers for day to day activities.
They are responsible for the quality as well as quantity of production.
They are also entrusted with the responsibility of maintaining good relation in the
organization.
They communicate workers problems, suggestions, and recommendatory
appeals etc to the higher level and higher level goals and objectives to the
workers.
They help to solve the grievances of the workers.
They supervise & guide the sub-ordinates.
They are responsible for providing training to the workers.
They arrange necessary materials, machines, tools etc for getting the things
done.
They prepare periodical reports about the performance of the workers.
They ensure discipline in the enterprise.
They motivate workers.
They are the image builders of the enterprise because they are in direct contact
with the workers.

FUNCTIONS OF MANAGEMENT

Management has been described as a social process involving responsibility for economical
and effective planning & regulation of operation of an enterprise in the fulfillment of given
purposes. It is a dynamic process consisting of various elements and activities. These activities
are different from operative functions like marketing, finance, purchase etc. Rather these
activities are common to each and every manger irrespective of his level or status.
Different experts have classified functions of management. According to George & Jerry, “There
are four fundamental functions of management i.e. planning, organizing, actuating and
controlling”. According to Henry Fayol, “To manage is to forecast and plan, to organize, to
command, & to control”. Whereas Luther Gullick has given a keyword ‘POSDCORB’ where P
stands for Planning, O for Organizing, S for Staffing, D for Directing, Co for Co-ordination, R for
reporting & B for Budgeting. But the most widely accepted are functions of management given
by KOONTZ and O’DONNEL i.e. Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing and Controlling.
For theoretical purposes, it may be convenient to separate the function of management but
practically these functions are overlapping in nature i.e. they are highly inseparable. Each
function blends into the other & each affects the performance of others.

Planning
It is the basic function of management. It deals with chalking out a future course of
action & deciding in advance the most appropriate course of actions for achievement of
pre-determined goals. According to KOONTZ, “Planning is deciding in advance – what to
do, when to do & how to do. It bridges the gap from where we are & where we want to
be”. A plan is a future course of actions. It is an exercise in problem solving & decision
making. Planning is determination of courses of action to achieve desired goals. Thus,
planning is a systematic thinking about ways & means for accomplishment of pre-
determined goals. Planning is necessary to ensure proper utilization of human & non-
human resources. It is all pervasive, it is an intellectual activity and it also helps in
avoiding confusion, uncertainties, risks, wastages etc.

Organizing
It is the process of bringing together physical, financial and human resources and
developing productive relationship amongst them for achievement of organizational
goals. According to Henry Fayol, “To organize a business is to provide it with everything
useful or its functioning i.e. raw material, tools, capital and personnel’s”. To organize a
business involves determining & providing human and non-human resources to the
organizational structure. Organizing as a process involves:
Identification of activities.
Classification of grouping of activities.
Assignment of duties.
Delegation of authority and creation of responsibility.
Coordinating authority and responsibility relationships.

Staffing
It is the function of manning the organization structure and keeping it manned. Staffing
has assumed greater importance in the recent years due to advancement of technology,
increase in size of business, complexity of human behavior etc. The main purpose o
staffing is to put right man on right job i.e. square pegs in square holes and round pegs
in round holes. According to Kootz & O’Donell, “Managerial function of staffing involves
manning the organization structure through proper and effective selection, appraisal &
development of personnel to fill the roles designed un the structure”. Staffing involves:
Manpower Planning (estimating man power in terms of searching, choose the
person and giving the right place).
Recruitment, selection & placement.
Training & development.
Remuneration.
Performance appraisal.
 Promotions & transfer.

Directing
It is that part of managerial function which actuates the organizational methods to work
efficiently for achievement of organizational purposes. It is considered life-spark of the
enterprise which sets it in motion the action of people because planning, organizing and
staffing are the mere preparations for doing the work. Direction is that inert-personnel
aspect of management which deals directly with influencing, guiding, supervising,
motivating sub-ordinate for the achievement of organizational goals. Direction has
following elements:
Supervision
Motivation
Leadership
Communication
Supervision- implies overseeing the work of subordinates by their superiors. It is the
act of watching & directing work & workers.

Motivation- means inspiring, stimulating or encouraging the sub-ordinates with zeal

to work. Positive, negative, monetary, non-monetary incentives may be used for this
purpose.
Leadership- may be defined as a process by which manager guides and influences
the work of subordinates in desired direction.
Communications- is the process of passing information, experience, opinion etc
from one person to another. It is a bridge of understanding.

Controlling
It implies measurement of accomplishment against the standards and correction of
deviation if any to ensure achievement of organizational goals. The purpose of
controlling is to ensure that everything occurs in conformities with the standards. An
efficient system of control helps to predict deviations before they actually occur.
According to Theo Haimann, “Controlling is the process of checking whether or not
proper progress is being made towards the objectives and goals and acting if necessary,
to correct any deviation”. According to Koontz & O’Donell “Controlling is the
measurement & correction of performance activities of subordinates in order to make
 sure that the enterprise objectives and plans desired to obtain them as being
accomplished”. Therefore controlling has following steps:
Establishment of standard performance.
Measurement of actual performance.
Comparison of actual performance with the standards and finding out deviation if
any.
Corrective action.

ROLES OF MANAGER
Henry Mintzberg identified ten different roles, separated into three categories. The categories he
defined are as follows

a) Interpersonal Roles
The ones that, like the name suggests, involve people and other ceremonial duties. It can be
further classified as follows
Leader – Responsible for staffing, training, and associated duties.
Figurehead – The symbolic head of the organization.
Liaison – Maintains the communication between all contacts and informers that compose
the organizational network.
b) Informational Roles
Related to collecting, receiving, and disseminating information.
Monitor – Personally seek and receive information, to be able to understand the
organization.
Disseminator – Transmits all import information received from outsiders to the members
of the organization.
Spokesperson – On the contrary to the above role, here the manager transmits the
organization’s plans, policies and actions to outsiders.
Decisional Roles
Roles that revolve around making choices.
Entrepreneur – Seeks opportunities. Basically they search for change, respond to it, and
exploit it.
Negotiator – Represents the organization at major negotiations.
Resource Allocator – Makes or approves all significant decisions related to the allocation
of resources.
Disturbance Handler – Responsible for corrective action when the organization faces
disturbances.

EVOLUTION OF MANAGEMENT THOUGHT

The practice of management is as old as human civilization. The ancient civilizations of

Egypt (the great pyramids), Greece (leadership and war tactics of Alexander the great) and
Rome displayed the marvelous results of good management practices.
The origin of management as a discipline was developed in the late 19th century. Over
time, management thinkers have sought ways to organize and classify the voluminous
information about management that has been collected and disseminated. These attempts at
classification have resulted in the identification of management approaches. The approaches of
management are theoretical frameworks for the study of management. Each of the approaches
of management are based on somewhat different assumptions about human beings and the
organizations for which they work.
The different approaches of management are
a) Classical approach,
 Behavioral approach,
Quantitative approach,
Systems approach,
Contingency approach.
The formal study of management is largely a twentieth-century phenomenon, and to some
degree the relatively large number of management approaches reflects a lack of consensus
among management scholars about basic questions of theory and practice.

a) THE CLASSICAL APPROACH:

The classical approach is the oldest formal approach of management thought. Its roots pre-date
the twentieth century. The classical approach of thought generally concerns ways to manage
work and organizations more efficiently. Three areas of study that can be grouped under the
classical approach are scientific management, administrative management, and bureaucratic
management.
(i) Scientific Management.
Frederick Winslow Taylor is known as the father of scientific management. Scientific
management (also called Taylorism or the Taylor system) is a theory of management that
analyzes and synthesizes workflows, with the objective of improving labor productivity. In other
words, Traditional rules of thumb are replaced by precise procedures developed after careful
study of an individual at work.
(ii) Administrative Management.
Administrative management focuses on the management process and principles of
management. In contrast to scientific management, which deals largely with jobs and work at
the individual level of analysis, administrative management provides a more general theory of
management. Henri Fayol is the major contributor to this approach of management thought. (iii)
Bureaucratic Management.
Bureaucratic management focuses on the ideal form of organization. Max Weber was
the major contributor to bureaucratic management. Based on observation, Weber concluded
that many early organizations were inefficiently managed, with decisions based on personal
relationships and loyalty. He proposed that a form of organization, called a bureaucracy,
characterized by division of labor, hierarchy, formalized rules, impersonality, and the selection
and promotion of employees based on ability, would lead to more efficient management. Weber
also contended that managers' authority in an organization should be based not on tradition or
charisma but on the position held by managers in the organizational hierarchy.
b) THE BEHAVIORAL APPROACH:
The behavioral approach of management thought developed, in part, because of
perceived weaknesses in the assumptions of the classical approach. The classical approach
emphasized efficiency, process, and principles. Some felt that this emphasis disregarded
important aspects of organizational life, particularly as it related to human behavior. Thus, the
behavioral approach focused on trying to understand the factors that affect human behavior at
work.
(i) Human Relations.
The Hawthorne Experiments began in 1924 and continued through the early 1930s. A
variety of researchers participated in the studies, including Elton Mayo. One of the major
conclusions of the Hawthorne studies was that workers' attitudes are associated with
productivity. Another was that the workplace is a social system and informal group influence
could exert a powerful effect on individual behavior. A third was that the style of supervision is
an important factor in increasing workers' job satisfaction. (ii) Behavioral Science.

Behavioral science and the study of organizational behavior emerged in the 1950s and
1960s. The behavioral science approach was a natural progression of the human relations
movement. It focused on applying conceptual and analytical tools to the problem of
understanding and predicting behavior in the workplace.
The behavioral science approach has contributed to the study of management through
its focus on personality, attitudes, values, motivation, group behavior, leadership,
communication, and conflict, among other issues.

c) THE QUANTITATIVE APPROACH:

The quantitative approach focuses on improving decision making via the application of
quantitative techniques. Its roots can be traced back to scientific management. (i) Management
Science (Operations Research)
Management science (also called operations research) uses mathematical and statistical
approaches to solve management problems. It developed during World War II as strategists
tried to apply scientific knowledge and methods to the complex problems of war. Industry began
to apply management science after the war. The advent of the computer made many
management science tools and concepts more practical for industry
(ii) Production And Operations Management.
This approach focuses on the operation and control of the production process that
transforms resources into finished goods and services. It has its roots in scientific management
but became an identifiable area of management study after World War II. It uses many of the
tools of management science.
Operations management emphasizes productivity and quality of both manufacturing and
service organizations. W. Edwards Deming exerted a tremendous influence in shaping modern
ideas about improving productivity and quality. Major areas of study within operations
management include capacity planning, facilities location, facilities layout, materials requirement
planning, scheduling, purchasing and inventory control, quality control, computer integrated
manufacturing, just-in-time inventory systems, and flexible manufacturing systems.

d) SYSTEMS APPROACH:
The simplified block diagram of the systems approach is given below.

The systems approach focuses on understanding the organization as an open system

that transforms inputs into outputs. The systems approach began to have a strong impact on
management thought in the 1960s as a way of thinking about managing techniques that would
allow managers to relate different specialties and parts of the company to one another, as well
as to external environmental factors. The systems approach focuses on the organization as a
whole, its interaction with the environment, and its need to achieve equilibrium
e) CONTINGENCY APPROACH:
The contingency approach focuses on applying management principles and processes
as dictated by the unique characteristics of each situation. It emphasizes that there is no one
best way to manage and that it depends on various situational factors, such as the external
environment, technology, organizational characteristics, characteristics of the manager, and
characteristics of the subordinates. Contingency theorists often implicitly or explicitly criticize the
classical approach for its emphasis on the universality of management principles; however,
most classical writers recognized the need to consider aspects of the situation when applying
management principles.

MANAGEMENT
Beginning Dates Emphasis
APPROACHS

CLASSICAL APPROACH

Traditional rules of thumb are replaced by precise

Scientific
1880s procedures developed after careful study of an
Management
individual at work.
Gives idea about the primary functions of
Administrative
1940s management and The 14 Principles of
Management
Administration

Bureaucratic Replaces traditional leadership and charismatic

1920s
Management leadership with legal leadership

BEHAVIORAL APPROACH

Human
1930s workers' attitudes are associated with productivity
Relations

Behavioral Gives idea to understand human behavior in the

1950s
Science organization.
QUANTITATIVE APPROACH

Management
Science Uses mathematical and statistical approaches to
1940s
(Operation solve management problems.
research)
Production This approach focuses on the operation and
and Operations 1940s control of the production process that transforms
Management resources into finished goods and services

RECENT DEVELOPEMENTS

Considers the organization as a system that

SYSTEMS
1950s transforms inputs into outputs while in constant
APPROACH
interaction with its' environment.
Applies management principles and processes as
CONTINGENCY
1960s dictated by the unique characteristics of each
APPROACH
situation.

CONTRIBUTION OF FAYOL AND TAYLOR

F.W. Taylor and Henry Fayol are generally regarded as the founders of scientific
management and administrative management and both provided the bases for science and art
of management.

Taylor's Scientific Management

Frederick Winslow Taylor well-known as the founder of scientific management was the first to
recognize and emphasis the need for adopting a scientific approach to the task of managing an
enterprise. He tried to diagnose the causes of low efficiency in industry and came to the
conclusion that much of waste and inefficiency is due to the lack of order and system in the
methods of management. He found that the management was usually ignorant of the amount of
work that could be done by a worker in a day as also the best method of doing the job. As a
result, it remained largely at the mercy of the workers who deliberately shirked work. He
therefore, suggested that those responsible for management should adopt a scientific approach
in their work, and make use of "scientific method" for achieving higher efficiency. The scientific
method consists essentially of
Observation
Measurement
Experimentation and
Inference.
He advocated a thorough planning of the job by the management and emphasized the necessity
of perfect understanding and co-operation between the management and the workers both for
the enlargement of profits and the use of scientific investigation and knowledge in industrial
work. He summed up his approach in these words:
Science, not rule of thumb
Harmony, not discord
Co-operation, not individualism
Maximum output, in place of restricted output
The development of each man to his greatest efficiency and prosperity.

Elements of Scientific Management: The techniques which Taylor regarded as its essential
elements or features may be classified as under:
Scientific Task and Rate-setting, work improvement, etc.
Planning the Task.
Vocational Selection and Training
Standardization (of working conditions, material equipment etc.)
Specialization
Mental Revolution.
Scientific Task and Rate-Setting (work study): Work study may be defined as the
systematic, objective and critical examination of all the factors governing the operational
efficiency of any specified activity in order to effect improvement.
Work study includes.
(a) Methods Study: The management should try to ensure that the plant is laid out in the best
manner and is equipped with the best tools and machinery. The possibilities of eliminating or
combining certain operations may be studied.
(b) Motion Study: It is a study of the movement, of an operator (or even of a machine)
in performing an operation with the purpose of eliminating useless motions.
 Time Study (work measurement): The basic purpose of time study is to determine the
proper time for performing the operation. Such study may be conducted after the motion study.
Both time study and motion study help in determining the best method of doing a job and the
standard time allowed for it.
Fatigue Study: If, a standard task is set without providing for measures to eliminate fatigue,
it may either be beyond the workers or the workers may over strain themselves to attain it. It is
necessary, therefore, to regulate the working hours and provide for rest pauses at scientifically
determined intervals.
Rate-setting: Taylor recommended the differential piece wage system, under which workers
performing the standard task within prescribed time are paid a much higher rate per unit than
inefficient workers who are not able to come up to the standard set.

Planning the Task: Having set the task which an average worker must strive to perform to
get wages at the higher piece-rate, necessary steps have to be taken to plan the production
thoroughly so that there is no bottlenecks and the work goes on systematically.

Selection and Training: Scientific Management requires a radical change in the methods
and procedures of selecting workers. It is therefore necessary to entrust the task of selection to
a central personnel department. The procedure of selection will also have to be systematised.
Proper attention has also to be devoted to the training of the workers in the correct methods of
work.
Standardization: Standardization may be introduced in respect of the following.
Tools and equipment: By standardization is meant the process of bringing about uniformity.
The management must select and store standard tools and implements which will be nearly the
best or the best of their kind.
Speed: There is usually an optimum speed for every machine. If it is exceeded, it is likely to
result in damage to machinery.
Conditions of Work: To attain standard performance, the maintenance of standard
conditions of ventilation, heating, cooling, humidity, floor space, safety etc., is very essential.
Materials: The efficiency of a worker depends on the quality of materials and the method of
handling materials.
Specialization: Scientific management will not be complete without the introduction of
specialization. Under this plan, the two functions of 'planning' and 'doing' are separated in the
organization of the plant. The `functional foremen' are specialists who join their heads to give
thought to the planning of the performance of operations in the workshop. Taylor suggested
eight functional foremen under his scheme of functional foremanship.
The Route Clerk: To lay down the sequence of operations and instruct the workers
concerned about it.
The Instruction Card Clerk: To prepare detailed instructions regarding different aspects of
work.
The Time and Cost Clerk: To send all information relating to their pay to the workers and to
secure proper returns of work from them.
The Shop Disciplinarian: To deal with cases of breach of discipline and absenteeism.
The Gang Boss: To assemble and set up tools and machines and to teach the workers to
make all their personal motions in the quickest and best way.
The Speed Boss: To ensure that machines are run at their best speeds and proper tools are
used by the workers.
The Repair Boss: To ensure that each worker keeps his machine in good order and
maintains cleanliness around him and his machines.
The Inspector: To show to the worker how to do the work.

Mental Revolution: At present, industry is divided into two groups – management and
labour. The major problem between these two groups is the division of surplus. The
management wants the maximum possible share of the surplus as profit; the workers want, as
large share in the form of wages. Taylor has in mind the enormous gain that arises from higher
productivity. Such gains can be shared both by the management and workers in the form of
increased profits and increased wages.

Henry Fayol's 14 Principles of Management:

The principles of management are given below:
Division of work: Division of work or specialization alone can give maximum productivity and
efficiency. Both technical and managerial activities can be performed in the best manner only
through division of labour and specialization.
Authority and Responsibility: The right to give order is called authority. The obligation to
accomplish is called responsibility. Authority and Responsibility are the two sides of the
management coin. They exist together. They are complementary and mutually interdependent.
 Discipline: The objectives, rules and regulations, the policies and procedures must be
honoured by each member of an organization. There must be clear and fair agreement on the
rules and objectives, on the policies and procedures. There must be penalties (punishment) for
non-obedience or indiscipline. No organization can work smoothly without discipline - preferably
voluntary discipline.
Unity of Command: In order to avoid any possible confusion and conflict, each member of
an organization must received orders and instructions only from one superior (boss).
Unity of Direction: All members of an organization must work together to accomplish
common objectives.
Emphasis on Subordination of Personal Interest to General or Common Interest: This is
also called principle of co-operation. Each shall work for all and all for each. General or common
interest must be supreme in any joint enterprise.
Remuneration: Fair pay with non-financial rewards can act as the best incentive or motivator
for good performance. Exploitation of employees in any manner must be eliminated. Sound
scheme of remuneration includes adequate financial and nonfinancial incentives.
Centralization: There must be a good balance between centralization and decentralization of
authority and power. Extreme centralization and decentralization must be avoided.
Scalar Chain: The unity of command brings about a chain or hierarchy of command linking
all members of the organization from the top to the bottom. Scalar denotes steps.
Order: Fayol suggested that there is a place for everything. Order or system alone can
create a sound organization and efficient management.
Equity: An organization consists of a group of people involved in joint effort. Hence, equity
(i.e., justice) must be there. Without equity, we cannot have sustained and adequate joint
collaboration.
Stability of Tenure: A person needs time to adjust himself with the new work and
demonstrate efficiency in due course. Hence, employees and managers must have job security.
Security of income and employment is a pre-requisite of sound organization and management.
Esprit of Co-operation: Esprit de corps is the foundation of a sound organization. Union is
strength. But unity demands co-operation. Pride, loyalty and sense of belonging are responsible
for good performance.
Initiative: Creative thinking and capacity to take initiative can give us sound managerial
planning and execution of predetermined plans.
ORGANIZATION AND ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
An organization is a group of people intentionally organized to accomplish a common or set of
goals.
Types of Business Organizations
When organizing a new business, one of the most important decisions to be made is choosing
the structure of a business.

a) Sole Proprietorships
The vast majority of small business starts out as sole proprietorships . . . very dangerous. These
firms are owned by one person, usually the individual who has day-to-day responsibility for
running the business. Sole proprietors own all the assets of the business and the profits
generated by it. They also assume "complete personal" responsibility for all of its liabilities or
debts. In the eyes of the law, you are one in the same with the business.
Merits:
Easiest and least expensive form of ownership to organize.
Sole proprietors are in complete control, within the law, to make all decisions.
Sole proprietors receive all income generated by the business to keep or reinvest.
Profits from the business flow-through directly to the owner's personal tax return.
The business is easy to dissolve, if desired.

Demerits:
Unlimited liability and are legally responsible for all debts against the business.
Their business and personal assets are 100% at risk.
Has almost been ability to raise investment funds.
Are limited to using funds from personal savings or consumer loans.
Have a hard time attracting high-caliber employees, or those that are motivated by the
opportunity to own a part of the business.
Employee benefits such as owner's medical insurance premiums are not directly deductible
from business income (partially deductible as an adjustment to income).

b) Partnerships
In a Partnership, two or more people share ownership of a single business. Like proprietorships,
the law does not distinguish between the business and its owners. The Partners should have a
legal agreement that sets forth how decisions will be made, profits will be shared, disputes will
be resolved, how future partners will be admitted to the partnership, how partners can be bought
out, or what steps will be taken to dissolve the partnership when needed. Yes, its hard to think
about a "break-up" when the business is just getting started, but many partnerships split up at
crisis times and unless there is a defined process, there will be even greater problems. They
also must decide up front how much time and capital each will contribute, etc.
Merits:
Partnerships are relatively easy to establish; however time should be invested in developing
the partnership agreement.
With more than one owner, the ability to raise funds may be increased.
The profits from the business flow directly through to the partners' personal taxes.
Prospective employees may be attracted to the business if given the incentive to become a
partner.
Demerits:
Partners are jointly and individually liable for the actions of the other partners.
Profits must be shared with others.
Since decisions are shared, disagreements can occur.
Some employee benefits are not deductible from business income on tax returns.
The partnerships have a limited life; it may end upon a partner withdrawal or death.

c) Corporations
A corporation, chartered by the state in which it is headquartered, is considered by law to be a
unique "entity", separate and apart from those who own it. A corporation can be taxed; it can be
sued; it can enter into contractual agreements. The owners of a corporation are its
shareholders. The shareholders elect a board of directors to oversee the major policies and
decisions. The corporation has a life of its own and does not dissolve when ownership changes.
Merits:
Shareholders have limited liability for the corporation's debts or judgments against the
corporations.
Generally, shareholders can only be held accountable for their investment in stock of the
company. (Note however, that officers can be held personally liable for their actions, such as
the failure to withhold and pay employment taxes.)
Corporations can raise additional funds through the sale of stock.
 A corporation may deduct the cost of benefits it provides to officers and employees.
Can elect S corporation status if certain requirements are met. This election enables
company to be taxed similar to a partnership.
Demerits:
The process of incorporation requires more time and money than other forms of
organization.
Corporations are monitored by federal, state and some local agencies, and as a result may
have more paperwork to comply with regulations.
Incorporating may result in higher overall taxes. Dividends paid to shareholders are not
deductible form business income, thus this income can be taxed twice.

d) Joint Stock Company:

Limited financial resources & heavy burden of risk involved in both of the previous forms of
organization has led to the formation of joint stock companies these have limited dilutives.
The capital is raised by selling shares of different values. Persons who purchase the shares are
called shareholder. The managing body known as; Board of Directors; is responsible for policy
making important financial & technical decisions. There are two main types of joint stock
Companies.
Private limited company.
Public limited company
Private limited company: This type company can be formed by two or more persons. Te
maximum number of member ship is limited to 50. In this transfer of shares is limited to
members only. The government also does not interfere in the working of the company.
Public Limited Company: Its is one whose membership is open to general public. The
minimum number required to form such company is seven, but there is no upper limit. Such
company’s can advertise to offer its share to genera public through a prospectus. These public
limited companies are subjected to greater control & supervision of control.
Merits:
The liability being limited the shareholder bear no Rick& therefore more as make persons
are encouraged to invest capital.
Because of large numbers of investors, the risk of loss is divided.
Joint stock companies are not affected by the death or the retirement of the shareholders.
Disadvantages:
It is difficult to preserve secrecy in these companies.
 It requires a large number of legal formalities to be observed.
Lack of personal interest.
e) Public Corporations:
A public corporation is wholly owned by the Government centre to state. It is established usually
by a Special Act of the parliament. Special statute also prescribes its management pattern
power duties & jurisdictions. Though the total capital is provided by the Government, they have
separate entity & enjoy independence in matters related to appointments, promotions etc.
Merits:
These are expected to provide better working conditions to the employees & supported to
be better managed.
Quick decisions can be possible, because of absence of bureaucratic control.
More Hexibility as compared to departmental organization.
Since the management is in the hands of experienced & capable directors & managers,
these ate managed more efficiently than that of government departments.
Demerits:
Any alteration in the power & Constitution of Corporation requires an amendment in the
particular Act, which is difficult & time consuming.
Public Corporations possess monopoly & in the absence of competition, these are not
interested in adopting new techniques & in making improvement in their working.

f) Government Companies:
A state enterprise can also be organized in the form of a Joint stock company; A government
company is any company in which of the share capital is held by the central government or
partly by central government & party by one to more state governments. It is managed b the
elected board of directors which may include private individuals. These are accountable for its
working to the concerned ministry or department & its annual report is required to be placed
ever year on the table of the parliament or state legislatures along with the comments of the
government to concerned department.
Merits:
It is easy to form.
The directors of a government company are free to take decisions & are not bound by
certain rigid rules & regulations.
Demerits:
Misuse of excessive freedom cannot be ruled out.
 The directors are appointed by the government so they spend more time in pleasing their
political masters & top government officials, which results in inefficient management.

CLASSIFICATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

On the basis of the extent of intimacy with the firm, the environmental factors may be classified
into different types namely internal and external.
1) INTERNAL ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
The internal environment is the environment that has a direct impact on the business. The
internal factors are generally controllable because the company has control over these factors.
It can alter or modify these factors. The internal environmental factors are resources,
capabilities and culture.
i) Resources:
A good starting point to identify company resources is to look at tangible, intangible and human
resources.
Tangible resources are the easiest to identify and evaluate: financial resources and physical
assets are identifies and valued in the firm’s financial statements.
Intangible resources are largely invisible, but over time become more important to the firm than
tangible assets because they can be a main source for a competitive advantage. Such
intangible recourses include reputational assets (brands, image, etc.) and technological assets
(proprietary technology and know-how).
Human resources or human capital are the productive services human beings offer the firm in
terms of their skills, knowledge, reasoning, and decision-making abilities.
ii) Capabilities:
Resources are not productive on their own. The most productive tasks require that resources
collaborate closely together within teams. The term organizational capabilities are used to refer
to a firm’s capacity for undertaking a particular productive activity. Our interest is not in
capabilities per se, but in capabilities relative to other firms. To identify the firm’s capabilities we
will use the functional classification approach. A functional classification identifies organizational
capabilities in relation to each of the principal functional areas.
iii) Culture:
It is the specific collection of values and norms that are shared by people and groups in an
organization and that helps in achieving the organizational goals.

2) EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT FACTORS

It refers to the environment that has an indirect influence on the business. The factors are
uncontrollable by the business. The two types of external environment are micro environment
and macro environment.

a) MICRO ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

These are external factors close to the company that have a direct impact on the organizations
process. These factors include:
i) Shareholders
Any person or company that owns at least one share (a percentage of ownership) in a company
is known as shareholder. A shareholder may also be referred to as a "stockholder". As
organization requires greater inward investment for growth they face increasing pressure to
move from private ownership to public. However this movement unleashes the forces of
shareholder pressure on the strategy of organizations.

ii) Suppliers
An individual or an organization involved in the process of making a product or service available
for use or consumption by a consumer or business user is known as supplier. Increase in raw
material prices will have a knock on affect on the marketing mix strategy of an organization.
Prices may be forced up as a result. A closer supplier relationship is one way of ensuring
competitive and quality products for an organization.
iii) Distributors
Entity that buys non-competing products or product-lines, warehouses them, and resells them
to retailers or direct to the end users or customers is known as distributor. Most distributors
provide strong manpower and cash support to the supplier or manufacturer's promotional
efforts. They usually also provide a range of services (such as product information, estimates,
technical support, after-sales services, credit) to their customers. Often getting products to the
end customers can be a major issue for firms. The distributors used will determine the final price
of the product and how it is presented to the end customer. When selling via retailers, for
example, the retailer has control over where the products are displayed, how they are priced
and how much they are promoted in-store. You can also gain a competitive advantage by using
changing distribution channels.

iv) Customers
A person, company, or other entity which buys goods and services produced by another person,
company, or other entity is known as customer. Organizations survive on the basis of meeting
the needs, wants and providing benefits for their customers. Failure to do so will result in a
failed business strategy.

v) Competitors

A company in the same industry or a similar industry which offers a similar product or service is
known as competitor. The presence of one or more competitors can reduce the prices of goods
and services as the companies attempt to gain a larger market share. Competition also requires
companies to become more efficient in order to reduce costs. Fast-food restaurants McDonald's
and Burger King are competitors, as are Coca-Cola and Pepsi, and Wal-Mart and Target.

vi) Media
Positive or adverse media attention on an organisations product or service can in some cases
make or break an organisation.. Consumer programmes with a wider and more direct audience
can also have a very powerful and positive impact, hforcing organisations to change their
tactics.
b) MACRO ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
An organization's macro environment consists of nonspecific aspects in the organization's
surroundings that have the potential to affect the organization's strategies. When compared to a
firm's task environment, the impact of macro environmental variables is less direct and the
organization has a more limited impact on these elements of the environment.
The macro environment consists of forces that originate outside of an organization and
generally cannot be altered by actions of the organization. In other words, a firm may be
influenced by changes within this element of its environment, but cannot itself influence the
environment. The curved lines in Figure 1 indicate the indirect influence of the environment on
the organization.
Macro environment includes political, economic, social and technological factors. A firm
considers these as part of its environmental scanning to better understand the threats and
opportunities created by the variables and how strategic plans need to be adjusted so the firm
can obtain and retain competitive advantage.

i) Political Factors
Political factors include government regulations and legal issues and define both formal and
informal rules under which the firm must operate. Some examples include:
tax policy
employment laws
environmental regulations
trade restrictions and tariffs
political stability

Economic Factors
Economic factors affect the purchasing power of potential customers and the firm's cost of
capital. The following are examples of factors in the macroeconomy:
economic growth
interest rates
exchange rates
inflation rate

iii) Social Factors

Social factors include the demographic and cultural aspects of the external macro environment.
These factors affect customer needs and the size of potential markets. Some social factors
include:
health consciousness
population growth rate
age distribution
career attitudes
emphasis on safety

Technological Factors
Technological factors can lower barriers to entry, reduce minimum efficient production levels,
and influence outsourcing decisions. Some technological factors include:
R&D activity
automation
technology incentives
rate of technological change

TRENDS AND CHALLENGES OF MANAGEMENT IN GLOBAL NARIO

The management functions are planning and decision making, organizing. leading, and
controlling — are just as relevant to international managers as to domestic managers.
International managers need to have a clear view of where they want their firm to be in the
future; they have to organize to implement their plans: they have to motivate those who work lot
them; and they have to develop appropriate control mechanisms.

a) Planning and Decision Making in a Global nario

To effectively plan and make decisions in a global economy, managers must have a broad-
based understanding of both environmental issues and competitive issues. They need to
understand local market conditions and technological factor that will affect their operations. At
the corporate level, executives need a great deal of information to function effectively. Which
markets are growing? Which markets are shrinking? Which are our domestic and foreign
competitors doing in each market? They must also make a variety of strategic decisions about
their organizations. For example, if a firm wishes to enter market in France, should it buy a local
firm there, build a plant, or seek a strategic alliance? Critical issues include understanding
environmental circumstances, the role of goals and planning in a global organization, and how
decision making affects the global organization.

b) Organizing in a Global nario

Managers in international businesses must also attend to a variety of organizing issues. For
example, General Electric has operations scattered around the globe.The firm has made the
decision to give local managers a great deal of responsibility for how they run their business. In
contrast, many Japanese firms give managers of their foreign operations relatively little
responsibility. As a result, those managers must frequently travel back to Japan to present
problems or get decisions approved. Managers in an international business must address the
basic issues of organization structure and design, managing change, and dealing with human
resources.

c) Leading in a Global nario

We noted earlier some of the cultural factors that affect international organizations. Individual
managers must be prepared to deal with these and other factors as they interact people from
different cultural backgrounds .Supervising a group of five managers, each of whom is from a
different state in the United States, is likely to be much simpler than supervising a group of five
managers, each of whom is from a different culture. Managers must understand how cultural
factors affect individuals. How motivational processes vary across cultures, how the role of
leadership changes in different cultures, how communication varies across cultures, and how
interpersonal and group processes depend on cultural background.

d) Controlling in a Global nario

Finally, managers in international organizations must also be concerned with control. Distances,
time zone differences, and cultural factors also play a role in control. For example, in some
cultures, close supervision is seen as being appropriate, whereas in other cultures, it is not Like-
wise, executives in the United States and Japan may find it difficult to communicate vital
information to one another because of the time zone differences. Basic control issues for the
international manager revolve around operations management productivity, quality, technology
and information systems.
 UNIT II
PLANNING

DEFINITION
According to Koontz O'Donnel - "Planning is an intellectual process, the conscious
determination of courses of action, the basing of decisions on purpose, acts and considered
estimates".

NATURE AND PURPOSE OF PLANNING

Nature of Planning
ᜀĀᜀĀ Planning is goal-oriented: Every plan must contribute in some positive way towards
the accomplishment of group objectives. Planning has no meaning without being related to
goals.
ᜀĀᜀĀ Primacy of Planning: Planning is the first of the managerial functions. It precedes all
other management functions.
ᜀĀᜀĀ Pervasiveness of Planning: Planning is found at all levels of management. Top
management looks after strategic planning. Middle management is in charge of administrative
planning. Lower management has to concentrate on operational planning.
ᜀĀᜀĀ Efficiency, Economy and Accuracy: Efficiency of plan is measured by its contribution
to the objectives as economically as possible. Planning also focuses on accurate forecasts.
ᜀĀᜀĀ Co-ordination: Planning co-ordinates the what, who, how, where and why of planning.
Without co-ordination of all activities, we cannot have united efforts.
ᜀĀᜀĀ Limiting Factors: A planner must recognize the limiting factors (money, manpower etc)
and formulate plans in the light of these critical factors.
ᜀĀᜀĀ Flexibility: The process of planning should be adaptable to changing environmental
conditions.
ᜀĀᜀĀ Planning is an intellectual process: The quality of planning will vary according to the
quality of the mind of the manager.

Purpose of Planning
As a managerial function planning is important due to the following reasons:-
To manage by objectives: All the activities of an organization are designed to achieve
certain specified objectives. However, planning makes the objectives more concrete by focusing
attention on them.
To offset uncertainty and change: Future is always full of uncertainties and changes.
Planning foresees the future and makes the necessary provisions for it.
To secure economy in operation: Planning involves, the selection of most profitable course
of action that would lead to the best result at the minimum costs.
To help in co-ordination: Co-ordination is, indeed, the essence of management, the
planning is the base of it. Without planning it is not possible to co-ordinate the different activities
of an organization.
To make control effective: The controlling function of management relates to the
comparison of the planned performance with the actual performance. In the absence of plans, a
management will have no standards for controlling other's performance.
To increase organizational effectiveness: Mere efficiency in the organization is not
important; it should also lead to productivity and effectiveness. Planning enables the manager to
measure the organizational effectiveness in the context of the stated objectives and take further
actions in this direction.

Features of Planning
It is primary function of management.
It is an intellectual process
Focuses on determining the objectives
Involves choice and decision making
It is a continuous process
It is a pervasive function

Classification of Planning
On the basis of content
Strategic Planning
– It is the process of deciding on Long-term objectives of the organization.
– It encompasses all the functional areas of business

Tactical Planning
 – It involves conversion of detailed and specific plans into detailed and specific action
plans.
– It is the blue print for current action and it supports the strategic plans.

On the basis of time period

Long term planning
– Time frame beyond five years.
– It specifies what the organization wants to become in long run.
– It involves great deal of uncertainty.
Intermediate term planning
– Time frame between two and five years.
– It is designed to implement long term plans.
Short term planning
– Time frame of one year or less.
– It provide basis for day to day operations.

PLANNING PROCESS
The various steps involved in planning are given below
a) Perception of Opportunities:
Although preceding actual planning and therefore not strictly a part of the planning
process, awareness of an opportunity is the real starting point for planning. It includes a
preliminary look at possible future opportunities and the ability to see them clearly and
completely, knowledge of where we stand in the light of our strengths and weaknesses, an
understanding of why we wish to solve uncertainties, and a vision of what we expect to gain.
Setting realistic objectives depends on this awareness. Planning requires realistic diagnosis of
the opportunity situation.

b) Establishing Objectives:
The first step in planning itself is to establish objectives for the entire enterprise and then
for each subordinate unit. Objectives specifying the results expected indicate the end points of
what is to be done, where the primary emphasis is to be placed, and what is to be accomplished
by the network of strategies, policies, procedures, rules, budgets and programs.
Enterprise objectives should give direction to the nature of all major plans which, by
reflecting these objectives, define the objectives of major departments. Major department
objectives, in turn, control the objectives of subordinate departments, and so on down the line.
The objectives of lesser departments will be better framed, however, if subdivision managers
understand the overall enterprise objectives and the implied derivative goals and if they are
given an opportunity to contribute their ideas to them and to the setting of their own goals.

c) Considering the Planning Premises:

Another logical step in planning is to establish, obtain agreement to utilize and disseminate
critical planning premises. These are forecast data of a factual nature, applicable basic policies,
and existing company plans. Premises, then, are planning assumptions – in other words, the
expected environment of plans in operation. This step leads to one of the major principles of
planning.
The more individuals charged with planning understand and agree to utilize consistent planning
premises, the more coordinated enterprise planning will be.
Planning premises include far more than the usual basic forecasts of population, prices, costs,
production, markets, and similar matters.
Because the future environment of plans is so complex, it would not be profitable or realistic to
make assumptions about every detail of the future environment of a plan.
Since agreement to utilize a given set of premises is important to coordinate planning, it
becomes a major responsibility of managers, starting with those at the top, to make sure that
subordinate managers understand the premises upon which they are expected to plan. It is not
unusual for chief executives in well- managed companies to force top managers with differing
views, through group deliberation, to arrive at a set of major premises that all can accept.

d) Identification of alternatives:
Once the organizational objectives have been clearly stated and the planning premises
have been developed, the manager should list as many available alternatives as possible for
reaching those objectives.
The focus of this step is to search for and examine alternative courses of action, especially
those not immediately apparent. There is seldom a plan for which reasonable alternatives do
not exist, and quite often an alternative that is not obvious proves to be the best.
The more common problem is not finding alternatives, but reducing the number of alternatives
so that the most promising may be analyzed. Even with mathematical techniques and the
computer, there is a limit to the number of alternatives that may be examined. It is therefore
usually necessary for the planner to reduce by preliminary examination the number of
alternatives to those promising the most fruitful possibilities or by mathematically eliminating,
through the process of approximation, the least promising ones.

e) Evaluation of alternatives
Having sought out alternative courses and examined their strong and weak points, the
following step is to evaluate them by weighing the various factors in the light of premises and
goals. One course may appear to be the most profitable but require a large cash outlay and a
slow payback; another may be less profitable but involve less risk; still another may better suit
the company in long–range objectives.
If the only objective were to examine profits in a certain business immediately, if the future were
not uncertain, if cash position and capital availability were not worrisome, and if most factors
could be reduced to definite data, this evaluation should be relatively easy. But typical planning
is replete with uncertainties, problems of capital shortages, and intangible factors, and so
evaluation is usually very difficult, even with relatively simple problems. A company may wish to
enter a new product line primarily for purposes of prestige; the forecast of expected results may
show a clear financial loss, but the question is still open as to whether the loss is worth the gain.
f) Choice of alternative plans
An evaluation of alternatives must include an evaluation of the premises on which the
alternatives are based. A manager usually finds that some premises are unreasonable and can
therefore be excluded from further consideration. This elimination process helps the manager
determine which alternative would best accomplish organizational objectives.

g) Formulating of Supporting Plans

After decisions are made and plans are set, the final step to give them meaning is to numberize
them by converting them to budgets. The overall budgets of an enterprise represent the sum
total of income and expenses with resultant profit or surplus and budgets of major balance–
sheet items such as cash and capital expenditures. Each department or program of a business
or other enterprise can have its own budgets, usually of expenses and capital expenditures,
which tie into the overall budget.
If this process is done well, budgets become a means of adding together the various plans and
also important standards against which planning progress can be measured.

h) Establishing sequence of activities

Once plans that furnish the organization with both long-range and short-range direction have
been developed, they must be implemented. Obviously, the organization can not directly benefit
from planning process until this step is performed.

TYPES OF PLANS / COMPONENTS OF PLANNING

In the process of planning, several plans are prepared which are known as components of
planning.
Plans can be broadly classified as
Strategic plans
Tactical plans
Operational plans

Operational plans lead to the achievement of tactical plans, which in turn lead to the attainment
of strategic plans. In addition to these three types of plans, managers should also develop a
contingency plan in case their original plans fail.

a) Strategic plans:
A strategic plan is an outline of steps designed with the goals of the entire organization as a
whole in mind, rather than with the goals of specific divisions or departments. It is further
classified as

i) Mission:
The mission is a statement that reflects the basic purpose and focus of the organization which
normally remain unchanged. The mission of the company is the answer of the question : why
does the organization exists?
Properly crafted mission statements serve as filters to separate what is important from what is
not, clearly state which markets will be served and how, and communicate a sense of intended
direction to the entire organization.
Mission of Ford: “we are a global, diverse family with a proud inheritance, providing exceptional
products and services”.

ii) Objectives or goals:

Both goal and objective can be defined as statements that reflect the end towards which the
organization is aiming to achieve. However, there are significant differences between the two. A
goal is an abstract and general umbrella statement, under which specific objectives can be
clustered. Objectives are statements that describe—in precise, measurable, and obtainable
terms which reflect the desired organization’s outcomes.

iii) Strategies:
Strategy is the determination of the basic long term objectives of an organization and the
adoption of action and collection of action and allocation of resources necessary to achieve
these goals.
Strategic planning begins with an organization's mission. Strategic plans look ahead over the
next two, three, five, or even more years to move the organization from where it currently is to
where it wants to be. Requiring multilevel involvement, these plans demand harmony among all
levels of management within the organization. Top-level management develops the directional
objectives for the entire organization, while lower levels of management develop compatible
objectives and plans to achieve them. Top management's strategic plan for the entire
organization becomes the framework and sets dimensions for the lower level planning.

b) Tactical plans:
A tactical plan is concerned with what the lower level units within each division must do,
how they must do it, and who is in charge at each level. Tactics are the means needed to
activate a strategy and make it work.
Tactical plans are concerned with shorter time frames and narrower scopes than are strategic
plans. These plans usually span one year or less because they are considered short-term goals.
Long-term goals, on the other hand, can take several years or more to accomplish. Normally, it
is the middle manager's responsibility to take the broad strategic plan and identify specific
tactical actions.

c) Operational plans
The specific results expected from departments, work groups, and individuals are the
operational goals. These goals are precise and measurable. “Process 150 sales applications
each week” or “Publish 20 books this quarter” are examples of operational goals.
An operational plan is one that a manager uses to accomplish his or her job responsibilities.
Supervisors, team leaders, and facilitators develop operational plans to support tactical plans
(see the next section). Operational plans can be a single-use plan or a standing plan.
Single-use plans apply to activities that do not recur or repeat. A one-time
occurrence, such as a special sales program, is a single-use plan because it deals with
the who, what, where, how, and how much of an activity.
Programme: Programme consists of an ordered list of events to be followed to
execute a project.
Budget: A budget predicts sources and amounts of income and how much they are
used for a specific project.
Standing plans are usually made once and retain their value over a period of years
while undergoing periodic revisions and updates. The following are examples of ongoing
plans:
Policy: A policy provides a broad guideline for managers to follow when dealing with
important areas of decision making. Policies are general statements that explain how
a manager should attempt to handle routine management responsibilities. Typical
human resources policies, for example, address such matters as employee hiring,
terminations, performance appraisals, pay increases, and discipline.
Procedure: A procedure is a set of step-by-step directions that explains how
activities or tasks are to be carried out. Most organizations have procedures for
purchasing supplies and equipment, for example. This procedure usually begins with
a supervisor completing a purchasing requisition. The requisition is then sent to the
next level of management for approval. The approved requisition is forwarded to the
purchasing department. Depending on the amount of the request, the purchasing
department may place an order, or they may need to secure quotations and/or bids
for several vendors before placing the order. By defining the steps to be taken and
 the order in which they are to be done, procedures provide a standardized way of
responding to a repetitive problem.
Rule: A rule is an explicit statement that tells an employee what he or she can and
cannot do. Rules are “do” and “don't” statements put into place to promote the safety
of employees and the uniform treatment and behavior of employees. For example,
rules about tardiness and absenteeism permit supervisors to make discipline
decisions rapidly and with a high degree of fairness.

Contingency plans
Intelligent and successful management depends upon a constant pursuit of adaptation,
flexibility, and mastery of changing conditions. Strong management requires a “keeping all
options open” approach at all times — that's where contingency planning comes in.
Contingency planning involves identifying alternative courses of action that can be implemented
if and when the original plan proves inadequate because of changing circumstances.
Keep in mind that events beyond a manager's control may cause even the most carefully
prepared alternative future narios to go awry. Unexpected problems and events frequently
occur. When they do, managers may need to change their plans. Anticipating change during the
planning process is best in case things don't go as expected. Management can then develop
alternatives to the existing plan and ready them for use when and if circumstances make these
alternatives appropriate.

OBJECTIVES
Objectives may be defined as the goals which an organisation tries to achieve.
Objectives are described as the end- points of planning. According to Koontz and O'Donnell, "an
objective is a term commonly used to indicate the end point of a management programme."
Objectives constitute the purpose of the enterprise and without them no intelligent planning can
take place.
Objectives are, therefore, the ends towards which the activities of the enterprise are aimed.
They are present not only the end-point of planning but also the end towards which organizing,
directing and controlling are aimed. Objectives provide direction to various activities. They also
serve as the benchmark of measuring the efficiency and effectiveness of the enterprise.
Objectives make every human activity purposeful. Planning has no meaning if it is not related to
certain objectives.
Features of Objectives
The objectives must be predetermined.
A clearly defined objective provides the clear direction for managerial effort.
Objectives must be realistic.
Objectives must be measurable.
Objectives must have social sanction.
All objectives are interconnected and mutually supportive.
Objectives may be short-range, medium-range and long-range.
Objectives may be constructed into a hierarchy.

Advantages of Objectives
Clear definition of objectives encourages unified planning.
Objectives provide motivation to people in the organization.
When the work is goal-oriented, unproductive tasks can be avoided.
Objectives provide standards which aid in the control of human efforts in an
organization.
Objectives serve to identify the organization and to link it to the groups upon which its
existence depends.
Objectives act as a sound basis for developing administrative controls.
Objectives contribute to the management process: they influence the purpose of the
organization, policies, personnel, leadership as well as managerial control.

Process of Setting Objectives

Objectives are the keystone of management planning. It is the most important task of
management. Objectives are required to be set in every area which directly and vitally effects
the survival and prosperity of the business. In the setting of objectives, the following points
should be borne in mind.
Objectives are required to be set by management in every area which directly and vitally
affects the survival and prosperity of the business.
The objectives to be set in various areas have to be identified.
While setting the objectives, the past performance must be reviewed, since past
performance indicates what the organization will be able to accomplish in future.
 The objectives should be set in realistic terms i.e., the objectives to be set should be
reasonable and capable of attainment.
Objectives must be consistent with one and other.
Objectives must be set in clear-cut terms.
For the successful accomplishment of the objectives, there should be effective
communication.

MANAGEMENT BY OBJECTIVES (MBO)

MBO was first popularized by Peter Drucker in 1954 in his book 'The practice of
Management’. It is a process of agreeing within an organization so that management and
employees buy into the objectives and understand what they are. It has a precise and written
description objectives ahead, timelines for their motoring and achievement.
The employees and manager agree to what the employee will attempt to achieve in a period
ahead and the employee will accept and buy into the objectives.
Definition
“MBO is a process whereby the superior and the mangers of an organization jointly identify its
common goals, define each individual’s major area of responsibility in terms of results expected
of him, and use these measures as guides for operating the unit and assessing the contribution
of each of its members.”
Features of MBO
MBO is concerned with goal setting and planning for individual managers and their units.
The essence of MBO is a process of joint goal setting between a supervisor and a
subordinate.
Managers work with their subordinates to establish the performance goals that are
consistent with their higher organizational objectives.
MBO focuses attention on appropriate goals and plans.
MBO facilitates control through the periodic development and subsequent evaluation of
individual goals and plans.
Steps in MBO:

The typical MBO process consists of:

Establishing a clear and precisely defined statement of objectives for the employee
Developing an action plan indicating how these objectives are to be achieved
Reviewing the performance of the employees
Appraising performance based on objective achievement

1) Setting objectives:
For Management by Objectives (MBO) to be effective, individual managers must understand the
specific objectives of their job and how those objectives fit in with the overall company
objectives set by the board of directors.
The managers of the various units or sub-units, or sections of an organization should know not
only the objectives of their unit but should also actively participate in setting these objectives
and make responsibility for them.
Management by Objective (MBO) systems, objectives are written down for each level of the
organization, and individuals are given specific aims and targets.
Managers need to identify and set objectives both for themselves, their units, and their
organizations.

2) Developing action plans

Actions plans specify the actions needed to address each of the top organizational issues and
to reach each of the associated goals, who will complete each action and according to what
timeline. An overall, top-level action plan that depicts how each strategic goal will be reached is
developed by the top level management. The format of the action plan depends on the objective
of the organization.

3) Reviewing Progress:
Performance is measured in terms of results. Job performance is the net effect of an employee's
effort as modified by abilities, role perceptions and results produced. Effort refers to the amount
of energy an employee uses in performing a job. Abilities are personal characteristics used in
performing a job and usually do not fluctuate widely over short periods of time. Role perception
refers to the direction in which employees believe they should channel their efforts on their jobs,
and they are defined by the activities and behaviors they believe are necessary.

4) Performance appraisal:
Performance appraisals communicate to employees how they are performing their jobs, and
they establish a plan for improvement. Performance appraisals are extremely important to both
employee and employer, as they are often used to provide predictive information related to
possible promotion. Appraisals can also provide input for determining both individual and
organizational training and development needs. Performance appraisals encourage
performance improvement. Feedback on behavior, attitude, skill or knowledge clarifies for
employees the job expectations their managers hold for them. In order to be effective,
performance appraisals must be supported by documentation and management commitment.

Advantages
Motivation – Involving employees in the whole process of goal setting and increasing employee
empowerment. This increases employee job satisfaction and commitment.
Better communication and Coordination – Frequent reviews and interactions between superiors
and subordinates helps to maintain harmonious relationships within the organization and
also to solve many problems.
 Clarity of goals
Subordinates have a higher commitment to objectives they set themselves than those
imposed on them by another person.
Managers can ensure that objectives of the subordinates are linked to the organization's
objectives.

Limitations
There are several limitations to the assumptive base underlying the impact of managing by
objectives, including:
It over-emphasizes the setting of goals over the working of a plan as a driver of outcomes.
It underemphasizes the importance of the environment or context in which the goals are set.
That context includes everything from the availability and quality of resources, to relative
buy-in by leadership and stake-holders.
Companies evaluated their employees by comparing them with the "ideal" employee. Trait
appraisal only looks at what employees should be, not at what they should do.
When this approach is not properly set, agreed and managed by organizations, self-centered
employees might be prone to distort results, falsely representing achievement of targets that
were set in a short-term, narrow fashion. In this case, managing by objectives would be
counterproductive.

STRATEGIES
The term 'Strategy' has been adapted from war and is being increasingly used in
business to reflect broad overall objectives and policies of an enterprise. Literally speaking, the
term 'Strategy' stands for the war-art of the military general, compelling the enemy to fight as
per out chosen terms and conditions.
According to Koontz and O' Donnell, "Strategies must often denote a general programme of
action and deployment of emphasis and resources to attain comprehensive objectives".
Strategies are plans made in the light of the plans of the competitors because a modern
business institution operates in a competitive environment. They are a useful framework for
guiding enterprise thinking and action. A perfect strategy can be built only on perfect knowledge
of the plans of others in the industry. This may be done by the management of a firm putting
itself in the place of a rival firm and trying to estimate their plans.
Characteristics of Strategy
It is the right combination of different factors.
It relates the business organization to the environment.
It is an action to meet a particular challenge, to solve particular problems or to attain
desired objectives.
Strategy is a means to an end and not an end in itself.
It is formulated at the top management level.
It involves assumption of certain calculated risks.

Strategic Planning Process / Strategic Formulation Process

Input to the Organization: Various Inputs (People, Capital, Management and Technical
skills, others) including goals input of claimants (Employees, Consumers, Suppliers,
Stockholders, Government, Community and others)need to be elaborated.
Industry Analysis: Formulation of strategy requires the evaluation of the attractiveness
of an industry by analyzing the external environment. The focus should be on the kind of
compaction within an industry, the possibility of new firms entering the market, the
availability of substitute products or services, the bargaining positions of the suppliers,
and buyers or customers.
Enterprise Profile: Enterprise profile is usually the starting point for determining where
the company is and where it should go. Top managers determine the basic purpose of
the enterprise and clarify the firm’s geographic orientation.
Orientation, Values, and Vision of Executives: The enterprise profile is shaped by
people, especially executives, and their orientation and values are important for
formulation the strategy. They set the organizational climate, and they determine the
direction of the firm though their vision. Consequently, their values, their preferences,
and their attitudes toward risk have to be carefully examined because they have an
impact on the strategy.
Mission (Purpose), Major Objectives, and Strategic Intent: Mission or Purpose is the
answer to the question: What is our business? The major Objectives are the end points
towards which the activates of the enterprise are directed. Strategic intent is the
commitment (obsession) to win in the competitive environment, not only at the top-level
but also throughout the organization.
Present and Future External Environment: The present and future external
environment must be assessed in terms of threats and opportunities.
 Internal Environment: Internal Environment should be audited and evaluated with
respect to its resources and its weaknesses, and strengths in research and
development, production, operation, procurement, marketing and products and services.
Other internal factors include, human resources and financial resources as well as the
company image, the organization structure and climate, the planning and control system,
and relations with customers.
Development of Alternative Strategies: Strategic alternatives are developed on the
basis of an analysis of the external and internal environment. Strategies may be
specialize or concentrate. Alternatively, a firm may diversify, extending the operation into
new and profitable markets. Other examples of possible strategies are joint ventures,
and strategic alliances which may be an appropriate strategy for some firms.
Evaluation and Choice of Strategies: Strategic choices must be considered in the light
of the risk involved in a particular decision. Some profitable opportunities may not be
pursued because a failure in a risky venture could result in bankruptcy of the firm.
Another critical element in choosing a strategy is timing. Even the best product may fail if
it is introduced to the market at an inappropriate time.
Medium/Short Range Planning, Implementation through Reengineering the
Organization Structure, Leadership and Control: Implementation of the Strategy
often requires reengineering the organization, staffing the organization structure and
providing leadership. Controls must also be installed monitoring performance against
plans.
Consistency Testing and Contingency Planning: The last key aspect of the strategic
planning process is the testing for consistency and preparing for contingency plans.

TYPES OF STRATEGIES
According to Michel Porter, the strategies can be classified into three types. They are
Cost leadership strategy
Differentiation strategy
Focus strategy

The following table illustrates Porter's generic strategies:

a) Cost Leadership Strategy
This generic strategy calls for being the low cost producer in an industry for a given level of
quality. The firm sells its products either at average industry prices to earn a profit higher than
that of rivals, or below the average industry prices to gain market share. In the event of a price
war, the firm can maintain some profitability while the competition suffers losses. Even without a
price war, as the industry matures and prices decline, the firms that can produce more cheaply
will remain profitable for a longer period of time. The cost leadership strategy usually targets a
broad market.
Some of the ways that firms acquire cost advantages are by improving process efficiencies,
gaining unique access to a large source of lower cost materials, making optimal outsourcing and
vertical integration decisions, or avoiding some costs altogether. If competing firms are unable
to lower their costs by a similar amount, the firm may be able to sustain a competitive
advantage based on cost leadership.
Firms that succeed in cost leadership often have the following internal strengths:
Access to the capital required to make a significant investment in production assets; this
investment represents a barrier to entry that many firms may not overcome.
Skill in designing products for efficient manufacturing, for example, having a small
component count to shorten the assembly process.
High level of expertise in manufacturing process engineering.
Efficient distribution channels.
Each generic strategy has its risks, including the low-cost strategy. For example, other firms
may be able to lower their costs as well. As technology improves, the competition may be able
to leapfrog the production capabilities, thus eliminating the competitive advantage. Additionally,
several firms following a focus strategy and targeting various narrow markets may be able to
achieve an even lower cost within their segments and as a group gain significant market share.

b) Differentiation Strategy
A differentiation strategy calls for the development of a product or service that offers unique
attributes that are valued by customers and that customers perceive to be better than or
different from the products of the competition. The value added by the uniqueness of the
product may allow the firm to charge a premium price for it. The firm hopes that the higher price
will more than cover the extra costs incurred in offering the unique product. Because of the
product's unique attributes, if suppliers increase their prices the firm may be able to pass along
the costs to its customers who cannot find substitute products easily.
Firms that succeed in a differentiation strategy often have the following internal strengths:
Access to leading scientific research.
Highly skilled and creative product development team.
Strong sales team with the ability to successfully communicate the perceived strengths
of the product.
Corporate reputation for quality and innovation.
The risks associated with a differentiation strategy include imitation by competitors and changes
in customer tastes. Additionally, various firms pursuing focus strategies may be able to achieve
even greater differentiation in their market segments.

c) Focus Strategy
The focus strategy concentrates on a narrow segment and within that segment attempts to
achieve either a cost advantage or differentiation. The premise is that the needs of the group
can be better serviced by focusing entirely on it. A firm using a focus strategy often enjoys a
high degree of customer loyalty, and this entrenched loyalty discourages other firms from
competing directly.
Because of their narrow market focus, firms pursuing a focus strategy have lower volumes and
therefore less bargaining power with their suppliers. However, firms pursuing a differentiation-
focused strategy may be able to pass higher costs on to customers since close substitute
products do not exist.
Firms that succeed in a focus strategy are able to tailor a broad range of product development
strengths to a relatively narrow market segment that they know very well.
Some risks of focus strategies include imitation and changes in the target segments.
Furthermore, it may be fairly easy for a broad-market cost leader to adapt its product in order to
compete directly. Finally, other focusers may be able to carve out sub-segments that they can
serve even better.

A Combination of Generic Strategies

These generic strategies are not necessarily compatible with one another. If a firm attempts to
achieve an advantage on all fronts, in this attempt it may achieve no advantage at all. For
example, if a firm differentiates itself by supplying very high quality products, it risks
undermining that quality if it seeks to become a cost leader. Even if the quality did not suffer, the
firm would risk projecting a confusing image. For this reason, Michael Porter argued that to be
successful over the long-term, a firm must select only one of these three generic strategies.
Otherwise, with more than one single generic strategy the firm will be "stuck in the middle" and
will not achieve a competitive advantage.
Porter argued that firms that are able to succeed at multiple strategies often do so by creating
separate business units for each strategy. By separating the strategies into different units
having different policies and even different cultures, a corporation is less likely to become "stuck
in the middle."
However, there exists a viewpoint that a single generic strategy is not always best because
within the same product customers often seek multi-dimensional satisfactions such as a
combination of quality, style, convenience, and price. There have been cases in which high
quality producers faithfully followed a single strategy and then suffered greatly when another
firm entered the market with a lower-quality product that better met the overall needs of the
customers.

POLICIES
Policies are general statements or understandings that guide managers’ thinking in
decision making. They usually do not require action but are intended to guide managers in their
commitment to the decision they ultimately make.

The first step in the process of policy formulation, as shown in the diagram below, is to
capture the values or principles that will guide the rest of the process and form the basis on
which to produce a statement of issues. The statement of issues involves identifying the
opportunities and constraints affecting the local housing market, and is to be produced by
thoroughly analyzing the housing market. The kit provides the user with access to a housing
data base to facilitate this analysis.
The statement of issues will provide the basis for the formulation of a set of housing goals and
objectives, designed to address the problems identified and to exploit the opportunities which
present themselves.

The next step is to identify and analyze the various policy options which can be applied to
achieve the set of goals and objectives. The options available to each local government will
depend on local circumstances as much as the broader context and each local authority will
have to develop its own unique approach to addressing the housing needs of its residents.
An implementation program for realizing the policy recommendations must then be prepared,
addressing budgetary and programming requirements, and allocating roles and responsibilities.
Finally, the implementation of the housing strategy needs to be systematically monitored and
evaluated against the stated goals and objectives, and the various components of the strategy
modified or strengthened, as required.
At each step of the way, each component of the strategy needs to be discussed and debated,
and a public consultation process engaged in. The extent of consultation and the participants
involved will vary with each step.

Essentials of Policy Formulation

The essentials of policy formation may be listed as below:
A policy should be definite, positive and clear. It should be understood by everyone in
the organization.
A policy should be translatable into the practices.
A policy should be flexible and at the same time have a high degree of permanency.
A policy should be formulated to cover all reasonable anticipatable conditions.
A policy should be founded upon facts and sound judgment.
A policy should conform to economic principles, statutes and regulations.
A policy should be a general statement of the established rule.

Importance of Policies
Policies are useful for the following reasons:
They provide guides to thinking and action and provide support to the subordinates.
They delimit the area within which a decision is to be made.
 They save time and effort by pre-deciding problems and
They permit delegation of authority to mangers at the lower levels.

DECISION MAKING
The word decision has been derived from the Latin word "decidere" which means
"cutting off". Thus, decision involves cutting off of alternatives between those that are desirable
and those that are not desirable.
In the words of George R. Terry, "Decision-making is the selection based on some criteria from
two or more possible alternatives".

Characteristics of Decision Making

Decision making implies that there are various alternatives and the most desirable alternative is
chosen to solve the problem or to arrive at expected results.
The decision-maker has freedom to choose an alternative.
Decision-making may not be completely rational but may be judgemental and emotional.
Decision-making is goal-oriented.
Decision-making is a mental or intellectual process because the final decision is made by the
decision-maker.
A decision may be expressed in words or may be implied from behaviour.
Choosing from among the alternative courses of operation implies uncertainty about the final
result of each possible course of operation.
Decision making is rational. It is taken only after a thorough analysis and reasoning and
weighing the consequences of the various alternatives.

TYPES OF DECISIONS
Programmed and Non-Programmed Decisions: Herbert Simon has grouped organizational
decisions into two categories based on the procedure followed. They are:
Programmed decisions: Programmed decisions are routine and repetitive and are
made within the framework of organizational policies and rules. These policies and rules
are established well in advance to solve recurring problems in the organization.
Programmed decisions have short-run impact. They are, generally, taken at the lower
level of management.
 Non-Programmed Decisions: Non-programmed decisions are decisions taken to
meet non-repetitive problems. Non-programmed decisions are relevant for solving
unique/ unusual problems in which various alternatives cannot be decided in advance. A
common feature of non-programmed decisions is that they are novel and non-recurring
and therefore, readymade solutions are not available. Since these decisions are of high
importance and have long-term consequences, they are made by top level management.
Strategic and Tactical Decisions: Organizational decisions may also be classified as
strategic or tactical.
Strategic Decisions: Basic decisions or strategic decisions are decisions which are of
crucial importance. Strategic decisions a major choice of actions concerning allocation of
resources and contribution to the achievement of organizational objectives. Decisions
like plant location, product diversification, entering into new markets, selection of
channels of distribution, capital expenditure etc are examples of basic or strategic
decisions.
Tactical Decisions: Routine decisions or tactical decisions are decisions which are
routine and repetitive. They are derived out of strategic decisions. The various features
of a tactical decision are as follows:
Tactical decision relates to day-to-day operation of the organization and has to
be taken very frequently.
Tactical decision is mostly a programmed one. Therefore, the decision can be
made within the context of these variables.
The outcome of tactical decision is of short-term nature and affects a narrow part
of the organization.
The authority for making tactical decisions can be delegated to lower level
managers because: first, the impact of tactical decision is narrow and of short-
term nature and Second, by delegating authority for such decisions to lower-level
managers, higher level managers are free to devote more time on strategic
decisions.
DECISION MAKING PROCESS
The decision making process is presented in the figure below:

Specific Objective: The need for decision making arises in order to achieve certain specific
objectives. The starting point in any analysis of decision making involves the determination of
whether a decision needs to be made.
Problem Identification: A problem is a felt need, a question which needs a solution. In the
words of Joseph L Massie "A good decision is dependent upon the recognition of the right
problem". The objective of problem identification is that if the problem is precisely and
specifically identifies, it will provide a clue in finding a possible solution. A problem can be
identified clearly, if managers go through diagnosis and analysis of the problem.
Diagnosis: Diagnosis is the process of identifying a problem from its signs and
symptoms. A symptom is a condition or set of conditions that indicates the existence of a
problem. Diagnosing the real problem implies knowing the gap between what is and
what ought to be, identifying the reasons for the gap and understanding the problem in
relation to higher objectives of the organization.
Analysis: Diagnosis gives rise to analysis. Analysis of a problem requires:
Who would make decision?
What information would be needed?
From where the information is available?

Search for Alternatives: A problem can be solved in several ways; however, all the ways
cannot be equally satisfying. Therefore, the decision maker must try to find out the various
alternatives available in order to get the most satisfactory result of a decision. A decision maker
can use several sources for identifying alternatives:
 His own past experiences
Practices followed by others and
Using creative techniques.
Evaluation of Alternatives: After the various alternatives are identified, the next step is to
evaluate them and select the one that will meet the choice criteria. /the decision maker must
check proposed alternatives against limits, and if an alternative does not meet them, he can
discard it. Having narrowed down the alternatives which require serious consideration, the
decision maker will go for evaluating how each alternative may contribute towards the objective
supposed to be achieved by implementing the decision.
Choice of Alternative: The evaluation of various alternatives presents a clear picture as to
how each one of them contribute to the objectives under question. A comparison is made
among the likely outcomes of various alternatives and the best one is chosen.
Action: Once the alternative is selected, it is put into action. The actual process of decision
making ends with the choice of an alternative through which the objectives can be achieved.
Results: When the decision is put into action, it brings certain results. These results must
correspond with objectives, the starting point of decision process, if good decision has been
made and implemented properly. Thus, results provide indication whether decision making and
its implementation is proper.

Characteristics of Effective Decisions

An effective decision is one which should contain three aspects. These aspects are given
below:
Action Orientation: Decisions are action-oriented and are directed towards relevant and of
controllable aspects the environment. Decisions should ultimately find their utility in
implementation.
Goal Direction: Decision making should be goal-directed to enable the organization to meet
its objectives.
Effective in Implementation: Decision making should take into account all the possible
factors not only in terms of external context but also in internal context so that a decision
can be implemented properly.
RATIONAL DECISION MAKING MODEL

The Rational Decision Making Model is a model which emerges from Organizational Behavior.
The process is one that is logical and follows the orderly path from problem identification
through solution. It provides a structured and sequenced approach to decision making. Using
such an approach can help to ensure discipline and consistency is built into your decision
making process.

The Six-Step Rational Decision-Making Model

Define the problem.
Identify decision criteria
Weight the criteria
Generate alternatives
Rate each alternative on each criterion
Compute the optimal decision
1) Defining the problem
This is the initial step of the rational decision making process. First the problem is identied and
then defined to get a clear view of the situation.

2) Identify decision criteria

Once a decision maker has defined the problem, he or she needs to identify the decision criteria
that will be important in solving the problem. In this step, the decision maker is determining
what’s relevant in making the decision.
This step brings the decision maker’s interests, values, and personal preferences into the
process.
Identifying criteria is important because what one person thinks is relevant, another may not.
Also keep in mind that any factors not identified in this step are considered as irrelevant to the
decision maker.

3) Weight the criteria

The decision-maker weights the previously identified criteria in order to give them correct priority
in the decision.

4) Generate alternatives
The decision maker generates possible alternatives that could succeed in resolving the
problem. No attempt is made in this step to appraise these alternatives, only to list them.

5) Rate each alternative on each criterion

The decision maker must critically analyze and evaluate each one. The strengths and weakness
of each alternative become evident as they compared with the criteria and weights established
in second and third steps.

6) Compute the optimal decision

Evaluating each alternative against the weighted criteria and selecting the alternative with the
highest total score.
DECISION MAKING UNDER VARIOUS CONDITIONS
The conditions for making decisions can be divided into three types. Namely a) Certainty, b)
Uncertainty and c) Risk

Virtually all decisions are made in an environment to at least some uncertainty However; the
degree will vary from relative certainty to great uncertainty. There are certain risks involved in
making decisions.

a) Certainty:
In a situation involving certainty, people are reasonably sure about what will happen when they
make a decision. The information is available and is considered to be reliable, and the cause
and effect relationships are known.

b) Uncertainty
In a situation of uncertainty, on the other hand, people have only a meager database, they do
not know whether or not the data are reliable, and they are very unsure about whether or not the
situation may change.
Moreover, they cannot evaluate the interactions of the different variables. For example, a
corporation that decides to expand its Operation to an unfamiliar country may know little about
the country, culture, laws, economic environment, and politics. The political situation may be
volatile that even experts cannot predict a possible change in government.

c) Risk
In a situation with risks, factual information may exist, but it may be incomplete. 1o improve
decision making One may estimate the objective probability of an outcome by using, for
example, mathematical models On the other hand, subjective probability, based on judgment
and experience may be used

All intelligent decision makers dealing with uncertainty like to know the degree and nature of the
risk they are taking in choosing a course of action. One of the deficiencies in using the
traditional approaches of operations research for problem solving is that many of the data used
in model are merely estimates and others are based on probabilities. The ordinary practice is to
have staff specialists conic up with best estimates.
Virtually every decision is based on the interaction of a number of important variables, many of
which has e an element of uncertainty but, perhaps, a fairly high degree of probability. Thus, the
wisdom of launching a new product might depend on a number of critical variables: the cost of
introducing the product, the cost of producing it, the capital investment that will he required, the
price that can be set for the product, the size of the potential market, and the share of the total
market that it will represent.
 UNIT III
ORGANIZING

DEFINITION
According to Koontz and O'Donnell, "Organization involves the grouping of activities
necessary to accomplish goals and plans, the assignment of these activities to appropriate
departments and the provision of authority, delegation and co-ordination."
Organization involves division of work among people whose efforts must be co-ordinated to
achieve specific objectives and to implement pre-determined strategies.

NATURE OR CHARACTERISTICS OF ORGANIZING

From the study of the various definitions given by different management experts we get
the following information about the characteristics or nature of organization,
Division of Work: Division of work is the basis of an organization. In other words, there can
be no organization without division of work. Under division of work the entire work of business is
divided into many departments .The work of every department is further sub-divided into sub-
works. In this way each individual has to do the saran work repeatedly which gradually makes
that person an expert.
Coordination: Under organizing different persons are assigned different works but the aim
of all these persons happens to be the some - the attainment of the objectives of the enterprise.
Organization ensures that the work of all the persons depends on each other’s work even
though it happens to be different. The work of one person starts from where the work of another
person ends. The non-completion of the work of one person affects the work of everybody.
Therefore, everybody completes his work in time and does not hinder the work of others. It is
thus, clear that it is in the nature of an organization to establish coordination among different
works, departments and posts in the enterprise.
Plurality of Persons: Organization is a group of many persons who assemble to fulfill a
common purpose. A single individual cannot create an organization.
Common Objectives: There are various parts of an organization with different functions to
perform but all move in the direction of achieving a general objective.
Well-defined Authority and Responsibility: Under organization a chain is established
between different posts right from the top to the bottom. It is clearly specified as to what will be
the authority and responsibility of every post. In other words, every individual working in the
organization is given some authority for the efficient work performance and it is also decided
simultaneously as to what will be the responsibility of that individual in case of unsatisfactory
work performance.
Organization is a Structure of Relationship: Relationship between persons working on
different posts in the organization is decided. In other words, it is decided as to who will be the
superior and who will be the subordinate. Leaving the top level post and the lowest level post
everybody is somebody's superior and somebody's subordinate. The person working on the top
level post has no superior and the person working on the lowest level post has no subordinate.
Organization is a Machine of Management: Organization is considered to be a machine of
management because the efficiency of all the functions depends on an effective organization. In
the absence of organization no function can be performed in a planned manner. It is appropriate
to call organization a machine of management from another point of view. It is that machine in
which no part can afford tube ill-fitting or non-functional. In other words, if the division of work is
not done properly or posts are not created correctly the whole system of management
collapses.
Organization is a Universal Process: Organization is needed both in business and non-
business organizations. Not only this, organization will be needed where two or mom than two
people work jointly. Therefore, organization has the quality of universality. (9) Organization is a
Dynamic Process: Organization is related to people and the knowledge and experience of the
people undergo a change. The impact of this change affects the various functions of the
organizations. Thus, organization is not a process that can be decided for all times to come but
it undergoes changes according to the needs. The example in this case can be the creation or
abolition of a new post according to the need.

IMPORTANCE OR ADVANTAGES OF ORGANIZING

Organization is an instrument that defines relations among different people which helps
them to understand as in who happens to be their superior and who is their subordinate. This
information helps in fixing responsibility and developing coordination. In such circumstances the
objectives of the organization can be easily achieved. That is why, it is said that Organization Is
a mechanism of management. In addition to that it helps in the other functions of management
like planning, staffing, leading, controlling, etc. The importance of organization or its merits
becomes clear from the following facts,
 Increase In Managerial Efficiency: A good and balanced organization helps the managers
to increase their efficiency. Managers, through the medium of organization, make a proper
distribution of the whole work among different people according to their ability.
Proper Utilization of Resources: Through the medium of organization optimum utilization
of all the available human and material resources of an enterprise becomes possible. Work is
allotted to every individual according to his ability and capacity and conditions ant created to
enable him to utilize his ability to the maximum extent. For example, if an employee possesses
the knowledge of modem machinery but the modem machinery is not available in the
organization, in that case, efforts are made to make available the modem machinery.
Sound Communication Possible: Communication is essential for taking the right decision
at the right time. However, the establishment of a good communication system is possible only
through an organization. In an organization the time of communication is decided so that all the
useful information reaches the officers concerned which. in turn, helps the decision-making.
Facilitates Coordination: In order to attain successfully the objectives of the organization,
coordination among various activities in the organization is essential. Organization is the only
medium which makes coordination possible. Under organization the division of work is made in
such a manner as to make all the activities complementary to each other increasing their inter-
dependence. Inter-dependence gives rise to the establishment of relations which, in turn,
increases coordination.
Increase in Specialization: Under organization the whole work is divided into different
parts. Competent persons are appointed to handle all the sub-works and by handling a
particular work repeatedly they become specialists. This enables them to have maximum work
performance in the minimum time while the organization gets the benefit of specialization.
Helpful in Expansion: A good organization helps the enterprise in facing competition. When
an enterprise starts making available good quality product at cheap rates, it increases the
demand for its products. In order to meet the increasing demand for its products an organization
has to expand its business. On the other hand, a good organization has an element of flexibility
which far from impeding the expansion work encourages it.
ORGANIZING PROCESS
Organization is the process of establishing relationship among the members of the
enterprise. The relationships are created in terms of authority and responsibility. To organize is
to harmonize, coordinate or arrange in a logical and orderly manner. Each member in the
organization is assigned a specific responsibility or duty to perform and is granted the
corresponding authority to perform his duty. The managerial function of organizing consists in
making a rational division of work into groups of activities and tying together the positions
representing grouping of activities so as to achieve a rational, well coordinated and orderly
structure for the accomplishment of work. According to Louis A Allen, "Organizing involves
identification and grouping the activities to be performed and dividing them among the
individuals and creating authority and responsibility relationships among them for the
accomplishment of organizational objectives." The various steps involved in this process are:

a) Determination of Objectives:
It is the first step in building up an organization. Organization is always related to certain
objectives. Therefore, it is essential for the management to identify the objectives before starting
any activity. Organization structure is built on the basis of the objectives of the enterprise. That
means, the structure of the organization can be determined by the management only after
knowing the objectives to be accomplished through the organization. This step helps the
management not only in framing the organization structure but also in achieving the enterprise
objectives with minimum cost and efforts. Determination of objectives will consist in deciding as
to why the proposed organization is to be set up and, therefore, what will be the nature of the
work to be accomplished through the organization.
b) Enumeration of Objectives:
If the members of the group are to pool their efforts effectively, there must be proper
division of the major activities. The first step in organizing group effort is the division of the total
job into essential activities. Each job should be properly classified and grouped. This will enable
the people to know what is expected of them as members of the group and will help in avoiding
duplication of efforts. For example, the work of an industrial concern may be divided into the
following major functions – production, financing, personnel, sales, purchase, etc.

c) Classification of Activities:
The next step will be to classify activities according to similarities and common purposes
and functions and taking the human and material resources into account. Then, closely related
and similar activities are grouped into divisions and departments and the departmental activities
are further divided into sections.

d) Assignment of Duties:
Here, specific job assignments are made to different subordinates for ensuring a
certainty of work performance. Each individual should be given a specific job to do according to
his ability and made responsible for that. He should also be given the adequate authority to do
the job assigned to him. In the words of Kimball and Kimball - "Organization embraces the
duties of designating the departments and the personnel that are to carry on the work, defining
their functions and specifying the relations that are to exist between department and
individuals."

e) Delegation of Authority:
Since so many individuals work in the same organization, it is the responsibility of
management to lay down structure of relationship in the organization. Authority without
responsibility is a dangerous thing and similarly responsibility without authority is an empty
vessel. Everybody should clearly know to whom he is accountable; corresponding to the
responsibility authority is delegated to the subordinates for enabling them to show work
performance. This will help in the smooth working of the enterprise by facilitating delegation of
responsibility and authority.
ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE
An organization structure is a framework that allots a particular space for a particular
department or an individual and shows its relationship to the other. An organization structure
shows the authority and responsibility relationships between the various positions in the
organization by showing who reports to whom. It is an established pattern of relationship among
the components of the organization.

March and Simon have stated that-"Organization structure consists simply of those aspects of
pattern of behavior in the organization that are relatively stable and change only slowly." The
structure of an organization is generally shown on an organization chart. It shows the authority
and responsibility relationships between various positions in the organization while designing
the organization structure, due attention should be given to the principles of sound organization.

Significance of Organization Structure

Properly designed organization can help improve teamwork and productivity by providing a
framework within which the people can work together most effectively.
Organization structure determines the location of decision-making in the organization.
Sound organization structure stimulates creative thinking and initiative among organizational
members by providing well defined patterns of authority.
A sound organization structure facilitates growth of enterprise by increasing its capacity to
handle increased level of authority.
Organization structure provides the pattern of communication and coordination.
The organization structure helps a member to know what his role is and how it relates to
other roles.

PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE

Modern organizational structures have evolved from several organizational theories,
which have identified certain principles as basic to any organization structure.
a) Line and Staff Relationships:
Line authority refers to the scalar chain, or to the superior-subordinate linkages, that
extend throughout the hierarchy (Koontz, O'Donnell and Weihrich). Line employees are
responsible for achieving the basic or strategic objectives of the organization, while staff plays a
supporting role to line employees and provides services. The relationship between line and staff
is crucial in organizational structure, design and efficiency. It is also an important aid to
information processing and coordination.
b) Departmentalization:
Departmentalization is a process of horizontal clustering of different types of functions
and activities on any one level of the hierarchy. Departmentalization is conventionally based on
purpose, product, process, function, personal things and place.
c) Span of Control:
This refers to the number of specialized activities or individuals supervised by one
person. Deciding the span of control is important for coordinating different types of activities
effectively.
d) De-centralization and Centralization:
De-centralization refers to decision making at lower levels in the hierarchy of authority. In
contrast, decision making in a centralized type of organizational structure is at higher levels. The
degree of centralization and de-centralization depends on the number of levels of hierarchy,
degree of coordination, specialization and span of control.
Every organizational structure contains both centralization and de-centralization, but to varying
degrees. The extent of this can be determined by identifying how much of the decision making
is concentrated at the top and how much is delegated to lower levels. Modern organizational
structures show a strong tendency towards de-centralization.

FORMAL AND INFORMAL ORGANIZATION

The formal organization refers to the structure of jobs and positions with clearly defined
functions and relationships as prescribed by the top management. This type of organization is
built by the management to realize objectives of an enterprise and is bound by rules, systems
and procedures. Everybody is assigned a certain responsibility for the performance of the given
task and given the required amount of authority for carrying it out. Informal organization, which
does not appear on the organization chart, supplements the formal organization in achieving
organizational goals effectively and efficiently. The working of informal groups and leaders is not
as simple as it may appear to be. Therefore, it is obligatory for every manager to study
thoroughly the working pattern of informal relationships in the organization and to use them for
achieving organizational objectives.

FORMAL ORGANIZATION
Chester I Bernard defines formal organization as -"a system of consciously coordinated
activities or forces of two or more persons. It refers to the structure of well-defined jobs, each
bearing a definite measure of authority, responsibility and accountability." The essence of formal
organization is conscious common purpose and comes into being when persons–
Are able to communicate with each other
Are willing to act and
Share a purpose.

Division of labor
Scalar and functional processes
Structure and
Span of control
Thus, a formal organization is one resulting from planning where the pattern of structure has
already been determined by the top management.

Characteristic Features of formal organization

Formal organization structure is laid down by the top management to achieve organizational
goals.
Formal organization prescribes the relationships amongst the people working in the
organization.
The organization structures is consciously designed to enable the people of the organization
to work together for accomplishing the common objectives of the enterprise
Organization structure concentrates on the jobs to be performed and not the individuals who
are to perform jobs.
In a formal organization, individuals are fitted into jobs and positions and work as per the
managerial decisions. Thus, the formal relations in the organization arise from the pattern of
responsibilities that are created by the management.
A formal organization is bound by rules, regulations and procedures.
In a formal organization, the position, authority, responsibility and accountability of each
level are clearly defined.
Organization structure is based on division of labor and specialization to achieve efficiency
in operations.
 A formal organization is deliberately impersonal. The organization does not take into
consideration the sentiments of organizational members.
The authority and responsibility relationships created by the organization structure are to be
honored by everyone.
In a formal organization, coordination proceeds according to the prescribed pattern.

Advantages of formal organization

The formal organization structure concentrates on the jobs to be performed. It, therefore,
makes everybody responsible for a given task.
A formal organization is bound by rules, regulations and procedures. It thus ensures law and
order in the organization.
The organization structure enables the people of the organization to work together for
accomplishing the common objectives of the enterprise

Disadvantages or criticisms of formal organization

The formal organization does not take into consideration the sentiments of organizational
members.
The formal organization does not consider the goals of the individuals. It is designed to
achieve the goals of the organization only.
The formal organization is bound by rigid rules, regulations and procedures. This makes the
achievement of goals difficult.

INFORMAL ORGANIZATION
Informal organization refers to the relationship between people in the organization based
on personal attitudes, emotions, prejudices, likes, dislikes etc. an informal organization is an
organization which is not established by any formal authority, but arises from the personal and
social relations of the people. These relations are not developed according to procedures and
regulations laid down in the formal organization structure; generally large formal groups give
rise to small informal or social groups. These groups may be based on same taste, language,
culture or some other factor. These groups are not pre-planned, but they develop automatically
within the organization according to its environment.
Characteristics features of informal organization
Informal organization is not established by any formal authority. It is unplanned and arises
spontaneously.
Informal organizations reflect human relationships. It arises from the personal and social
relations amongst the people working in the organization.
Formation of informal organizations is a natural process. It is not based on rules, regulations
and procedures.
The inter-relations amongst the people in an informal organization cannot be shown in an
organization chart.
In the case of informal organization, the people cut across formal channels of
communications and communicate amongst themselves.
The membership of informal organizations is voluntary. It arises spontaneously and not by
deliberate or conscious efforts.
Membership of informal groups can be overlapping as a person may be member of a
number of informal groups.
Informal organizations are based on common taste, problem, language, religion, culture, etc.
it is influenced by the personal attitudes, emotions, whims, likes and dislikes etc. of the
people in the organization.

Benefits of Informal organization

It blends with the formal organization to make it more effective.
Many things which cannot be achieved through formal organization can be achieved through
informal organization.
The presence of informal organization in an enterprise makes the managers plan and act
more carefully.
Informal organization acts as a means by which the workers achieve a sense of security and
belonging. It provides social satisfaction to group members.
An informal organization has a powerful influence on productivity and job satisfaction.
The informal leader lightens the burden of the formal manager and tries to fill in the gaps in
the manager's ability.
Informal organization helps the group members to attain specific personal objectives.
Informal organization is the best means of employee communication. It is very fast.
 Informal organization gives psychological satisfaction to the members. It acts as a safety
valve for the emotional problems and frustrations of the workers of the organization because
they get a platform to express their feelings.
It serves as an agency for social control of human behavior.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN FORMAL AND INFORMAL ORGANIZATION

Formal Organization Informal Organization
1. Formal organization is established with the explicit 1. Informal organization springs on its
aim of achieving well-defined goals. own. Its goals are ill defined and
intangible.
2. Formal organization is bound together by 2. Informal organization is characterized
authority relationships among members. A by a generalized sort of power
hierarchical structure is created, constituting top relationships. Power in informal
management, middle management and supervisory organization has bases other than
management. rational legal right.
3. Formal organization recognizes certain tasks 3. Informal organization does not have
which are to be carried out to achieve its goals. any well-defined tasks.
4. The roles and relationships of people in formal 4. In informal organization the
organization are impersonally defined relationships among people are
interpersonal.
5. In formal organization, much emphasis is placed 5. Informal organization is characterized
on efficiency, discipline, conformity, consistency and by relative freedom, spontaneity, by
control. relative freedom, spontaneity,
homeliness and warmth.
6. In formal organization, the social and 6. In informal organization the
psychological needs and interests of members of the sociopsychological needs, interests and
organization get little attention. aspirations of members get priority.
7. The communication system in formal organization 7. In informal organization, the
follows certain pre-determined patterns and paths. communication pattern is haphazard,
intricate and natural.
8. Formal organization is relatively slow to respond 8. Informal organization is dynamic and
and adapt to changing situations and realities. very vigilant. It is sensitive to its
surroundings.
LINE AND STAFF AUTHORITY
In an organization, the line authority flows from top to bottom and the staff authority is
exercised by the specialists over the line managers who advise them on important matters.
These specialists stand ready with their specialty to serve line mangers as and when their
services are called for, to collect information and to give help which will enable the line officials
to carry out their activities better. The staff officers do not have any power of command in the
organization as they are employed to provide expert advice to the line officers. The 'line'
maintains discipline and stability; the 'staff' provides expert information. The line gets out the
production, the staffs carries on the research, planning, scheduling, establishing of standards
and recording of performance. The authority by which the staff performs these functions is
delegated by the line and the performance must be acceptable to the line before action is taken.
The following figure depicts the line and staff authority:

Types of Staff
The staff position established as a measure of support for the line managers may take the
following forms:
Personal Staff: Here the staff official is attached as a personal assistant or adviser to the line
manager. For example, Assistant to managing director.
Specialized Staff: Such staff acts as the fountainhead of expertise in specialized areas like R
& D, personnel, accounting etc.
General Staff: This category of staff consists of a set of experts in different areas who are
meant to advise and assist the top management on matters called for expertise. For example,
Financial advisor, technical advisor etc.

Features of line and staff organization

Under this system, there are line officers who have authority and command over the
subordinates and are accountable for the tasks entrusted to them. The staff officers are
specialists who offer expert advice to the line officers to perform their tasks efficiently.
Under this system, the staff officers prepare the plans and give advice to the line officers
and the line officers execute the plan with the help of workers.
The line and staff organization is based on the principle of specialization.
Advantages
It brings expert knowledge to bear upon management and operating problems. Thus, the
line managers get the benefit of specialized knowledge of staff specialists at various
levels.
The expert advice and guidance given by the staff officers to the line officers benefit the
entire organization.
As the staff officers look after the detailed analysis of each important managerial activity,
it relieves the line managers of the botheration of concentrating on specialized functions.
Staff specialists help the line managers in taking better decisions by providing expert
advice. Therefore, there will be sound managerial decisions under this system.
It makes possible the principle of undivided responsibility and authority, and at the same
time permits staff specialization. Thus, the organization takes advantage of functional
organization while maintaining the unity of command.
It is based upon planned specialization.
Line and staff organization has greater flexibility, in the sense that new specialized
activities can be added to the line activities without disturbing the line procedure.

Disadvantages
Unless the duties and responsibilities of the staff members are clearly indicated by
charts and manuals, there may be considerable confusion throughout the organization
as to the functions and positions of staff members with relation to the line supervisors.
There is generally a conflict between the line and staff executives. The line managers
feel that staff specialists do not always give right type of advice, and staff officials
generally complain that their advice is not properly attended to.
Line managers sometimes may resent the activities of staff members, feeling that
prestige and influence of line managers suffer from the presence of the specialists.
The staff experts may be ineffective because they do not get the authority to implement
their recommendations.
This type of organization requires the appointment of large number of staff officers or
experts in addition to the line officers. As a result, this system becomes quite expensive.
Although expert information and advice are available, they reach the workers through
the officers and thus run the risk of misunderstanding and misinterpretation.
 Since staff managers are not accountable for the results, they may not be performing
their duties well.
Line mangers deal with problems in a more practical manner. But staff officials who are
specialists in their fields tend to be more theoretical. This may hamper coordination in
the organization.

DEPARTMENTATION BY DIFFERENT STRATEGIES

DEPARTMENTATION refers to the process of grouping activities into departments.
Departmentation is the process of grouping of work activities into departments, divisions, and
other homogenous units.

Key Factors in Departmentation

It should facilitate control.
It should ensure proper coordination.
It should take into consideration the benefits of specialization.
It should not result in excess cost.
It should give due consideration to Human Aspects.

Departmentation takes place in various patterns like departmentation by functions, products,

customers, geographic location, process, and its combinations.

a) FUNCTIONAL DEPARTMENTATION
Functional departmentation is the process of grouping activities by functions performed.
Activities can be grouped according to function (work being done) to pursue economies of scale
by placing employees with shared skills and knowledge into departments for example human
resources, finance, production, and marketing. Functional departmentation can be used in all
types of organizations.
Advantages:
Advantage of specialization
Easy control over functions
Pinpointing training needs of manager
It is very simple process of grouping activities.

Lack of responsibility for the end result

Overspecialization or lack of general management
It leads to increase conflicts and coordination problems among departments.

PRODUCT DEPARTMENTATION

Product departmentation is the process of grouping activities by product line. Tasks can
also be grouped according to a specific product or service, thus placing all activities related to
the product or the service under one manager. Each major product area in the corporation is
under the authority of a senior manager who is specialist in, and is responsible for, everything
related to the product line. Dabur India Limited is the India’s largest Ayurvedic medicine
manufacturer is an example of company that uses product departmentation. Its structure is
based on its varied product lines which include Home care, Health care, Personal care and
Foods.
Advantages
It ensures better customer service
Unprofitable products may be easily determined
It assists in development of all around managerial talent
Makes control effective
It is flexible and new product line can be added easily.
Disadvantages
It is expensive as duplication of service functions occurs in various product divisions
Customers and dealers have to deal with different persons for complaint and information
of different products.

CUSTOMER DEPARTMENTATION

Customer departmentation is the process of grouping activities on the basis of common

customers or types of customers. Jobs may be grouped according to the type of customer
served by the organization. The assumption is that customers in each department have a
common set of problems and needs that can best be met by specialists. UCO is the one of the
largest commercial banks of India is an example of company that uses customer
departmentation. Its structure is based on various services which includes Home loans,
Business loans, Vehicle loans and Educational loans.
Advantages
It focused on customers who are ultimate suppliers of money
Better service to customer having different needs and tastes
Development in general managerial skills
Disadvantages
Sales being the exclusive field of its application, co-ordination may appear difficult
between sales function and other enterprise functions.
Specialized sales staff may become idle with the downward movement of sales to any
specified group of customers.

GEOGRAPHIC DEPARTMENTATION

Geographic departmentation is the process of grouping activities on the basis of

territory. If an organization's customers are geographically dispersed, it can group jobs based
on geography. For example, the organization structure of Coca-Cola Ltd has reflected the
company’s operation in various geographic areas such as Central North American group,
Western North American group, Eastern North American group and European group
Advantages
Help to cater to the needs of local people more satisfactorily.
It facilitates effective control
Assists in development of all-round managerial skills
Disadvantages
Communication problem between head office and regional office due to lack of means of
communication at some location
Coordination between various divisions may become difficult.
Distance between policy framers and executors
It leads to duplication of activities which may cost higher.
e) PROCESS DEPARTMENTATION

Geographic departmentation is the process of grouping activities on the basis of product

or service or customer flow. Because each process requires different skills, process
departmentation allows homogenous activities to be categorized. For example, Bowater
Thunder Bay, a Canadian company that harvests trees and processes wood into newsprint and
pulp. Bowater has three divisions namely tree cutting, chemical processing, and finishing (which
makes newsprint).

Departmentation by process: -
Advantages
Oriented towards end result.
Professional identification is maintained.
Pinpoints product-profit responsibility.
Disadvantage
Conflict in organization authority exists.
Possibility of disunity of command.
Requires managers effective in human relation

MARTIX DEPARTMENTATION
 In actual practice, no single pattern of grouping activities is applied in the organization
structure with all its levels. Different bases are used in different segments of the enterprise.
Composite or hybrid method forms the common basis for classifying activities rather than one
particular method,. One of the mixed forms of organization is referred to as matrix or grid
organization’s According to the situations, the patterns of Organizing varies from case to case.
The form of structure must reflect the tasks, goals and technology if the originations the type of
people employed and the environmental conditions that it faces. It is not unusual to see firms
that utilize the function and project organization combination. The same is true for process and
project as well as other combinations. For instance, a large hospital could have an accounting
department, surgery department, marketing department, and a satellite center project team that
make up its organizational structure.
Advantages
Efficiently manage large, complex tasks
Effectively carry out large, complex tasks
Disadvantages
Requires high levels of coordination
Conflict between bosses
Requires high levels of management skills
SPAN OF CONTROL

Span of Control means the number of subordinates that can be managed efficiently and
effectively by a superior in an organization. It suggests how the relations are designed between
a superior and a subordinate in an organization.

Factors Affecting Span of control:

Capacity of Superior:
Different ability and capacity of leadership, communication affect management of
subordinates.
Capacity of Subordinates:
Efficient and trained subordinates affects the degree of span of management.
Nature of Work:
Different types of work require different patterns of management.
Degree of Centralization or Decentralization:
Degree of centralization or decentralization affects the span of management by affecting
the degree of involvement of the superior in decision making.
Degree of Planning:
Plans which can provide rules, procedures in doing the work higher would be the degree
of span of management.
Communication Techniques:
Pattern of communication, its means, and media affect the time requirement in
managing subordinates and consequently span of management.
Use of Staff Assistance:
Use of Staff assistance in reducing the work load of managers enables them to manage
more number of subordinates.
Supervision of others:
If subordinate receives supervision form several other personnel besides his direct
supervisor. In such a case, the work load of direct superior is reduced and he can
supervise more number of persons.

Span of control is of two types:

Narrow span of control: Narrow Span of control means a single manager or supervisor
oversees few subordinates. This gives rise to a tall organizational structure.
Advantages:
Close supervision
Close control of subordinates
Fast communication
Disadvantages:
Too much control
Many levels of management
High costs
Excessive distance between lowest level and highest level

Wide span of control: Wide span of control means a single manager or supervisor oversees
a large number of subordinates. This gives rise to a flat organizational structure.

Advantages:
More Delegation of Authority
Development of Managers
Clear policies
Disadvantages:
Overloaded supervisors
 Danger of superiors loss of control
Requirement of highly trained managerial personnel
Block in decision making

CENTRALIZATION AND DECENTRALIZATION

CENTRALIZATION:
It is the process of transferring and assigning decision-making authority to higher levels
of an organizational hierarchy. The span of control of top managers is relatively broad, and
there are relatively many tiers in the organization.

Characteristics
Philosophy / emphasis on: top-down control, leadership, vision, strategy.
Decision-making: strong, authoritarian, visionary, charismatic.
Organizational change: shaped by top, vision of leader.
Execution: decisive, fast, coordinated. Able to respond quickly to major issues and changes.
Uniformity. Low risk of dissent or conflicts between parts of the organization.

Advantages of Centralization
Provide Power and prestige for manager
Promote uniformity of policies, practices and decisions
Minimal extensive controlling procedures and practices
Minimize duplication of function

Disadvantages of Centralization
Neglected functions for mid. Level, and less motivated beside personnel.
Nursing supervisor functions as a link officer between nursing director and first-line
management.

DECENTRALIZATION:
It is the process of transferring and assigning decision-making authority to lower levels of
an organizational hierarchy. The span of control of top managers is relatively small, and there
are relatively few tears in the organization, because there is more autonomy in the lower ranks.
Characteristics
Philosophy / emphasis on: bottom-up, political, cultural and learning dynamics.
Decision-making: democratic, participative, detailed.
Organizational change: emerging from interactions, organizational dynamics.
Execution: evolutionary, emergent. Flexible to adapt to minor issues and changes.
Participation, accountability. Low risk of not-invented-here behavior.

Three Forms of decentralization

De-concentration. The weakest form of decentralization. Decision making authority is
redistributed to lower or regional levels of the same central organization.
Delegation. A more extensive form of decentralization. Through delegation the
responsibility for decision-making are transferred to semi-autonomous organizations not
wholly controlled by the central organization, but ultimately accountable to it.
Devolution. A third type of decentralization is devolution. The authority for decision-
making is transferred completely to autonomous organizational units.

Advantages of Decentralization
Raise morale and promote interpersonal relationships
Relieve from the daily administration
Bring decision-making close to action
Develop Second-line managers
Promote employee’s enthusiasm and coordination
Facilitate actions by lower-level managers

Disadvantages of Decentralization
Top-level administration may feel it would decrease their status
Managers may not permit full and maximum utilization of highly qualified personnel
Increased costs. It requires more managers and large staff
It may lead to overlapping and duplication of effort

Centralization and Decentralization are two opposite ways to transfer decision-making power
and to change the organizational structure of organizations accordingly.
There must be a good balance between centralization and decentralization of authority and
power. Extreme centralization and decentralization must be avoided.

DELEGATION OF AUTHORITY
A manager alone cannot perform all the tasks assigned to him. In order to meet the
targets, the manager should delegate authority. Delegation of Authority means division of
authority and powers downwards to the subordinate. Delegation is about entrusting someone
else to do parts of your job. Delegation of authority can be defined as subdivision and sub-
allocation of powers to the subordinates in order to achieve effective results. Elements of
Delegation
Authority - in context of a business organization, authority can be defined as the power and
right of a person to use and allocate the resources efficiently, to take decisions and to give
orders so as to achieve the organizational objectives. Authority must be well- defined. All
people who have the authority should know what is the scope of their authority is and they
shouldn’t misutilize it. Authority is the right to give commands, orders and get the things
done. The top level management has greatest authority. Authority always flows from top to
bottom. It explains how a superior gets work done from his subordinate by clearly explaining
what is expected of him and how he should go about it. Authority should be accompanied
with an equal amount of responsibility. Delegating the authority to someone else doesn’t
imply escaping from accountability. Accountability still rest with the person having the utmost
authority.
Responsibility - is the duty of the person to complete the task assigned to him. A person
who is given the responsibility should ensure that he accomplishes the tasks assigned to
him. If the tasks for which he was held responsible are not completed, then he should not
give explanations or excuses. Responsibility without adequate authority leads to discontent
and dissatisfaction among the person. Responsibility flows from bottom to top. The middle
level and lower level management holds more responsibility. The person held responsible
for a job is answerable for it. If he performs the tasks assigned as expected, he is bound for
praises. While if he doesn’t accomplish tasks assigned as expected, then also he is
answerable for that.
Accountability - means giving explanations for any variance in the actual performance from
the expectations set. Accountability cannot be delegated. For example, if ’A’ is given a task
with sufficient authority, and ’A’ delegates this task to B and asks him to ensure that task is
done well, responsibility rest with ’B’, but accountability still rest with ’A’. The top level
 management is most accountable. Being accountable means being innovative as the person
will think beyond his scope of job. Accountability ,in short, means being answerable for the
end result. Accountability can’t be escaped. It arises from responsibility.

DELEGATION PROCESS
The steps involved in delegation are given below

Allocation of duties – The delegator first tries to define the task and duties to the
subordinate. He also has to define the result expected from the subordinates. Clarity of
duty as well as result expected has to be the first step in delegation.
Granting of authority – Subdivision of authority takes place when a superior divides
and shares his authority with the subordinate. It is for this reason; every subordinate
should be given enough independence to carry the task given to him by his superiors.
The managers at all levels delegate authority and power which is attached to their job
positions. The subdivision of powers is very important to get effective results.
Assigning of Responsibility and Accountability – The delegation process does not
end once powers are granted to the subordinates. They at the same time have to be
obligatory towards the duties assigned to them. Responsibility is said to be the factor or
obligation of an individual to carry out his duties in best of his ability as per the directions
of superior. Therefore, it is that which gives effectiveness to authority. At the same time,
responsibility is absolute and cannot be shifted.
 Creation of accountability – Accountability, on the others hand, is the obligation of the
individual to carry out his duties as per the standards of performance. Therefore, it is
said that authority is delegated, responsibility is created and accountability is imposed.
Accountability arises out of responsibility and responsibility arises out of authority.
Therefore, it becomes important that with every authority position an equal and opposite
responsibility should be attached.

Therefore every manager, i.e., the delegator has to follow a system to finish up the delegation
process. Equally important is the delegatee’s role which means his responsibility and
accountability is attached with the authority over to here.

STAFFING
Staffing involves filling the positions needed in the organization structure by appointing
competent and qualified persons for the job.
The staffing process encompasses man power planning, recruitment, selection, and training.

a) Manpower requirements:
Manpower Planning which is also called as Human Resource Planning consists of
putting right number of people, right kind of people at the right place, right time, doing the right
things for which they are suited for the achievement of goals of the organization. The primary
function of man power planning is to analyze and evaluate the human resources available in the
organization, and to determine how to obtain the kinds of personnel needed to staff positions
ranging from assembly line workers to chief executives.

b) Recruitment:
Recruitment is the process of finding and attempting to attract job candidates who are
capable of effectively filling job vacancies.
Job descriptions and job specifications are important in the recruiting process because they
specify the nature of the job and the qualifications required of job candidates.
c) Selection:
Selecting a suitable candidate can be the biggest challenge for any organization. The
success of an organization largely depends on its staff. Selection of the right candidate builds
the foundation of any organization's success and helps in reducing turnovers.

d) Training and Development:

Training and Development is a planned effort to facilitate employee learning of job-
related behaviors in order to improve employee performance. Experts sometimes distinguish
between the terms “training” and “development”; “training” denotes efforts to increase employee
skills on present jobs, while “development” refers to efforts oriented toward improvements
relevant to future jobs. In practice, though, the distinction is often blurred (mainly because
upgrading skills in present jobs usually improves performance in future jobs).

RECRUITMENT PROCESS
Recruitment is the process of finding and attempting to attract job candidates who are
capable of effectively filling job vacancies. The recruitment process consists of the following
steps
Identification of vacancy
Preparation of job description and job specification
Selection of sources
Advertising the vacancy
Managing the response
a) Identification of vacancy:
The recruitment process begins with the human resource department receiving requisitions for
recruitment from any department of the company. These contain:
Posts to be filled
Number of persons
Duties to be performed
Qualifications required

Preparation of job description and job specification:

A job description is a list of the general tasks, or functions, and responsibilities of a position.
It may often include to whom the position reports, specifications such as the qualifications or
skills needed by the person in the job, or a salary range. A job specification describes the
knowledge, skills, education, experience, and abilities you believe are essential to performing a
particular job.

c) Selection of sources:
Every organization has the option of choosing the candidates for its recruitment
processes from two kinds of sources: internal and external sources. The sources within the
organization itself (like transfer of employees from one department to other, promotions) to fill a
position are known as the internal sources of recruitment. Recruitment candidates from all the
other sources (like outsourcing agencies etc.) are known as the external sources of the
recruitment.

d) Advertising the vacancy:

After choosing the appropriate sources, the vacancy is communicated to the candidates
by means of a suitable media such as television, radio, newspaper, internet, direct mail etc.

e) Managing the response:

After receiving an adequate number of responses from job seekers, the sieving process
of the resumes begins. This is a very essential step of the recruitment selection process,
because selecting the correct resumes that match the job profile, is very important. Naturally, it
has to be done rather competently by a person who understands all the responsibilities
associated with the designation in its entirety. Candidates with the given skill set are then
chosen and further called for interview. Also, the applications of candidates that do not match
the present nature of the position but may be considered for future requirements are filed
separately and preserved.
The recruitment process is immediately followed by the selection process.

JOB ANALYSIS
Job Analysis is the process of describing and recording aspects of jobs and specifying
the skills and other requirements necessary to perform the job. The outputs of job analysis are

Job description
Job specification
Job Description
A job description (JD) is a written statement of what the job holder does, how it is done, under
what conditions it is done and why it is done. It describes what the job is all about, throwing light
on job content, environment and conditions of employment. It is descriptive in nature and
defines the purpose and scope of a job. The main purpose of writing a job description is to
differentiate the job from other jobs and state its outer limits.
Contents
A job description usually covers the following information:
Job title: Tells about the job title, code number and the department where it is done.
Job summary: A brief write-up about what the job is all about.
Job activities: A description of the tasks done, facilities used, extent of supervisory help,
etc.
Working conditions: The physical environment of job in terms of heat, light, noise and
other hazards.
Social environment: Size of work group and interpersonal interactions required to do the
job.

Job Specification
Job specification summarizes the human characteristics needed for satisfactory job completion.
It tries to describe the key qualifications someone needs to perform the job successfully. It
spells out the important attributes of a person in terms of education, experience, skills,
knowledge and abilities (SKAs) to perform a particular job. The job specification is a logical
outgrowth of a job description. For each job description, it is desirable to have a job
specification. This helps the organization to find what kinds of persons are needed to take up
specific jobs.
Contents
A job specification usually covers the following information:
Education
Experience
Skill, Knowledge, Abilities
Work Orientation Factors
Age
SELECTION PROCESS
Selecting a suitable candidate can be the biggest challenge for any organisation. The
success of an organization largely depends on its staff. Selection of the right candidate builds
the foundation of any organization's success and helps in reducing turnovers.
Though there is no fool proof selection procedure that will ensure low turnover and high profits,
the following steps generally make up the selection process-

a) Initial Screening
This is generally the starting point of any employee selection process. Initial Screening
eliminates unqualified applicants and helps save time. Applications received from various
sources are scrutinized and irrelevant ones are discarded.

b) Preliminary Interview
It is used to eliminate those candidates who do not meet the minimum eligibility criteria laid
down by the organization. The skills, academic and family background, competencies and
interests of the candidate are examined during preliminary interview. Preliminary interviews are
less formalized and planned than the final interviews. The candidates are given a brief up about
the company and the job profile; and it is also examined how much the candidate knows about
the company. Preliminary interviews are also called screening interviews.

c) Filling Application Form

An candidate who passes the preliminary interview and is found to be eligible for the job is
asked to fill in a formal application form. Such a form is designed in a way that it records the
personal as well professional details of the candidates such as age, qualifications, reason for
leaving previous job, experience, etc.
d) Personal Interview
Most employers believe that the personal interview is very important. It helps them in obtaining
more information about the prospective employee. It also helps them in interacting with the
candidate and judging his communication abilities, his ease of handling pressure etc. In some
Companies, the selection process comprises only of the Interview.

e) References check
Most application forms include a section that requires prospective candidates to put down
names of a few references. References can be classified into - former employer, former
customers, business references, reputable persons. Such references are contacted to get a
feedback on the person in question including his behaviour, skills, conduct etc.

f) Background Verification
A background check is a review of a person's commercial, criminal and (occasionally) financial
records. Employers often perform background checks on employers or candidates for
employment to confirm information given in a job application, verify a person's identity, or
ensure that the individual does not have a history of criminal activity, etc., that could be an issue
upon employment.

g) Final Interview
Final interview is a process in which a potential employee is evaluated by an employer for
prospective employment in their organization. During this process, the employer hopes to
determine whether or not the applicant is suitable for the job. Different types of tests are
conducted to evaluate the capabilities of an applicant, his behaviour, special qualities etc.
Separate tests are conducted for various types of jobs.

h) Physical Examination
If all goes well, then at this stage, a physical examination is conducted to make sure that the
candidate has sound health and does not suffer from any serious ailment.

i) Job Offer
A candidate who clears all the steps is finally considered right for a particular job and is
presented with the job offer. An applicant can be dropped at any given stage if considered unfit
for the job.

Employee Induction / Orientation

Orientation or induction is the process of introducing new employees to an organization, to their

specific jobs & departments, and in some instances, to their community.

Purposes of Orientation
Orientation isn't a nicety! It is used for the following purposes:
1. To Reduce Startup-Costs:
Proper orientation can help the employee get "up to speed" much more quickly, thereby
reducing the costs associated with learning the job.
2. To Reduce Anxiety:
Any employee, when put into a new, strange situation, will experience anxiety that can
impede his or her ability to learn to do the job. Proper orientation helps to reduce anxiety that
results from entering into an unknown situation, and helps provide guidelines for behaviour and
conduct, so the employee doesn't have to experience the stress of guessing.
3. To Reduce Employee Turnover:
Employee turnover increases as employees feel they are not valued, or are put in
positions where they can't possibly do their jobs. Orientation shows that the organization values
the employee, and helps provide tools necessary for succeeding in the job.
4. To Save Time for Supervisor & Co-Workers:
 Simply put, the better the initial orientation, the less likely supervisors and co-workers
will have to spend time teaching the employee.
5. To Develop Realistic Job Expectations, Positive Attitudes and Job Satisfaction:
It is important that employees learn early on what is expected of them, and what to
expect from others, in addition to learning about the values and attitudes of the organization.
While people can learn from experience, they will make many mistakes that are unnecessary
and potentially damaging.

An orientation program principally conveys 3 types of information, namely:

General information about the daily work routine to be followed
A review of the organization’s history, founders, objectives, operations & products or
services, as well as how the employee’s job contributes to the organization’s needs.
A detailed presentation of the organization’s policies, work rules & employee benefits.

Two Kinds of Orientation

There are two related kinds of orientation. The first we will call Overview Orientation, and deals
with the basic information an employee will need to understand the broader system he or she
works in.
Overview Orientation includes helping employees understand:
Management in general
Department and the branch
Important policies
General procedures (non-job specific)
Information about compensation
Accident prevention measures
Employee and union issues (rights, responsibilities)
Physical facilities
Often, Overview Orientation can be conducted by the personnel department with a little help
from the branch manager or immediate supervisor, since much of the content is generic in
nature.
The second kind of orientation is called Job-Specific Orientation, and is the process that is used
to help employees understand:
Function of the organization,
Responsibilities,
 Expectations,
Duties
Policies, procedures, rules and regulations
Layout of workplace
Introduction to co-workers and other people in the broader organization.

Job specific orientation is best conducted by the immediate supervisor, and/or manager, since
much of the content will be specific to the individual. Often the orientation process will be
ongoing, with supervisors and co-workers supplying coaching.

CARRER DEVELOPMENT
Career development not only improves job performance but also brings about the
growth of the personality. Individuals not only mature regarding their potential capacities but
also become better individuals.
Purpose of development
Management development attempts to improve managerial performance by imparting
Knowledge
Changing attitudes
Increasing skills
The major objective of development is managerial effectiveness through a planned and a
deliberate process of learning. This provides for a planned growth of managers to meet the
future organizational needs.

Development Process:
The development process consists of the following
steps 1. Setting Development Objectives:
It develops a framework from which executive need can be determined.
2. Artaining Development Needs:
It aims at organizational planning & forecast the present and future growth.
Determining Development
Needs: This consists of
Appraisal of present management talent
Management Manpower Inventory
The above two processes will determine the skill deficiencies that are relative to the future
needs of the organization.
4. Conducting Development Programs:
It is carried out on the basis of needs of different individuals, differences in their attitudes
and behavior, also their physical, intellectual and emotional qualities. Thus a comprehensive
and well conceived program is prepared depending on the organizational needs and the
time & cost involved.
5. Program Evaluation:
It is an attempt to assess the value of training in order to achieve organizational objectives.

TRAINING
 Training is a process of learning a sequence of programmed behaviour. It improves the
employee's performance on the current job and prepares them for an intended job. Purpose of
Training:
To improve Productivity: Training leads to increased operational productivity and increased
company profit.
To improve Quality: Better trained workers are less likely to make operational mistakes.
To improve Organizational Climate: Training leads to improved production and product
quality which enhances financial incentives. This in turn increases the overall morale of the
organization.
To increase Health and Safety: Proper training prevents industrial accidents.
Personal Growth: Training gives employees a wider awareness, an enlarged skill base and
that leads to enhanced personal growth.

Steps in Training Process:

Identifying Training needs: A training program is designed to assist in providing solutions for
specific operational problems or to improve performance of a trainee.
Organizational determination and Analysis: Allocation of resources that relate to
organizational goal.
Operational Analysis: Determination of a specific employee behaviour required for a
particular task.
 Man Analysis: Knowledge, attitude and skill one must possess for attainment of
organizational objectives
Getting ready for the job: The trainer has to be prepared for the job. And also who needs to
be trained - the newcomer or the existing employee or the supervisory staff.
Preparation of the learner:
Putting the learner at ease
Stating the importance and ingredients of the job
Creating interest
Placing the learner as close to his normal working position
Familiarizing him with the equipment, materials and trade terms
Presentation of Operation and Knowledge: The trainer should clearly tell, show, illustrate and
question in order to convey the new knowledge and operations. The trainee should be
encouraged to ask questions in order to indicate that he really knows and understands the job.
Performance Try out: The trainee is asked to go through the job several times. This gradually
builds up his skill, speed and confidence.
Follow-up: This evaluates the effectiveness of the entire training effort

TRAINING METHODS
Training methods can be broadly classified as on-the-job training and off-the-job taining
a) On-the-job training
On the job training occurs when workers pick up skills whilst working along side experienced
workers at their place of work. For example this could be the actual assembly line or offices
where the employee works. New workers may simply “shadow” or observe fellow employees
to begin with and are often given instruction manuals or interactive training programmes to work
through.
b) Off-the-job training
This occurs when workers are taken away from their place of work to be trained. This may
take place at training agency or local college, although many larger firms also have their own
training centres. Training can take the form of lectures or self-study and can be used to develop
more general skills and knowledge that can be used in a variety of situations. The various types
of off-the-job training are
Instructor presentation: The trainer orally presents new information to the trainees, usually
through lecture. Instructor presentation may include classroom lecture, seminar, workshop, and
the like.
 Group discussion: The trainer leads the group of trainees in discussing a topic.
Demonstration: The trainer shows the correct steps for completing a task, or shows an
example of a correctly completed task.
Assigned reading: The trainer gives the trainees reading assignments that provide new
information.
Exercise: The trainer assigns problems to be solved either on paper or in real situations
related to the topic of the training activity.
Case study: The trainer gives the trainees information about a situation and directs them to
come to a decision or solve a problem concerning the situation.
Role play: Trainees act out a real-life situation in an instructional setting.
Field visit and study tour: Trainees are given the opportunity to observe and interact with the
problem being solved or skill being learned.

CAREER STAGES
What people want from their careers also varies according to the stage of one's career.
What may have been important in an early stage may not be important in a later one. Four
distinct career stages have been identified: trial, establishment/advancement, mid-career, and
late career. Each stage represents different career needs and interests of the individual

Trial stage: The trial stage begins with an individual's exploration of career-related matters
and ends usually at about age 25 with a commitment on the part of the individual to a particular
occupation. Until the decision is made to settle down, the individual may try a number of jobs
and a number of organizations. Unfortunately for many organizations, this trial and exploration
stage results in high level of turnover among new employees. Employees in this stage need
opportunities for self-exploration and a variety of job activities or assignments.

Establishment Stage: The establishment/advancement stage tends to occur between ages

25 and 44. In this stage, the individual has made his or her career choice and is concerned with
achievement, performance, and advancement. This stage is marked by high employee
productivity and career growth, as the individual is motivated to succeed in the organization and
in his or her chosen occupation. Opportunities for job challenge and use of special
competencies are desired in this stage. The employee strives for creativity and innovation
through new job assignments. Employees also need a certain degree of autonomy in this stage
so that they can experience feelings of individual achievement and personal success.

Mid Career Crisis Sub Stage: The period occurring between the mid-thirties and mid-forties
during which people often make a major reassessment of their progress relative to their original
career ambitions and goals.

Maintenance stage: The mid-career stage, which occurs roughly between the ages 45 and
64, has also been referred to as the maintenance stage. This stage is typified by a continuation
of established patterns of work behavior. The person is no longer trying to establish a place for
himself or herself in the organization, but seeks to maintain his or her position. This stage is
viewed as a mid-career plateau in which little new ground is broken. The individual in this stage
may need some technical updating in his or her field. The employee should be encouraged to
develop new job skills in order to avoid early stagnation and decline.

Late-career stage: In this stage the career lessens in importance and the employee plans for
retirement and seeks to develop a sense of identity outside the work environment.

PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL
Performance appraisal is the process of obtaining, analyzing and recording information
about the relative worth of an employee. The focus of the performance appraisal is measuring
and improving the actual performance of the employee and also the future potential of the
employee. Its aim is to measure what an employee does.

Objectives of Performance appraisal:

To review the performance of the employees over a given period of time.
To judge the gap between the actual and the desired performance.
To help the management in exercising organizational control.
Helps to strengthen the relationship and communication between superior – subordinates
and management – employees.
To diagnose the strengths and weaknesses of the individuals so as to identify the training
and development needs of the future.
To provide feedback to the employees regarding their past performance.
Provide information to assist in the other personal decisions in the organization.
 Provide clarity of the expectations and responsibilities of the functions to be performed by
the employees.
To judge the effectiveness of the other human resource functions of the organization such
as recruitment, selection, training and development.
To reduce the grievances of the employees.

Process of performance appraisal:

a) Establishing performance standards:

The first step in the process of performance appraisal is the setting up of the
standards which will be used to as the base to compare the actual performance of the
employees. This step requires setting the criteria to judge the performance of the employees as
successful or unsuccessful and the degrees of their contribution to the organizational goals and
objectives. The standards set should be clear, easily understandable and in measurable terms.
In case the performance of the employee cannot be measured, great care should be taken to
describe the standards.

b) Communicating the standards:

After establishing the standards, it is the responsibility of the management to
communicate the standards to all the employees of the organization.
The employees should be informed and the standards should be clearly explained to the. This
will help them to understand their roles and to know what exactly is expected from them. The
standards should also be communicated to the appraisers or the evaluators and if required, the
standards can also be modified at this stage itself according to the relevant feedback from the
employees or the evaluators.

c) Measuring the actual performance:

The most difficult part of the Performance appraisal process is measuring the actual
performance of the employees that is the work done by the employees during the specified
period of time. It is a continuous process which involves monitoring the performance throughout
the year. This stage requires the careful selection of the appropriate techniques of
measurement, taking care that personal bias does not affect the outcome of the process and
providing assistance rather than interfering in an employees work.

d) Comparing the actual with the desired performance:

The actual performance is compared with the desired or the standard performance. The
comparison tells the deviations in the performance of the employees from the standards set.
The result can show the actual performance being more than the desired performance or, the
actual performance being less than the desired performance depicting a negative deviation in
the organizational performance. It includes recalling, evaluating and analysis of data related to
the employees’ performance.

e) Discussing results:
The result of the appraisal is communicated and discussed with the employees on
one-to-one basis. The focus of this discussion is on communication and listening. The results,
the problems and the possible solutions are discussed with the aim of problem solving and
reaching consensus. The feedback should be given with a positive attitude as this can have an
effect on the employees’ future performance. The purpose of the meeting should be to solve the
problems faced and motivate the employees to perform better.

f) Decision making:
The last step of the process is to take decisions which can be taken either to improve the
performance of the employees, take the required corrective actions, or the related HR decisions
like rewards, promotions, demotions, transfers etc.
 UNIT IV
DIRECTING
DEFINITION
"Activating deals with the steps a manager takes to get sub-ordinates and others
to carry out plans" - Newman and Warren.
Directing concerns the total manner in which a manager influences the actions of subordinates.
It is the final action of a manager in getting others to act after all preparations have been
completed.

Characteristics
Elements of Management
Continuing Function
Pervasive Function
Creative Function
Linking function
Management of Human Factor

Scope of Directing
Initiates action
Ensures coordination
Improves efficiency
Facilitates change
Assists stability and growth

Elements of Directing
The three elements of directing are
Motivation
Leadership
Communication
CREATIVITY AND INNOVATION
Often used interchangeably, they should to be considered separate and distinct.
Creativity can be described as problem identification and idea generation and innovation is
considered as idea selection, development and commercialization.
Creativity is creation of new ideas and Innovation is implementation of the new ideas.
There cannot be innovation without creativity. There can be creativity without innovation but it
has no value.
Steps involved in creativity

Preparation: This is the first stage at which the base for creativity and innovation is defined;
the mind is prepared for subsequent use in creative thinking. During preparation the individual is
encouraged to appreciate the fact that every opportunity provides situations that can educate
and experiences from which to learn.
The creativity aspect is kindled through a quest to become more knowledgeable. This can be
done through reading about various topics and/or subjects and engaging in discussions with
others. Taking part in brainstorming sessions in various forums like professional and trade
association seminars, and taking time to study other countries and cultures to identify viable
opportunities is also part of preparation. Of importance is the need to cultivate a personal ability
to listen and learn from others.

Investigation: This stage of enhancing entrepreneurial creativity and innovation involves the
business owner taking time to study the problem at hand and what its various components are.
 Transformation: The information thus accumulated and acquired should then be subjected
to convergent and divergent thinking which will serve to highlight the inherent similarities and
differences. Convergent thinking will help identify aspects that are similar and connected while
divergent thinking will highlight the differences. This twin manner of thinking is of particular
importance in realizing creativity and innovation for the following reasons:
 One will be able to skim the details and see what the bigger picture is the
situation/problem's components can be reordered and in doing so new patterns can be
identified.
It will help visualize a number of approaches that can be used to simultaneously tackle
the problem and the opportunity.
One's decision-making abilities will be bettered such that the urge to make snap
decisions will be resisted.

Incubation: At this stage in the quest for creativity and innovation it is imperative that the
subconscious reflect on the accumulated information, i.e. through incubation, and this can be
improved or augmented when the entrepreneur:
Engages in an activity completely unrelated to the problem/opportunity under scrutiny.
Takes time to daydream i.e. letting the mind roam beyond any restrictions self-imposed
or otherwise.
Relax and play
Study the problem/opportunity in a wholly different environment

Illumination: This happens during the incubation stage and will often be spontaneous. The
realizations from the past stages combine at this instance to form a breakthrough.

Verification: This is where the entrepreneur attempts to artain whether the creativity of
thought and the action of innovation are truly effective as anticipated. It may involve activities
like simulation, piloting, prototype building, test marketing, and various experiments. While the
tendency to ignore this stage and plunge headlong with the breakthrough may be tempting, the
transformation stage should ensure that the new idea is put to the test.
MOTIVATION AND SATISFACTION

MOTIVATION
"Motivation" is a Latin word, meaning "to move". Human motives are internalized goals within
individuals. Motivation may be defined as those forces that cause people to behave in certain
ways. Motivation encompasses all those pressures and influences that trigger, channel, and
sustain human behavior. Most successful managers have learned to understand the concept of
human motivation and are able to use that understanding to achieve higher standards of
subordinate work performance.

According to Koontz and O'Donnell, "Motivation is a class of drives, needs, wishes and similar
forces".

NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF MOTIVATION

Psychologists generally agree that all behavior is motivated, and that people have reasons for
doing the things they do or for behaving in the manner that they do. Motivating is the work a
manager performs to inspire, encourage and impel people to take required action.

The characteristics of motivation are given below:-

Motivation is an Internal Feeling

Motivation is a psychological phenomenon which generates in the mind of an individual the
feeling that he lacks certain things and needs those things. Motivation is a force within an
individual that drives him to behave in a certain way.

Motivation is Related to Needs

Needs are deficiencies which are created whenever there is a physiological or psychological
imbalance. In order to motivate a person, we have to understand his needs that call for
satisfaction.

Motivation Produces Goal-Directed Behaviour

Goals are anything which will alleviate a need and reduce a drive. An individual's behavior is
directed towards a goal.
 Motivation can be either Positive or Negative
Positive or incentive motivation is generally based on reward. According to Flippo - "positive
motivation is a process of attempting to influence others to do your will through the possibility of
gain or reward".
Negative or fear motivation is based on force and fear. Fear causes persons to act in a certain
way because they are afraid of the consequences if they don't.

IMPORTANCE OF MOTIVATION
A manager's primary task is to motivate others to perform the tasks of the organization.
Therefore, the manager must find the keys to get subordinates to come to work regularly and on
time, to work hard, and to make positive contributions towards the effective and efficient
achievement of organizational objectives. Motivation is an effective instrument in the hands of a
manager for inspiring the work force and creating confidence in it. By motivating the work force,
management creates "will to work" which is necessary for the achievement of organizational
goals. The various benefits of motivation are:-
Motivation is one of the important elements in the directing process. By motivating the
workers, a manager directs or guides the workers' actions in the desired direction for
accomplishing the goals of the organization.
Workers will tend to be as efficient as possible by improving upon their skills and knowledge
so that they are able to contribute to the progress of the organization thereby increasing
productivity.
For performing any tasks, two things are necessary. They are: (a) ability to work and (b)
willingness to work. Without willingness to work, ability to work is of no use. The willingness
to work can be created only by motivation.
Organizational effectiveness becomes, to some degree, a question of management's ability
to motivate its employees, to direct at least a reasonable effort towards the goals of the
organization.
Motivation contributes to good industrial relations in the organization. When the workers are
motivated, contented and disciplined, the frictions between the workers and the
management will be reduced.

Motivation is the best remedy for resistance to changes. When changes are introduced in an
organization, generally, there will be resistance from the workers. But if the workers of an
 organization are motivated, they will accept, introduce and implement the changes whole
heartily and help to keep the organization on the right track of progress.
Motivation facilitates the maximum utilization of all factors of production, human, physical
and financial resources and thereby contributes to higher production.
Motivation promotes a sense of belonging among the workers. The workers feel that the
enterprise belongs to them and the interest of the enterprise is their interests.
Many organizations are now beginning to pay increasing attention to developing their
employees as future resources upon which they can draw as they grow and develop.

SATISFACTION
Employee satisfaction (Job satisfaction) is the terminology used to describe whether
employees are happy and contented and fulfilling their desires and needs at work. Many
measures purport that employee satisfaction is a factor in employee motivation, employee goal
achievement, and positive employee morale in the workplace.
Employee satisfaction, while generally a positive in your organization, can also be a downer if
mediocre employees stay because they are satisfied with your work environment.
Factors contributing to employee satisfaction include treating employees with respect, providing
regular employee recognition, empowering employees, offering above industry-average benefits
and compensation, providing employee perks and company activities, and positive management
within a success framework of goals, measurements, and expectations.
Employee satisfaction is often measured by anonymous employee satisfaction surveys
administered periodically that gauge employee satisfaction in areas such as:
management,
understanding of mission and vision,
empowerment,
teamwork,
communication, and
Coworker interaction.
The facets of employee satisfaction measured vary from company to company.
A second method used to measure employee satisfaction is meeting with small groups of
employees and asking the same questions verbally. Depending on the culture of the company,
either method can contribute knowledge about employee satisfaction to managers and
employees.
JOB DESIGN
It is the process of Work arrangement (or rearrangement) aimed at reducing or
overcoming job dissatisfaction and employee alienation arising from repetitive and
mechanistic tasks. Through job design, organizations try to raise productivity levels
by offering non-monetary rewards such as greater satisfaction from a sense of personal
achievement in meeting the increased challenge and responsibility of one's work.

Approaches to job design include:

Job Enlargement: Job enlargement changes the jobs to include more and/or different
tasks. Job enlargement should add interest to the work but may or may not give employees
more responsibility.
Job Rotation: Job rotation moves employees from one task to another. It distributes the
group tasks among a number of employees.
Job Enrichment: Job enrichment allows employees to assume more responsibility,
accountability, and independence when learning new tasks or to allow for greater participation
and new opportunities.

TYPES OF MOTIVATION TECHNIQUES

If a manager wants to get work done by his employees, he may either hold out a promise of a
reward (positive motivation) or he/she may install fear (negative motivation). Both these types
are widely used by managements.

a) Positive Motivation:
This type of motivation is generally based on reward. A positive motivation involves the
possibility of increased motive satisfaction. According to Flippo - "Positive motivation is a
process of attempting to influence others to do your will through the possibility of gain or
reward". Incentive motivation is the "pull" mechanism. The receipt of awards, due recognition
and praise for work-well done definitely lead to good team spirit, co-operation and a feeling of
happiness.
Positive motivation include:-
Praise and credit for work done
Wages and Salaries
 Appreciation
A sincere interest in subordinates as individuals
Delegation of authority and responsibility

Negative Motivation:
This type of motivation is based on force and fear. Fear causes persons to act in a certain way
because they fear the consequences. Negative motivation involves the possibility of decreased
motive satisfaction. It is a "push" mechanism. The imposition of punishment frequently results in
frustration among those punished, leading to the development of maladaptive behaviour. It also
creates a hostile state of mind and an unfavourable attitude to the job. However, there is no
management which has not used the negative motivation at some time or the other.

MOTIVATION THEORIES
Some of the motivation theories are discussed below

a) McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y:

McGregor states that people inside the organization can be managed in two ways. The
first is basically negative, which falls under the category X and the other is basically positive,
which falls under the category Y. After viewing the way in which the manager dealt with
employees, McGregor concluded that a manager’s view of the nature of human beings is based
on a certain grouping of assumptions and that he or she tends to mold his or her behavior
towards subordinates according to these assumptions.

Under the assumptions of theory X :

Employees inherently do not like work and whenever possible, will attempt to avoid it.
Because employees dislike work, they have to be forced, coerced or threatened with
punishment to achieve goals.
Employees avoid responsibilities and do not work fill formal directions are issued.
Most workers place a greater importance on security over all other factors and display
little ambition.

Physical and mental effort at work is as natural as rest or play.

 People do exercise self-control and self-direction and if they are committed to those
goals.
Average human beings are willing to take responsibility and exercise imagination,
ingenuity and creativity in solving the problems of the organization.
That the way the things are organized, the average human being’s brainpower is only
partly used.

On analysis of the assumptions it can be detected that theory X assumes that lower-order
needs dominate individuals and theory Y assumes that higher-order needs dominate
individuals. An organization that is run on Theory X lines tends to be authoritarian in nature, the
word “authoritarian” suggests such ideas as the “power to enforce obedience” and the “right to
command.” In contrast Theory Y organizations can be described as “participative”, where the
aims of the organization and of the individuals in it are integrated; individuals can achieve their
own goals best by directing their efforts towards the success of the organization.

b) Abraham Maslow’s “Need Hierarchy Theory”:

One of the most widely mentioned theories of motivation is the hierarchy of needs theory
put forth by psychologist Abraham Maslow. Maslow saw human needs in the form of a
hierarchy, anding from the lowest to the highest, and he concluded that when one set of needs
is satisfied, this kind of need ceases to be a motivator. As per his theory these needs are:

(i) Physiological needs:

These are important needs for sustaining the human life. Food, water, warmth, shelter, sleep,
medicine and education are the basic physiological needs which fall in the primary list of need
satisfaction. Maslow was of an opinion that until these needs were satisfied to a degree to
maintain life, no other motivating factors can work.
(ii) Security or Safety needs:
These are the needs to be free of physical danger and of the fear of losing a job, property, food
or shelter. It also includes protection against any emotional harm.
(iii) Social needs:
Since people are social beings, they need to belong and be accepted by others. People try to
satisfy their need for affection, acceptance and friendship.
(iv) Esteem needs:
According to Maslow, once people begin to satisfy their need to belong, they tend to want to be
held in esteem both by themselves and by others. This kind of need produces such satisfaction
as power, prestige status and self-confidence. It includes both internal esteem factors like self-
respect, autonomy and achievements and external esteem factors such as states, recognition
and attention.
(v) Need for self-actualization:
Maslow regards this as the highest need in his hierarchy. It is the drive to become what one is
capable of becoming; it includes growth, achieving one’s potential and self-fulfillment. It is to
maximize one’s potential and to accomplish something.

All of the needs are structured into a hierarchy and only once a lower level of need has been
fully met, would a worker be motivated by the opportunity of having the next need up in the
hierarchy satisfied. For example a person who is dying of hunger will be motivated to achieve a
basic wage in order to buy food before worrying about having a secure job contract or the
respect of others.
A business should therefore offer different incentives to workers in order to help them fulfill each
need in turn and progress up the hierarchy. Managers should also recognize that workers are
not all motivated in the same way and do not all move up the hierarchy at the same pace. They
may therefore have to offer a slightly different set of incentives from worker to worker.

c) Frederick Herzberg’s motivation-hygiene theory:

 Frederick has tried to modify Maslow’s need Hierarchy theory. His theory is also known
as two-factor theory or Hygiene theory. He stated that there are certain satisfiers and
dissatisfiers for employees at work. Intrinsic factors are related to job satisfaction, while extrinsic
factors are associated with dissatisfaction. He devised his theory on the question: “What do
people want from their jobs?” He asked people to describe in detail, such situations when they
felt exceptionally good or exceptionally bad. From the responses that he received, he concluded
that opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction. Removing dissatisfying characteristics from a
job does not necessarily make the job satisfying. He states that presence of certain factors in
the organization is natural and the presence of the same does not lead to motivation. However,
their non-presence leads to de-motivation. In similar manner there are certain factors, the
absence of which causes no dissatisfaction, but their presence has motivational impact.
Examples of Hygiene factors are:
Security, status, relationship with subordinates, personal life, salary, work conditions,
relationship with supervisor and company policy and administration. Examples of Motivational
factors are:
Growth prospectus job advancement, responsibility, challenges, recognition and achievements.

d) Victor Vroom’s Expectancy theory:

The most widely accepted explanations of motivation have been propounded by Victor
Vroom. His theory is commonly known as expectancy theory. The theory argues that the
strength of a tendency to act in a specific way depends on the strength of an expectation that
the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the
individual to make this simple, expectancy theory says that an employee can be motivated to
perform better when there is a belief that the better performance will lead to good performance
appraisal and that this shall result into realization of personal goal in form of some reward.
Therefore an employee is:
Motivation = Valence x Expectancy.
The theory focuses on three things:
Efforts and performance relationship
Performance and reward relationship
Rewards and personal goal relationship

Clayton Alderfer’s ERG Theory:

 Alderfer has tried to rebuild the hierarchy of needs of Maslow into another model named
ERG i.e. Existence – Relatedness – Growth. According to him there are 3 groups of core needs
as mentioned above. The existence group is concerned mainly with providing basic material
existence. The second group is the individuals need to maintain interpersonal relationship with
other members in the group. The final group is the intrinsic desire to grow and develop
personally. The major conclusions of this theory are :
In an individual, more than one need may be operative at the same time.
If a higher need goes unsatisfied than the desire to satisfy a lower need intensifies.
It also contains the frustration-regression dimension.

McClelland’s Theory of Needs:

David McClelland has developed a theory on three types of motivating needs :
Need for Power
Need for Affiliation
Need for Achievement
Basically people for high need for power are inclined towards influence and control. They like to
be at the center and are good orators. They are demanding in nature, forceful in manners and
ambitious in life. They can be motivated to perform if they are given key positions or power
positions.
In the second category are the people who are social in nature. They try to affiliate themselves
with individuals and groups. They are driven by love and faith. They like to build a friendly
environment around themselves. Social recognition and affiliation with others provides them
motivation.
People in the third area are driven by the challenge of success and the fear of failure. Their
need for achievement is moderate and they set for themselves moderately difficult tasks. They
are analytical in nature and take calculated risks. Such people are motivated to perform when
they see at least some chances of success.
McClelland observed that with the advancement in hierarchy the need for power and
achievement increased rather than Affiliation. He also observed that people who were at the
top, later ceased to be motivated by this drives.

g) Stacey Adams’ Equity Theory:

As per the equity theory of J. Stacey Adams, people are motivated by their beliefs about
the reward structure as being fair or unfair, relative to the inputs. People have a tendency to use
subjective judgment to balance the outcomes and inputs in the relationship for comparisons
between different individuals. Accordingly:

If people feel that they are not equally rewarded they either reduce the quantity or quality of
work or migrate to some other organization. However, if people perceive that they are rewarded
higher, they may be motivated to work harder.

h) Skinner’s Reinforcement Theory:

B.F. Skinner, who propounded the reinforcement theory, holds that by designing the
environment properly, individuals can be motivated. Instead of considering internal factors like
impressions, feelings, attitudes and other cognitive behavior, individuals are directed by what
happens in the environment external to them. Skinner states that work environment should be
made suitable to the individuals and that punishment actually leads to frustration and de-
motivation. Hence, the only way to motivate is to keep on making positive changes in the
external environment of the organization.
LEADERSHIP
Definition
Leadership is defined as influence, the art or process of influencing people so that they
will strive willingly and enthusiastically toward the achievement of group goals.
Leaders act to help a group attain objectives through the maximum application of its
capabilities.
Leaders must instill values – whether it be concern for quality, honesty and
calculated risk taking or for employees and customers.

Importance of Leadership
Aid to authority
Motive power to group efforts
Basis for co operation
Integration of Formal and Informal Organization.

LEADERSHIP STYLES
The leadership style we will discuss here are:
Autocratic style
Democratic Style
Laissez Faire Style

a) Autocratic style
Manager retains as much power and decision-making authority as possible. The manager does
not consult employees, nor are they allowed to give any input. Employees are expected to obey
orders without receiving any explanations. The motivation environment is produced by creating
a structured set of rewards and punishments.

Autocratic leadership is a classical leadership style with the following characteristics:

Manager seeks to make as many decisions as possible
Manager seeks to have the most authority and control in decision making
Manager seeks to retain responsibility rather than utilize complete delegation
 Consultation with other colleagues in minimal and decision making becomes a solitary
process
Managers are less concerned with investing their own leadership development, and prefer
to simply work on the task at hand.

Advantages
Reduced stress due to increased control
A more productive group ‘while the leader is watching’
Improved logistics of operations
Faster decision making

Disadvantages
Short-termistic approach to management.
Manager perceived as having poor leadership
skills Increased workload for the manager
People dislike being ordered around
Teams become dependent upon their leader

b) Democratic Style
Democratic Leadership is the leadership style that promotes the sharing of responsibility,
the exercise of delegation and continual consultation.

The style has the following characteristics:

Manager seeks consultation on all major issues and decisions.
Manager effectively delegate tasks to subordinates and give them full control and
responsibility for those tasks.
Manager welcomes feedback on the results of intiatives and the work environment.
Manager encourages others to become leaders and be involved in leadership development.

Advantages
Positive work environment
Successful initiatives
Creative thinking
Reduction of friction and office politics
Reduced employee turnover

Disadvantages
Takes long time to take decisions
Danger of pseudo participation

Like the other styles, the democratic style is not always appropriate. It is most successful
when used with highly skilled or experienced employees or when implementing operational
changes or resolving individual or group problems.

c) Laissez-Faire Style
This French phrase means “leave it be” and is used to describe a leader who leaves
his/her colleagues to get on with their work. The style is largely a "hands off" view that tends to
minimize the amount of direction and face time required.

Advantages
No work for the leader
Frustration may force others into leadership roles
Allows the visionary worker the opportunity to do what they want, free from interference
Empowers the group

Disadvantages
It makes employees feel insecure at the unavailability of a manager.
The manager cannot provide regular feedback to let employees know how well they are
doing.
Managers are unable to thank employees for their good work.
The manager doesn’t understand his or her responsibilities and is hoping the employees
can cover for him or her.
LEADERSHIP THEORIES
The various leadership theories are

Great Man Theory:

Assumptions
Leaders are born and not made.
Great leaders will arise when there is a great need.

Description
Early research on leadership was based on the study of people who were already great leaders.
These people were often from the aristocracy, as few from lower classes had the opportunity to
lead. This contributed to the notion that leadership had something to do with breeding.
The idea of the Great Man also strayed into the mythic domain, with notions that in times of
need, a Great Man would arise, almost by magic. This was easy to verify, by pointing to people
such as Eisenhower and Churchill, let alone those further back along the timeline, even to
Jesus, Moses, Mohammed and the Buddah.

Discussion
Gender issues were not on the table when the 'Great Man' theory was proposed. Most leaders
were male and the thought of a Great Woman was generally in areas other than leadership.
Most researchers were also male, and concerns about androcentric bias were a long way from
being realized.

Trait Theory:
Assumptions
People are born with inherited traits.
Some traits are particularly suited to leadership.
People who make good leaders have the right (or sufficient) combination of traits.
Description
Early research on leadership was based on the psychological focus of the day, which was of
people having inherited characteristics or traits. Attention was thus put on discovering these
traits, often by studying successful leaders, but with the underlying assumption that if other
people could also be found with these traits, then they, too, could also become great leaders.

McCall and Lombardo (1983) researched both success and failure identified four primary traits
by which leaders could succeed or 'derail':
Emotional stability and composure: Calm, confident and predictable, particularly when under
stress.
Admitting error: Owning up to mistakes, rather than putting energy into covering up.
Good interpersonal skills: able to communicate and persuade others without resort to negative
or coercive tactics.
Intellectual breadth: Able to understand a wide range of areas, rather than having a narrow (and
narrow-minded) area of expertise.

Behavioral Theory:
Assumptions
Leaders can be made, rather than are born.
Successful leadership is based in definable, learnable behavior.

Description
Behavioral theories of leadership do not seek inborn traits or capabilities. Rather, they look at
what leaders actually do.
If success can be defined in terms of describable actions, then it should be relatively easy for
other people to act in the same way. This is easier to teach and learn then to adopt the more
ephemeral 'traits' or 'capabilities'.

Participative
Leadership: Assumptions
Involvement in decision-making improves the understanding of the issues involved by
those who must carry out the decisions.
People are more committed to actions where they have involved in the relevant decision-
making.
People are less competitive and more collaborative when they are working on joint
goals.
 When people make decisions together, the social commitment to one another is greater
and thus increases their commitment to the decision.
Several people deciding together make better decisions than one person alone.

Description
A Participative Leader, rather than taking autocratic decisions, seeks to involve other people in
the process, possibly including subordinates, peers, superiors and other stakeholders. Often,
however, as it is within the managers' whim to give or deny control to his or her subordinates,
most participative activity is within the immediate team. The question of how much influence
others are given thus may vary on the manager's preferences and beliefs, and a whole
spectrum of participation is possible

Situational Leadership:
Assumptions
The best action of the leader depends on a range of situational factors.

Description
When a decision is needed, an effective leader does not just fall into a single preferred style. In
practice, as they say, things are not that simple.
Factors that affect situational decisions include motivation and capability of followers. This, in
turn, is affected by factors within the particular situation. The relationship between followers and
the leader may be another factor that affects leader behavior as much as it does follower
behavior.
The leaders' perception of the follower and the situation will affect what they do rather than the
truth of the situation. The leader's perception of themselves and other factors such as stress
and mood will also modify the leaders' behavior.

Contingency Theory:
Assumptions
The leader's ability to lead is contingent upon various situational factors, including the
leader's preferred style, the capabilities and behaviors of followers and also various
other situational factors.

Description
Contingency theories are a class of behavioral theory that contend that there is no one best way
of leading and that a leadership style that is effective in some situations may not be successful
in others.
An effect of this is that leaders who are very effective at one place and time may become
unsuccessful either when transplanted to another situation or when the factors around them
change.
Contingency theory is similar to situational theory in that there is an assumption of no simple
one right way. The main difference is that situational theory tends to focus more on the
behaviors that the leader should adopt, given situational factors (often about follower behavior),
whereas contingency theory takes a broader view that includes contingent factors about leader
capability and other variables within the situation.

Transactional Leadership:
Assumptions
People are motivated by reward and punishment.
Social systems work best with a clear chain of command.
When people have agreed to do a job, a part of the deal is that they cede all authority to
their manager.
The prime purpose of a subordinate is to do what their manager tells them to do.

Description
The transactional leader works through creating clear structures whereby it is clear what is
required of their subordinates, and the rewards that they get for following orders. Punishments
are not always mentioned, but they are also well-understood and formal systems of discipline
are usually in place.

The early stage of Transactional Leadership is in negotiating the contract whereby the
subordinate is given a salary and other benefits, and the company (and by implication the
subordinate's manager) gets authority over the subordinate.

When the Transactional Leader allocates work to a subordinate, they are considered to be fully
responsible for it, whether or not they have the resources or capability to carry it out. When
things go wrong, then the subordinate is considered to be personally at fault, and is punished for
their failure (just as they are rewarded for succeeding).
h)Transformational Leadership:
Assumptions
People will follow a person who inspires them.
A person with vision and passion can achieve great things.
The way to get things done is by injecting enthusiasm and energy.

Description
Working for a Transformational Leader can be a wonderful and uplifting experience. They put
passion and energy into everything. They care about you and want you to succeed.
Transformational Leaders are often charismatic, but are not as narcissistic as pure Charismatic
Leaders, who succeed through a belief in themselves rather than a belief in others.
One of the traps of Transformational Leadership is that passion and confidence can easily be
mistaken for truth and reality.
Transformational Leaders, by definition, seek to transform. When the organization does not
need transforming and people are happy as they are, then such a leader will be frustrated. Like
wartime leaders, however, given the right situation they come into their own and can be
personally responsible for saving entire companies.

COMMUNICATION
Communication is the exchange of messages between people for the purpose of
achieving common meanings. Unless common meanings are shared, managers find it
extremely difficult to influence others. Whenever group of people interact, communication takes
place. Communication is the exchange of information using a shared set of symbols. It is the
process that links group members and enables them to coordinate their activities. Therefore,
when managers foster effective communication, they strengthen the
connections between employees and build cooperation. Communication also functions to build
and reinforce interdependence between various parts of the organization. As a linking
mechanism among the different organizational subsystems, communication is a central feature
of the structure of groups and organizations. It helps to coordinate tasks and activities within
and between organizations.

DEFINITION
According to Koontz and O'Donnell, "Communication, is an intercourse by words, letters
symbols or messages, and is a way that the organization members shares meaning and
understanding with another".

THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS

Communication is important in building and sustaining human relationships at work.
Communication can be thought of as a process or flow. Before communication can take place, a
purpose, expressed as a message to be conveyed is needed. It passes between the sender and
the receiver. The result is transference of meaning from one person to another.
The figure below depicts the communication process. This model is made up of seven parts:
Source, (2) Encoding, (3) Message, (4) Channel, (5) Decoding, (6) Receiver, and (7)
Feedback.

a) Source:
The source initiates a message. This is the origin of the communication and can be an
individual, group or inanimate object. The effectiveness of a communication depends to a
considerable degree on the characteristics of the source. The person who initiates the
communication process is known as sender, source or communicator. In an organization, the
sender will be a person who has a need or desire to send a message to others. The sender has
some information which he wants to communicate to some other person to achieve some
purpose. By initiating the message, the sender attempts to achieve understanding and change
in the behaviour of the receiver.
b) Encoding:
Once the source has decided what message to communicate, the content of the message must
be put in a form the receiver can understand. As the background for encoding information, the
sender uses his or her own frame of reference. It includes the individual's view of the
organization or situation as a function of personal education, interpersonal relationships,
attitudes, knowledge and experience. Three conditions are necessary for successful encoding
the message.
Skill: Successful communicating depends on the skill you posses. Without the requisite
skills, the message of the communicator will not reach the requisite skills; the message
of the communicator will not reach the receiver in the desired form. One's total
communicative success includes speaking, reading, listening and reasoning skills.
Attitudes: Our attitudes influence our behaviour. We hold predisposed ideas on a
number of topics and our communications are affected by these attitudes.
Knowledge: We cannot communicate what we don't know. The amount of knowledge
the source holds about his or her subject will affect the message he or she seeks to
transfer.

The Message:
The message is the actual physical product from the source encoding. The message contains
the thoughts and feelings that the communicator intends to evoke in the receiver. The message
has two primary components:-
The Content: The thought or conceptual component of the message is contained in the
words, ideas, symbols and concepts chosen to relay the message.
The Affect: The feeling or emotional component of the message is contained in the
intensity, force, demeanour (conduct or behaviour), and sometimes the gestures of the
communicator.

The Channel:
The actual means by which the message is transmitted to the receiver (Visual, auditory, written
or some combination of these three) is called the channel. The channel is the medium through
which the message travels. The channel is the observable carrier of the message.
Communication in which the sender's voice is used as the channel is called oral communication.
When the channel involves written language, the sender is using written communication. The
sender's choice of a channel conveys additional information beyond that contained in the
message itself. For example, documenting an employee's poor performance in writing conveys
that the manager has taken the problem seriously.

f) Decoding:
Decoding means interpreting what the message means. The extent to which the decoding by
the receiver depends heavily on the individual characteristics of the sender and receiver. The
greater the similarity in the background or status factors of the communicators, the greater the
probability that a message will be perceived accurately. Most messages can be decoded in
more than one way. Receiving and decoding a message are a type of perception. The decoding
process is therefore subject to the perception biases.

g) The Receiver:
The receiver is the object to whom the message is directed. Receiving the message means one
or more of the receiver's senses register the message - for example, hearing the sound of a
supplier's voice over the telephone or seeing the boss give a thumbs-up signal. Like the sender,
the receiver is subject to many influences that can affect the understanding of the message.
Most important, the receiver will perceive a communication in a manner that is consistent with
previous experiences. Communications that are not consistent with expectations is likely to be
rejected.

h) Feedback:
The final link in the communication process is a feedback loop. Feedback, in effect, is
communication travelling in the opposite direction. If the sender pays attention to the feedback
and interprets it accurately, the feedback can help the sender learn whether the original
communication was decoded accurately. Without feedback, one-way communication occurs
between managers and their employees. Faced with differences in their power, lack of time, and
a desire to save face by not passing on negative information, employees may be discouraged
from providing the necessary feedback to their managers.

Guidelines for effective Communication

Senders of message must clarify in their minds what they want to communicate. Purpose of
the message and making a plan to achieve the intended end must be clarified.
 Encoding and decoding be done with symbols that are familiar to the sender and the
receiver of the message.
For the planning of the communication, other people should be consulted and encouraged
to participate.
It is important to consider the needs of the receivers of the information. Whenever
appropriate, one should communicate something that is of value to them, in the short run as
well as in the more distant future.
In communication, tone of voice, the choice of language and the congruency between what
is said and how it is said influence the reactions of the receiver of the message.
Communication is complete only when the message is understood by the receiver. And one
never knows whether communication is understood unless the sender gets a feedback.
(vii) The function of communication is more than transmitting the information. It also deals with
emotions that are very important in interpersonal relationships between superiors,
subordinates and colleagues in an organization.
Effective communicating is the responsibility not only of the sender but also of the receiver
of the information.

BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

Barriers to communication are factors that block or significantly distort successful
communication. Effective managerial communication skills helps overcome some, but not all,
barriers to communication in organizations. The more prominent barriers to effective
communication which every manager should be aware of is given below:

a) Filtering:
Filtering refers to a sender manipulating information so it will be seen more favourably by
the receiver. The major determinant of filtering is the number of levels in an organization's
structure. The more vertical levels in the organization's hierarchy, the more opportunities for
filtering. Sometimes the information is filtered by the sender himself. If the sender is hiding some
meaning and disclosing in such a fashion as appealing to the receiver, then he is "filtering" the
message deliberately. A manager in the process of altering communication in his favour is
attempting to filter the information.

b) Selective Perception:
 Selective perception means seeing what one wants to see. The receiver, in the
communication process, generally resorts to selective perception i.e., he selectively perceives
the message based on the organizational requirements, the needs and characteristics,
background of the employees etc. Perceptual distortion is one of the distressing barriers to the
effective communication. People interpret what they see and call it a reality. In our regular
activities, we tend to see those things that please us and to reject or ignore unpleasant things.
Selective perception allows us to keep out dissonance (the existence of conflicting elements in
our perceptual set) at a tolerable level. If we encounter something that does not fit out current
image of reality, we structure the situation to minimize our dissonance. Thus, we manage to
overlook many stimuli from the environment that do not fit into out current perception of the
world. This process has significant implications for managerial activities. For example, the
employment interviewer who expects a female job applicant to put her family ahead of her
career is likely to see that in female applicants, regardless of whether the applicants feel that
way or not.

c) Emotions:
How the receiver feels at the time of receipt of information influences effectively how he
interprets the information. For example, if the receiver feels that the communicator is in a jovial
mood, he interprets that the information being sent by the communicator to be good and
interesting. Extreme emotions and jubilation or depression are quite likely to hinder the
effectiveness of communication. A person's ability to encode a message can become impaired
when the person is feeling strong emotions. For example, when you are angry, it is harder to
consider the other person's viewpoint and to choose words carefully. The angrier you are, the
harder this task becomes. Extreme emotions – such as jubilation or depression - are most likely
to hinder effective communication. In such instances, we are most prone to disregard our
rational and objective thinking processes and substitute emotional judgments.

d) Language:
Communicated message must be understandable to the receiver. Words mean different
things to different people. Language reflects not only the personality of the individual but also
the culture of society in which the individual is living. In organizations, people from different
regions, different backgrounds, and speak different languages. People will have different
academic backgrounds, different intellectual facilities, and hence the jargon they use varies.
Often, communication gap arises because the language the sender is using may be
incomprehensible, vague and indigestible. Language is a central element in communication. It
may pose a barrier if its use obscures meaning and distorts intent. Words mean different things
to different people. Age, education and cultural background are three of the more obvious
variables that influence the language a person uses and the definitions he or she gives to
words. Therefore, use simple, direct, declarative language.
Speak in brief sentences and use terms or words you have heard from you audience. As much
as possible, speak in the language of the listener. Do not use jargon or technical language
except with those who clearly understand it.

e) Stereotyping:
Stereotyping is the application of selective perception. When we have preconceived
ideas about other people and refuse to discriminate between individual behaviours, we are
applying selective perception to our relationship with other people. Stereotyping is a barrier to
communications because those who stereotype others use selective perception in their
communication and tend to hear only those things that confirm their stereotyped images.
Consequently, stereotypes become more deeply ingrained as we find more "evidence" to
confirm our original opinion. Stereotyping has a convenience function in our interpersonal
relations. Since people are all different, ideally we should react and interact with each person
differently. To do this, however, requires considerable psychological effort. It is much easier to
categorize (stereotype) people so that we can interact with them as members of a particular
category. Since the number of categories is small, we end up treating many people the same
even though they are quite different. Our communications, then, may be directed at an
individual as a member of a category at the sacrifice of the more effective communication on a
personal level.

f) Status Difference:
The organizational hierarchy pose another barrier to communication within organization,
especially when the communication is between employee and manager. This is so because the
employee is dependent on the manager as the primary link to the organization and hence more
likely to distort upward communication than either horizontal or downward communication.
Effective supervisory skills make the supervisor more approachable and help reduce the risk of
problems related to status differences. In addition, when employees feel secure, they are more
likely to be straightforward in upward communication.
g) Use of Conflicting Signals:
A sender is using conflicting signals when he or she sends inconsistent messages. A
vertical message might conflict with a nonverbal one. For example, if a manager says to his
employees, "If you have a problem, just come to me. My door is always open", but he looks
annoyed whenever an employee knocks on his door". Then we say the manager is sending
conflicting messages. When signals conflict, the receivers of the message have to decide which,
if any, to believe.

h) Reluctance to Communicate:
For a variety of reasons, managers are sometimes reluctant to transmit messages. The reasons
could be:-
They may doubt their ability to do so.
They may dislike or be weary of writing or talking to others.
They may hesitate to deliver bad news because they do not want to face a negative
reaction.
When someone gives in to these feelings, they become a barrier to effective communications.

i) Projection:
Projection has two meanings.
Projecting one's own motives into others behavior. For example, managers who are
motivated by money may assume their subordinates are also motivated by it. If the
subordinate's prime motive is something other than money, serious problems may arise.
The use of defense mechanism to avoid placing blame on oneself. As a defense
mechanism, the projection phenomenon operates to protect the ego from unpleasant
communications. Frequently, individuals who have a particular fault will see the same fault in
others, making their own fault seem not so serious.

j) The "Halo Effect":

The term "halo effect" refers to the process of forming opinions based on one element from a
group of elements and generalizing that perception to all other elements. For example, in an
organization, a good attendance record may cause positive judgments about productivity,
attitude, or quality of work. In performance evaluation system, the halo effect refers to the
practice of singling out one trait of an employee (either good or bad) and using this as a basis
for judgments of the total employee.
CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION
a) Formal Communication
Formal communication follows the route formally laid down in the organization structure.
There are three directions in which communications flow: downward, upward and laterally
(horizontal).

i) Downward Communication
Downward communication involves a message travelling to one or more receivers at the lower
level in the hierarchy. The message frequently involves directions or performance feedback.
The downward flow of communication generally corresponds to the formal organizational
communications system, which is usually synonymous with the chain of command or line of
authority. This system has received a great deal of attention from both managers and behavioral
scientists since it is crucial to organizational functioning.

ii) Upward Communication

In upward communication, the message is directed toward a higher level in the hierarchy. It is
often takes the form of progress reports or information about successes and failures of the
individuals or work groups reporting to the receiver of the message. Sometimes employees also
send suggestions or complaints upward through the organization's hierarchy.
The upward flow of communication involves two distinct manager-subordinate activities in
addition to feedback:
The participation by employees in formal organizational decisions.
Employee appeal is a result against formal organization decisions. The employee appeal is
a result of the industrial democracy concept that provides for two-way communication in
areas of disagreement.

iii) Horizontal Communication

When takes place among members of the same work group, among members of work groups at
the same level, among managers at the same level or among any horizontally equivalent
personnel, we describe it as lateral communications. In lateral communication, the sender and
receiver(s) are at the same level in the hierarchy. Formal communications that travel laterally
involve employees engaged in carrying out the same or related tasks.
The messages might concern advice, problem solving, or coordination of activities.

b) Informal Communication or Grapevine

Informal communication, generally associated with interpersonal communication, was primarily

seen as a potential hindrance to effective organizational performance. This is no longer the
case. Informal communication has become more important to ensuring the effective conduct of
work in modern organizations.
Probably the most common term used for the informal communication in the workplace is
“grapevine” and this communication that is sent through the organizational grapevine is often
considered gossip or rumor. While grapevine communication can spread information quickly
and can easily cross established organizational boundaries, the information it carries can be
changed through the deletion or exaggeration crucial details thus causing the information
inaccurate – even if it’s based on truth.
The use of the organizational grapevine as an informal communication channel often results
when employees feel threatened, vulnerable, or when the organization is experiencing change
and when communication from management is restricted and not forthcoming.

ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE
Organizational culture is an idea in the field of organizational studies and management
which describes the psychology, attitudes, experiences, beliefs and values (personal and
cultural values) of an organization. It has been defined as "the specific collection of values and
norms that are shared by people and groups in an organization and that control the way they
interact with each other and with stakeholders outside the organization."

ELEMENTS OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE

Johnson and Scholes described a cultural web, identifying a number of elements that
can be used to describe or influence Organizational Culture:
The six elements are:
Stories: The past events and people talked about inside and outside the company. Who
and what the company chooses to immortalize says a great deal about what it values,
and perceives as great behavior.
Rituals and Routines: The daily behavior and actions of people that signal acceptable
behavior. This determines what is expected to happen in given situations, and what is
valued by management.
Symbols: The visual representations of the company including logos, how plush the
offices are, and the formal or informal dress codes.
Organizational Structure: This includes both the structure defined by the organization
chart, and the unwritten lines of power and influence that indicate whose contributions
are most valued.
Control Systems: The ways that the organization is controlled. These include financial
systems, quality systems, and rewards (including the way they are measured and
distributed within the organization.)
 Power Structures: The pockets of real power in the company. This may involve one or
two key senior executives, a whole group of executives, or even a department. The key
is that these people have the greatest amount of influence on decisions, operations, and
strategic direction.

TYPES OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE

Deal and Kennedy argue organizational culture is based on based on two elements:
Feedback Speed: How quickly are feedback and rewards provided (through which the
people are told they are doing a good or a bad job).
Degree of Risk: The level of risk taking (degree of uncertainty).
The combination of these two elements results in four types of corporate cultures:

Tough-Guy Culture or Macho Culture (Fast feedback and reward, high risk):
Stress results from the high risk and the high potential decrease or increase of the
reward.
Focus on now, individualism prevails over teamwork.
Typical examples: advertising, brokerage, sports.

The most important aspect of this kind of culture is big rewards and quick feedback. This kind of
culture is mostly associated with quick financial activities like brokerage and currency trading. It
can also be related with activities, like a sports team or branding of an athlete, and also the
police team. This kind of culture is considered to carry along, a high amount of stress, and
people working within the organization are expected to possess a strong mentality, for survival
in the organization.

Work Hard/Play Hard (Fast feedback and reward, low risk):

Stress results from quantity of work rather than uncertainty.

Focus on high-speed action, high levels of energy.
Typical examples: sales, restaurants, software companies.

This type of organization does not involve much risk, as the organizations already consist of a
firm base along with a strong client relationship. This kind of culture is mostly opted by large
organizations which have strong customer service. The organization with this kind of culture is
equipped with specialized jargons and is qualified with multiple team meetings.

Bet Your Company Culture (Slow feedback and reward, high risk):
Stress results from high risk and delay before knowing if actions have paid off.
Focus on long-term, preparation and planning.
Typical examples: pharmaceutical companies, aircraft manufacturers, oil prospecting
companies.

In this kind of culture, the company makes big and important decisions over high stakes
endeavors. It takes time to see the consequence of these decisions. Companies that postulate
experimental projects and researches as their core business, adopt this kind of culture. This
kind of culture can be adopted by a company designing experimental military weapons for
example.

Process Culture (Slow feedback and reward, low risk):

Stress is generally low, but may come from internal politics and stupidity of the system.
Focus on details and process excellence.
Typical examples: bureaucracies, banks, insurance companies, public services.

This type of culture does not include the process of feedback. In this kind of culture, the
organization is extremely cautious about the adherence to laws and prefer to abide by them.
This culture provides consistency to the organization and is good for public services.

One of the most difficult tasks to undertake in an organization, is to change its work culture. An
organizational culture change requires an organization to make amendments to its policies, its
workplace ethics and its management system. It needs to start right from its base functions
which includes support functions, operations and the production floor, which finally affects the
overall output of the organization. It requires a complete overhaul of the entire system, and not
many organizations prefer it as the process is a long and tedious one, which requires patience
and endurance. However, when an organization succeeds in making a change on such a
massive level, the results are almost always positive and fruitful. The different types of
organizational cultures mentioned above must have surely helped you to understand them. You
can also adopt one of them for your own organization, however, persistence and patience is
ultimately of the essence.

MANAGING CULTURAL DIVERSITY

Experts indicate that business owners and managers who hope to create and manage an
effective, harmonious multicultural work force should remember the importance of the following:
Setting a good example—This basic tool can be particularly valuable for small business
owners who hope to establish a healthy environment for people of different cultural
backgrounds, since they are generally able to wield significant control over the business's
basic outlook and atmosphere.
Communicate in writing—Company policies that explicitly forbid prejudice and discriminatory
behavior should be included in employee manuals, mission statements, and other written
communications. Jorgensen referred to this and other similar practices as "internal
broadcasting of the diversity message in order to create a common language for all
members of the organization."
Training programs—Training programs designed to engender appreciation and knowledge
of the characteristics and benefits of multicultural work forces have become ubiquitous in
recent years. "Two types of training are most popular: awareness and skill-building," wrote
Cox. "The former introduces the topic of managing diversity and generally includes
information on work force demographics, the meaning of diversity, and exercises to get
participants thinking about relevant issues and raising their own self-awareness. The skill-
building training provides more specific information on cultural norms of different groups and
how they may affect work behavior." New employee orientation programs are also ideal for
introducing workers to the company's expectations regarding treatment of fellow workers,
whatever their cultural or ethnic background.
Recognize individual differences—Writing in The Complete MBA Companion, contributor
Rob Goffee stated that "there are various dimensions around which differences in human
relationships may be understood. These include such factors as orientation towards
authority; acceptance of power inequalities; desire for orderliness and structure; the need to
belong to a wider social group and so on. Around these dimensions researchers have
demonstrated systematic differences between national, ethnic, and religious groups." Yet
Goffee also cautioned business owners, managers, and executives to recognize that
differences between individuals can not always be traced back to easily understood
differences in cultural background: "Do not assume differences are always 'cultural.' There
are several sources of difference. Some relate to factors such as personality, aptitude, or
competence. It is a mistake to assume that all perceived differences are cultural in origin.
Too many managers tend to fall back on the easy 'explanation' that individual behavior or
performance can be attributed to the fact that someone is 'Italian' or 'a Catholic' or 'a
woman.' Such conclusions are more likely to reflect intellectually lazy rather than culturally
sensitive managers."
Actively seek input from minority groups—Soliciting the opinions and involvement of minority
groups on important work committees, etc., is beneficial not only because of the
contributions that they can make, but also because such overtures confirm that they are
valued by the company. Serving on relevant committees and task forces can increase their
feelings of belonging to the organization. Conversely, relegating minority members to
superfluous committees or projects can trigger a downward spiral in relations between
different cultural groups.
Revamp reward systems—An organization's performance appraisal and reward systems
should reinforce the importance of effective diversity management, according to Cox. This
includes assuring that minorities are provided with adequate opportunities for career
development.
Make room for social events—Company sponsored social events—picnics, softball games,
volleyball leagues, bowling leagues, Christmas parties, etc.—can be tremendously useful in
getting members of different ethnic and cultural backgrounds together and providing them
with opportunities to learn about one another.
Flexible work environment—Cox indicated that flexible work environments—which he
characterized as a positive development for all workers—could have particularly "beneficial
to people from nontraditional cultural backgrounds because their approaches to problems
are more likely to be different from past norms."
Don't assume similar values and opinions—Goffee noted that "in the absence of reliable
information there is a well-documented tendency for individuals to assume that others are
'like them.' In any setting this is likely to be an inappropriate assumption; for those who
manage diverse work forces this tendency towards 'cultural assimilation' can prove
particularly damaging."
Continuous monitoring—Experts recommend that business owners and managers establish
and maintain systems that can continually monitor the organization's policies and practices
to ensure that it continues to be a good environment for all employees. This, wrote
 Jorgensen, should include "research into employees' needs through periodic attitude
surveys."
"Increased diversity presents challenges to business leaders who must maximize the
opportunities that it presents while minimizing its costs," summarized Cox. "The multicultural
organization is characterized by pluralism, full integration of minority-culture members both
formally and informally, an absence of prejudice and discrimination, and low levels of inter-
group conflict…. The organization that achieves these conditions will create an environment in
which all members can contribute to their maximum potential, and in which the 'value in diversity
' can be fully realized."
 UNIT V
CONTROLLING
DEFINITION
Control is the process through which managers assure that actual activities conform to
planned activities.
In the words of Koontz and O'Donnell - "Managerial control implies measurement of
accomplishment against the standard and the correction of deviations to assure attainment of
objectives according to plans."

Nature & Purpose of Control

Control is an essential function of management
Control is an ongoing process
Control is forward – working because pas cannot be controlled
Control involves measurement
The essence of control is action
Control is an integrated system

CONTROL PROCESS
The basic control process involves mainly these steps as shown in Figure

a) The Establishment of Standards:

Because plans are the yardsticks against which controls must be revised, it follows logically that
the first step in the control process would be to accomplish plans. Plans can be considered as
the criterion or the standards against which we compare the actual performance in order to
figure out the deviations.
Examples for the standards
Profitability standards: In general, these standards indicate how much the company
would like to make as profit over a given time period- that is, its return on investment.
Market position standards: These standards indicate the share of total sales in a
particular market that the company would like to have relative to its competitors.
Productivity standards: How much that various segments of the organization should
produce is the focus of these standards.
Product leadership standards: These indicate what must be done to attain such a
position.
Employee attitude standards: These standards indicate what types of attitudes the
company managers should strive to indicate in the company’s employees.
Social responsibility standards: Such as making contribution to the society.
Standards reflecting the relative balance between short and long range goals.

Measurement of Performance:

The measurement of performance against standards should be on a forward looking basis so

that deviations may be detected in advance by appropriate actions. The degree of difficulty in
measuring various types of organizational performance, of course, is determined primarily by
the activity being measured. For example, it is far more difficult to measure the performance of
highway maintenance worker than to measure the performance of a student enrolled in a
college level management course.

c) Comparing Measured Performance to Stated Standards:

When managers have taken a measure of organizational performance, their next step in
controlling is to compare this measure against some standard. A standard is the level of activity
established to serve as a model for evaluating organizational performance. The performance
evaluated can be for the organization as a whole or for some individuals working within the
organization. In essence, standards are the yardsticks that determine whether organizational
performance is adequate or inadequate.
d) Taking Corrective Actions:
After actual performance has been measured compared with established performance
standards, the next step in the controlling process is to take corrective action, if necessary.
Corrective action is managerial activity aimed at bringing organizational performance up to the
level of performance standards. In other words, corrective action focuses on correcting
organizational mistakes that hinder organizational performance. Before taking any corrective
action, however, managers should make sure that the standards they are using were properly
established and that their measurements of organizational performance are valid and reliable.
At first glance, it seems a fairly simple proposition that managers should take corrective action
to eliminate problems - the factors within an organization that are barriers to organizational goal
attainment. In practice, however, it is often difficult to pinpoint the problem causing some
undesirable organizational effect.

BARRIERS FOR CONTROLLING

There are many barriers, among the most important of them:
Control activities can create an undesirable overemphasis on short-term production as
opposed to long- term production.
Control activities can increase employees' frustration with their jobs and thereby reduce
morale. This reaction tends to occur primarily where management exerts too much
control.
Control activities can encourage the falsification of reports.
Control activities can cause the perspectives of organization members to be too narrow
for the good of the organization.
Control activities can be perceived as the goals of the control process rather than the
means by which corrective action is taken.

REQUIREMENTS FOR EFFECTIVE CONTROL

The requirements for effective control are
a) Control should be tailored to plans and positions
This means that, all control techniques and systems should reflect the plans they are designed
to follow. This is because every plan and every kind and phase of an operation has its unique
characteristics.
b) Control must be tailored to individual managers and their responsibilities
This means that controls must be tailored to the personality of individual managers. This
because control systems and information are intended to help individual managers carry out
their function of control. If they are not of a type that a manager can or will understand, they will
not be useful.
c) Control should point up exceptions as critical points
This is because by concentration on exceptions from planned performance, controls based on
the time honored exception principle allow managers to detect those places where their
attention is required and should be given. However, it is not enough to look at exceptions,
because some deviations from standards have little meaning and others have a great deal of
significance.
d) Control should be objective
This is because when controls are subjective, a manager’s personality may influence judgments
of performance inaccuracy. Objective standards can be quantitative such as costs or man hours
per unit or date of job completion. They can also be qualitative in the case of training programs
that have specific characteristics or are designed to accomplish a specific kind of upgrading of
the quality of personnel.
e) Control should be flexible
This means that controls should remain workable in the case of changed plans, unforeseen
circumstances, or outsight failures.Much flexibility in control can be provided by having
alternative plans for various probable situations.
f) Control should be economical
This means that control must worth their cost. Although this requirement is simple, its practice is
often complex. This is because a manager may find it difficult to know what a particular system
is worth, or to know what it costs.
g) Control should lead to corrective actions
This is because a control system will be of little benefit if it does not lead to corrective action,
control is justified only if the indicated or experienced deviations from plans are corrected
through appropriate planning, organizing, directing, and leading.

TYPES OF CONTROL SYSTEMS

The control systems can be classified into three types namely feed forward, concurrent and
feedback control systems.
 Feed forward controls: They are preventive controls that try to anticipate problems and take
corrective action before they occur. Example – a team leader checks the quality, completeness
and reliability of their tools prior to going to the site.
Concurrent controls: They (sometimes called screening controls) occur while an activity is
taking place. Example – the team leader checks the quality or performance of his members
while performing.
Feedback controls: They measure activities that have already been completed. Thus
corrections can take place after performance is over. Example – feedback from facilities
engineers regarding the completed job.

BUDGETARY CONTROL

Definition: Budgetary Control is defined as "the establishment of budgets, relating the

responsibilities of executives to the requirements of a policy, and the continuous comparison of
actual with budgeted results either to secure by individual action the objective of that policy or to
provide a base for its revision.

Salient features:
a. Objectives: Determining the objectives to be achieved, over the budget period, and the
policy(ies) that might be adopted for the achievement of these ends.
b. Activities: Determining the variety of activities that should be undertaken for achievement of
the objectives.
c. Plans: Drawing up a plan or a scheme of operation in respect of each class of activity, in
physical a well as monetary terms for the full budget period and its parts.
d. Performance Evaluation: Laying out a system of comparison of actual performance by each
person section or department with the relevant budget and determination of causes for the
discrepancies, if any.
e. Control Action: Ensuring that when the plans are not achieved, corrective actions are taken;
and when corrective actions are not possible, ensuring that the plans are revised and objective
achieved

CLASSIFICATION OF BUDGETS
Budgets may be classified on the following bases –

BASED ON TIME PERIOD:

Long Term Budget
Budgets which are prepared for periods longer than a year are called LongTerm
Budgets. Such Budgets are helpful in business forecasting and forward planning. Eg:
Capital Expenditure Budget and R&D Budget.
Short Term Budget
Budgets which are prepared for periods less than a year are known as ShortTerm
Budgets. Such Budgets are prepared in cases where a specific action has to be
immediately taken to bring any variation under control.
Eg: Cash Budget.
 BASED ON CONDITION:
Basic Budget
A Budget, which remains unaltered over a long period of time, is called Basic
Budget.
Current Budget
A Budget, which is established for use over a short period of time and is related to
the current conditions, is called Current Budget.

BASED ON CAPACITY:
Fixed Budget
It is a Budget designed to remain unchanged irrespective of the level of activity
actually attained. It operates on one level of activity and less than one set of
conditions. It assumes that there will be no change in the prevailing conditions, which
is unrealistic.
Flexible Budget
It is a Budget, which by recognizing the difference between fixed, semi variable and
variable costs is designed to change in relation to level of activity attained. It consists
of various budgets for different levels of activity

BASED ON COVERAGE:
Functional Budget
Budgets, which relate to the individual functions in an organization, are known as
Functional Budgets, e.g. purchase Budget, Sales Budget, Production Budget, plant
Utilization Budget and Cash Budget.
Master Budget
It is a consolidated summary of the various functional budgets. It serves as the basis
upon which budgeted Profit & Loss Account and forecasted Balance Sheet are built
up.

BUDGETARY CONTROL TECHNIQUES

The various types of budgets are as follows
i) Revenue and Expense Budgets:
The most common budgets spell out plans for revenues and operating expenses in
rupee terms. The most basic of revenue budget is the sales budget which is a formal and
detailed expression of the sales forecast. The revenue from sales of products or services
furnishes the principal income to pay operating expenses and yield profits. Expense budgets
may deal with individual items of expense, such as travel, data processing, entertainment,
advertising, telephone, and insurance.

ii) Time, Space, Material, and Product Budgets:

Many budgets are better expressed in quantities rather than in monetary terms. e.g.
direct-labor-hours, machine-hours, units of materials, square feet allocated, and units produced.
The Rupee cost would not accurately measure the resources used or the results intended.

iii) Capital Expenditure Budgets:

Capital expenditure budgets outline specifically capital expenditures for plant,
machinery, equipment, inventories, and other items. These budgets require care because they
give definite form to plans for spending the funds of an enterprise. Since a business takes a
long time to recover its investment in plant and equipment, (Payback period or gestation period)
capital expenditure budgets should usually be tied in with fairly long-range planning.

iv) Cash Budgets:

The cash budget is simply a forecast of cash receipts and disbursements against which
actual cash "experience" is measured. The availability of cash to meet obligations as they fall
due is the first requirement of existence, and handsome business profits do little good when tied
up in inventory, machinery, or other noncash assets.

v) Variable Budget:
The variable budget is based on an analysis of expense items to determine how
individual costs should vary with volume of output.
Some costs do not vary with volume, particularly in so short a period as 1 month, 6
months, or a year. Among these are depreciation, property taxes and insurance, maintenance of
plant and equipment, and costs of keeping a minimum staff of supervisory and other key
personnel. Costs that vary with volume of output range from those that are completely variable
to those that are only slightly variable.
The task of variable budgeting involves selecting some unit of measure that reflects
volume; inspecting the various categories of costs (usually by reference to the chart of
accounts); and, by statistical studies, methods of engineering analyses, and other means,
determining how these costs should vary with volume of output.

vi) Zero Based Budget:

The idea behind this technique is to divide enterprise programs into "packages"
composed of goals, activities, and needed resources and then to calculate costs for each
package from the ground up. By starting the budget of each package from base zero, budgeters
calculate costs afresh for each budget period; thus they avoid the common tendency in
budgeting of looking only at changes from a previous period.

Advantages
There are a number of advantages of budgetary control:
Compels management to think about the future, which is probably the most important
feature of a budgetary planning and control system. Forces management to look ahead,
to set out detailed plans for achieving the targets for each department, operation and
(ideally) each manager, to anticipate and give the organization purpose and direction.
Promotes coordination and communication.
Clearly defines areas of responsibility. Requires managers of budget centre’s to be
made responsible for the achievement of budget targets for the operations under their
personal control.
Provides a basis for performance appraisal (variance analysis). A budget is basically a
yardstick against which actual performance is measured and assessed. Control is
provided by comparisons of actual results against budget plan. Departures from budget
can then be investigated and the reasons for the differences can be divided into
controllable and non-controllable factors.
Enables remedial action to be taken as variances emerge.
Motivates employees by participating in the setting of budgets.
Improves the allocation of scarce resources.
Economises management time by using the management by exception principle.

Problems in budgeting
Whilst budgets may be an essential part of any marketing activity they do have a number
of disadvantages, particularly in perception terms.
 Budgets can be seen as pressure devices imposed by management, thus resulting in:
bad labour relations
inaccurate record-keeping.
Departmental conflict arises due to:
disputes over resource allocation
departments blaming each other if targets are not attained.
It is difficult to reconcile personal/individual and corporate goals.
Waste may arise as managers adopt the view, "we had better spend it or we will lose it".
This is often coupled with "empire building" in order to enhance the prestige of a
department.
Responsibility versus controlling, i.e. some costs are under the influence of more than
one person, e.g. power costs.
Managers may overestimate costs so that they will not be blamed in the future should
they overspend.

NON-BUDGETARY CONTROL TECHNIQUES

There are, of course, many traditional control devices not connected with budgets, although
some may be related to, and used with, budgetary controls. Among the most important of these
are: statistical data, special reports and analysis, analysis of break- even points, the operational
audit, and the personal observation.

i) Statistical data:
Statistical analyses of innumerable aspects of a business operation and the clear presentation
of statistical data, whether of a historical or forecast nature are, of course, important to control.
Some managers can readily interpret tabular statistical data, but most managers prefer
presentation of the data on charts.

ii) Break- even point analysis:

An interesting control device is the break even chart. This chart depicts the relationship of sales
and expenses in such a way as to show at what volume revenues exactly cover expenses.

iii) Operational audit:

Another effective tool of managerial control is the internal audit or, as it is now coming to be
called, the operational audit. Operational auditing, in its broadest sense, is the regular and
independent appraisal, by a staff of internal auditors, of the accounting, financial, and other
operations of a business.

iv) Personal observation:

In any preoccupation with the devices of managerial control, one should never overlook the
importance of control through personal observation.

v) PERT:
The Program (or Project) Evaluation and Review Technique, commonly abbreviated PERT, is a
is a method to analyze the involved tasks in completing a given project, especially the time
needed to complete each task, and identifying the minimum time needed to complete the total
project.

vi) GANTT CHART:

A Gantt chart is a type of bar chart that illustrates a project schedule. Gantt charts illustrate the
start and finish dates of the terminal elements and summary elements of a project. Terminal
elements and summary elements comprise the work breakdown structure of the project. Some
Gantt charts also show the dependency (i.e., precedence network) relationships between
activities.

PRODUCTIVITY
Productivity refers to the ratio between the output from production processes to its input.
Productivity may be conceived of as a measure of the technical or engineering efficiency of
production. As such quantitative measures of input, and sometimes output, are emphasized.

Typical Productivity Calculations

Measures of size and resources may be combined in many different ways. The three common
approaches to defining productivity based on the model of Figure 2 are referred to as physical,
functional, and economic productivity. Regardless of the approach selected, adjustments may
be needed for the factors of diseconomy of scale, reuse, requirements churn, and quality at
delivery.
a) Physical Productivity

This is a ratio of the amount of product to the resources consumed (usually effort). Product may
be measured in lines of code, classes, screens, or any other unit of product. Typically, effort is
measured in terms of staff hours, days, or months. The physical size also may be used to
estimate software performance factors (e.g., memory utilization as a function of lines of code).

b) Functional Productivity

This is a ratio of the amount of the functionality delivered to the resources consumed
(usually effort). Functionality may be measured in terms of use cases, requirements, features, or
function points (as appropriate to the nature of the software and the development method).
Typically, effort is measured in terms of staff hours, days, or months. Traditional measures of
Function Points work best with information processing systems. The effort involved in
embedded and scientific software is likely to be underestimated with these measures, although
several variations of Function Points have been developed that attempt to deal with this issue.

c) Economic Productivity

This is a ratio of the value of the product produced to the cost of the resources used to
produce it. Economic productivity helps to evaluate the economic efficiency of an organization.
Economic productivity usually is not used to predict project cost because the outcome can be
affected by many factors outside the control of the project, such as sales volume, inflation,
interest rates, and substitutions in resources or materials, as well as all the other factors that
affect physical and functional measures of productivity. However, understanding economic
productivity is essential to making good decisions about outsourcing and subcontracting. The
basic calculation of economic productivity is as follows:

Economic Productivity = Value/Cost

PROBLEMS IN MEASUREMENT OF PRODUCTIVITY OF KNOWLEDGE WORKERS

Productivity implies measurement, which in turn, is an essential step in the control
process. Although there is a general agreement about the need for improving productivity, there
is little consensus about the fundamental causes of the problem and what to do about them.
The blame has been assigned to various factors. Some people place it on the greater proportion
of less skilled workers with respect to the total labor force, but others disagree. There are those
who see cutback in research and the emphasis on immediate results as the main culprit.
Another reason given for the productivity dilemma is the growing affluence of people, which
makes them less ambitious. Still others cite the breakdown in family structure, the workers’
attitudes, and government policies and regulations. Another problem is that the measurement of
skills work is relatively easy, but it becomes more difficult for knowledge work. The difference
between the two kinds is the relative use of knowledge and skills.

COST CONTROL
Cost control is the measure taken by management to assure that the cost objectives set
down in the planning stage are attained and to assure that all segments of the organization
function in a manner consistent with its policies.

Steps involved in designing process of cost control system:

Establishing norms: To exercise cost control it is essential to establish norms, targets or
parameters which may serve as yardsticks to achieve the ultimate objective. These
standards, norms or targets may be set on the basis of research, study or past actual.
Appraisal: The actual results are compared with the set norms to artain the degree of
utilization of men, machines and materials. The deviations are analyzed so as to arrive at
the causes which are controllable and uncontrollable.
Corrective measures: The variances are reviewed and remedial measures or revision of
targets, norms, standards etc., as required are taken.

Advantages of cost control

Better utilization of resources
To prepare for meeting a future competitive position.
Reasonable price for the customers
Firm standing in domestic and export markets.
Improved methods of production and use of latest manufacturing techniques which have
the effect of rising productivity and minimizing cost.
 By a continuous search for improvement creates proper climate for the increase
efficiency.
Improves the image of company for long-term benefits.
Improve the rate of return on investment.

PURCHASE CONTROL
Purchase control is an element of material control. Material procurement is known as the
purchase function. The functional responsibility of purchasing is that of the purchase manager
or the purchaser. Purchasing is an important function of materials management because in
purchase of materials, a substantial portion of the company's finance is committed which affects
cash flow position of the company. Success of a business is to a large extent influenced by the
efficiency of its purchase organization. The advantages derived from a good and adequate
system of the purchase control are as follows:

Continuous availability of materials: It ensures the continuous flow of materials. so

production work may not be held up for want of materials. A manufacturer can complete
schedule of production in time.
Purchasing of right quantity: Purchase of right quantity of materials avoids locking up of
working capital. It minimizes risk of surplus and obsolete stores. It means there should not be
possibility of overstocking and understocking.
Purchasing of right quality: Purchase of materials of proper quality and specification avoids
waste of materials and loss in production. Effective purchase control prevents wastes and
losses of materials right from the purchase till their consumptions. It enables the management to
reduce cost of production.
Economy in purchasing: The purchasing of materials is a highly specialized function. By
purchasing materials at reasonable prices, the efficient purchaser is able to make a valuable
contribution to the success of a business.
Works as information centre: It serves as a function centre on the materials knowledge
relating to prices, sources of supply, specifications, mode of delivery, etc. By providing
continuous information to the management it is possible to prepare planning for production.
Development of business relationship: Purchasing of materials from the best market and
from reliable suppliers develops business relationships. The result is that there may be smooth
supply of materials in time and so it avoid disputes and financial losses.
 Finding of alternative source of supply: If a particular supplier fails to supply the materials
in time, it is possible to develop alternate sources of supply. the effect of this is that the
production work is not disturbed.
Fixing responsibilities: Effective purchase control fix the responsibilities of operating units
and individuals connected with the purchase, storage and handling of materials.

In short, the basic objective of the effective purchase control is to ensure continuity of supply of
requisite quantity of material, to avoid held up of production and loss in production and at the
same time reduces the ultimate cost of the finished products.

MAINTENANCE CONTROL
Maintenance department has to excercise effective cost control, to carry out the
maintenance functions in a pre-specified budget, which is possible only through the following
measures:

First line supervisors must be apprised of the cost information of the various materials so that
the objective of the management can be met without extra expenditure on maintenance
functions

A monthly review of the budget provisions and expenditures actually incurred in respect of each
center/shop will provide guidlines to the departmental head to exercise better cost control.
The total expenditure to be incurred can be uniformly spread over the year for better budgetary
control. however, the same may not be true in all cases particularly where overhauling of
equipment has to be carried out due to unforseen breakdowns. some budgetary provisions must
be set aside, to meet out unforeseen exigencies.

The controllable elements of cost such as manpower cost and material cost can be discussed
with the concerned personnel, which may help in reducing the total cost of maintenance.
Emphasis should be given to reduce the overhead expenditures, as other expenditures cannot
be compromised.

It is observed through studies that the manpower cost is normally fixed, but the same way
increase due to overtime cost. however, the material cost, which is the prime factor in
maintenance cost, can be reduced by timely inspections designed, to detect failures. If the
inspection is carried out as per schedule, the total failure of parts may be avoided, which
otherwise would increase the maintenance cost. the proper handling of the equipment by the
operators also reduces the frequency of repair and material requirements. Operators, who
check their equipment regularly and use it within the operating limits, can help avoid many
unwanted repairs. In the same way a good record of equipment failures/ maintenance would
indicate the nature of failures, which can then be corrected even permanently.

QUALITY CONTROL
Quality control refers to the technical process that gathers, examines, analyze & report
the progress of the project & conformance with the performance requirements

The steps involved in quality control process are

Determine what parameter is to be controlled.
Establish its criticality and whether you need to control before, during or after results are
produced.
Establish a specification for the parameter to be controlled which provides limits of
acceptability and units of measure.
Produce plans for control which specify the means by which the characteristics will be
achieved and variation detected and removed.
Organize resources to implement the plans for quality control.
Install a sensor at an appropriate point in the process to sense variance from
specification.
Collect and transmit data to a place for analysis.
Verify the results and diagnose the cause of variance.
Propose remedies and decide on the action needed to restore the status quo.
Take the agreed action and check that the variance has been corrected.

Advantages and disadvantages

Advantages include better products and services ultimately establishing a good
reputation for a company and higher revenue from having more satisfied customers.
Disadvantages include needing more man power/operations to maintain quality control
and adding more time to the initial process.
PLANNING OPERATIONS
An operational planning is a subset of strategic work plan. It describes short-term ways
of achieving milestones and explains how, or what portion of, a strategic plan will be put into
operation during a given operational period, in the case of commercial application, a fiscal year
or another given budgetary term. An operational plan is the basis for, and justification of an
annual operating budget request. Therefore, a five-year strategic plan would need five
operational plans funded by five operating budgets.
Operational plans should establish the activities and budgets for each part of the organization
for the next 1 – 3 years. They link the strategic plan with the activities the organization will
deliver and the resources required to deliver them.
An operational plan draws directly from agency and program strategic plans to describe agency
and program missions and goals, program objectives, and program activities. Like a strategic
plan, an operational plan addresses four questions:
Where are we now?
Where do we want to be?
How do we get there?
How do we measure our progress?
The OP is both the first and the last step in preparing an operating budget request. As the first
step, the OP provides a plan for resource allocation; as the last step, the OP may be modified to
reflect policy decisions or financial changes made during the budget development process.
Operational plans should be prepared by the people who will be involved in implementation.
There is often a need for significant cross-departmental dialogue as plans created by one part of
the organization inevitably have implications for other parts. Operational plans should contain:

clear objectives
activities to be delivered
quality standards
desired outcomes
staffing and resource requirements
implementation timetables
a process for monitoring progress.
2 & 16 MARKS QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS
PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT
 Part – A (2 Marks)

UNIT -I

1. What is Management?
Management is the process of planning, Organizing, Directing, Staffing and
controlling the various activities of the people to achieve the objectives of an
organization.

2. Define Management.
“Management is the process of designing and maintaining of an environment in
which individuals working together in groups efficiently accomplish selected aims”.

3. Write some characteristics of Management?

Management is a continuous process. Manager use the resources of organization both
physical as well as human achieve the goal. Management aims act achieving the
organization goals by ensuring effective use of resources.

4. Write any two points favor for management as a science

Management principle should be verified. Reliable basis for predicting future.

5. What is time study?

The movement which take minimum time is the best one.

6. What is motion study?

Taylor suggested that the eliminating wasteful movements and performing only
necessary movement.

7. What is authority?
It is the power given to a person to get work from his subordinates.

8. What is responsibility?
It is the amount of work from a man by his superior.

9. Comment: Management is both –A science and an art

Management is a science because it contains general principles. It is also an art
because it requires certain personal skills achieve desired result.

10. What is centralization?

The organization is centralized when the power is concentrated with one person.

11. What is decentralization?

If the power is fully distributed to the subordinates of the organization.

12. What is Esprit-de-corps?

This means union is strength. In organization employees should be harmony and
unity.
What are the various levels of management?
Top level management.
2)Middle level management.
3)lower level management.

Write some important functions of top level management? 1)To

formulate goals and policies of the company.
2)To formulate budgets.
3)To appoint top executives.

Write the functions of management?

Planning.
Organizing.
Staffing.
coordinating.
controlling.

Define sole proprietorship?

The sole proprietorship is that form of business organization which owned and
controlled by a single individual.

17. What is partnership?

A partnership is an association of two or more persons to carry on business and to
share its profit and losses in an agreed ratio.

18. What is joint stock company?

Joint stock company is association of many persons who contribute money worth to
common stock and explaining source trade and also share the profit and losses.

19. What is private limited company?

A private limited company is a company which has a minimum paid up capital dory
be prescribed.

20. White is a co-operative society?

It is a voluntary association of persons for mutual benefit and it aims are
accomplished through self heap and collective effort.
21. What is a social responsibility?
Society is the part of the management to interact actions wither to protect social
interest a society.
UNIT - II
22. Define planning.
Planning is the process of selecting the objectives and determining the course of
action required to achieve these objectives.

23. What are the main objective of planning?

Planning is a primary function of organization It helps in achieving objectives It done
to cope with uncertainty and change. It helps in facilitating control It helps in
coordination Planning increases organization effectiveness Planning guides in decision
making.
Define “Mission”
Mission may be defined as “a statement which defines the role that an organization
plays in the society”

Define “objectives”
The term “objective” or “goals” are often used interchangeably. Objective are the end
results towards which the activities of attain its objectives.

26. What is mean by strategy?

Strategy of an organization is the programmers of action and deployment of resources
to attain its objectives.

27. What are the factors to be considered while formulating strategies? Mission
and objectives of an organization. Values, aspiration and prejudices of top
level management. Opportunities and threats of the external environment, Strength and
weakness of the firm in various aspects such as funds, organization structure, human
talent, technology etc.

Define “policies”
Policies are general statement or understanding which provide guidance in
decision making to various managers.

29. What is procedure?

Procedure is a chronological order of action required to implement a policy and to
achieve an objectives.

30. What is programme?

Programme is a broad term which includes goals , polices , procedure , rules , task
assignment , step to be taken, resources to be employed to carryout a given course of
action.

31. Define budgets.

A budget is a statement of expected result in numerical terms and therefore, it may be
referred as a numerical programmer.

32. What is objective?

Objectives are the aims, purposes or goals that an organization wants to achieve over
varying period of time.

What is MBO?
MBO is a process whereby the superior and the superior and the subordinate manager of
an enterprise jointly identify its common goals, define each individuals major areas of
responsibility in terms of result expected of him , and use these measures as guides for
operating the unit and the contribution of each of its members is assessed.

What do you mean by “strategy”?

A strategy may also be defined as a special type of plan prepared for meeting
the challenge posted by the activities of competitors and other environmental forces.
35. What are the major kinds of strategies and policies?
Growth, Finance, organization, personnel, products or service and market.

36. Write down any four factors which leads to fail of strategic planning.
Managers are inadequately prepare for strategic planning. The information for
preparing the plans is insufficient for planning for action. The goals of the Organization
are too vague. The business units are not clearly identified.

37. What is planning premises ?

The assumptions about future derived from forecasting and used in planning are
known as planning premises.

What are the practices made in making effective premising?

Selection of premises.
Collection of information..
Development of alternative premises for contingency
planning. Verification of the consistency of premises.
Communication of planning premises.

Explain the term decision and decision making?

A decision may be a direction to other to do or not to do.. Decision making is defined
as the process of choosing a course of action from among alternatives to achieve a
desired goal. It is one of the functions of management and also a core process of
planning. The management executive takes a number of decisions every day. Thus, a
decisions may be rational or irrational. The best one is selected out of the available
alternatives.

40. How would you evaluate the importance of a decision?

Decision making is a selection process. The best alternative is selected out of many
available alternatives. Decision –making is a goal –oriented process. Decisions are made
to achieve some goal or objective.
Decision making is the end process. It is preceded by detailed discussion and
selection of alternatives. Decision making is a human and rational process involving the
application of intellectual ablates. It involves deep thinking and foreseeing things.
Decision making is a dynamic process. An individual takes a number of decisions
each day.

Mention the three approaches generally adapted by managers in selections an alternative?

Quantitative and Qualitative analysis.
Marginal analysis.
Cost effectiveness analysis.
 UNIT - III
42. Define Organizing
Organizing is the process of identifying and grouping of activities required to attain
objectivities , delegating authority, creating the responsibility and establishing
relationship for the people to work effectively.

43. What do you understand by effective organizing?

Effective organizing focuses on finding in present organizing avoids organizational
inflexibility and makes the staff work effective by avoiding conflicts by clarification.

How informal organization characteristics differ from formal organization? It

arises without any external cause
It is created on the basis of some similarity among the member. The bases of
similarity may be age, sex, place of birth, caste, religion, liking/ disliking etc…
Informal organization has no place in the organization chart.
It is one of the parts of total organization.

45. What is span control?

Span of control means the number of people managed effective by a single superior
in an organization. The term “Span of control” is also known as “Span of management”,
“span of authority”, and “Span of responsibility”. But span of management is a better
term because control and supervision are elements of management.

46. What is matrix structure?

Matrix structure is a hybrid organizational form, containing characteristics of both
project and functional structures.

47. How can we define power?

“Power is the probability that one actor with in the relationship will be in a position
to carry out his own despite resistance”.

48. What is line authority?

Line authority is the direct authority which a superior exercises over a number of
subordinates to carry out orders and instruction. In organization process, authority is
delegated to the individuals to perform the activities.

49. What is staff authority?

The relationship between a staff manager with whom he works depends in part on the
staff duties.

50. Define staffing.

Staffing is the part of the management process which is concerned with the
procurement utilization, maintenance and development of large satisfied work force on
the organization.

51. Define Human resource planning.

“Human resource planning is the process by which an organization ensures that it has
the right number and all kind of people at the right place at the right time, capable of
effectively and efficiently completion, those tasks that will help the organization achieve
its overall objectives”.
52. What is job analysis?
Job analysis is a detailed study of a job to identify the skills, experience and aptitude
required for the job.

53. What is job design?

The job design is usually broad enough to accommodate people’s needs and desires.

Define : Recruitment
B. Flippo define recruitment as “The process of searching for prospective employees
and stimulating to apply for jobs in the organization”.

What is selection?
Selection is the process of finding out the most suitable candidate to the job out of the
candidates attracted.

What is grading method?

It is one of the trait-based appraisal method. The actual performance of the employees is
measured against these grades. This method is generally useful for promotion based on
performance.

What is mean by resources allocation?

Manager is responsible for allocation of money, material and human resource in the
organization. He utilizes minimum resource to give maximum profit to the organization.

58. Define the Peter principle.

The principle states that every person in a hierarchy tends to rise to the level of his
incompetence.

59. Define :Training

According to B.Flippo “Training is the act of increasing the knowledge and skill of
an employee for doing a particular job”.

60. Define ; Organizational conflict .

According to Stephen “conflict is a process in which an effort is purposefully made
by one person or unit to block another that result in frustrating the attainment of others
goals of the furthering of his or her interests.

61. What is managerial grid?

Managerial grid is behavioral theory of leadership. It plays an important role in
managerial behavior in organizational development.
 UNIT-IV

62. What is meant by the term directing?

Directing may be defined as the process of instructing, guiding and inspiring human
factors in the organization objectives. It is not only issuing orders and instructions by a
superior to his subordinates but also including process of guiding and inspiring them to
work effectively.

List down the human factors in managing?

Multiplicity of roles.
Individuality.
Personal dignity.

Define creativity.
Creativity is defined as the ability to produce new and useful ideas through the
components in novel and non obvious ways. Creativity exists throughout the populations,
largely independent of age, sex and education.

65. What is a SCAMPER tool?

SCAMPER is a checklist that helps us to think of changes. We can make to an
existing product to create a new one. These changes can be used either as direct
suggestions or as starting points for lateral thinking.

66. What is meant by reframing matrix?

Reframing Matrix is a simple technique that helps to look at business problems from
a number of different viewpoints. It expands the range of creative solutions that you can
generate. The approach relies on the fact that different people with different experience
approach problems in different ways.

State the function of mind mapping tool?

This tool is similar to concept fan except looking one step back from main topic .A
mindmap consists of a central word or concept with 5 to10 main ideas that relate to that
word , similar to creating a spider-web.

Mention the use of DO IT process for creativity?

DO IT is a process for creativity. Techniques explained earlier in this chapter focus
on specific aspects of creative thinking. DO IT bundles them together introduce formal
methods of problem definition and evaluation. These help you to get the best out of the
creativity techniques. DO IT is an acronym that stands for:

D – Define problem
O – Open mind and apply creative techniques
I _ Identify best solution
T _ Transform

Differentiate innovation and invention. Innovation

means the use of creative ideas.
Invention means really finding new things which are not already available.
How can be harmonizing objectives achieved?
Mutual trust.
Cooperation and understanding.
Worker’s participation in management, and
Balancing the objectives of the organization with those of individuals.

Define “multiplicity of roles”.

Individuals are not only the productive factor in management’s plans. They are
members of social system of many organizations.

72. What is meant by Brain storming?

Brainstorming is an excellent way of developing many creative solutions to a
problem. It works by focusing on a problem, and then coming up with very many radical
solutions to it. The essence of brainstorming is a creative conference, ideally of a to 8
to12 people meeting for less than an hour to develop a long listed without criticism on a
backboard or newsprint as they are offered ; one visible idea leads to others. At the end
of this session, participants are asked how the ideas could be combined or improve.

73. Define motivation

According to koontz O’Donnell, “Motivation is a general terms applying to the entire
class of drives, desires, needs wishes and similar forces that induce an individual or a
group of people to work”

Names the steps involved in motivation process.

Analysis of situation.
Preparing, selecting and applying a set of appropriate motivating
tools. Follow up.

What are the types of motivation

Positive motivation
Negative motivation
Extrinsic motivation
Intrinsic motivation

76. What is job enrichment?

Job enrichment is therefore based on the assumptions that in order to motivate
personnel, the job itself must provide opportunities achievement, recognition,
responsibility, advancement and growth.

77. Define Leadership.

Leadership is the process of influencing the behavior of others towards the
accomplishment of goals in a given situation.

List out few leadership traits The

Michigan studies
The Ohio state university
studies The managerial grid
State House’s path- goal approach.
Leaders are effective because of the influence on the followers motivation, ability to
perform and their satisfaction.

80. What is Laissez- faire?

Complete freedom is given to the subordinate so that they plan, motivate, control and
otherwise be responsible for their own action.

81. What is communication?

Communication is the passing of information from one person to another person.

Name the various types of communication

Downward communication Upward
communication Horizontal or
Lateral communication

UNIT - V
83. Define control?
According to Knootz “Controlling to the measurement and correction of performance
in order to make sure that enterprise objectives and the plans devised to attain them are
accomplished”.

Why need of control in the organization?

Control process is universal.
Control is a continuous process.
Control is action based. Control
is forward looking.

Why need of control in the organization? Control

can minimize the mistake.
To discover the deviations in the management
To discover and control the minimal dishonest behavior of employees

What are the Inter –relationship between planning and end with control?
The management process of adjusting future action on the basis of information about
past performance. Control helps in achieving them.

87. What is Feedback Control?

Feedback control is the process of adjusting future action on the basis of information
about past performance.

88. What is management by exception?

Actual performance compare with the standard performance deviations which can not
significant should be avoid.

89. What is concurrent control?

This control measures for taking corrective action while an programme meet any
obstacle in this activities.
90. What is feed forward control?
It is preventive in nature. This control involves evaluation of inputs and taking
corrective action before a particular operation is completed.

91. What is direct labour Budget?

Direct labour Budget reveals the expected labour requirements during the budget
period.

92. What is fixed Budget?

In this budget in which targets are rigidly fixed .This is a forecast of the targets for
the coming years prepared well in advance.

93. What is flexible budget?

A flexible budget is a budget designed to change in the level of activity.

94. What is Internal Audit?

Internal audit is done by an internal auditors who is an employee of the organization.
He examines the objectives, policies, plans procedures and performance of the
management.

95. Define Productivity?

Productivity is a measure of how much input is required to produce a given output.
i.e. the ratio (output/input) is called productivity.

96. Define: OR.

Operation Research is a systematic analysis of a problem through scientific methods,
carried out by appropriate specialists ,working together. As a team, finding an optimum
and the most appropriate solution to meet the given set of constraints.

97. What is JIT ?

Just In Time Inventory system. In this method the suppliers deliver the materials to
the production spot just in time to be assembled .This method reduces cost of inventory.

98. What is value engineering?

It is a special type of cost reduction and product improved technique.

99. What is preventive control?

An efficient manager applies the skills in managerial philosophy to eliminate
undesirable activated which are the reasons for poor management.

Define : Multinational corporation.?

“An enterprise which own or control production or service facilities outside the
country in which they are based”.
 Part – B (16 Marks)
UNIT-I

1. Explain the contribution of F.W.Taylor to scientific management.

Frederick Taylor (1856-1915), developer of scientific management. Scientific

management (also called Taylorism or the Taylor system) is a theory of management
that analyzes and synthesizes workflows, with the objective of improving labor
productivity. The core ideas of the theory were developed by Frederick Winslow Taylor
in the 1880s and 1890s, and were first published in his monographs, Shop Management
(1905) and The Principles of Scientific Management (1911). Taylor believed that
decisions based upon tradition and rules of thumb should be replaced by precise
procedures developed after careful study of an individual at work. Its application is
contingent on a high level of managerial control over employee work practices.

Taylorism is a variation on the theme of efficiency; it is a late 19th and early 20th
century instance of the larger recurring theme in human life of increasing efficiency,
decreasing waste, and using empirical methods to decide what matters, rather than
uncritically accepting pre-existing ideas of what matters. Thus it is a chapter in the larger
narrative that also includes, for example, the folk wisdom of thrift, time and motion
study, Fordism, and lean manufacturing. It overlapped considerably with the Efficiency
Movement, which was the broader cultural echo of scientific management's impact on
business managers specifically.

In management literature today, the greatest use of the concept of Taylorism is as a

contrast to a new, improved way of doing business. In political and sociological terms,
Taylorism can be seen as the division of labor pushed to its logical extreme, with a
consequent de-skilling of the worker and dehumanisation of the workplace.

General approach

Shift in decision making from employees to managers

Develop a standard method for performing each job
Select workers with appropriate abilities for each job
Train workers in the standard method previously developed
Support workers by planning their work and eliminating interruptions
Provide wage incentives to workers for increased output

Contributions

Scientific approach to business management and process improvement

Importance of compensation for performance
Began the careful study of tasks and jobs
Importance of selection criteria by management

Elements

Labor is defined and authority/responsibility is legitimised/official

Positions placed in hierarchy and under authority of higher level
Selection is based upon technical competence, training or experience
 Actions and decisions are recorded to allow continuity and memory
Management is different from ownership of the organization
Managers follow rules/procedures to enable reliable/predictable behavior

Criticisms

Did not appreciate the social context of work and higher needs of workers.
Did not acknowledge variance among individuals.
Tended to regard workers as uninformed and ignored their ideas
and suggestions.

ȀȀȀȀȀȀ Elements and Tools of Scientific Management

Separation of planning and doing
Functional Foremanship
Job Analysis
Standardization
Scientific Selection and training of workers
Financial Incentives
Economy
Mental Revolution
ȀȀȀȀȀȀ Principles of Scientific Management
Replacing rule of thumb with science
Harmony in group action
Co-operation
Maximum output
Development of workers

Explain the contribution of Henry Fayol to modern management.

Fayolism is one of the first comprehensive statement of a general theory of

management, developed by the French management theorist Henri Fayol (1841–1925):
one of the most influential contributors to modern concepts of management,
Fayol has proposed that there are five primary functions of management: (1)
planning, (2) organizing, (3) commanding, (4) coordinating, and (5) controlling (Fayol,
1949, 1987). Controlling is described in the sense that a manager must receive feedback
on a process in order to make necessary adjustments.
Fayol's work has stood the test of time and has been shown to be relevant and
appropriate to contemporary management. Many of today’s management texts including
Daft (2005) have reduced the five functions to four: (1) planning, (2) organizing, (3)
leading, and (4) controlling. Daft's text is organized around Fayol's four functions.
The 6 types of Operations
For Fayol any Organisation can be subdivided into six types of Operations. Each
Operation being fulfilled by its corresponding Essential Function:
Technical Operations (production, manufacturing, transformation)
Commercial Operations (purchases, sales, exchanges)
Financial Operations (seek for capital and finance management)
Security Operations (protection of goods and people)
Accounting Operations (balance, P&L, cost control, statistics, etc)
 Administrative' Operations (Management)(see below The 5
Elements of Administration)
In 1925 six month before Henri Fayol’s death Verney helped Fayol redefine The
function of administration (Administration Industrielle et Generale). The old definition went
as follows: The activities involved in businesses can all be classified under one of the
following six headings: TECHNICAL, COMMERCIAL, FINANCIAL, SECURITY,
ACCOUNTING, ADMINISTRATIVE organization, command, coordination and control.
Compared with the new definition: The activities involved in businesses can all be classified
under one of the following five headings: TECHNICAL, COMMERCIAL, FINANCIAL,
SECURITY, ACCOUNTING These activities must be planned, organized, directed,
coordinated and controlled, in a word: administered. The removal of the distinction between
management and administration and the re-definition of administration, it appears that Fayol
had finally synthesized these two concepts. Therefore the previous difficulties with this
distinction no longer exist(Breeze, J., & Miner Jr., F.)

The 9 Levels
Fayol was representing an organisation like a living body (« corps social », ie.
"social body") with main organs hierarchically structured as follow:
Shareholders,
Board of Administration,
General Direction and its General staff (advisors),
Regional/local Directions,
Main Engineers,
Services Managers,
Workshops Managers,
Foremen,
Workers.

The 5 Elements of Administration

Popularized by Fayol with the acronym of POCCC:
Planning' (to foresee/anticipate and make plans)
Organisation (to provide the Function with all is needed for its
smooth running: Supplies, Tools, Funding, Employees)
Commandment (to lead the people employed by the organisation)
Coordination (to harmonise all actions of an Organisation in order to
facilitate its smooth running and success)
Control (to verify if everything happens in accordance with defined
plans, orders given, and accepted principles)

The word Control clearly provoked some misunderstanding by English-readers

because its 1st meaning in French is "to check" and its 2nd meaning is "to have a grip over".
And it is the other way round in English. So for the French-reader Fayol clearly meant
"Check everything!".
 For Fayol, "The Art of Commanding relies upon certain personal qualities and upon
the knowledge of management general principles. (...) It has, like all other arts, its degrees.
(...) The manager in charge of a commandment must:
have a deep knowledge of his staff;
cull the incapables;
well know the conventions binding the organisation and its members;
give the good example (by his attitude);
conduct regular inspections of the « corps social »;
get together his main partners in conferences (meetings) where are
prepared the Unity of Direction and the Focus of Efforts;
not be distracted by details;
8. aim to make prevalent among his staff, energy, initiative and «
dévouement»."
The 14 Principles of Administration
Division of work: Reduces the span of attention or effort for any one
person or group. Develops practice or routine and familiarity.
Authority: "The right to give orders. Should not be considered
without reference to responsibility."
Discipline: "Outward marks of respect in accordance with formal or
informal agreements between a firm and it's employees."
Unity of command: "One man one superior!"
Unity of direction: "One head and One plan for a group of activities
with the same objective."
Subordination of Individual Interests to the Common Interest:
"The interests of one individual or group should not prevail over the
general or common good."
Remuneration of personnel: "Pay should be fair to both the worker
as well as the organization."
Centralisation: "Is always present to a greater or lesser extent,
depending on the size of the company and the quality of its managers."
Scalar chain: "The line of authority from top to bottom of the
organization."
Order: "A place for everything and everything in its right place; ie.
the right man in the right place."
Equity: "A combination of kindness and justice towards employees."
Stability of personnel tenure: "Employees need to be given time to
settle in to their jobs, even though this may be a lengthy period in the
case of some managers."
Initiative: "Within the limits of authority and discipline, all levels of
staff should be encouraged to show initiative."
Esprit de corps (Union is strength): "Harmony is a great strength to
an organization; teamwork should be encouraged."
Fayol suggested that it is important to have unity of command: a concept that
suggests there should be only one supervisor for each person in an organization. Like
Socrates, Fayol suggested that management is a universal human activity that applies equally
well to the family as it does to the corporation.

3. What are the major functions of management explain.

Basic functions of management
Management operates through various functions, often classified as planning,
organizing, leading/directing, and controlling/monitoring.
Planning:
Deciding what needs to happen in the future (today, next week, next
month, next year, over the next 5 years, etc.) and generating plans for
action.
Organizing:
(Implementation) making optimum use of the resources required to
enable the successful carrying out of plans.
Staffing:
Job Analyzing, recruitment, and hiring individuals for appropriate
jobs.
Leading/directing:
Determining what needs to be done in a situation and getting people to
do it.
Controlling/Monitoring:
checking progress against plans, which may need modification based
on feedback.
Formation of the business policy
The mission of the business is its most obvious purpose -- which may be, for
example, to make soap.
The vision of the business reflects its aspirations and specifies its intended
direction or future destination.
The objectives of the business refers to the ends or activity at which a certain
task is aimed.
The business's policy is a guide that stipulates rules, regulations and
objectives, and may be used in the managers' decision-making. It must be
flexible and easily interpreted and understood by all employees.
The business's strategy refers to the coordinated plan of action that it is going
to take, as well as the resources that it will use, to realize its vision and long-
term objectives. It is a guideline to managers, stipulating how they ought to
allocate and utilize the factors of production to the business's advantage.
Initially, it could help the managers decide on what type of business they want
to form.
 How to implement policies and strategies
All policies and strategies must be discussed with all managerial personnel
and staff.
Managers must understand where and how they can implement their policies
and strategies.
A plan of action must be devised for each department.
Policies and strategies must be reviewed regularly.
Contingency plans must be devised in case the environment changes.
Assessments of progress ought to be carried out regularly by top-level
managers.
A good environment and team spirit is required within the business.
The missions, objectives, strengths and weaknesses of each department must
be analysed to determine their roles in achieving the business's mission.
The forecasting method develops a reliable picture of the business's future
environment.
A planning unit must be created to ensure that all plans are consistent and
that policies and strategies are aimed at achieving the same mission and
objectives.
Contingency plans must be developed, just in case.
All policies must be discussed with all managerial personnel and staff that is
required in the execution of any departmental policy.
Organizational change is strategically achieved through the implementation of
the eight-step plan of action established by John P. Kotter: Increase urgency,
get the vision right, communicate the buy-in, empower action, create short-
term wins, don't let up, and make change stick.
-----------------------------------------------

Explain management is an art or science both science and art.

Management as a Science
The following characteristics are essential for a subject to be recognized as a Science.
The existence of systematic body of knowledge with an array of principles
Based on Scientific enquiry
Principles should be verifiable
Reliable basis for predicting future events
Management as a discipline fulfills the science criterion. The application of these
principles helps any practicing manager to achieve the desired goals.

Science can be classified into two types they are:

Exact Science
Inexact Science
 Exact Science:
In this the results are Accurate. There is no scope for the probability.
In-Exact Science:
Every organization human resources are different in attitude, aspirations and
perceptions. So standard results may not be obtained.
Readymade and Standard Solutions cannot be obtained.
Management is complex and Unpredictable.
Every organization decisions are influenced by the environment. The
environment is so complex and prone to unexpected changes.
Management as a Science
Art means application of skjill in finding a desired result. Art is the way of doing
things skillfully. Management is an art because of the following facts.
Management process involves the use of practical knowledge and personal
skill.
Management is creative.
Application of practical knowledge helps to achieve concrete result
Management as both Science and Art
“Management is a science because it contains general principles. It is also an
art because it requires certain personal skills to achieve desired results.”

5. Explain the types of business organization.

In India, the following types of business entities are available:
Private Limited Company
Public Limited Company
Unlimited Company
Limited Liability Partnership (LLP)
Partnership
Sole Proprietorship
Liaison Office/Representative Office
Project Office
Branch Office
Joint Venture Company
Subsidiary Company
Both the Indian promoters and the foreign promoters can form the following business
entities: Private Limited Company, Public Limited Company, Limited Liability Partnership,
Unlimited Company, Partnership and Sole Proprietorship. The foreign companies also have
the options of forming the following type of business entities: Liaison Office/Representative
Office, Project Office, Branch Office, and Joint Venture Company. It must be noted that a
Joint Venture Company is not a separate type of legal entity; it could be either a Private
Limited Company, a Public Limited Company, or an Unlimited Company. Similarly a
wholly owned Subsidiary of a foreign company in India could be either a Private Limited
Company, a Public Limited Company, an Unlimited Company, or a Branch Office.
 For a foreign Investor in India it is very important to choose a right kind of business or
corporate entity which best suits its purposes and takes care of liability issues and tax
planning issues. Foreign Companies planning to do business in India should pay special
attention to Entry Strategies in India for Foreign Investors and corporate structuring to save
taxes to the best extent allowed by laws and international tax treaties.

It is also mandatory for foreign investors or foreign shareholders, both individuals and
corporate shareholders, to seek Government Approvals for Investing in India In some special
cases Foreign Investment Promotion Board, FIPB Approval for Foreign Investment in India
is required. In other cases Reserve Bank of India, RBI Approvals for Foreign Investment in
India is required. The sectors where RBI Approval for foreign investors is available under
automatic route can be found at FDI in India Sector wise Guide.

There are various steps required to establish a business in India, before and after
incorporation, as mentioned hereinafter. See also the Procedure for Formation of Company
in India. A Company in India can have foreign directors provided some conditions are
fulfilled. The directors of an Indian company, both Indian and foreigner directors, are
required to obtain Director Identification Number - DIN and Digital Signature Certificate -
DSC. There are some restrictions regarding issuing sweat equity for a company incorporated
in India.Also see Annual Corporate Filings in India for corporate maintenance requirements
in India.
Sole proprietorship
Partnership firm
Joint stock companies
Co-operative societies

UNIT - II
Give an account of various steps involved in planning?
Perception of opportunities
Establishing objectives
Planning premises
Identification of alternatives
Evaluation of alternatives
Choice of alternatives
Formulation of supporting plans
Establishing sequence of activities
 Steps involved in Planning

Identification of Opportunities

Establishment of Objectives

Developing Planning Premises

Identification of Alternatives

Evaluation of Alternatives

Selecting an Alternative

Formulating Dervative Plans

Establishing a Sequence of Activites

7. Explain the concept of MBO?

Management by Objectives (MBO) is a process of agreeing upon objectives within
an organization so that management and employees agree to the objectives and understand
what they are in the organization.
The term "management by objectives" was first popularized by Peter Drucker in his
1954 book 'The Practice of Management'.
The essence of MBO is participative goal setting, choosing course of actions and
decision making. An important part of the MBO is the measurement and the comparison of
the employee’s actual performance with the standards set. Ideally, when employees
themselves have been involved with the goal setting and the choosing the course of action to
be followed by them, they are more likely to fulfill their responsibilities.

Processof MBO
MBO is a system for achieving organizational objectives, enhancement of employee
commitment and participation.
Setting of Organizational Purpose and Objectives
Key Result Areas
 Setting Subordinate Goals
Matching Resources with Objectives
Apprisal
Recycling
Features and Advantages
Unique features and advantage of the MBO process
The principle behind Management by Objectives (MBO) is to create empowered
employees who have clarity of the roles and responsibilities expected from them, understand
their objectives to be achieved and thus help in the achievement of organizational as well as
personal goals.
Some of the important features and advantages of MBO are:
Clarity of goals
Clarity in Organizational actions
Personnel satisfaction
Basis of Organizational Change
Motivation – Involving employees in the whole process of goal setting
and increasing employee empowerment increases employee job
satisfaction and commitment.
Better communication and Coordination – Frequent reviews and
interactions between superiors and subordinates helps to maintain
harmonious relationships within the enterprise and also solve many
problems faced during the period.
well to be supposed if yet this management by objectives has certain advantages as
well as disadvantages, it is a virtual technique for effective management and it takes around
5 years to get mbo yielding results.

Domains and levels

Objectives can be set in all domains of activities (production, services, sales, R&D,
human resources, finance, information systems etc.).Some objectives are collective, for a
whole department or the whole company, others can be individualized.

Practice
Objectives need quantifying and monitoring. Reliable management information
systems are needed to establish relevant objectives and monitor their "reach ratio" in an
objective way. Pay incentives (bonuses) are often linked to results in reaching the objectives
Limitations
There are several limitations to the assumptive base underlying the impact of
managing by objectives, including:
Time and Cost
Fuilure to teach MBO
Problems in Objecive Setting
Emphasis on Short term Goals
Inlexibility
It over-emphasizes the setting of goals over the working of a plan as a driver of outcomes.
It underemphasizes the importance of the environment or context in which the goals are set. That
context includes everything from the availability and quality of resources, to relative buy-
in by leadership and stake-holders. As an example of the influence of management buy-
in as a contextual influencer, in a 1991 comprehensive review of thirty years of research
on the impact of Management by Objectives, Robert Rodgers and John Hunter concluded
that companies whose CEOs demonstrated high commitment to MBO showed, on
average, a 56% gain in productivity. Companies with CEOs who showed low
commitment only saw a 6% gain in productivity.
Companies evaluated their employees by comparing them with the "ideal" employee. Trait
appraisal only looks at what employees should be, not at what they should do.
It did not address the importance of successfully responding to obstacles and constraints as
essential to reaching a goal. The model didn’t adequately cope with the obstacles of:
Defects in resources, planning and methodology,
The increasing burden of managing the information organization challenge,
The impact of a rapidly changing environment, which could alter the landscape enough to
make yesterday’s goals and action plans irrelevant to the present.

Explain strategy formulation and implementation process.

Strategic planning process consists of the following
stages: Step1: Develop Mission and Objectives
Mission is the organizations purpose and fundamental reason for
existence. Before Formulating the strategy, the organization has to develop
clear mission and objectives
Step 2: Diagnise Internal and external Environment
In this diagnosis. The external environment is scanned for
technological development and changes in market condition.
Step 3: Situation Analysis
Include SWOT. The information required fopr conduting situational
analysis ca n be derived from a variety of sources such as government reports,
journals. Customers, suppliers, consultants and association meetings.
Step 4: Develop alternative Strategies
Develop Alternative strategies considering external and internal
environment, diversification, joint ventures strategic alliance, globalization,
retrenchment and liquidation are some of the possible alternative strategies
Step 5: Formulate Strategies
This step can further be categorised into three stages
Formulate Corporate Level Strategy
Formulate Business Level Strategy
Formulate Fuctional Level Strategy
Step 6: Implementing Strategy
 Strategy implementaion is the process of translation of strategies and
policies into action through the development of programmes, budgets and
procedures.
[Strategy may be implemented by Middle Level and Lower Level Management]

9. Explain decision makin

Problem Analysis vs. Decision Making
It's important to differentiate between problem analysis and decision making.
The concepts are completely separate of one another. Problem analysis must be
done first, then the information gathered in that process may be used towards
decision making.
Problem Analysis
Analyze performance, what should the results be against what they actually
are
Problems are merely deviations from performance standards
Problem must be precisely identified and described
Problems are caused by some change from a distinctive feature
Something can always be used to distinguish between what has and hasn't
been effected by a cause
Causes to problems can be deducted from relevant changes found in
analyzing the problem
Most likely cause to a problem is the one that exactly explains all the facts
Decision Making
Objectives must first be established
Objectives must be classified and placed in order of importance
Alternative actions must be developed
The alternative must be evaluated against all the objectives
The alternative that is able to achieve all the objectives is the tentative
decision
The tentative decision is evaluated for more possible consequences
The decisive actions are taken, and additional actions are taken to prevent
any adverse consequences from becoming problems and starting both
systems (problem analysis and decision making) all over again
Everyday techniques
Some of the decision making techniques people use in everyday life include:
Listing the advantages and disadvantages of each option, popularized
by Plato and Benjamin Franklin
Choosing the alternative with the highest probability-weighted utility
for each alternative (see Decision Analysis)
satisficing: Accepting the first option that seems like it might achieve
the desired result
Acquie to a person in authority or an "expert", just following orders
flipism: Flipping a coin, cutting a deck of playing cards, and other
random or coincidence methods
Prayer, tarot cards, astrology, augurs, revelation, or other forms of
divination
 Fig Represents - Rational Decision Making

UNIT – III

10. Distinguish between formal and informal organization.

Organizations are basically clasified on the basis of relationships. There are two types
of organizations formed on the basis of relationships in an organization
Formal Organization - This is one which refers to a structure of well defined
jobs each bearing a measure of authority and responsibility. It is a conscious
determination by which people accomplish goals by adhering to the norms
laid down by the structure. This kind of organization is an arbitrary set up in
which each person is responsible for his performance. Formal organization
has a formal set up to achieve pre- determined goals.
Informal Organization - It refers to a network of personal and social
relationships which spontaneously originates within the formal set up.
Informal organizations develop relationships which are built on likes, dislikes,
feelings and emotions. Therefore, the network of social groups based on
friendships can be called as informal organizations. There is no conscious
effort made to have informal organization. It emerges from the formal
organization and it is not based on any rules and regulations as in case of
formal organization.
Relationship between formal and informal organizations
For a concerns working both formal and informal organization are important. Formal
organization originates from the set organizational structure and informal organization
originates from formal organization. For an efficient organization, both formal and informal
organizations are required. They are the two phase of a same concern. Formal organization
can work independently. But informal organization depends totally upon the formal
organization. Formal and informal organization helps in bringing efficient working
organization and smoothness in a concern. Within the formal organization, the members
undertake the assigned duties in co- operation with each other. They interact and
communicate amongst themselves. Therefore, both formal and informal organizations are
important. When several people work together for achievement of organizational goals,
social tie ups tends to built and therefore informal organization helps to secure co-operation
by which goals can be achieved smooth. Therefore, we can say that informal organization
emerges from formal organization.

Formal and Informal Organization

Formal Organiation
The formal orgainzation describes the job of each individiual and relationship
between organiational members
Benefits of Formal Organization
Formal Organiation helps in implementing the objectives and policies
Effective Control can be made in these types of formal Organization
Formal Organiation helps to achieve individual goals in the frame work of
organizational goals
It is Larger in size
Informal Organization
There is no definite organization structure for informal orgainzation.
Ininformal organization individula and group goals are more important than
organization goals.
Functions of Informal Organization
It helps to preserve the integrity of the groups as a whole
It acts as an efective communication channel
It provides job satisfaction
It controls the social behaviour of the employees
Benefits of Informal Organization
Informal organizations encourage co-operation
Reduces the work load of managers
Informal Organizations provide job security and stability to an employee.
Disadvantages of Informal Organization
Informal Organization creates conflict between employees and employers
What are the needs for formal organization structure?
ȀȀȀȀȀȀ Facilitating management action
ȀȀȀȀȀȀ Encouraging efficiency
ȀȀȀȀȀȀ Communication
ȀȀȀȀȀȀ Optimum use of organizational resources
ȀȀȀȀȀȀ Stimulating creativity
ȀȀȀȀȀȀ Job satisfaction

What are the bases of departmentation?

Departmentation by Function
Grouping activites accorgint ot the function of the management is known as
functional departmentation. The basic organizational fucntions are finance, accounting,
purchasing, production and marketing
Advantages
Functional departmentation reduces communication and co-ordination
problems
It promotes high quality decision making
It increases job satisfaction of employees
Authority and responsibilty are clearly defined in functional
departmentation
Disadvantages
Co-ordination between functions of different departments is very
difficult
Results in inadequate communication between departments
Departmentation by Teritory or Geography
Grouping all the functions within a specific geographic area is known as
geograpic departmentaion. Geographic departmentations is very much suitable for
large organizations whose activites are geographically dispersed, Territorial
departmentation is suitable for automobile manufacturing, automobile assembly,
wholesaling and oil refining
Advantages
Production cost and sales prices are lower
Transportaiton cast can be reduced to a greater extent
Disadvantages
It is very difficult to co-ordinate across departments
Top management contorl over departments is very difficult

3. Departmentation by Customer
 In customer departmentaion, separate departments or divisions are made to
serve the needs of particular customers. Customer departmentaion is employed in
large ad complex orgaization.
Advantages
1.Customer departmention aims to satisfy the needs of the customers in
abetter and effective way
2.Managers can become experts in customers area
3.This enables to identify the key customers
4.It enables to understand customers needs.
Disadvantages
It is very difficult to achieve co-ordination across departments
It requires experts to solve customers problems
Grouping of customers into department is a difficult problem
Departmentation by Product
Product departmentation is suitable for large organizations of products or
product lines
5. Departmentation by Process
Activities are grouped according to the process involved. This suitable for
manufacturing enterprises.
For eg: the processes are drilling process, paintin process, etc..
6. Departmentation by Time
Grouping of activites on time basis is more common in many organization. In
organization there may be first shift, second shift and night shift. The tasks performed
by employees in each shift are similar. This type of departmentaion is generally
found in public utility services such as Railways, Hospitals, Call centers and in
Manufacturing Orgainzations.
7. Departmentation by Number
Grouping of activities on the basis of number prescribed for each unit is
known as departmention by numbers
Eg: In armysoldiers are grouped in Battalion, regiments, brigades, so on…
8. Matrix Departmention
A hybrid structure in which two or more forms of departmentaion are used
together is known as matrix departmentaion. In matrix organization there are dual
lines of authority. The matrix departmentaion is applicable in cinstructuion of
bridges, in aerospace projects, etc..
Martix Organiation is otherwuise known as Project Organization
 9. Strategic Business Unit
It is a Division of an organization that provides a distinct product or service and
has its own mission and goals

What are the factors affecting span of management?

Factors influencing larger span of management.
Work performed by subordinates is stable and routine.
Subordinates perform similar work tasks.
Subordinates are concentrated in a single location.
Subordinates are highly trained and need little direction in performing tasks.
Rules and procedures defining task activities are available.
Support systems and personnel are available for the managers.
Little time is required in non-supervisory activities such as coordination with
other departments or planning.
Managers' personal preferences and styles favour a large span.

ȀȀȀȀȀȀ Capacity of superior

ȀȀȀȀȀȀ Capacity of subordinates
ȀȀȀȀȀȀ Nature of work
ȀȀȀȀȀȀ Degree of decentralization
ȀȀȀȀȀȀ Degree of planning
ȀȀȀȀȀȀ Communication techniques
ȀȀȀȀȀȀ Use of staff assistance
ȀȀȀȀȀȀ Supervision from others

Explain the various selection process that are followed by an organization.

Employee Selection is the process of putting right men on right job. It is a

procedure of matching organizational requirements with the skills and qualifications of
people. Effective selection can be done only when there is effective matching. By
selecting best candidate for the required job, the organization will get quality
performance of employees. Moreover, organization will face less of absenteeism and
employee turnover problems. By selecting right candidate for the required job,
organization will also save time and money. Proper screening of candidates takes place
during selection procedure. All the potential candidates who apply for the given job are
tested.
But selection must be differentiated from recruitment ,though these are two
phases of employment process. Recruitment is considered to be a positive process as it
motivates more of candidates to apply for the job. It creates a pool of applicants. It is just
sourcing of data. While selection is a negative process as the inappropriate candidates are
rejected here. Recruitment precedes selection in staffing process. Selection involves
choosing the best candidate with best abilities, skills and knowledge for the required job
The Employee selection Process takes place in following order-
Preliminary Interviews- It is used to eliminate those candidates who do not
meet the minimum eligiblity criteria laid down by the organization. The skills,
academic and family background, competencies and interests of the candidate
 are examined during preliminary interview. Preliminary interviews are less
formalized and planned than the final interviews. The candidates are given a
brief up about the company and the job profile; and it is also examined how
much the candidate knows about the company. Preliminary interviews are
also called screening interviews.
Application blanks- The candidates who clear the preliminary interview are
required to fill application blank. It contains data record of the candidates
such as details about age, qualifications, reason for leaving previous job,
experience, etc.
Written Tests- Various written tests conducted during selection procedure
are aptitude test, intelligence test, reasoning test, personality test, etc. These
tests are used to objectively assess the potential candidate. They should not be
biased.
Employment Interviews- It is a one to one interaction between the
interviewer and the potential candidate. It is used to find whether the
candidate is best suited for the required job or not. But such interviews
consume time and money both. Moreover the competencies of the candidate
cannot be judged. Such interviews may be biased at times. Such interviews
should be conducted properly. No distractions should be there in room. There
should be an honest communication between candidate and interviewer.
Medical examination- Medical tests are conducted to ensure physical fitness
of the potential employee. It will decrease chances of employee absenteeism.
Appointment Letter- A reference check is made about the candidate selected
and then finally he is appointed by giving a formal appointment letter.

ȀȀȀȀȀȀ Screening of applications

ȀȀȀȀȀȀ Selection test
ȀȀȀȀȀȀ Interview
ȀȀȀȀȀȀ Checking of references
ȀȀȀȀȀȀ Physical examination
ȀȀȀȀȀȀ Approval by appropriate authority
ȀȀȀȀȀȀ Placement

What are the various sources of manpower supply in an organization.

Recruitment is of 2 types

Internal Recruitment – is a recruitment which takes place within the concern or

organization. Internal sources of recruitment are readily available to an
organization. Internal sources are primarily three – Transfers, promotions and Re-
employment of ex-employees. Re-employment of ex-employees is one of the
internal sources of recruitment in which employees can be invited and appointed
to fill vacancies in the concern. There are situations when ex-employees provide
unsolicited applications also.
Internal recruitment may lead to increase in employee’s productivity as their
motivation level increases. It also saves time, money and efforts. But a drawback
of internal recruitment is that it refrains the organization from new blood. Also,
not all the manpower requirements can be met through internal recruitment.
Hiring from outside has to be done.
Internal sources are primarily
3 a. Transfers
 Promotions (through Internal Job Postings) and
Re-employment of ex-employees - Re-employment of ex-employees is
one of the internal sources of recruitment in which employees can be
invited and appointed to fill vacancies in the concern. There are situations
when ex-employees provide unsolicited applications also.

External Recruitment – External sources of recruitment have to be solicited

from outside the organization. External sources are external to a concern. But it
involves lot of time and money .The external sources of recruitment include –
Employment at factory gate, advertisements, employment exchanges,
employment agencies, educational institutes, labour contractors,
recommendations etc.
Employment at Factory Level – This a source of external recruitment in
which the applications for vacancies are presented on bulletin boards
outside the Factory or at the Gate. This kind of recruitment is applicable
generally where factory workers are to be appointed. There are people
who keep on soliciting jobs from one place to another. These applicants
are called as unsolicited applicants. These types of workers apply on their
own for their job. For this kind of recruitment workers have a tendency to
shift from one factory to another and therefore they are called as “badli”
workers.
Advertisement – It is an external source which has got an important place
in recruitment procedure. The biggest advantage of advertisement is that it
covers a wide area of market and scattered applicants can get information
from advertisements. Medium used is Newspapers and Television.
Employment Exchanges – There are certain Employment exchanges
which are run by government. Most of the government undertakings and
concerns employ people through such exchanges. Now-a-days recruitment
in government agencies has become compulsory through employment
exchange.
Employment Agencies – There are certain professional organizations
which look towards recruitment and employment of people, i.e. these
private agencies run by private individuals supply required manpower to
needy concerns.
Educational Institutions – There are certain professional Institutions
which serves as an external source for recruiting fresh graduates from
these institutes. This kind of recruitment done through such educational
institutions, is called as Campus Recruitment. They have special
recruitment cells which helps in providing jobs to fresh candidates.
Recommendations – There are certain people who have experience in a
particular area. They enjoy goodwill and a stand in the company. There
are certain vacancies which are filled by recommendations of such people.
The biggest drawback of this source is that the company has to rely totally
on such people which can later on prove to be inefficient.
Labour Contractors – These are the specialist people who supply
manpower to the Factory or Manufacturing plants. Through these
contractors, workers are appointed on contract basis, i.e. for a particular
time period. Under conditions when these contractors leave the
organization, such people who are appointed have to also leave the
concern.
 UNIT-IV

Explain the theory of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.

Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a theory in psychology, proposed by Abraham
Maslow in his 1943 paper A Theory of Human Motivation. Maslow subsequently
extended the idea to include his observations of humans' innate curiosity. Maslow studied
what he called exemplary people such as Albert Einstein, Jane Addams, Eleanor
Roosevelt, and Frederick Douglass rather than mentally ill or neurotic people, writing
that "the study of crippled, stunted, immature, and unhealthy specimens can yield only a
cripple psychology and a cripple philosophy." Maslow also studied the healthiest 1% of
the college student population.
Maslow's theory was fully expressed in his 1954 book Motivation and
Personality.

Representations
Maslow's hierarchy of needs is often portrayed in the shape of a pyramid, with
the largest and lowest levels of needs at the bottom, and the need for self-
actualization at the top, also the needs for people.
Deficiency needs
The lower four layers of the pyramid contain what Maslow called "deficiency
needs" or "d-needs": physiological (including sexuality), security of position,
friendship and love, and esteem. With the exception of the lowest (physiological)
needs, if these "deficiency needs" are not met, the body gives no physical indication
but the individual feels anxious and tense.
Physiological needs
For the most part, physiological needs are obvious—they are the literal
requirements for human survival. If these requirements are not met (with the
exception of clothing and shelter), the human body simply cannot continue to
function.
Physiological needs include:
Breathing
Food
Sexual activity
 Homeostasis
Air, water, and food are metabolic requirements for survival in all animals,
including humans. The intensity of the human sexual instinct is shaped more by
sexual competition than maintaining a birth rate adequate to survival of the species.
The urge to have sex is so powerful that it can drain psychic energy away
from other necessary goals. Therefore every culture has to invest great efforts in
rechanneling and restraining it, and many complex social institutions exist only in
order to regulate this urge. The saying that "love makes the world go round" is a
polite reference to the fact that most of our deeds are impelled, either directly or
indirectly, by sexual needs.
—Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, Flow: The Psychology of Optimal
Experience Safety needs
With their physical needs relatively satisfied, the individual's safety needs
take precedence and dominate behavior. These needs have to do with people's
yearning for a predictable, orderly world in which injustice and inconsistency are
under control, the familiar frequent and the unfamiliar rare. In the world of work,
these safety needs manifest themselves in such things as a preference for job security,
grievance procedures for protecting the individual from unilateral authority, savings
accounts, insurance policies, and the like.
For most of human history many individuals have found their safety needs
unmet, but as of 2009 "First World" societies provide most with their satisfaction,
although the poor—both those who are poor as a class and those who are temporarily
poor (university students would be an example)—must often still address these needs.
Safety and Security needs include:
Personal security
Financial security
Health and well-being
Safety net against accidents/illness and their adverse impacts
Love and Belonging
After physiological and safety needs are fulfilled, the third layer of human
needs are social and involve feelings of belongingness. This aspect of Maslow's
hierarchy involves emotionally-based relationships in general, such as:
Friendship
Intimacy
Family
Humans need to feel a sense of belonging and acceptance, whether it comes
from a large social group, such as clubs, office culture, religious groups, professional
organizations, sports teams, gangs ("Safety in numbers"), or small social connections
(family members, intimate partners, mentors, close colleagues, confidants). They
need to love and be loved (sexually and non-sexually) by others. In the absence of
these elements, many people become suptible to loneliness, social anxiety, and
clinical depression. This need for belonging can often overcome the physiological
and security needs, depending on the strength of the peer pressure; an anorexic, for
example, may ignore the need to eat and the security of health for a feeling of control
and belonging.
 Esteem
All humans have a need to be respected and to have self-esteem and self-
respect. Also known as the belonging need, esteem presents the normal human desire
to be accepted and valued by others. People need to engage themselves to gain
recognition and have an activity or activities that give the person a sense of
contribution, to feel accepted and self-valued, be it in a profession or hobby.
Imbalances at this level can result in low self-esteem or an inferiority complex.
People with low self-esteem need respect from others. They may seek fame or glory,
which again depends on others. Note, however, that many people with low self-
esteem will not be able to improve their view of themselves simply by receiving
fame, respect, and glory externally, but must first accept themselves internally.
Psychological imbalances such as depression can also prevent one from obtaining
self-esteem on both levels.
Most people have a need for a stable self-respect and self-esteem. Maslow
noted two versions of esteem needs, a lower one and a higher one. The lower one is
the need for the respect of others, the need for status, recognition, fame, prestige, and
attention. The higher one is the need for self-respect, the need for strength,
competence, mastery, self-confidence, independence and freedom. The latter one
ranks higher because it rests more on inner competence won through experience.
Deprivation of these needs can lead to an inferiority complex, weakness and
helplessness.
Maslow stresses the dangers associated with self-esteem based on fame and
outer recognition instead of inner competence. He sees healthy self-respect as based
on earned respect.
Self-actualization
“What a man can be, he must be”. This forms the basis of the perceived need
for self-actualization. This level of need pertains to what a person's full potential is
and realizing that potential. Maslow describes this desire as the desire to become
more and more what one is, to become everything that one is capable of becoming..
This is a broad definition of the need for self-actualization, but when applied to
individuals the need is specific. For example one individual may have the strong
desire to become an ideal parent, in another it may be expressed athletically, and in
another it may be expressed in painting, pictures, or inventions. As mentioned before,
in order to reach a clear understanding of this level of need one must first not only
achieve the previous needs, physiological, safety, love, and esteem, but master these
needs. Below are Maslow’s descriptions of a self-actualized person’s different needs
and personality traits.

Explain McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y

THEORY X AND THEORY Y

In 1960, Douglas McGregor formulated Theory X and Theory Y suggesting two
aspects of human behaviour at work, or in other words, two different views of individuals
(employees): one of which is negative, called as Theory X and the other is positive, so
called as Theory Y. According to McGregor, the perception of managers on the nature of
individuals is based on various assumptions.
Assumptions of Theory X
 An average employee intrinsically does not like work and tries to escape it
whenever possible.
Since the employee does not want to work, he must be persuaded, compelled,
or warned with punishment so as to achieve organizational goals. A close
supervision is required on part of managers. The managers adopt a more
dictatorial style.
Many employees rank job security on top, and they have little or no
aspiration/ ambition.
Employees generally dislike responsibilities.
Employees resist change.
An average employee needs formal direction.
Assumptions of Theory Y
Employees can perceive their job as relaxing and normal. They exercise their
physical and mental efforts in an inherent manner in their jobs.
Employees may not require only threat, external control and coercion to work,
but they can use self-direction and self-control if they are dedicated and
sincere to achieve the organizational objectives.
If the job is rewarding and satisfying, then it will result in employees’ loyalty
and commitment to organization.
An average employee can learn to admit and recognize the responsibility. In
fact, he can even learn to obtain responsibility.
The employees have skills and capabilities. Their logical capabilities should
be fully utilized. In other words, the creativity, resourcefulness and innovative
potentiality of the employees can be utilized to solve organizational problems.
Thus, we can say that Theory X presents a pessimistic view of employees’ nature and
behaviour at work, while Theory Y presents an optimistic view of the employees’
nature and behaviour at work. If correlate it with Maslow’s theory, we can say that
Theory X is based on the assumption that the employees emphasize on the
physiological needs and the safety needs; while Theory X is based on the assumption
that the social needs, esteem needs and the self-actualization needs dominate the
employees.
McGregor views Theory Y to be more valid and reasonable than Theory X. Thus, he
encouraged cordial team relations, responsible and stimulating jobs, and participation
of all in decision-making process.
Implications of Theory X and Theory Y
Quite a few organizations use Theory X today. Theory X encourages use of tight
control and supervision. It implies that employees are reluctant to organizational
changes. Thus, it does not encourage innovation.
Many organizations are using Theory Y techniques. Theory Y implies that the
managers should create and encourage a work environment which provides
opportunities to employees to take initiative and self-direction. Employees should be
given opportunities to contribute to organizational well-being. Theory Y encourages
 decentralization of authority, teamwork and participative decision making in an
organization. Theory Y searches and discovers the ways in which an employee can
make significant contributions in an organization. It harmonizes and matches
employees’ needs and aspirations with organizational needs and aspirations.

18. Explain Hertzbergs Two Factor Theory or Hygeine Theory

In 1959, Frederick Herzberg, a behavioural scientist proposed a two-factor theory or

the motivator-hygiene theory. According to Herzberg, there are some job factors that
result in satisfaction while there are other job factors that prevent dissatisfaction.
According to Herzberg, the opposite of “Satisfaction” is “No satisfaction” and the
opposite of “Dissatisfaction” is “No Dissatisfaction”.

FIGURE: Herzberg’s view of satisfaction and dissatisfaction

Herzberg classified these job factors into two categories-

a.Hygiene factors- Hygiene factors are those job factors which are
essential for existence of motivation at workplace. These do not lead to positive
satisfaction for long-term. But if these factors are absent / if these factors are non-
existant at workplace, then they lead to dissatisfaction. In other words, hygiene
factors are those factors which when adequate / reasonable in a job, pacify the
employees and do not make them dissatisfied. These factors are extrinsic to work.
Hygiene factors are also called as dissatisfiers or maintenance factors as they are
required to avoid dissatisfaction. These factors describe the job environment / nario.
The hygiene factors symbolized the physiological needs which the individuals
wanted and expected to be fulfilled. Hygiene factors include:
Pay- The pay or salary structure should be appropriate and reasonable. It
must be equal and competitive to those in the same industry in the same domain.
Company Policies and administrative policies- The company policies
should not be too rigid. They should be fair and clear. It should include flexible
working hours, dress code, breaks, vacation, etc.
Fringe benefits- The employees should be offered health care plans
(mediclaim), benefits for the family members, employee help programmes, etc.
Physical Working conditions- The working conditions should be safe,
clean and hygienic. The work equipments should be updated and well-maintained.
 Status- The employees’ status within the organization should be familiar
and retained.
Interpersonal relations-The relationship of the employees with his peers,
superiors and subordinates should be appropriate and acceptable. There should be no
conflict or humiliation element present.
Job Security- The organization must provide job security to the
employees.

b.Motivational factors- According to Herzberg, the hygiene factors

cannot be regarded as motivators. The motivational factors yield positive satisfaction.
These factors are inherent to work. These factors motivate the employees for a
superior performance. These factors are called satisfiers. These are factors involved
in performing the job. Employees find these factors intrinsically rewarding. The
motivators symbolized the psychological needs that were perceived as an additional
benefit. Motivational factors include:
Recognition- The employees should be praised and recognized for their
accomplishments by the managers.
Sense of achievement- The employees must have a sense of achievement.
This depends on the job. There must be a fruit of some sort in the job.
Growth and promotional opportunities- There must be growth and
advancement opportunities in an organization to motivate the employees to perform
well.
Responsibility- The employees must hold themselves responsible for the
work. The managers should give them ownership of the work. They should minimize
control but retain accountability.
Meaningfulness of the work- The work itself should be meaningful,
interesting and challenging for the employee to perform and to get motivated.

Limitations of Two-Factor Theory

The two factor theory is not free from limitations:
The two-factor theory overlooks situational variables.
Herzberg assumed a correlation between satisfaction and productivity.
But the research conducted by Herzberg stressed upon satisfaction and ignored
productivity.
The theory’s reliability is uncertain. Analysis has to be made by the
raters. The raters may spoil the findings by analyzing same response in different
manner.
No comprehensive measure of satisfaction was used. An employee
may find his job acceptable despite the fact that he may hate/object part of his job.
The two factor theory is not free from bias as it is based on the natural
reaction of employees when they are enquired the sources of satisfaction and
dissatisfaction at work. They will blame dissatisfaction on the external factors such as
salary structure, company policies and peer relationship. Also, the employees will
give credit to themselves for the satisfaction factor at work.
The theory ignores blue-collar workers. Despite these limitations,
Herzberg’s Two-Factor theory is acceptable broadly.
 Implications of Two-Factor Theory
ü The Two-Factor theory implies that the managers must stress upon guaranteeing
the adequacy of the hygiene factors to avoid employee dissatisfaction. Also, the
managers must make sure that the work is stimulating and rewarding so that the
employees are motivated to work and perform harder
and better. This theory emphasize upon job-enrichment so as to motivate the
employees. The job must utilize the employee’s skills and competencies to the
maximum. Focusing on the motivational factors can improve work-quality.

19. Explain the process of communication in detail.

Communication is a process of transferring information from one entity to

another. Communication processes are sign-mediated interactions between at least two
agents which share a repertoire of signs and semiotic rules. Communication is commonly
defined as "the imparting or interchange of thoughts, opinions, or information by
speech, writing, or signs". Although there is such a thing as one-way communication,
communication can be perceived better as a two-way process in which there is an
exchange and progression of thoughts, feelings or ideas (energy) towards a mutually
accepted goal or direction (information).

Communication is a process whereby information is enclosed in a package and is

channeled and imparted by a sender to a receiver via some medium. The receiver then
decodes the message and gives the sender a feedback. All forms of communication
require a sender, a message, and an intended recipient, however the receiver need not be
present or aware of the sender's intent to communicate at the time of communication in
order for the act of communication to occur. Communication requires that all parties
have an area of communicative commonality. There are auditory means, such as speech,
song, and tone of voice, and there are nonverbal means, such as body language, sign
language, paralanguage, touch, eye contact, through media, i.e., pictures, graphics and
sound, and writing.

Sender
Message
Encoding
Channel
Receiver
Decoding
Feed back
 The Communication Process
Transmission
Message Encoding Medium Decoding

Sender NOISE Receiver

(now

Decoding Medium Encoding Message

Feedback Phase
What are the barriers of effective communication? Explain them.

Communication noise

In every communication models, noise is anything that interferes with the

decoding of messages sent over the channel by an encoder. There are many examples of
noise:

Environmental Noise: Noise that physically disrupts communication, such as

standing next to loud speakers at a party, or a construction site next to a classroom
making it hard to hear the professor.

Physiological-Impairment Noise: physical maladies that prevent effective

communication, such as actual deafness or blindness preventing messages from being
received correctly.

Semantic Noise: different interpretations of the meanings of certain words,

like how the word "weed" can be interpreted as both an undesirable plant in your yard
or marijuana, or how "LOL" is easily recognizable by most teens, but complete
gibberish to older readers.

Syntactical Noise: mistakes in grammar can disrupt communication, such as

abrupt changes in verb tense during a sentence, or differing sentence structures
between different cultures.

Organizational Noise: poorly structured communication can prevent the

receiver from accurate interpretations, like unclear and badly stated directions can
 make the receiver even more lost, or how unfocused and disorganized lectures by
professors are extremely hard for students to understand.

Cultural Noise: stereotypical assumptions can cause misunderstandings, such

as unintentionally offending Jews by wishing them a "Merry Ch ristmas,” or how
Democrats and Republicans alike are bigoted about the other party’s policies.

Psychological Noise: certain attitudes can make communication difficult, like

when great anger or sadness causes someone to lose focus on the present, or how
more serious psychological diseases like autism severely hamper effective
communication.

1. Semantic Barriers
Symbols with different meanings
Badly expressed message
Faulty translations
Unclarified assumptions
Specialist language
Emotional or Psychological barriers
Organizational Barriers
Personal Barriers

Explain electronic media of communication used in business organization.

Information communication revolutions

Over time, technology has progressed and has created new forms of and ideas about
communication. The newer advances include media and communications psychology.
Media psychology is an emerging field of study. These technological advances
revolutionized the processes of communication. Researchers have divided how
communication was transformed into three revolutionary stages:

In the 1st Information Communication Revolution, the first written communication

began, with pictographs. These writings were made on stone, which were too heavy to
transfer. During this era, written communication was not mobile, but nonetheless existed.

In the 2nd Information Communication Revolution, writing began to appear on paper,

papyrus, clay, wax, etc. Common alphabets were introduced, allowing the uniformity of
language across large distances. Much later the Gutenberg printing-press was invented.
Gutenberg created this printing-press after a long period of time in the 15th century.

In the 3rd Information Communication Revolution, information can now be

transferred via controlled waves and electronic signals.

Communication is thus a process by which meaning is assigned and conveyed in an

attempt to create shared understanding. This process requires a vast repertoire of skills in
intrapersonal and interpersonal processing, listening, observing, speaking, questioning,
analyzing, and evaluating. It is through communication that collaboration and
cooperation occur. There are also many common barriers to successful communication,
two of which are message overload (when a person receives too many messages at the
same time), and message complexity. Communication is a continuous process. The
 psychology of media communications is an emerging area of increasing attention and
study.

Email
Mobile Phones
Internet

UNIT - V
22. Explain the steps in the process of controlling.
Management control can be defined as a systematic effort by business management to
compare performance to predetermined standards, plans, or objectives in order to
determine whether performance is in line with these standards and presumably in order to
take any remedial action required to see that human and other corporate resources are
being used in the most effective and efficient way possible in achieving corporate
objectives.
Also control can be defined as "that function of the system that adjusts operations as
needed to achieve the plan, or to maintain variations from system objectives within
allowable limits". The control subsystem functions in close harmony with the operating
system. The degree to which they interact depends on the nature of the operating system
and its objectives. Stability concerns a system's ability to maintain a pattern of output
without wide fluctuations. Rapidity of response pertains to the speed with which a system
can correct variations and return to expected output.
Characteristics of Control
Control is a continuous process
Control is a management process
Control is embedded in each level of organizational hierarchy
Control is forward looking
Control is closely linked with planning
Control is a tool for achieving organizational activities
 Actual performance
Measurement of performance
Comparison of actual and standard performance
Identification of deviation
Analysis of caused of deviations
Corrective action plan
Implementation of corrections
Desired performance

Explain the role of MIS play at various levels of management.

Trends in Information Systems

Expanding roles of IS in business and management
The expanding participation of end users and managers in Information Systems
Data Processing (1950-1960)
Electronic data processing systems: Transaction processing, record keeping, and
traditional accounting applications
Management Reporting: 1960-1970s
Management information system: Management reports of pre-specified
information to support decision making
Decision support: 1970s 1980s
Decision support systems: Interactive ad hoc support of the managerial decision
making
Strategic and End User support: 1980s-1990s
End user computing systems: Direct computing support for end user
productivity and work group collaboration
Executive information systems: Critical information for top management
Expert systems: Knowledge based expert advice for end users
Strategic information system: Strategic products and services for competitive
advantage
Electronic Business and Commerce 1990s-2000s
Internetworked E-business and E-commerce systems:
Internetworked enterprise and global E-business operations and electronic
commerce on the internet, intranets, extranets, and other networks.
 MIS DSS
Provide information about the Provide information and decision
Types of support performance of the support techniques to confront specific
organisation problems or opportunities
Support the intelligence stage Support the intelligence design, and
Stages of decision choice stage of decision making
of decision making
making supported Semi-structured and unstructured
Structured decisions for decisions for tactical and strategic
Types of decisions operational and tactical
planning and control
supported
planning and control Direct support tailored to the decision
Types of decision making styles of individual managers.
Indirect support designed for
maker supported
many managers Interactive inquiries and responses.

Information form Periodic, exception, and

Ad hoc, flexible and adaptable format
and frequency demand reports and responses.
Information format
Pre-specified, fixed format
Information Information produced by
processing Information produced by mathematical
mathematical and statistical
methodology and statistical simulations using
analysis of operational data
operational and external data
System control Controlled by information
controlled by managerial end users.
system professional

Reducing the cost

Greater precision of data
Co-ordination through unifying the concepts of each sub-system
More rapid access by managers to the information that they need quickly

Explain Globalisation of Business.

Stages of Globalisation
A firm passes through different stages of development before it becomes a
truly global corporation.
Typically, a domestic firm starts its international business by exporting. Later
it may establish joint ventures or subsidiaries abroad. From an international firm it
may then develop into a multinational firm and finally into a global one.
Ohmae identifies five different stages in the development of a firm into a
global corporation.
First Stage is the arm’s length service activity of essentially domestic
company which moves into new markets overseas by linking up with local dealers
and distribution.
Second Stage the company takes over these activities on its own.
 Third Stage the domestic based company begins to carry out its own
manufacturing, marketing and sales in the key foreign markets.
 Fourth Stage the company moves to a insider position in these markets,
supported by a complete business system including R and D and engineering.
Fifth Stage the company moves towards a genuinely global mode of
operation.
Essential Conditions for Globalisation
1. Business Freedom
There should not be unnecessary government restrictions which come
in the way globalization like import restriction, restrictions on sourcing
finance or other factors from abroad, foreign investments etc.
2. Facilities
The extent to which an enterprise can develop globally from home
country base depends on the facilities available like the infrastructural
facilities.
3. Government Support
Unnecessary government interference is a hindrance to globalization,
government support can encourage globalization.
4. Resources
Resources is one of the important factors which often decide, the
ability of a firm to globalize. Resourceful companies may find it easier to
thrust ahead in the global market.
5. Competitiveness
The competitive advantage of the company is a very important
determinant of success in global business. A firm may derive competitive
advantage from any one or more of the factors such as low costs and price,
product quality, product differentiation, technological superiority, after-sales
services, marketing strength etc.
6. Orientation
A global orientation on the part of the business firms and suitable
globalization strategies are essential for globalization.
Advantages of Globalisation
Foreign capital, if properly utilized can substantial contribution to the
economic development of the nation.
Productivity grows more quickly when countries produces goods and
services in which they have comparative advantage.
Increase in competition would make companies more cost and quality
conscious and innovative.
Global competition and imports keep a lid on prices, so inflation is
less likely to derail economic growth.
Exports jobs often pay more than other jobs.
Unfettered capital flows gives the country access to foreign investment
and keep interest rate low.
Globalisation opens up enormous domestic and global opportunities
for firms in developing countries.
25. Explain the requirements of Effective Control
Control is necessary in every organization to ensure that everything is going properly.
1. Reflecting Organizational Needs
All control systems and techniques should reflect the jobs they are to perform.
There may be several control techniques which have general applicability such as,
budgeting, costing, etc.
2. Forward Looking
Control should be forward looking. Though many of the controls are
instantaneous, they must focus attention as to how future actions can be
conformed with plans.
3. Promptness in
An ideal control system detects deviations promptly and forms the manager
concerned to take timely actions.
4. Pointing out Exceptions at Critical Points
Control should point exception at critical points and suggest whether action is
to be taken for deviations or not some deviations in the organizations have no
impact while others, through very little in quantity, may have great significance.
Thus control system should provide formation for critical point control and
control on exception.
5. Objectives
The control should be objective, definite and determinable in a clear and
positive way. The standards of measurement should be quantified as far as
possible. If they are not quantifiable, such as training effectiveness etc. they must
be determinable and verifiable.
6. Flexible
Control should be flexible so that it remains workable in the case of changed
plans, unforeseen circumstances or outright failures.
7. Economical
Control should be economical and must be worth its costs. Economy is
relative, since the benefits vary with the importance of the activity, the size of the
operation, the expense that might be incurred in the absence of control and the
contribution the control system can make.
8. Simple
Control system must be simple and understandable so that all managers can
use it effectively.
9. Motivating
Control system should motivate both controller and controlled.
10. Reflecting
The control system should reflect orgnaisational pattern by focusing attention
on positions in organisation structure through which deviations are corrected.
26. Explain the Control Techniques
Budget and Budgetary Control
A budget can be defined as a numerical statement expressing the plans,
policies and goals of an organization for a definite period in future. Budget are mostly
expressed in financial terms though they can be expressed in non-monetary terms also.
Budgetary control is a process of comparing the actual results with the
corresponding budget data in order to approve accomplishments or to remedy differences
by either adjusting the budget estimates or correcting the cause of the difference.
Features
Budgetary control establishment a plan or target of performance which becomes the
basis of measuring progression of activities in the organization.
It tries to focus attention of the management on deviation between what is planned
and what is being achieved so that necessary actions are taken to correct the situation
and to achieve the objectives of the activities.
Benefits of Budgetary Control
Budget and budgetary control leads to maximum utilization f resources with a
view to ensure maximum returns because it provides aid to managerial planning and
control.
Budgetary Control as Tool for Planning
The system of budgetary control by preparing budgets before the activities are
actually undertaken.
Budgetary control forces managers to plan their activities. Since budget allocated
is based on the nature of activities undertaken in a department or section, the
managers have to define what activities they plan for future.
Since budgetary control is duly concerned with concrete numerical goals, it does
not leave any ambiguity regarding the targets.
It leads to a continuous utilization of resources since it keeps a rigid check over
activities in the organisation.
It also contributes indirectly to the managerial planning at higher levels.
Budgetary control provides an effective means by which management can
delegate authority without sacrificing overall control.
Budgetary Control as Tool for Control
As a control device, is very exact, accurate and precise budget provides standards
against which control activities are undertaken.
Budgetary control pinpoints any deviation between budgeted standards and actual
achievement.
Budgetary control system also points out the reasons which may be responsible
for deviation between budget and actual.
Budgetary Control as an Aid to Co-ordination
Ȁ⸀ĀᜀĀ∀Ġ Budgetary control system promotes co-operation among various
sub-units in the organisation.
Ȁ⸀ĀᜀĀ∀Ġ The system encourages exchange of information among various
units of the organisation.
Ȁ⸀ĀᜀĀ∀Ġ The system promotes balanced activities in the organisation.
 Volume of each activity depends upon the objectives of the
organization.
Problems in Budgetary Control
Planning Problems
Uncertainity of future
Inflexibility
Operational Problems
Sophisticated guesswork
TO save themselves from criticism, they may pass on the blame on other
manager.
This may create many types of problems and conflicts in the organisation.
Budgetary Control System requires a lot of paper work which the technical personnel
always resent.
Types of Budgets
1. Functional Budget
Have a number of classifications depending upon the types of functions
performed and budgeting practices adopted by an organisation.
2. Master Budget
The master budget is the summary budget incorporating its component
functional budgets.
3. Capital and Revenue Budget
Creating of facilities for carrying the business activities is called capital.
Carry out the activities is called revenue budget.
4. Flexible Budget
A budget which is designed to change in accordance with the activities of the
ognaisation is known as flexible budget.
5. Performance Budgeting
It shows costs matching with operation.