AIR POLLUTION

UNIT - 1
Asst. Prof. Shruti P. Dessai

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TEXTBOOKS:

1. MN RAO

2. K.V.S.G. MURALI KRISHNA

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Composition of the atmosphere (Dry air)
Carbon Dioxide
Oxygen 0.04%
20.95%
Argon
0.93%

Nitrogen
78.08%

Nitrogen Argon Oxygen Carbon Dioxide

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Composition of the atmosphere (Dry air)

Gas Concentration by volume (%)

Nitrogen 78.09
Oxygen 20.95
Argon 0.93
Water vapour -
Carbon Dioxide 0.032
Neon 0.0018
Krypton 0.0001
Methane 0.00015
Helium 0.00052
Ozone 0.000002

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 AIR POLLUTION DEFINITION

Air pollution is defined as the presence in the outdoor

atmosphere of one or more contaminants, such as dust, fumes,
gas, mist, odour, smoke, or vapour, in quantities, with
characteristics, and duration such as to be injurious to human,
plant, animal life or to property, or which unreasonably interfere
with the comfortable enjoyment of life and property.

- Engineers Joint Council (U.S.A)

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 AIR POLLUTION DEFINITION

Air pollution is defined as the presence in the ambient

atmosphere of substances, generally resulting from the activity of
man, in sufficient concentration, present for a sufficient time and
under circumstances which interfere significantly with the
comfort, health or welfare of persons or with the full use or
enjoyment of property.

- Indian Standards Institution IS – 4167 (1966)

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 AIR POLLUTION DEFINITION

Air pollution is defined as the excessive concentration of foreign

matter in the air which adversely affects the well-being of the
individual or causes damage to property.

- American Medical Association

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 Three Methods of identifying pollution
1. Sensory recognition
a. Eye irritation
b. Reduction in visibility
c. Strong odours
d. Acid taste in the mouth
e. Feeling of grit under the foot

2. Physical measurement
• Detects trace quantities of airborne toxic or radioactive matter.
• They are identified by physical measurement using standard
methods of sampling and analysis.

3. Effects on plants, animals, and buildings.

a. Growth on plants.
b. Health of the animals.
c. Damaging effect on buildings. 8
CLASSIFICATION OF AIR
POLLUTANTS

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CLASSIFICATION OF AIR POLLUTANTS

• Natural pollutants
1. Source • Anthropogenic / Man-made pollutants

• Aerosols (Particulate matter)

2. Matter • Gases and Vapours

• Primary pollutants
3. Origin • Secondary pollutants

• Stationary source
4. Emission • Mobile sources

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CLASSIFICATION OF AIR POLLUTANTS
1. Based on sources

i. Natural pollutants ii. Anthropogenic/man-made

a. natural fog. pollutants –
b. pollen grains. a. Industrial fumes, and
c. bacteria. b. vehicular emissions.
d. volcanic eruptions. c. Waste incineration
e. Dust storms.
f. Forest fires

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 CLASSIFICATION OF AIR POLLUTANTS

2. Based on state of matter

i. Aerosols / Particulate air pollutants ii. Gaseous air pollutants

a. Dust a. Carbon monoxide (CO).
b. Smoke b. Carbon dioxide (CO2).
c. Mists c. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
d. Fog d. Ozone (O3).
e. Fumes e. Nitrogen oxide (NOx)
f. Sulphur dioxide (SO2).

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Aerosols refer to the dispersion of solid or liquid
particles of microscopic size in gaseous media.

a. Dust
• solid particles are larger than those in colloids and
capable of temporary suspension in the air or
other gases.
• They are produced by crushing, grinding etc. of
organic and inorganic materials.
• They do not tend to flocculate except under
electrostatic forces; they also do not diffuse but
settle under the influence of gravity.
• Eg: Fly ash, cement, and foundry dust.
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b. Smoke
• it consists of finely divided particles produced due to
incomplete combustion.
• It predominantly consists of carbon particles and other
combustible materials.
• (Size; less than 1 micron.)

c. Mist
• Low concentration dispersion of liquid particles of large
size.
• In meteorology: light dispersion of minute water
droplets suspended in the atmosphere.
• Natural mist formed in atmosphere from water vapour
are rather large in size.
• (Size: 500 – 40 micron) 14
d. Fog
• Visible dispersion of aerosols in which the dispersion
phase is liquid.
• Formation by condensation is usually implied.
• In meteorology: dispersion of water/ice in the
atmosphere resulting in reduced visibility of less than
1 km.
• Natural fog (Size: 40 – 1 μ)

e. Fumes
• Solid particles generated by condensation from the
gaseous state, generally after volatilization from
melted substances, and often accompanied by a
chemical reaction such as oxidation.
• Fumes flocculate and sometimes coalesce. 15
CLASSIFICATION OF AIR POLLUTANTS

3. Based on the origin

i. Primary Pollutants – ii. Secondary Pollutants –

The pollutants are emitted are formed in the air by the
directly from an identifiable interaction of two or more
source. primary pollutants or by
(Eg: Particulate matter, oxides reaction with normal
of nitrogen and Sulphur, atmospheric constituents, with
carbon monoxide etc.) or without photoactivation.
(Eg: Ozone, Peroxy Acetyl
Nitrate (PAN), photochemical
smog, acid mists, etc.)
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Smog – Smoke + Fog
Smog can be of 2 types – 1. photochemical and 2. coal
induced.
Photochemical smog is restricted to highly motorized
areas of metropolitan cities.
It occurs due to adverse meteorological conditions where
air movement is restricted.
Smog is caused by the interaction of some hydrocarbons
and oxidants under the influence of sunlight giving rise to
dangerous Peroxy Acetyl Nitrates (PAN).
It’s main constituents are NOx, SOx, PAN, hydrocarbons
Carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and ozone.

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 CLASSIFICATION OF AIR POLLUTANTS
4. Based on Point of Emission
I. Stationary sources – II. Mobile sources –

i. Point sources i. Line Sources

a. Industrial processing(Chimneys), a. Highway Vehicles.
b. power plant, b. Railroads locomotives.
c. Solid waste disposal, c. Channel vessels.
d. municipal incinerators,
e. open burning. ii. Area Sources
a. Motor vehicles
ii. Area Sources b. Railyard locomotives.
a. Residential heating. c. Port vessels.
b. Institutional & commercial heating. d. Aircraft (airports)
c. On-site incineration.
d. Open burning. 18

e. Evaporative losses.
EFFECT OF AIR POLLUTION
ON HUMAN HEALTH

19
MAJOR FACTORS AFFECTING
THE HUMAN HEALTH

Nature of pollutants

Concentration of
pollutants

Duration of exposure

State of the health of

the receptor
Age group of the
receptor

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SUSCEPTIBILITY TO AIR POLLUTION

• Old people, children.

• People with diabetes, heart or

lung disease, especially
asthma.

• Urban areas - overpopulation

and uncontrolled urbanization

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 Mechanism of action of air pollutants on humans.
• The effect of air pollution on human health generally
occurs due to contact between air pollutants and
humans.

• Bodily contact occurs at the surfaces of the skin and

exposed membranes.

• When gaseous or particulate matter comes in contact

with the external coat of the eye and the internal
mucous lining in the eyelid, the eye will be affected.

Mucous membrane of the eyes → 22

• The respiratory system is affected more than any
other part of the human body because the basic
function of the respiratory system is to inhale air into
the lungs, filter impurities from the inhaled air, supply
oxygen contained in the air, and exhale carbon dioxide.

• The upper respiratory tract removes particles greater

than 10 microns in diameter by inhalation and
immediately exhaling the air. The large particles are
filtered from the air stream by the hair in our nasal
passage.

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• Contact of air pollutants with the exposed
membranous surfaces is of utmost importance
because of their absorptive capacity compared to that
of skin.

• Airborne gases, vapours, fumes, mist, and dust may

cause irritation of these membranes of the eyes, nose,
throat, larynx, trachea-bronchial tree, and lungs.

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SHORT-TERM AND LONG-TERM
HEALTH EFFECTS

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Health Effects

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BRONCHITIS

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 AIR POLLUTION
EPISODES / DISASTERS.

Case studies

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1. Meuse valley, Belgium
2. Donora, USA
3. London smog
4. Los Angeles
5. New York
6. Poza Rica, Mexico
7. Tokyo
8. Bhopal Gas Tragedy
9. Chernobyl
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MEUSE VALLEY, BELGIUM

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First air pollution episode in modern times.

In December 1930, anticyclone conditions blanketed

Belgium, resulting in an inversion in Meuse valley.

Many industrial plants like steel works, power plants,

coke ovens, sulphuric acid plants, glass factories, zinc
smelters, and fertilizer plants were located there.

Because of inversion, all the pollutants were trapped

in the valley.

After 3 days of abnormal weather, 60 people died.

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Symptoms were Cough, throat irritation, shortness of
breath, nausea, vomiting, etc.

The highest death was among the illness affected

people and old people.

Even cattle were killed.

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GREAT SMOG OF LONDON

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5th – 9th December 1952.

Occurred due to Subsidence inversion.

A white fog formed over London.

Due to the extensive use of coal for heating, electricity

generation, and locomotives the PM and Sulphur dioxide
content in the atmosphere increase. The white fog
turned to black fog. Smoke concentration during the fog
was 5x greater than other times while sulfur dioxide
was 6x greater.
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The buildup of smog resulted in zero visibility.

By December 6th the pollutant concentration increased

and resulted in deaths.

Symptoms were cough, nasal discharge, sore throat,

irritation of the eyes, and sudden attacks of vomiting.
Most people who died were old and had a history of
bronchitis, asthma, lung or heart diseases.

This disaster caused 4000 deaths.

British clean air act 1969.

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BHOPAL GAS TRAGEDY

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• The Bhopal gas tragedy was a chemical accident on the
night of 2–3 December 1984 at the Union Carbide India
Limited (UCIL) pesticide plant in Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh,
India.

• Safety regulations specified that no tank should be filled

more than 50% (here, 30 tons) with liquid Methyl
isocyanate MIC. Each tank was pressurized with inert
nitrogen gas, which allowed liquid MIC to be pumped out
of each tank as needed, and also kept moisture out of the
tanks.

• In late October 1984, a tank (containing 42 tons of liquid

MIC) lost the ability to effectively contain most of
its nitrogen gas pressure.
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• Water was believed to have entered tank via a side pipe
during attempts to unclog it. The introduction of water
into the tank resulted in an exothermic reaction.

• The reaction in the tank skyrocketed to a critical state at

an alarming speed. Temperatures and pressure in the tank
increased.

• One employee witnessed a concrete slab above the tank

crack as the emergency relief valve burst open, and
pressure in the tank continued to increase.

• Direct atmospheric escaping of the gas should have been

prevented by three safety devices, which were
malfunctioning, not in use, insufficiently sized, or otherwise
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inoperable.
3 safety devices were
1. A refrigeration system meant to cool tanks containing liquid MIC,
was shut down, and whose freon had been removed.
2. A flare tower, to burn the MIC gas as it escaped, which had had a
connecting pipe removed for maintenance, and was improperly
sized to neutralize a leak.
3. A vent gas scrubber, which had been deactivated at the time and
was in 'standby' mode, and similarly had insufficient caustic soda and
power to safely stop a leak of the magnitude produced.

• About 30 tonnes of MIC escaped from the tank into the

atmosphere in 45 to 60 minutes. 40
• The initial effects of exposure were coughing, severe
eye irritation, suffocation, burning in the respiratory
tract, breathlessness, stomach pains, and vomiting.

• Primary causes of death were choking, circulatory

collapse, and pulmonary edema.

• The individuals who did not die were exposed to

cancers, blindness, loss of livelihood, and financial strain.
• The official immediate death toll was 2,259. and An
estimated 8,000 died within two weeks.

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Flare tower

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LOS ANGELES SMOG

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• Subsidence inversion is responsible for the air pollution
problems in Los Angeles.

• It results from a more or less permanent high-pressure

area over the pacific ocean which brings warm air over
the land at low elevations.

• LA has mountains to the north and east and these act

like traps for the gases from automobiles as horizontal
movement is restricted by the mountains.

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• Ozone and PAN is formed during photochemical
smog in LA.

• In LA motor vehicles are responsible for 75-80%

of the existing air pollution.

• The 1996 thanksgiving weekend episode resulted

in 168 deaths.

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DONORA, USA

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• Donora, Pennsylvania is a horseshoe-shaped valley on
the Monongahela river.

• Anticyclonic weather conditions characterized by little

to no air movement, temperature inversion and, fog.

• It occurred for a period of 4 days in October 1948.

• The industries present were a steel mill, zinc plant, and

sulphuric acid plant.

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• 43% of the population became ill and 10% were
severely affected.

• 20 people died. and fatal cases were among the

elderly, 13 of whom had history of heart and
respiratory diseases.

• Symptoms included eye and nose irritation, cough,

headache, vomiting and respiratory irritation

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TOKYO

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• On June 18, 1970, a thick fog was present early in the
morning.

• As time passed by the fog disappeared but visibility

was still less than 2 km.

• Between 11 am – 1 pm, around 45 students begin

complaining of eye and sore throat and difficulty
breathing.

• Several were taken to hospitals for smog poisoning.

• Subsequent days many more people were affected. The

number of people complaining were reported to be
more than 6000. 50
• Sulphur dioxide concentration had reached a maximum
of 3.9 ppm.

• It as inferred from this that photochemical oxidants

reacted with Sulphur dioxide to produce sulphuric acid
mist.

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COMMON AIR POLLUTANTS &
THEIR AFFECTS ON HUMAN
HEALTH

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1. Sulphur Dioxide
Type: Colorless gas, pungent Odour.
Source: Volcanic activities, Fuel combustion, industrial
processes, metallurgical operations, and production of
Sulphuric acid.
Effects:
a. Sulphur trioxide is formed when Sulphur dioxide
oxidizes under certain conditions and is a very strong
irritant compared to Sulphur dioxide and can cause
severe bronchospasms at relatively lower
concentrations.
b. Irritates the respiratory tract and increases the risk of
tract infections.
c. Affects the mucous membranes when inhaled.
d. Coughing, increased mucus secretion, and aggravating53

conditions such as asthma and chronic bronchitis.

 Sulphur Dioxide

Pollutant Time Weighted Concentration in Ambient Air

Average
Industrial, Residential, Ecologically Sensitive
Rural and Other Areas Area (notified by
Central Government)
Sulphur Dioxide (SO2), Annual* 50 20
µg/m3 24 hours** 80 80

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II. Hydrogen sulfide
Type: Foul-smelling gas like rotten egg
Source: Sewerage, STP, Tanneries etc.
Effects:
a. Exposure to small period of time can cause fatigue of
the sense of smell.

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III. Carbon Monoxide
Type: Odorless, colorless gas, highly poisonous.
Source: main - Internal combustion engines due to
incomplete combustion. Other- blast furnaces, petroleum
refining, gas manufacturing plants, coal mines, volcanoes,
forest fires, etc.
• Carbon monoxide combines with hemoglobin to
form carboxyhemoglobin thereby reducing the oxygen-
carrying capacity of the blood.
Effects:
a. Affects the central nervous system.
b. Headache, dizziness, confusion, weakness.
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c. Also causes heart attack and has a high mortality rate.
 Carbon Monoxide
Pollutant Time Weighted Concentration in Ambient Air
Average Industrial, Ecologically
Residential, Rural Sensitive Area
and Other Areas (notified by
Central
Government)

Carbon Monoxide 8 hours* 02 02

(CO) mg/m3 1 hour** 04 04

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IV. Nitrogen Oxide (NOx)
Type: Various oxides of Nitrogen come under NOx.
• NO & NO2 arise from human activities & hence pollutants.
• Plays a major role in the formation of SMOG, acid rain (nitric acid),
and the greenhouse effect.
Source: Industries where nitric acid is produced or used (occupational
disease), automobile exhaust, large power plants & furnaces.
Effects:
a. Eyes and nasal irritation.
b. Aggravates asthmatic conditions and other respiratory issues in
humans.
c. Brief exposure to higher concentrations can cause pulmonary
discomfort.
d. Long-term exposure to high levels causes chronic lung disease.
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 Nitrogen Oxide (NOx)

Pollutant Time Weighted Concentration in Ambient Air

Average
Industrial, Residential, Ecologically Sensitive
Rural and Other Areas Area (notified by
Central Government)
Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2), Annual* 40 30
µg/m3 24 hours** 80 80

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V. Ozone
Type: poisonous, Smelly gas
Source: Ozone is a powerful oxidant and has many industrial
and consumer applications related to oxidation.
Effects:
a. Exposure to lower concentrations for a longer
duration of time causes - Eye, nose, and throat
irritation.
b. Exposure to higher concentrations for a shorter
duration of time can cause coughing and choking.
c. Irritates the respiratory tract.
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 OZONE

Pollutant Time Weighted Concentration in Ambient Air

Average
Industrial, Ecologically
Residential, Rural Sensitive Area
and Other Areas (notified by
Central
Government)
Ozone (O3) µg/m3 8 hours* 100 100
1 hour** 180 180

61
VI. Lead
Source: Automobiles.
Effects:
a. Gastrointestinal damage.
b. Liver and kidney damage.
c. Fertility abnormalities.
d. Affects the mental development of children.

62
VII. Radioactive gases/isotopes
Types: Iodine 131, Phosphorus 32, Cobalt 60, Strontium 90,
Radium 226, Carbon 14, Sulphur 35, Calcium 45, and
uranium.
Sources: Nuclear reactors, Experimental accelerators,
scientific and medical use, agricultural and industrial use of
isotopes as tracers, and nuclear bomb testing.
Effects:
a. Anaemia
b. Leukaemia
c. Cancer
d. Genetic defects, sterility, embroyo defects and
congenital malformations.
e. Shortens lifespan. 63
VIII. Allergic Agents
Types: Organic – pollen grains, fur, hair, mould,
feathers etc.
Effects:
a. Asthma

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Effect of Air Pollution
on Animals

65
 MAJOR POLLUTANTS AFFECTING
HEALTH OF FARM ANIMALS

Fluorine, Arsenic and Lead are three pollutants

responsible for most livestock damage.

Source: Industrial sources or from dusting and

spraying.

66
EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION ON ANIMALS

Process:

1. Accumulation of the air-borne contaminant in the

vegetation and forage.

2. Poisoning of the animals when they consume the

contaminated vegetation and forage.

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1. Fluorine – Fluorine toxicosis
Susceptible: Sheep and cattle.
Resistant: Poultry and horses.

• Symptoms of Acute poisoning:

a. Periodic diarrhea, Bone Dental
deformity fluorosis
b. Lack of appetite, rapid weight loss,
c. decline in health and vigour,
d. Muscular weakness and lameness
e. Death.

• Symptoms of Chronic poisoning:

a. Chronic fluorosis
b. Bone lesions, bony overgrowth, Stiffness of joints.
c. General ill health from starvation and malnutrition.
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II. Arsenic
Susceptible: Livestock

• Symptoms of acute arsenic poisoning:

a. Salivation, thirst, vomiting.
b. Diarrhea with foul odour sometimes with bloody
stool.
c. Irregular pulse & respiration.
d. Animal gets restless.
e. Ears become cold, tremble & develop an abnormal
temperature.
f. Death may occur in a few hours or days.

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Symptoms of chronic arsenic poisoning:
1. Central nervous system is affected,
2. Paralysis and death.
3. Diarrhea
4. Dullness & lack of appetite,
5. Chronic cough
6. Thickening of the skin
7. Sterility.

•Hyperkeratosis (thickening of the

outer layer of the skin) in sheep

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II. Lead
Sources: Smelters, coke oven, and coal combustion
processes.

• Symptoms of acute lead poisoning:

a. Weak but fast pulse,
b. Stiffen legs,
c. Staggering, and inability to rise,
d. Convulsions,
e. Paralysis of the digestive tract
f. Loss of appetite, and diarrhea.

• Symptoms of chronic lead poisoning:

a. Paralysis of the larynx & difficulty breathing.
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 Effect of air pollution on animals
Pets

1. Canine patients are found to suffer from bronchitis,

asthma, and lack of appetite.
2. Canines also suffer from cough, nose, and throat
diseases.

Dog suffering from nasal

infections 72
Effect on fish: Acid rain falling in rivers and streams causes
pH levels to decrease, killing fish that are sensitive to pH
fluctuations.

Effect on birds: Birds are affected directly by coal power

production exhaust, which can damage birds’ respiratory
systems.

Effect on insects: Small fluctuations in air quality force

certain insects to relocate, affecting other plants and
animals connected to them.

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EFFECT OF AIR POLLUTION
ON PLANTS

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75
76
EFFECT OF AIR POLLUTION ON PLANTS

Forms of damage to leaves:

1. Necrosis Killing or collapse of plant tissue.

2. Chlorosis Loss or reduction of chlorophyll resulting in pale

green/yellow patterns.

3. Abscission Dropping of leaves.

4. Epinasty Downward curvature of leaf due to higher growth rate of

upper surface.

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1 2

3 4

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Types of Injury to plants:

1. Acute Injury – Results from short term exposure to

high concentrations. Effects are noted within few hours
to a few days with visible markings and collapse of
leaves.

2. Chronic Injury – Long term low level Concentration. Eg:

Chlorosis or abscission.

3. Growth / Yield retardation – Effect on growth without

visible markings.
79
EFFECT OF AIR POLLUTANTS ON PLANTS

Pollutant Dose Effect

1. Sulphur dioxide Mild Interveinal chlorotic bleaching of
leaves.
Severe Necrosis in interveinal areas and
skeletonized leaves.

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 Pollutant Dose Effect
2. Ozone Mild Flecks on upper surfaces,
premature aging,
suppressed growth.
Severe Bleaching
Necrosis
Abscission

81
 Pollutant Dose Effect
3. Fluorides Cumulative Necrosis of leaf tip.

4. Nitrogen dioxide Mild Suppressed growth,

leaf bleaching.

Fluorine damage: Marginal necrosis 82

 Pollutant Dose Effect
5. Ethylene Mild Epinasty, leaf abscission.

6. PAN (Peroxyacetyl Mild Bronzing of lower leaf surface,

Nitrate) suppressed growth.

Epinasty – Ethelene damage PAN creates glazy bronzing on the underside of the
newly expanded potato leaves. 83
(Fumigants)

Pollutant Effect
7. Chlorine Interveinal and marginal lesions.

8. Hydrogen chloride Chlorotic margin in leaf followed by necrosis.

Lesions are formed at higher concentrations.

9. Nitric oxide Brown margins,

Brownish black spot on leaves.

84
EFFECT OF AIR POLLUTION
ON MATERIALS

85
Mechanism of deterioration of materials
due to the polluted atmosphere.
1. Abrasion
• Solid particles of sufficient size travel at high velocity
causing abrasion.
• Large sharp particles imbed into fabrics and can
accelerate wear.

86
2. Deposition and removal
• Solid / Liquid particles deposited on a surface may
not damage the material itself but they may spoil its
appearance.
• Removal of these particles may cause deterioration.

87
3. Direct Chemical attack
• Air pollutants react directly with materials causing
irreversible damage.

• Sulphur dioxide causes the bleaching of marbles.

• Tarnishing of silver by hydrogen sulfide.
• Etching of metallic surfaces by acid mist.

88
4. Indirect chemical attack
Certain materials absorb pollutants and get
damaged when the pollutants undergo chemical
changes.

Eg: Sulphur dioxide absorbed by the leather, paper

is converted to sulphuric acid, damaging the leather.

89
5. Corrosion
Atmospheric deterioration of ferrous metals by
electrochemical processes.
Due to the action of air pollutants facilitated by
moisture.

90
 Factors influencing atmospheric deterioration
1. Moisture – the rate of corrosion increases as relative
humidity increases.

2. Temperature – temperature affects the rate of

chemical reaction, therefore it affects the rate of
deterioration.

3. Sunlight – Direct deterioration (Eg: Fading of certain

dyes, rubber cracking) or indirect attack (eg: producing
damaging such as ozone through complex
photochemical reactions).

4. Air movement – wind direction, wind speed. 91

 Economic losses (Material damage)
1. Metals

Effect: Corrosion, tarnishing.

Pollutant:
𝑂𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
Sulphur dioxide Sulphur trioxide Sulphuric acid
→ →

92
2. Building materials:

Effect: Weathering, Aerosols adhering to materials and

building surfaces.

Eg:
• Sulphur dioxide and Sulphur trioxide react with
limestone in presence of moisture to form calcium
sulphate and gypsum, both are water soluble. (Taj
Mahal).

• Carbon dioxide in presence of moisture produces

carbonic acid. This converts limestone to
bicarbonate which is water soluble. 93
 3. Paints

Pigment Vehicle
(Colour, durability, (Holds pigment to
hiding power). surfaces).

• Pollutants: Sulphur dioxide, ozone, hydrogen sulfide &

aerosols.

• Hinders in the functioning of the pigment as well as

vehicle by damaging the protective coating and exposing
underlying surface. 94
4. Textiles.

Sulphur dioxide - Deterioration of natural as well as

synthetic fibers.

ozone and nitrogen - Fading of textile dyes.

95
5. Rubber

• Ozone causes cracking tires.

• Rubber insulation failure noticed in power transmission
lines and telephone wires.
• Mechanism: attack on the hydrocarbon polymer
compound double bond.

96
6. Leather.

Sulphur dioxide causes leather to lose its strength

and ultimately disintegrate.

Leather loses its resilience and disintegrates in

reddish – brown powder.

97
7. Paper.
• Papers prior to 1750 was not damaged much by
Sulphur. Because this year onwards, chemical
methods were used to manufacture paper.
• Small amounts of metallic impurities are present
in “modern paper” that accelerate the conversion
of absorbed Sulphur dioxide into sulphuric acid in
presence of moisture.
• Sulphuric acid content in some papers are found
to be as high as 1% making them extremely
brittle.

98
8. Glass and ceramics
• Long-term exposure (Years) changed the surface
appearances of porcelain enamels.
• Moisture and air pollutants play a major role in surface
deterioration.
• Hydrogen fluoride is capable of attacking a wide range
of ceramic materials & glass through its ability to react
with silicon compounds.
• In the past, windows have been rendered opaque near
enamel plants.
• However, concentrations required to cause such an
effect in far more than that required to kill sensitive
vegetation and hence limits have been imposed on
fluorine emission. 99
9. Electronic industry
• Low-power electrical contacts are very sensitive
components.
• Air pollutants can form a thin film on its surface thereby
preventing intimate surface contact when closed and
result in the malfunctioning of the equipment.
• Sulphur dioxide and hydrogen sulphide tarnish copper
and silver contacts.

100
10. Laundering and Dry cleaning.
• Temporary damage resulting from soiling of surfaces
by pollutants.
• Common losses are caused by smoke, soot and dust
fall.

101
 Art treasures
Taj Mahal.
• Black and brown patches are disfiguring the shiny white
surface of the marble. This cannot be scrubbed off due
to the formation of gypsum scaling and flaking effect.
• Sulphur dioxide mixes with atmospheric moisture to
produce sulphuric acid which then reacts with the
marble and corrodes it.

102
Belur temple
Soot-laden fumes from a plywood factory close by
gets deposited on the sculptures of the temple and
discolours the surface.

103
 REMEDIAL MEASURES
• Restriction on vehicular traffic and industrial activities
for the reduction of air pollutants.

• Application of the preservative coating on the building

surface.

• Material used like acrylic copolymers and siloxanes

because of their good adhesion film-forming properties.

• Removal of the soluble salts from the surface of the

stone material by paper pulp. Paper pulp extracts the
soluble salt from the pores/cavities of the stone
materials.This is a non-destructive method. 104
 COST ESTIMATE – Evaluation of Damage

The damage to materials due to air pollution can

be calculated according to:

1. Type of object damaged.

2. Extent or degree of damage (Partial or total)

105
PHOTOCHEMICAL
SMOG

106
Photochemical smog is produced due to the
photochemical oxidation of hydrocarbons and Nitrogen
Oxides.

A common phenomenon in metropolitan cities such as

Mumbai, Kolkata, and Delhi.

107
FACTORS AFFECTING PHOTOCHEMICAL
SMOG:

1) Sunlight

2) High concentrations of Hydrocarbons (HC) and

NOx.

3) Meteorological variables – stagnant air, extent of

atmospheric inversion.

108
Smoke rising in Lochcarron, Scotland, is stopped by an overlying layer of warmer air (2006).
109
Smog trapped over the city of Almaty, Kazakhstan during a temperature inversion.
110
A temperature inversion
in Bratislava, Slovakia, viewing
the top of Nový Most (2005).

111
Primary Pollutants Secondary pollutants

NOx Ozone
PAN
SO2
Aldehydes – (PAN)
CO Ketones

CO2

HC
112
 Formation of Photochemical smog
1. Nitrogen Dioxide photochemical reaction
• UV light energy is absorbed by Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2).
• The highly energized molecule (NO2*) will decompose
to form Nitric acid (NO) and an Oxygen atom (O).

NO2 + hʋ → NO2* → NO + O

• The oxygen atom (O) reacts quickly with another

Oxygen molecule (O2) to form Ozone (O3). However
unless another energy-absorbent molecule is present,
the Ozone will decompose rapidly.

O + O2 → O3
113
• If Nitric Oxide is present, it reacts with Ozone to form
Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) and an Oxygen molecule (O2).

NO + O3 → NO2 + O2

• In the above reaction, Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) behaves

as a catalyst.

• If Ozone is excess
2NO2 + O3 → N2O5 + O2

• In presence of moisture/water vapour. Nitric acid is

formed.

N2O5 + H2O → HNO3 114

2. Sulphur Dioxide photochemical reaction

SO2 + hʋ → SO2*
SO2 + O2 → SO4
SO4 + O2 → SO3 + O3
SO3 + H2O → H2SO4

Ozone may be formed as a byproduct during the

photochemical oxidation of Sulphur Dioxide to
Sulphuric acid.

115
3. Aldehyde photochemical reaction.

RCHO + hʋ → RCHO*
RCHO * + O2 → RCO3H
RCO3H + O2 → RCOOH + O3
The primary photochemical decomposition of aldehydes
produces organic free radicals.

(PAN)
Hydrocarbons + O + NOx → CH3CO – O – NO2
ǁ
O 116
Effects of photochemical smog:
1) Visibility reduction: Carbon, Sulphur, and halides
present in smog cause visibility problems.
2) Eye irritation: Compounds such as PAN, PBzN, and
formaldehyde cause eye irritation.
3) Vegetation damage: Ozone, NOx and PAN cause
necrosis, silvering, and bronzing of leaves.
4) Cracking of rubber: Ozone damages tires and rubber
insulations.
5) Fading of dyes. 117
Controlling photochemical smog.

Photochemical smog can only be controlled by

controlling the pollutants responsible for its formation
ie: NOx, SOx, CO, CH, O3, etc. Which are mainly
produced by combustion.

118
GREEN HOUSE EFFECT
119
GREENHOUSE GASES:

1] Carbon dioxide - CO2

2] Methane

3] Nitrous oxide – N2O

4] Fluorinated gases – Chlorofluorocarbons CFCs,

hydrofluorocarbons HFCs,
perfluorocarbons PFCs etc.

5] Water vapour
120
121
122
123
(Light radiation)

(heat reradiation)

124
Solar energy in the form of light radiation is of short
wavelength.
After striking the earth it is converted to heat energy of
long wavelengths.

Greenhouse gases are transparent to short-wave radiation

from the sun and also absorbs the long-wave radiation from
the earth.

This means that green house gases in the atmosphere will

allow incoming solar radiation to pass through but do not
allow the reradiation from the earth to space to pass
through.
125
As these greenhouse gases absorb energy their
temperature increases and they themselves start radiating
heat. Only part of it escapes into space while the rest is
reradiated back to earth and further increases the
temperature.

126
In the carbon cycle, the carbon dioxide is removed by 2
major sinks.

The 2 major carbon dioxide sinks:

1) Plants take in carbon dioxide during photosynthesis.

2) Ocean: The ocean takes up carbon dioxide through

photosynthesis by phytoplankton (plant-like organisms);
Carbon dioxide dissolves in water. It reacts with
seawater, creating carbonic acid.

However, we are producing carbon dioxide faster than the

sinks can absorb and hence the level of CO2 in the
atmosphere is increasing. 127
SOURCES OF
GREENHOUSE GASES.

128
1) Burning of fossil fuels.
For transportation, industrial processes, and power
generation.

2) Cement manufacture
• CO2 is produced when calcium carbonate is heated,
producing lime and CO2.
• Produces between 5 – 8% of global anthropogenic
CO2 emissions.
• 50 % Chemical process, 40 % Burning fuel to power
that process.
• 900 kg of CO2 is emitted for every 1000 kg of cement
produced.
129
2) Agriculture and livestock.
The main sources of emissions are:
processing &
transportation of
animal products., 6%

manure
decomposition, 10%

Feed production &

processing , 45%

output gases during

digestion by cows ,
39%

130
Impact of
Greenhouse Effect
on the Environment.

131
1. Global Warming – Greenhouse gases do not allow
earth’s radiation to escape into space which results in
more heat radiated back to earth. Due to this the
ambient earth temperature is expected to increase 0.5
-1 degree per decade.

a) Increase in the earth’s temperature causes an increase

in natural disasters like cyclones, floods and dramatic
changes in temperature like heat waves.

b) Increase in mean sea level because of changes in

runoff due to changes in precipitation & evaporation,
melting of ice caps and glaciers.
132
2) Spread of diseases:

a. Mosquitoes may live longer lives and breed in larger

numbers thereby spreading malaria and other
diseases.

b. Warm and humid climate result in bacteria and molds

and their toxic products thereby also resulting in
increased food contamination and spoiling.

3) Air pollution related Morbidity and mortality due to

increase of green house gases.

133
4) Carbon dioxide is said to influence ozone layer
depletion which also results in making the climate
hot.

a. Ozone layer depletion is also said to increase the

incidence of non-melanoma skin cancers.

b. With the increase in carbon dioxide in the

atmosphere, the oceans will absorb more carbon
dioxide and this will lead to an increase in its acidity,
which in turn would affect marine biodiversity.

c. Increased carbon dioxide concentration may

increase the atmospheric pressure.
134
• GHE may bring changes to energy supply and demand,
water availability, agriculture, ecosystem and a variety of
economic, social, and political circles.

135
Control of Green House Effect:
1) Afforestation / Social forestry.
Vegetation is a major carbon dioxide sink, therefore
afforestation and social forestry will help make up for
the faster carbon dioxide production.

2) Using alternative energy sources.

Since 50% of the greenhouse gases are produced due to
energy production, alternative energy sources like tidal
energy, wind energy, and solar energy systems can be
adopted.
136
3) Waterlogging.
Water logging of fields such as rice, release methane gas
or during the construction of dams. Therefore this should
be avoided.

4) Ban the use of CFCs

One mole of CFC is 100 times more powerful than one
mole of carbon dioxide and they persist for decades. They
contribute to GHE because of their long lifespan and high
absorbing power of radiation.

Water logging in a field

137
OZONE LAYER DISTURBANCE

138
 WHAT IS THE OZONE LAYER?

“The ozone layer is a

region in the earth’s
stratosphere that contains
high concentrations of
ozone and protects the
earth from the harmful
ultraviolet radiations of
the sun.”

139
• The ozone layer is 24 km thick and present in the
stratosphere 15 km above the surface of the earth.

• This layer is not uniform in nature and is shaped like that of

the earth – highest at the equator and thinner at the poles.

• The concentration of ozone in the stratosphere is about 10

ppm.

• The ozone layer absorbs 97-99% of the dangerous UV

radiation from the sun and converts it into heat and
chemical energy.

• If Absent - millions of people would develop skin diseases

and may have weakened immune systems.
140
• In nature, ozone is continuously formed and
destroyed thereby equilibrium is maintained.

• However, this equilibrium is upset due to the

discharge of anthropogenic pollutants such as
CFCs into the atmosphere.

141
142
Ozone hole over the Antarctica

143
PHOTOCHEMISTRY
OF
OZONE DEPLETION

144
CFCs Halons
Freon- 11 CCl3F
Freon- 12 CCl2F2 Halon-1211 (CBrClF2),
Freon- 22 Halon-1301 (CBrF3),
Freon- 114 Halon-2402 (C2Br2F4).
Freon- 115

145
PHOTOCHEMISTRY OF OZONE DEPLETION
CFCs and Halons are highly stable.

However, UV radiation decomposes them releasing free

radicals Chlorine, Fluorine, and Bromine.

These free radicals are released in the ozonosphere and

are free to react with Ozone, disintegrating it into O and
O2.

Each atom of Chlorine can destroy more than 1,00,000

molecules of Ozone catalytically.

The NOx cycle also gives the same results. 146

 1. Reaction with CFCs and Halons.

• UV radiation decomposes CFCs and Halons to release

free radicals of Chlorine (Cl), Fluorine (F), and Bromine
(Br).

hʋ
CFCl2 → CFCl + Cl
hʋ
CFCl3 → CFCl2 + Cl
hʋ
CF2Cl2 → CF2Cl + Cl
hʋ
CClF2 → CClF + F
147
• These free radicals are released in the ozonosphere and
are free to react with Ozone, disintegrating it into an
Oxygen molecule (O2) and an Oxygen atom (O).

Cl + O3 → ClO + O2
hʋ
• Equilibrium: O3 ↔ O + O2

Therefore,
ClO + O → Cl + O2

• The free Chlorine (Cl) formed will react with another

Ozone molecule. Hence this reaction is called a chain
reaction. 148
1. Reaction with NOx.

NO + O3 → NO2 + O2

NO2 + O3 → NO3 + O2

NO + O2 ↔ NO2 + O

149
 CAUSES OF
OZONE LAYER DEPLETION

150
Causes of Ozone layer depletion.

151
2) Unregulated Rocket Launches
Researchers say that the unregulated launching of rockets
results in much more depletion of the ozone layer than
the CFCs do.

152
3) Cleaning solvents, plastic foams, fast food packaging,
dry cleaning industry, sterilizing surgical instruments, and
cleaning and degreasing electronic equipment.

153
154
EFFECT OF OZONE HOLE

155
 EFFECT OF OZONE HOLE
It is expected that every 1% loss of ozone leads to a 2%
increased risk of diseases.

1) Exposure to UV can lead to Skin cancer.

2) Increases incidence of cataracts and photokeratitis.
3) Damages the cell DNA and thus the genetic structure
of humans, animals, plants, and other organisms.
photokeratitis

cataract

156
Skin cancers.
4) Cells in the epidermis which produce melanin are
destroyed by UV. People with fair complexion cannot
produce melanin, hence exposure to sunlight usually
causes a burning sensation and skin aging.

5) UV radiations make the blood vessels carry more

blood making the skin hot, swollen, and red.

157
Sunburn
6) Many phytoplankton are highly sensitive to UV rays and
hence may die. This in turn affects the whole aquatic
system.

7) Crop yield reduces, reduction in leaf size, poor seed

quality, and increase susceptibility to disease.

8) Plant proteins are excellent UV absorbers and hence are

prone to injury associated with chlorophyll reduction.

9) Ozone depletion changes the spectral composition of

solar radiation. Also, the increase in solar radiation
activates greenhouse effects.
158
 SOLUTIONS
TO REDUCE
OZONE LAYER DEPLETION

159
SOLUTIONS TO OZONE LAYER DEPLETION

1) Reduce the use of ozone-depleting substances.

• E.g. avoid the use of CFCs in refrigerators and air
conditioners, replace the halon-based fire
extinguishers, etc.

16
0
2) Minimize the Use of Vehicles
• vehicles emit a large number of greenhouse gases
that lead to global warming as well as ozone
depletion.

16
1
3) Use Eco-friendly Cleaning Products
• Most of the cleaning products have chlorine and
bromine-releasing chemicals that find their way into
the atmosphere and affect the ozone layer.

16
2
4) Satellite Research Institute of Frankfurt, Germany has
developed a method to replace CFCs with hydrogen as a
propellant in aerosol sprays

163
ACID RAIN

164
Any type of precipitation – rain, snow, dew, or fog that
contains acidic components, such as sulfuric or nitric acid,
and falls to the ground in wet or dry form is known as
acid rain or acid deposition.

• Usually Carbon dioxide dissolves in the rain, therefore,

forming mild acidic rain which has pH below neutral.

• When pH of the rain is less than 5.6, it is termed acid

rain.

165
166
167
168
 CAUSES OF ACID RAIN.

• Large quantities of SOx and NOx from industrial

chimneys, automobiles, and powerhouses.

• Smelting of sulfide ores, particularly lead, zinc, and

copper releases Sulphur dioxide into the
atmosphere.

169
EFFECT OF ACID
RAIN

170
Effect of acid rain on vegetation:
Acidity affects:
1) Germination of seeds.
2) Growth of trees is also affected, damages leaves.
3) Destruction of forests.
4) Decreases the fertility of soil by leaching out potassium
whereas toxic elements like zinc accumulate.
5) Kills beneficial organisms in the soil eg: earthworms.

171
Effect of acid rain on Aquatic life:

1) Reduces the pH of water body thereby affecting

aquatic life.
2) Green algae and many other forms of bacteria are
killed due high acidity.
3) Reproductive failure, reduced growth and death in
fishes.
4) Change in pH affects hatching of fish eggs.

172
5) At a low pH rate of decomposition is reduced,
which leads to accumulation of dead organic matter
in water bodies which increases the degree of water
pollution.

6) Acidity increases the concentration of heavy metals

such as chromium, lead, copper, zinc, aluminum and
manganese in water, therefore reduces the quality of
water.

173
Effect of acid rain on Materials and monuments:

1) Acid rain can damage buildings, historic monuments,

and statues, especially those made of rocks, such
as limestone and marble, that contain large amounts of
calcium carbonate. Acids in the rain react with the
calcium compounds in the stones to create gypsum,
which then flakes off.

2) Acid rain also increases the corrosion rate of metals,

in particular iron, steel, copper, and bronze.

174
CONTROL OF ACID RAIN.

1) Pollution control equipment.

• Acid rain can be prevented by controlling the
emission of SOx and NOx from industries and
power plants by using proper control equipment and
stringent legislation.

2) Fuel Switching
• Fuel switching includes limiting the use of Sulphur
containing fuels such as coal or switching to low
Sulphur containing coal or oil.
• Switching to nuclear power generation, using
renewable energy sources such as wind, air, wave, and
geothermal energy. 175
- END -

176