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Journal of Petroleum Geology,Vol. 40(3), July 2017, pp 277 - 297 277

BURIAL HISTORY AND THERMAL MATURITY

EVOLUTION OF THE TERMIT BASIN, NIGER

M. Harouna1*, J. D. Pigott2 and R. P. Philp2

Reconstruction of the burial history and thermal evolution of the Cretaceous – Tertiary Termit
Basin, a sub-basin within the larger Eastern Niger Basin of Niger, indicates spatially and
temporally variable conditions for organic matter maturation during the basin’s multi-phased
evolution. Three episodes of tectonic subsidence which correspond to the observed fault
mechanical stratigraphy within the Termit Basin are identified: Late Cretaceous, Maastrichtian
to early Paleocene, and Oligocene.These episodes fall within the regional tectonic phases of
the West African Rift System delineated by previous studies. The basin exhibits substantial
heterogeneity in the magnitude of the tectonic episodes and in consequent thermal
maturities. For this paper, 1D burial and thermal histories of eight widely dispersed wells in
the Agadem permit area in the SW of the Termit Graben were modelled to investigate the
maturation of organic matter in source rocks ranging from Santonian to Oligocene in age.
The kinetic modelled maturities match with maturities based on Rock-Eval Tmax values for
four wells if present-day heat flows are elevated. Future exploration strategies in the Termit
Basin should take into consideration these heterogeneities in thermal histories and tectonic
pulses, which may lead to the development of hydrocarbon accumulations with different
oil-gas compositions in different reservoir compartments.
INTRODUCTION drilled more than 20 exploration wells. More recently,
exploration by China National Petroleum Corporation
The underexplored Termit Basin, a Cretaceous – (CNPC) has continued in the Agadem permit area,
Tertiary multi-rift graben, is located in the larger which covers about 27,000 km2 in the SE of the graben
Eastern Niger Basin (Fig. 1). Preliminary exploration (Fig. 1). The presence of good to excellent source rocks
included studies by Esso Exploration and Production (Harouna and Philp, 2012) together with high quality
Niger Inc. and partners who up to 2006 had acquired reservoirs and seals (Genik, 1992; Liu et al., 2017),
more than 15,000 line km of seismic data together with as well as the history of production which began with
some 30 thousand km of aeromagnetic lines, and had a 1974 discovery by Conoco (MBendi Information,
2010) and the recent discoveries of Kanem, Lumia,
and Seidigi oilfields (Gaya, 2013) confirm the Termit
1
Université Abdou Moumouni, Faculté des Sciences Basin’s hydrocarbon prospectivity. One recent study
et Techniques, Département de Géologie, B.P. 10662
estimated that the Ténéré graben (to the NW of Termit:
Niamey, Niger.
2
The University of Oklahoma, Conoco-Phillips School Fig. 1) contains approximately 500 million barrels
of Geology & Geophysics, Norman, Oklahoma, 73019
OK, USA.
Key words: Termit Graben, Eastern Niger Basin, Niger,
* corresponding author, email: [email protected] source rocks, maturity, thermal modelling

© 2017 The Authors. Journal of Petroleum Geology © 2017 Scientific Press Ltd

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 278 Burial and thermal history of the Termit Basin, Niger

6˚ 8˚ 10˚ 12˚ 14˚ 16˚

Eastern Niger
Basin 22˚

MALI Iullemmeden
Basin CHAD
Djado
N I G E R
KAFRA Basin
20˚
NIGERIA HOGGAR Ténéré
du

20˚
Tafassasset
A’
GREIN

Tim Mersoï
Air TENERE 18˚
Tamesna Basin Massif
Adrar Basin Bilma
des Arlit
18˚
Iforas
Dibella
Talak-Tamesna A TEFIDET
BILMA

Eastern Niger 16˚

Iullemmeden Agadès

16˚
Basin Basin
TERMIT
14˚
Tahoua
Ni

N’GUEL EDJI
B B’
ge
r

14˚ Zinder
Ri

NIAMEY Dogondoutchi
ve
r

Maradi Diffa
Dosso
LIPTAKO Chad Lake 12˚

Bornu
Basin
12˚

10˚

10˚
0˚ 2˚ 4˚ 6˚ 8˚ 10˚ 12˚ 14˚

0 100 300 500km.

LEGEND

Quaternary Lower Carboniferous

Cambrian, Ordovician,
Tertiary Silurian, Devonian
Mesozoic Precambrian

Upper Carboniferous

Fig. 1. Geological map of Niger with the location of the Eastern Niger graben system (Harouna and Philp,
2012).The red dashed lines refer to the locations of the cross-sections shown in Figs 3 and 4.The black dashed
line shows country borders.The blue box outlines the approximate location of the Termit Basin.
of oil-equivalent in nine oil discoveries and one gas led Liu et al. (2015) to suggest that the Middle Upper
discovery (TG World Petroleum Ltd, 2009). Cretaceous source rocks have reached the early
A preliminary source rock assessment of the oil generation window. But it is not clear when the
Termit Graben based on organic geochemical studies maturation occurred and or how it is related to the two
(Rock-Eval, bitumen extract and biomarker analyses) or more tectonic phases which have been identified
was published by Harouna and Philp (2012), and (Genik, 1992). Therefore the purpose of the present
biomarker and isotopic studies were presented by Wan paper is to further investigate the petroleum system in
et al. (2014). However, questions remain concerning the Termit Graben in terms of the burial history, thermal
the evolution of the petroleum system in the graben. history and timing of hydrocarbon generation, and to
For example, organic geochemical studies including attempt to relate the system’s evolution to phases of
Rock-Eval Tmax values, sterane ratios and homohopanes crustal rifting. Maturity information obtained from

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 M. Harouna, J. D. Pigott and R. P. Philp 279

Algeria Libya

NIGER

National frontier

Fig. 2. Map showing the West and Central African Rift System (WCARS) with the location of the Eastern Niger
graben system (after Genik, 1993).The box outlines the approximate location of the Termit Basin.

previous organic geochemical studies (including three synrift (two during the Cretaceous and one in
Harouna and Philp, 2012) was used to calibrate the the Paleogene); and a post-rift phase (Genik, 1993).
numerical models. The Eastern Niger graben system was first
identified from an interpretation of negative gravity
Geological Setting anomalies (Rechenman, 1967, 1969; Louis, 1970), and
The Eastern Niger Basin (also known as the Chad was subsequently confirmed by surface mapping and
Basin) extends some 1000 km north-south and 700 wells which delineated six approximately en échelon
km east-west in the eastern part of the Republic of grabens (Figs 1 and 2). These are:
Niger (Fig. 1) and has more than 14 km of sedimentary • the Téfidet Graben, which contains Lower
fill (Genik, 1992). To the west and NW the basin Cretaceous and marine Cenomanian–Turonian
is bounded by crystalline basement rocks of the siliciclastic sediments (Faure, 1966) and which extends
Precambrian Gouré and Aïr and Mesozoic Zinder for a length of about 400 km;
massifs; to the north by the Quaternary Ténéré du • the Ténéré Graben, where well Fachi-1 penetrated
Tafassasset massif; and to the east and NE by the the Lower Cretaceous at 3740 m and where the Eocene
Mesozoic Dibella Granite (Genik, 1992). The Eastern – Oligocene sediments are absent owing either to
Niger Basin is a composite basin made up of several erosion (Zanguina et al., 1998) or non-deposition.
narrow sub-parallel grabens (Figs 1 and 2). To the • the Grein-Kafra Graben, which extends for >600
north of the 17th parallel are the Ténéré, Grein, Kafra km from the Algeria–Niger frontier SE to Dibella,
and Bilma grabens, while to the south are the Termit and which contains a 3000–4000 m thick Cretaceous
Graben with its SW extension, the N’Guel Edji Graben. – Tertiary succession (Zanguina et al., 1998);
The grabens in Eastern Niger are part of the West • the Bilma Graben, which contains an 800 to 1000m
African rift system which, together with the Central thick Cretaceous – Tertiary sedimentary package
African rift system within Chad, the Central African overlying a presumed Lower Cretaceous or Permo-
Republic and Sudan, form the West – Central African Triassic substratum.
rift system (Fig. 2) (Genik, 1992, 1993; McHargue • the relatively shallow N’Guel Edgi graben, located
et al., 1992; Schull, 1988; Fairhead, 1986). This rift to the west of the southern tip of the Termit Graben,
system extends from Mali to Kenya and developed and which is about 100 km long and 40 km wide;
during the break-up of Gondwana in the Early • and the Termit Graben, the focus of this paper,
Cretaceous. In the Niger grabens, Genik (1993) which is over 400 km long and approximately 200
recognized six major tectonic phases: two pre-rift; km wide.

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 280 Burial and thermal history of the Termit Basin, Niger

SW NE
Téfidet Tenéré Grein Bilma Graben
Graben Graben Graben
Aïr
Adrar Madet Achegour

2 3
1 1 12 2
22 22
32
km

Tertiary
0 100 km Cretaceous

Basement

Fig. 3. Cross-section through the Téfidet,Ténéré, Grein and Bilma grabens (after Zanguina et al., 1998). Faults
designated by numbers refer to their association with the episodes of crustal extension described in the text.
Cross-section profile in Fig. 1.

west east
N’Guel Edji Graben Termit Graben
Lake Chad

200
2
400
2 2
depth (m)== 2
3
2 2 Cenozoic

0 100 km U. Cretaceous
L. Cretaceous
Precambrian

Fig. 4. Cross-section through the Termit and N’Guel Edji grabens (after Bellion, 1987). Faults designated by
numbers refer to their association with the episodes of crustal extension described in the text. Cross-section
profile in Fig. 1.
Within the Termit Graben, exploration wells have three fault pulses affected the Termit Basin and the
penetrated up to 2000 m of post-Paleocene sediments thermal maturity of the source rocks is at the core of
in well Sokor-3 and over 3800 m of Lower Cretaceous this investigation.
in well Madama-1. The Yogou-1 well reached a depth
of approximately 4000 m and is the deepest exploration AVAILABLE DATA
well drilled in the eastern Niger Basin.
Structural cross sections (Figs 3 and 4, after Data Sources and Procedure
Zanguina et al., 1998) reveal the elongated asymmetric Eight wells in the Agadem permit area in the SW
grabens within the Termit Basin to be bounded by three portion of the Termit Graben are analyzed for burial-
populations of NW-SE striking normal fault systems thermal histories using BasinMod software (Platte
of differing ages. These faults indicate three episodes River Associates, Inc.). From generally south to
of extension. Episode 1 is syn-Cretaceous (faults north, the wells are Yogou-1, Sokor-1, Faringa-1,
pierce Cretaceous strata); Episode 2 is Maastrichtian Goumeri-1, Boujamah-1, Karam-1, Sountellane-1 and
to Early Paleocene (faults pierce the Cretaceous but Soudana-1 (locations in Fig. 5). With respect to source
not the Tertiary); and Episode 3 is post-Cretaceous rocks, six Oligocene samples were analysed together
(faults pierce the Tertiary). This interpreted fault with 21 Eocene samples, 12 Paleocene samples,
mechanical stratigraphy is geomechanically plausible three Maastrichtian – Campanian samples, and eight
as tectonic faults propagate upwards owing to vertically Santonian samples.
decreasing stratal layer strength elastic moduli (Pigott Input data used for the modelling were collected
and Abouelresh, 2016). How the evolution of these from well-completion reports supplied by Esso

Harouna.indd 280 06/06/2017 12:53:50

 M. Harouna, J. D. Pigott and R. P. Philp 281

Fig. 5. Map of the Agadem permit Libya

in the Termit Basin showing the
Algeria
locations of exploration wells
(Harouna and Philp, 2012); black
circles show the eight wells NIGER Ag a de m
considered in this study.

Nigeria

S ouda na - 1
0 20 4 0 km
S o un t e l lan e -1

Ara g a -1

Ma da ma-1

Kara m -1
Iaguil A-1
Goumeri-1
Boujamah-1 Trake s-1
Dilia Langrin-1 Faring a - 1
Ag a di-1
Bedouram
Donga-1
S ok or- 3 Sok or-1
Jaouro-1 5 2
4
Gani-1
Ngourti

Moul- 1
Achigore-1

wells sampled for this study Y og ou- 1

Y og ou- 2
other wells
towns, villages

Exploration & Production Niger, Inc. Input data and Cobb, 1965) to the observed temperatures could
used for burial and thermal history modelling not be made. Instead, raw bottom-hole temperatures
included stratigraphic data, present-day geothermal were corrected via the empirical method of Achraf et
parameters, and thermal maturities (Table 1). al. (2015), which compared Drill Stem Tests to raw
Stratigraphic data included the present-day thickness borehole temperatures in the Jaffara Basin which is
of stratigraphic intervals, lithologies, tops, and ages located in southern Libya and Algeria. Heat flows in
which were derived from well-completion reports the Termit Basin were calculated from the borehole-
(Tables 2 – 9). As the existing formation names were corrected temperatures and surface temperatures using
lithostratigraphically determined and consequently a harmonic average of mixed thermal conductivities
vary in composition throughout the Termit Basin and which corresponded to the mixed borehole lithologies
as the formation ages of the strata better facilitate time via BasinMod.
correlation, ages rather than formation names will be Palaeoheat flows were determined by backtracking
used in the modelling. current heatflows and then forward modelling at
The stratigraphic modelling takes into account three crustal stretching factor increments which were
principal end-member lithologies (sandstones, shales calculated from the tectonic subsidence. The tectonic
and limestones) with the average lithological contents subsidence was determined from burial history curves
estimated as percentages for formations with mixed after removing the effects of isostasy and sea level
lithologies with corresponding mixed parameters changes (see Metawalli and Pigott, 2005). Although the
(compaction constants, thermal conductivities, etc.). quantification of sediment removal during uplifts could
Rather than use the raw borehole temperatures which not be calculated owing to the absence of estimates
would seriously underestimate thermal conditions, of intrabasinal palaeobathymety and to borehole-
a temperature correction was required. But as constrained reflection seismic profiles, preliminary
borehole temperatures with associated circulation modelling experiments demonstrated that realistic
times and times after the cessation of circulation possible erosion magnitudes for this basin did not have
were unavailable, Horner plot corrections (Dowdle a significant effect upon maturities.

Harouna.indd 281 06/06/2017 12:53:50

 282 Burial and thermal history of the Termit Basin, Niger

Table 1. Maturity parameters obtained from previous studies (Harouna and Philp, 2012). Hopane isomerization
= 22S/ (22S+22R) ratios, calculated on the C32 17a (H)-homohopanes.

Well Samples Depth (m) Tmax (°C) Hop. Isom.

Yogou HYU-1 2310 436 n.d
HYU-2 2338 429 0.32
HYU-3 2540 433 0.34
HYU-4 2940 440 n.d
HYU-5 2953 439 0.48
HYU-6 2965 438 n.d
HYU-7 2978 437 0.43
HYU-8 3025 439 n.d
HYU-9 3411 441 0.37
HYU-10 3441 441 n.d
HYU-11 3450 443 n.d

Sokor HSK-1 1625 442 n.d

HSK-2 1670 440 n.d
HSK-3 1878 439 0.26
HSK-4 2208 444 n.d
HSK-5 2218 437 0.34

Goumeri HGM-1 2155 442 n.d

HGM-2 2205 440 0.24
HGM-3 2280 441 n.d
HGM-4 2298 440 0.24
HGM-5 2335 444 0.28
HGM-6 2405 442 0.36
HGM-7 2415 443 n.d
HGM-8 2555 441 0.41
HGM-9 2815 440 n.d
HGM-10 3048 440 0.28
HGM-11 2384 442 n.d

Faringa HFG-1 2160 443 0.22

HFG-2 2224 441 n.d
HFG-3 2320 442 0.33
HFG-4 2343 444 0.31
HFG-5 2368 442 n.d
HFG-6 2390 442 0.31
HFG-7 2803 443 n.d
HFG-8 2875 444 0.3
HFG-9 2885 443 n.d
HFG-10 2895 443 0.28

Karam HKR-1 1816 435 n.d

HKR-2 2093 440 n.d
HKR-3 2216 440 n.d
HKR-4 2220 441 n.d
HKR-5 2283 441 n.d
HKR-6 2386 437 n.d
HKR-7 2393 439 n.d

Boujamah HBJ-3 1698 440 0.21

HBJ-1 1932 439 0.16
HBJ-2 1941 437 n.d

Sountellane HST-1 1759 429 n.d

HST-2 1776 427 n.d

Soudana HSD-1 1258 426 n.d

Harouna.indd 282 06/06/2017 12:53:50

 M. Harouna, J. D. Pigott and R. P. Philp 283

Thermal Maturity shown in Fig. 6B and shows a good match to measured

Three benchmarks were used for determining the Rock-Eval Tmax values (see below). Tectonically, a
level of thermal maturity in potential source rocks in steep gradient owing to fault mechanical subsidence
the Termit Basin. First, kinetic thermal maturities of indicates crustal extension or rifting, whereas a gentle
designated source rocks within the wells studied were gradient with a decreasing rate indicates thermal
calculated using the Lawrence Livermore National subsidence (Ru and Pigott, 1986).
Laboratory programme (Sweeney et al., 1990) within
BasinMod. The second metric of thermal maturity was 2. Central West Termit Basin:
estimated from Rock-Eval Tmax values. The oil window Wells Sokor-1, Goumeri-1, and Karam-1
is generally assumed to be between Tmax of 430 °C and
465 ° (Espitalié et al., 1984); Tmax values in the range Well Sokor-1: The Sokor-1 well was drilled in 1982
435-445 °C correspond to the early mature stage, by Elf Aquitaine in the central Termit Graben (Fig.
and 445-450 °C and 450-470 °C to the mid- and late 5). Input data used to model this well are given in
mature stages, respectively (Peters and Cassa, 1994). Table 3. The well was drilled to a total depth of
The third maturation index utilized was the hopane 2478 m, bottoming in sandstones of Maastrichtian
isomerization ratio at C22 (22S/22S + 22R). Initial oil to Paleocene age. The current heat flow value of
generation occurs between ratio values of 0.50 and 54.56 mW/m2 was calculated from the two available
0.55 (Seifert and Moldowan, 1986). An equilibrium formation temperatures with a surface temperature of
value is reached at thepeak of oil generation at a ratio 23°C. Burial and thermal history profiles for this well
value of 0.6. These latter two maturity data i.e. Rock- are presented in Fig. 7. The tectonic subsidence curve
Eval Tmax and homohopane 22S/ (22S+22R) ratios are (Fig. 7A) shows the relative importance of Oligocene
shown in Table 1. subsidence. The modelled thermal history profile
obtained using a constant heat-flow is shown in Fig. 7B.
RESULTS
Well Goumeri-1: The Goumeri-1 well was drilled in
Burial, tectonic subsidence and thermal history 1990 by Elf Aquitaine in the central Termit Graben.
The tectonic subsidence analysis of the Termit Input data used to model the well are shown in Table 4.
Basin boreholes provides insight into the timing The well was drilled to a total depth of 3280 m, ending
and magnitude of non-topographic subsidence in Eocene sandstones. As formation temperatures were
accompanying sediment deposition and the concomitant not provided in the well completion report, a heat
thermal changes. Similarities in the timing of tectonic flow value cannot be directly calculated. Burial and
subsidence pulses (tectonic subsidence and tectonic thermal history profiles for this well are presented in
subsidence rate) exhibited by the borehole data Fig. 8. The steep gradient of the tectonic subsidence
corresponds to a convenient division of the Termit curve (Fig. 8A) indicates a period of rapid subsidence
Basin into four regions (southern, central-west, during the Oligocene.
northern and eastern, and western) Figs 7A and 8A illustrate a remarkably similar
history of tectonic subsidence and tectonic subsidence
1. Southern Termit Basin: Well Yogou-1 rate for the two western wells, Sokor-1 and Goumeri-1.
Yogou-1 well was drilled in 1979 by Esso Exploration The data suggest slow subsidence from the Late
& Production Niger, Inc. in the southeast of the Termit Cretaceous to the Paleocene (75–53 Ma), increasing
Graben. Input data used to model this well are shown subsidence rates during the Eocene (53–35 Ma) and
in Table 2. The well was drilled to a depth of 3998 m then rapid subsidence (35–25 Ma) followed by slower
and bottomed in mid-Santonian limestones and shales. subsidence from the Late Oligocene to the present day
Three formation temperatures were obtained from (25–0 Ma).
the well-log completion report and, with a surface
temperature of 23 °C, provide a current heat flow value Well Karam-1: The Karam-1 well was drilled in 1994
of 40.24 mW/m2. by Elf Aquitaine. Input data used for this modelling
Burial and thermal history profiles for the well are is shown in Table 6. The well was drilled to a total
presented in Fig. 6. The tectonic subsidence curve (Fig. depth of 2550 m, reaching shales of Paleocene age.
6A) indicates rapid subsidence in the Late Cretaceous Three formation temperatures were obtained from
(85–75 Ma) followed by slower subsidence between 75 the well completion report. A current heat-flow value
and 28 Ma (Maastrichtian to Paleogene). Beginning in of 58.81 mW/m2 was calculated from three formation
the Late Oligocene (28 Ma) a phase of rapid subsidence temperatures and a surface temperature of 23 °C. Burial
was followed by slower subsidence which continues and thermal history profiles for this well are presented
to the present dayThe modelled thermal evolution in Fig. 10. The tectonic subsidence curve (Fig. 10A)
profile obtained using the present-day heat-flow is shows a phase of Oligocene subsidence. In contrast to

Harouna.indd 283 06/06/2017 12:53:50

 284 Burial and thermal history of the Termit Basin, Niger

Table 2. Input data used for numerical modelling of the Yogou-1 well.
YOGOU-1

Age Top Thick Corrected

Formation Lithology -ness Borehole Heat Flow
(Ma) (m) (m) Temp. (°C) (mW/m^2)

Miocene-Recent 25.5 Sandstones/shales 0 738 23@0m 40.24

Oligocene 28.8 Shales 738 366
Mid Oligocene 36 Sandstones 1104 251 68.58@ 1159 m
Eocene 54 Shales/sandstones 1355 436
L.Eoc. - Paleoc.
Up.Maastrichtian 66.5 Sandstones/shales 1791 588
Mid Maastr. 74-84 Sandstones/shales 2379 256
Santonian Shales 2635 388 94.22@ 2778 m
Mid Santonian 84-88 Shales/limestones 3023 458
Figure 6A Mid Coniacian Shales 3481
TD @ 3998 m 151.12@ 3998 m
YOGOU-1 CMP=2D;TH=SHF
TI=2;KEXP=Sat;PRM=PL
DI=49.35
Table 3
Pal N QH
0

500
Tectonic Subsidence (m)

1000

1500

2000

Tectonic Subsidence bottom

100 80 60 40 20 0

A
Age (Ma) B

Fig. 6. Burial and thermal history profiles for the Yogou-1 well showing (A) the tectonic subsidence curve, where
steep gradients represent rifting and gentle gradients represent thermal subsidence; (B) the modelled maturity
curve for a present-day heat flow of 40.2 mW/m2 (red line); (C) Tmax values and hopane isomerization ratios
versus depth; (D) the modelled hydrocarbon generation zones.

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 M. Harouna, J. D. Pigott and R. P. Philp 285

Table 3
Table 3. Input data used for numerical modelling of the Sokor-1 well.
SOKOR -1
Thick Surf. Heat
Age Top -ness Temp. Borehole Corrected Flow
Formation Lithology
(Ma) (m) (m) (°C) Temp. (°C) Temp. (°C) (mW/m2
)
Mioc.-Plio. 25.2 Sandstones 0 1050 23
Oligocene 36 Shales 1050 600 48.8 @ 1055 m 56.5 50.7
Eocene 54 Shales/ sandstones 1650 585
Paleoc.
Figure 7A 74 Sandstones 2235
TD @ 2470 m 88.8 @ 2470 m 97.9

SOKOR-1 CMP=2D;TH=SHF
TI=1.5;KEXP=Sat;PRM=PL
DI=30.875

Pal N QH
0

200
Tectonic Subsidence (m)

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

Tectonic Subsidence bottom

80 60 40 20 0

Age (Ma)

A B

Fig. 7. Burial and thermal history profiles for the Sokor-1 well showing (A) the tectonic subsidence curve;
(B) the modelled maturity curve for a present-day heat flow of 54.6 mW/m2 (green line) and for an elevated
heat flow of 80 mW/m2 (red line); (C) Tmax values and hopane isomerization ratios versus depth;
(D) the modelled hydrocarbon generation zones.

Harouna.indd 285 06/06/2017 12:53:52

 286 Burial and thermal history of the Termit Basin, Niger

the above two wells, during the Maastrichtian to early -1 is attenuated. Relatively rapid subsidence occurred
Paleocene (73–68 Ma), Karam-1 displays very rapid from the Maastrichtian to the early Paleocene (73–68
subsidence which slows slightly from the Paleocene to Ma), followed by less rapid subsidence during the
the Eocene (68 – 36 Ma). But similar to the two wells, Paleocene to Early Eocene (68–52 Ma), and then a
a pulse of rapid tectonic subsidence occurs during the phase of more rapid subsidence from the Early Eocene
Oligocene (36–25 Ma) which then slows to the present to the Late Oligocene (52 –25 Ma). Tectonic subsidence
(25–0 Ma). slows during the Late Oligocene and Miocene (25 –5
Ma), ending with a more rapid subsidence phase from
3. Northern and Eastern Termit Basin the Pliocene to the present day (5–0 Ma).
Well Sountellane-1: The Sountellane-1 well was
drilled in 1998 by Esso Exploitation & Production 4. Western Termit Basin
Niger Inc. in the NE Termit Graben. Input data used Well Faringa-1: The Faringa-1 well was drilled in
for the modelling is given in Table 7. The well was 1993 by Elf Aquitaine in the central Termit Graben.
drilled to a total depth of 2298 m, reaching sandstones Input data used for modelling the well are given in
of Maastrichtian to Paleocene age. Four formation Table 5. The well was drilled to a total depth of 3120
temperatures were obtained from the well completion m bottoming in Eocene sandstones. In the absence
report. A heat flow value of 54.83 mW/m2 is calculated of formation temperatures, a heat flow value cannot
from the four formation temperatures and a surface be directly calculated. The burial and thermal history
temperature of 23°C. The burial and thermal history profiles for this well are presented in Fig. 9. This
profiles for the well are presented in Fig. 11. The borehole shares only one major tectonic pulse with the
tectonic subsidence curve (Fig. 11A) shows a relatively other boreholes, that of the Late Oligoene. A tectonic
greater magnitude of Eocene to Oligocene and Recent subsidence curve for well Faringa-1 is shown in Fig.
subsidence. The thermal evolution profile obtained 9A. Slow tectonic subsidence was recorded from the
using constant current heat flow is shown in Fig. 11B. Maastrichtian to the early Paleocene (73–68 Ma)
with a slightly increased rate from the Paleocene to
Well Boujamah-1: The Boujamah-1 well was drilled the Eocene (68–28 Ma). A rapid pulse occurs in the
in 1997 by Esso Exploitation & Production Niger Inc. Late Oligocene (28–25 Ma) which then slows to the
in the central Termit Graben. Input data used for the present (25–0 Ma).
modelling is given in Table 8. The well was drilled
to a total depth of 2268 m, bottoming in sandstones DISCUSSION
of Maastrichtian to Paleocene age. Three formation
temperatures were obtained from the completion Termit Basin Tectonics
report. A current heat flow value of 62.81 mW/m2 was While the observed pulses of tectonic subsidence
calculated from the three formation temperatures with indicative of crustal extension within the Termit Basin
a surface temperature of 23°C. The burial and thermal boreholes vary in magnitude, rate and timing, within
history profiles for this well are presented in Fig. 12. the four groups of wells there are coeval pulses of
The tectonic subsidence curve (Fig. 12A) shows phases activity. Although it is not clear if the shared tectonic
of Eocene to Oligocene and Recent subsidence. The pulses of the four groups imply a connected crustal
thermal evolution profile obtained using constant platform, most but not all of the boreholes share the
current heat flow is shown in Fig. 12B. episodes and some show additional uncorrelated
times of rapid tectonic subsidence. Such variations
Well Soudana-1: The Soudana-1 well was drilled in in tectonic subsidence, even within the same basin
1998 by Esso Exploitation & Production Niger Inc. entity, is to be expected within this transtensional
in the NE Termit Graben. Input data are given in graben (Genik, 1993). For example, the natural
Table 9. The well was drilled to a total depth of 1448 curvilinear nature of through-going strike-slip faults
m, reaching sandstones and shales of Maastrichtian in which releasing fault bends with accelerating
to Paleocene age. Four formation temperatures were subsidence can evolve into constraining fault bends
obtained from the completion report, and the current with diminished to even reversals in subsidence and
heat flow of 80.2 mW/m2 was calculated with a surface vice versa has been demonstrated elsewhere in similar
temperature of 23°C. The burial and thermal history basins (Christie-Blick and Biddle, 1985; Ru and
profiles for this well are presented in Fig. 13. The Pigott, 1985; Pigott and Sattayarak, 1993). Perhaps
tectonic subsidence curve (Fig. 13A) shows phases of those borehole groups which share tectonic events
Eocene to Oligocene and Recent subsidence. are located along connecting master faults, and those
The tectonic subsidence observed at these three that do not represent separate basin segments. Without
wells shares three similar pulses, although the seismic reflection data to confirm this, however, the
magnitude of the tectonic subsidence rates at Soudana connectivity is only speculative.

Harouna.indd 286 06/06/2017 12:53:52

 M. Harouna, J. D. Pigott and R. P. Philp 287

Table 4
Table 4. Input data used for numerical modelling of the Goumeri-1 well.
GOURMERI -1
Age Top Thickness Heat Flow
Formation (Ma) Lithology (m)
(m) (mW/m2)

Mioc.-Plio. 25.2 Sandstones 0 1465 58.6

Oligocene 36 Shales 1465 815
Eocene 54 Shales/sandstones 2280 895
Paleoc.- 74 Sandstones 3175 *BASIN
Maastrichtian AVERAGE
TD @ 3280 m

Figure 8A

GOUMERI-1 CMP=2D;TH=SHF
TI=1.5;KEXP=Sat;PRM=PL
DI=41

Pal N QH
0

500
Tectonic Subsidence (m)

1000

1500

2000

Tectonic Subsidence bottom

80 60 40 20 0

Age (Ma)

Fig. 8. Burial and thermal history profiles for the Goumeri-1 well showing (A) the tectonic subsidence curve;
(B) the modelled maturity curve for a present-day basin average heat flow of 58.6 mW/m2 (red line);
(C) Tmax values and hopane isomerization ratios versus depth; (D) the modelled hydrocarbon generation zones.

Harouna.indd 287 06/06/2017 12:53:53

 288 Burial and thermal history of the Termit Basin, Niger

Table 5
Table 5. Input data used for numerical modelling of the Faringa-1 well.
FARINGA -1
Age Top Thickness Heat Flow
Formation Lithology
(Ma) (m) (m) (mW/m2)
2
Mioc.-Plioc. 25.2 Sandstones 0 1551 58.6 mW/m
Late Oligocene 28.8 Shales 1551 398
Early Oligocene 36 Shales/sandstones 1949 276
Eocene 54 Shales/sandstones 2225 570 *BASIN
AVERAGE
Paleocene 66.5 Shales 2795 222
Paleoc. 74 Sandstones 3017
Figure 9A TD @ 3120 m

FARINGA-1 CMP=2D;TH=SHF
TI=1.5;KEXP=Sat;PRM=PL
DI=39
Table 6
Pal N QH
0

500
Tectonic Subsidence (m)

1000

1500

2000

Tectonic Subsidence
80 60 40 20 0

Age (Ma)

A B

Fig. 9. Burial and thermal history profiles for the Faringa-1 well showing (A) the tectonic subsidence curve;
(B) the modelled maturity curve for a present-day basin average heat flow of 58.6 mW/m2 (green line) and for
an elevated heat flow of 80 mW/m2 (red line); (C) Tmax values and hopane isomerization ratios versus depth;
(D) the modelled hydrocarbon generation zones.

Harouna.indd 288 06/06/2017 12:53:54

 M. Harouna, J. D. Pigott and R. P. Philp 289

Table 6
Table 6. Input data used for numerical modelling of the Karam-1 well.
KARAM-1

Age Thick Surf. Borehole

Top -ness Temp. Corrected Heat Flow
Formation (Ma) Lithology Temp. (°C) Temp. (°C) (mW/m2)
(m) (m) (°C)
Mioc.-Plioc. 25.2 Sandstones 0 839 23 58.8
Late Oligocene 28.8 Shales 839 211
Early Oligocene 36 Shales/sandstones 1050 484
Eocene 54 Shales/sandstones 1534 636 78 @ 1816 m 86.7
Paleocene 66.5 Shales 2170 232 88.2 @ 2169.7 m 97.3
Paleoc. 74 Sandstones 2402 98.3 @ 2410.5 m 108.7
TD @ 3998 m

Figure 10A

KARAM 1 CMP=2D;TH=SHF
TI=1.5;KEXP=Sat;PRM=PL
DI=37.475

Pal N QH
0

500
Tectonic Subsidence (m)

1000

1500

2000

Tectonic Subsidence
80 60 40 20 0

Age (Ma)

A B

Fig. 10. Burial and thermal history profiles for the Karam-1 well showing (A) the tectonic subsidence curve;
(B) the modelled maturity curve for a present-day heat flow of 58.8 mW/m2 (green line) and for an elevated
heat flow of 80 mW/m2 (red line); (C) Tmax values versus depth; (D) the modelled hydrocarbon generation
zones.

Harouna.indd 289 06/06/2017 12:53:55

 290 Burial and thermal history of the Termit Basin, Niger

Table 7
Table 7. Input data used for numerical modelling of the Sountellane-1 well.
SOUNTELLANE-1

Age Surf. Borehole Corrected Heat Flow

Formation Lithology Top Thickness Temp. 2
(Ma) (m) (m) Temp. (°C) Temp.(°C) (mW/m )
(°C)
Late Mioc. 5.2 Sandstones 0 466 23 54.8
Early Miocene 25.2 Shales 466 285
Oligocene 36 Shales/sandstones 751 452(fault) 50.9 @ 740 m 58.6
Eocene 54 Sandstones/shales 1203 673 60.1 @ 1209 m 68.2
Paleocene 66.5 Sandstones 1876 183 80.3 @ 1889 m 89.1
Paleoc. 74 Sandstones 2059 81.1 @ 2006 m 89.9
TD @ 2298 m
Figure 11A

SOUNTELLANE-1 CMP=2D;TH=SHF
TI=1.5;KEXP=Sat;PRM=PL
DI=28.725

Pal N QH
0

200
Tectonic Subsidence (m)

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

Tectonic Subsidence
80 60 40 20 0

A Age (Ma)

Fig. 11. Burial and thermal history profiles for the Sountellane-1 well showing (A) the tectonic subsidence curve;
(B) the modelled maturity curve for a present-day heat flow of 54.8 mW/m2 (red line); (C) Tmax values versus
depth; (D) the modelled hydrocarbon generation zones.

Harouna.indd 290 06/06/2017 12:53:56

 M. Harouna, J. D. Pigott and R. P. Philp 291

Table 8
Table 8. Input data used for numerical modelling of the Boujamah-1 well.
BOUJAMAH-1

Age Thick- Surf. Borehole Corrected Heat Flow

Formation Lithology Top ness Temp.
(ma) (m) Temp. (°C) Temp. (°C) (mW/m^2)
(m) (°C)
Late Mioc. 5.2 Sandstones 0 440 23 62.8
Early Miocene 25.2 Shales/sandstones 440 447
Late Oligocene 28.8 Shales 887 186
Early Oligocene 36 Shales 1073 226
Eocene 54 Shales/sandstones 1299 560 67.9 @ 1300 m 76.2
Paleocene 66.5 Sandstones/shales 1859 177 95.6 @ 1969 m 104.9
Paleoc. 74 Sandstones 2036 99.42 @ 2031 m 108.9
TD @ 2268 m
Figure 12A

BOUJAMAH-1 CMP=2D;TH=SHF
TI=1.5;KEXP=Sat;PRM=PL
DI=28.35

Pal N QH
0

200
Tectonic Subsidence (m)

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

Tectonic Subsidence
80 60 40 20 0

Age (Ma)

A B

D
Fig. 12. Burial and thermal history profiles for the Boujamah-1 well showing (A) the tectonic subsidence curve;
(B) the modelled maturity curve for a present-day heat flow of 62.8 mW/m2 (green line) and for an elevated
heat flow of 80 mW/m2 (red line); (C) Tmax values and hopane isomerization ratios evolution versus depth;
(D) the modelled hydrocarbon generation zones.

Harouna.indd 291 06/06/2017 12:53:56

 292 Burial and thermal history of the Termit Basin, Niger

There are three episodes of observed rapid Santonian entered the same zone around 25 Ma. Only
tectonic subsidence (>50m/Ma) within the basin the Mid Coniacian interval reached the Late Mature
which correspond to the three previously-mentioned stage, at about 8 Ma. Organic matter corresponds to
fault-mechanical episodes: Episode 1, syn-Cretaceous Type III kerogen (Harouna and Philp, 2012).
(recorded only by the deepest borehole, Yougou-1);
Episode 2, Maastrichtian to Early Paleocene; and 2. Central West Termit:
Episode 3, Oligocene. In general, between and Wells Sokor-1, Goumeri-1, and Karam-1
following these three episodes were times of less rapid
tectonic subsidence. Well Sokor-1: Thermal modelling of well Sokor-1
These three episodes of crustal extension lie within using a present-day heat flow of 54.6 mW/m2 (Fig.
the regional tectonic phases for the West African 7B) provides a less satisfactory match between the
rift system identified by Genik (1993). Episode 1 modelled profile and the measured Tmax values. Profiles
corresponds to Late Cretaceous rifting during Genik’s of Tmax and homohopane isomerization ratios are
Tectonic Phase 2. Episode 2, the phase of rapid plotted versus depth in Fig. 7C; all the Tmax data are in
subsidence in the Maastrichtian to early Paleocene the Oligocene and Eocene interval between 1500 and
correlates with Genik’s (ibid.) Tectonic Phase 3, a rift 2250 m. Modelled hydrocarbon generation zones are
phase in the West and Central Africa Rift System. The shown in Fig. 7D. While the Tmax evolution (Fig. 7C)
following phase of reduced tectonic subsidence in the reached the early mature stage at a depth of about 1600
Termit Basin corresponds to Genik’s Tectonic Phase m, the hopane isomerization values correlate with the
4, a time of regionally slow rift activity. The observed beginning of the oil window over 2000 m (Fig. 7C),
Termit Basin phase of rapid tectonic subsidence in the indicating that there is disagreement between the two
Oligocene (Episode 3) occurs at the end of Genik’s maturity parameters. The maturity profile (Fig. 7D)
(ibid.) Phase 4, when another rift cycle developed in the indicates that the Paleocene to Maastrichtian and the
West African and Central African rifts. Consistent with Eocene entered the oil window at about 20 Ma and
Genik’s final Tectonic Phase 5, a period of regional 12 Ma, respectively. Modelling demonstrates that,
uplift and emergence continuing to the present day, the only if the present-day heat flow were elevated to
Termit Basin boreholes in general show minor tectonic approximately 80 mW/m2 would the kinetic model
subsidence except for a few local anomalies. match that observed geochemical maturity values,
implying that this portion of the graben has been
LEVELS OF ORGANIC MATURITY cooling considerably since the original phase of crustal
stretching.
Regional grouping of boreholes
Well Gourmeri-1: The Goumeri-1 well lacks borehole
1. Southern Termit: Well Yogou-1 temperature data. A present-day assumed heat flow of
For this well (Fig. 6B), the thermal kinetic model using 58.6 mW/m2 (the average heat flow of all the Termit
present-day heat flow values of 40.2 mW/m2 lies only Basin values) indicates a satisfactory match between
slightly below the measured Tmax data (Fig. 6C). Plots the profile obtained by modelling and the measured Tmax
of Tmax values and hopane isomerization ratios from values. The thermal evolution profile obtained using
Harouna and Philp (2012) versus depth are given this heat-flow is shown in Fig. 8B, and plots of Tmax
in Fig. 6C. The Tmax data is from the Maastrichtian- values and homohopane isomerization ratios versus
Campanian and Santonian sequences between depths depth are given in Fig. 8C. The Tmax data are taken from
of 2300 and 3500 m, with low S2 values (Harouna and the Oligocene and Eocene succession between 2200
Philp, 2012). Modelled hydrocarbon generation zones and 3100 m. Modelled hydrocarbon generation zones
are shown on Fig. 6D. The Early Mature zone occurs are shown in Fig. 8D. However, Tmax data (Fig. 8C) in
at a depth of about 2200 m, and the Mid Mature zone the Oligocene and Eocene indicated that all the studied
between 3300 and 3500 m. Hopane isomerization samples are Early Mature which does not agree with
values reach the oil window at 2250 m and approach the hopane isomerization values which indicate that
equilibrium values at around 3000 m (Fig. 6C). the early mature stage is reached below about 2300 m.
The maturity profile (Fig. 6D) indicates that the Based on the maturity profile (Fig. 8D), the Paleocene
Early Mature stage was reached by the Mid Coniacian to Maastrichtian interval entered the oil window at 32
interval at about 71 Ma, by the Mid Santonian around Ma, the mid-mature zone at 27 Ma, the Late Mature
58 Ma, by the Upper Santonian at 40 Ma, and by zone at 22 Ma and the main gas generation stage at 4
the Mid Maastrichtian to Campanian and Upper Ma. The Eocene entered the oil window at 30 Ma, the
Campanian – Paleocene – Lower Eocene at about 15 mid-mature zone at 25 Ma, and the Late Mature zone
Ma and 8 Ma, respectively. The Mid Coniacian entered at 20 Ma. The Oligocene entered the oil window at 20
the Mid Mature zone at about 52 Ma, while the Mid Ma and the mid-mature stage at 2 Ma.

Harouna.indd 292 06/06/2017 12:53:56

 M. Harouna, J. D. Pigott and R. P. Philp 293

Table 9
Table 9. Input data used for numerical modelling of the Soudana-1 well.
SOUDANA-1

Age Thick Surf. Borehole Corrected Heat Flow

Formation Lithology Top -ness Temp.
(Ma) (m) Temp. (°C) Temp. (°C) (mW/m^2)
(m) (°C)
Late Mioc. 5.2 Sandstones 0.0 333.0 23@0m 80.2
Early Miocene 25.2 Sandstones 333.0 188.0
Late Oligocene 28.8 Shales 521.0 82.0
Early Oligocene 36.0 Shales/sandstones 603.0 207.0 56.3@ 603 m 64.2
Eocene 54.0 Sandstones 810.0 364.0 55.3@ 788 m 63.2
Paleocene
Figure 13A
66.5 Sandstones 1174.0 158.0 62.7@ 1153 m 70.9
Paleoc.- 74.0 Sandstones/shales 1332.0 65.3@ 1357 m 73.6
TD @ 1448 m
SOUDANA-1 CMP=2D;TH=SHF
TI=1.5;KEXP=Sat;PRM=PL
DI=21.5

Pal N QH
0

200
Tectonic Subsidence (m)

400

600

800

1000

Tectonic Subsidence
80 60 40 20 0

Age (Ma)

A Figure 13C B

Fig. 13. Burial and thermal history profiles for the Soudana-1 well showing (A) the tectonic subsidence curve;
(B) the modelled maturity curve for a present-day heat flow of 80.2 mW/m2(green line) and for an elevated
heat flow of 90 mW/m2 (red line); and (C) the modelled hydrocarbon generation zones.

Harouna.indd 293 06/06/2017 12:53:57

 294 Burial and thermal history of the Termit Basin, Niger

Well Karam-1 Thermal modelling of well Karam-1 well, it is challenging to evaluate the significance with
using the present-day heat flow of 58.8 mW/m2 (Fig. which the kinetic maturity profile misses the Tmax value,
10B) suggests that the modelled profile underestimates as an increase to 90 mW/m2 would be necessary. The
the measured Tmax data. The thermal evolution profile calculated maturity profile (Fig. 13C) shows that the
obtained using constant present-day heat-flow is Lower Paleocene – Maastrichtian entered the Early
shown in Fig.10B. A plot of Tmax values versus depth Mature zone at 21 Ma.
is shown in Fig. 10C; the Tmax data are in the Eocene
and Paleocene succession between 1800 and 2400 m. 4. Western Termit. Well Faringa-1
Modelled hydrocarbon generation zones are shown As Faringa-1 also lacks thermal borehole measurements,
in Fig. 10D. Fig. 9B illustrates the thermal model of well Faringa-1
Most of the Tmax values, between 1800 and 2400 m using the present-day Termit average heat flow of 58.6
ranging from 435 to 443 °C, have reached the onset mW/m2. The kinetic model line lies substantially below
of the oil window (Fig. 10C). The Lower Paleocene the measured Tmax values, and there is no fit unless
– Maastrichtian reached the Early Mature and Mid the heat flow is increased to 80 mW/m2. The thermal
Mature zones at 34 Ma and 20 Ma, respectively. The evolution profile obtained using this heat-flow is shown
Paleocene and the Eocene entered the oil window at in Fig. 9B, and plots of Tmax values and homohopane
about 25 and 18 Ma, respectively (Fig. 10D). isomerization ratios versus depth are given in Fig.
9C; the Tmax data are in the Oligocene, Eocene and
3. Northern and Eastern Termit: Paleocene sequences between 2000 and 3000 m.
Wells Soutenallane-1, Boujaman-1, and Soudana-1 Modelled hydrocarbon generation zones are shown
in Fig. 9D. Fig. 9C shows the evolution of Tmax values
Well Sountellane-1: Fig. 11B illustrates thermal versus depth for Faringa-1 samples from the Oligocene,
modelling of the Sountellane-1 well, using the present- Eocene and Paleocene. The Tmax values show that all the
day heat flow of 54.8 mW/m2. Only two Tmax values samples have reached the Early Mature zone. Hopane
of 429 and 427 °C at 1759 and 1776 m depth were isomerization values indicate that the Early Mature
available (Fig. 11C) and were obtained in the Eocene stage was reached at depths of over 2300 m (Fig. 9C),
sequence between 1750 and 1800 m (Fig. 11C). in disagreement with the maturity results given by the
Modelled hydrocarbon generation zones are shown Tmax values. The modelled maturity profile (Fig. 9D)
in Fig. 11D. The kinectic maturity curve slightly shows that the Lower Paleocene and Maastrichtian
underestimates the Tmax values (Fig. 11B). Based on entered the Early Mature, Mid Mature and Late Mature
the maturity profile (Fig. 11D), the Lower Paleocene Stages at 30 Ma, 23 Ma and 8 Ma, respectively. The
– Maastrichtian and the Paleocene reached the Early Paleocene reached the Early Mature and the Mid
Mature zone at about 24 Ma and 19 Ma, respectively. Mature Stages at 25 Ma and 20 Ma, respectively. The
Eocene and the Early Oligocene entered the oil window
Well Boujamah-1: Fig. 12B represents the thermal at 22 Ma and 10 Ma, respectively.
modelling of the Boujamah-1 well. Three Tmax values
were obtained in the Eocene and Paleocene strata
between 1600 and 1900 m, and hopane isomerization DISCUSSION
ratios are given in Fig. 12C. Modelled hydrocarbon
generation zones are shown in Fig. 12D. The thermal Irrespective of the substantial heterogeneity exhibited
modelling curve with a heat flow value of 62.8 mW/ throughout the Termit Basin, stratal groupings are
m2 underestimates the measured Tmax values ranging largely consistent with respect to the kinetic modelled
from 437 to 440 °C (Fig. 12C). Hopane isomerization maturities. Grouped in increasing thermal maturity are
values indicate that the samples are immature (Fig. the Oligocene, Paleocene, Maastrichtian-Campanian,
12C). The maturity profile (Fig. 12D) shows that the and Santonian sources. Specifically, the Oligocene
Early Paleocene – Maastrichtian interval entered the samples are largely thermally immature and only
oil window and the Mid Mature stage at 25 Ma and about one-half of them exhibit a thermal maturity level
3 Ma, respectively. The Paleocene reached the Early corresponding to the onset of the oil window (%Ro =
Mature stage at 20 Ma and the Eocene at about 12 Ma. 0.5). Most of Paleocene samples are also thermally
immature whereas the Maastrichtian-Campanian
Well Soudana-1: The thermal modelling of well samples are in general thermally mature with some
Soudana-1 using the present-day heat flow of 80.2 reaching the main phase of oil generation (%Ro = 0.7).
mW/m2 is illustrated in Fig. 13B. One Tmax value is Finally, the thermal maturity of Santonian source rocks
obtained from the Paleocene strata at 1258 m. Modelled corresponds to an interval between the onset of the
hydrocarbon generation zones are shown in Fig. 13C. oil window and the main oil generation phase (%Ro
With only one Tmax value of 426 °C available for this = 0.7 to 1).

Harouna.indd 294 06/06/2017 12:53:57

 M. Harouna, J. D. Pigott and R. P. Philp 295

Regarding the significance of the timing of the fault may corrupt Tmax profiles include contamination by
mechanical stratigraphy (Figs 3 and 4), the differing drilling mud additives, the presence (and possible
times and degrees of maturation would directly affect recycling) of bitumen, the organic matter type, the
hydrocarbon exploration strategies in the Termit Basin. mineral matrix and mixing of reworked sedimentary
If vertical intra-fault permeability is substantially materials (Kruge, 1983; Vandenbroucke et al., 1983;
higher than lateral cross-fault permeability, then the Tissot and Welte, 1984; Peters, 1986; Hunt, 1996; Lee
geomechanical elastic behavior of the basin fill owing and Sun, 2014). But if such contamination were the
to brittle failure of the rocks would lead to potential case, the error would be likely random among the wells
vertical (short distance) migration pathways. Moreover, and not show an observed systematic maturity higher
as multiple source rocks would be juxtaposed next to the than that modelled.
high angle faults, reservoir rock assemblages supplied Another discrepancy is that while Tmax is in general
by deeper source rocks would show less oil mixing a good indicator of thermal maturity, Tmax values in the
than shallower ones. For example, the Termit Basin studied wells did not agree with hopane isomerization
Santonian source rocks which matured earlier than values which correlate with the other molecular
the rest would potentially source those reservoir units maturity parameters (Harouna and Philp, 2012). For
which were connected via faults which developed in example, the Tmax values obtained on Yogou-1 samples
the Late Cretaceous. However, if the Santonian source with very low S2 peaks (Harouna and Philp, 2012) may
pods were penetrated by faults of the Maastrichtian be considered to be unreliable as well as the small
to early Paleocene and/or Oligocene, the petroleum number of values obtained from wells Sountellane-1
fluids accumulating in shallower reservoirs would and Soudana-1 (two and one, respectively) were
tend to be more mature (higher API, more gas) than if insufficient to show a consistent maturity trend. But,
these same reservoirs were connected to shallower and the hopane isomerization data-set may contain errors.
later maturing source rocks. Such a contrast in sourced For example, Rullkotter and Marzi (1988) proposed
oil compositions would be revealed by Maastrichtian that the poor agreement (and therefore resulting
Campanian mature source rocks if directly connected errors) between hopane isomerization and other kinetic
to syndepositional and younger reservoirs. parameters are a result of the differences between the
For the studied wells, the Tmax values in many reactions in the laboratory and those theorized to occur
cases are consistently higher than the modelled in nature. Unfortunately, there are no measured vitrinite
maturities. Discrepancies between the kinetic model reflectance values to rigorously test either the hopane
and the Tmax values may have a number of causes, isomerization or Tmax values.
e.g. systematic error in the calculations or error in If the geological, geophysical and geochemical
the Tmax values themselves. That the error could be data (especially the abundant Tmax values) are accurate,
due to the kinetic parameters used within the LLNL there remains an additional possibility for the observed
(Lawrence Livermore Nuclear Laboratory) programme differences. With inputs from the tectonic subsidence
utilized in BasinMod is considered unlikely as the parameters and using present-day heat flows, as
Lawrence Livermore kinetics are rigorous and form mentioned previously the calculated maturity curves
a basin-modelling industry standard (see Burnham are in several instances under-mature with respect to
et al., 1992). Then, could the surface temperatures the observed Tmax values. That is, If both the Tmax and
used for the kinetic models be in error? Although the temperature measurements are accurate, then there
temperatures were corrected, the addition of more are in general two ways to shift the calculated kinetic
borehole temperatures and circulation times and/ maturity curve to the right: either geologically (i.e. by
or drill stem tests definitely would greatly improve lithologic replacement); or tectonically, by thermal
the accuracy of the thermal calculations. However, maturity models as discussed by Pigott and Abouelresh
experiments for these wells show that unless the (2016).
surface temperatures measures were more than 25% For example, if the observed lithology conductivities
undervalued (which is unlikely), they are not in were to be replaced (conductivity lithology replacement
substantial error. Could the Tmax values be in error? model procedure of Pigott et al., 2008) with “all
Rock-Eval Tmax is the temperature which coincides shale”, the decrease in thermal conductivities would
with the maximum S2 peak during anhydrous pyrolysis, correspond to increased maturities and move the
and Tmax values increase with thermal maturation calculated curves to the right and closer to the Tmax
(Espitalié et al., 1984; Peters, 1986; Tissot et al., 1987). values. However, this assumption is not consistent
Consequently Tmax values can be, and are commonly, with the multiple observations of sandstones logged
correlated with vitrinite reflectance values for Type III in the wells. Tectonically, in the general crustal
organic matter, including humic coals (Teichmüller rifting model (Ru and Pigott, 1986), lithospheric
and Durand, 1983; Espitalié et al., 1984; Tissot and thinning is accompanied by a heat pulse which decays
Welte, 1984; Waples, 1985). However, factors which over time. Heat flow modelling experiments with

Harouna.indd 295 06/06/2017 12:53:57

 296 Burial and thermal history of the Termit Basin, Niger

Sokor-1, Faringa-1, Karam-1 and Boujamah-1 clearly The measured and modelled maturation of source
demonstrate that if the synrift heat flow were elevated rocks reveals substantial heterogeneity throughout
to 80 mW/m2 from the present-day values, the kinetic the Termit Basin. However, the Oligocene samples
maturities would fit the Tmax values much better (see studied are in general thermally immature, and only
red lines on Figs. 7B, 9B, 10B and 12B which show the about one-half of them exhibit a thermal maturity level
higher modelled maturities if the borehole heatflows corresponding to the onset of the oil window (%Ro =
are increased to 80 mW/m2). A heat flow increase of 0.5). Most of the Paleocene samples are also thermally
such a magnitude would involve continental crust immature. Maastrichtian-Campanian samples are in
with an average heat flow of 65 Mw/m2 and a beta general thermally mature but some have reached the
(stretching) factor of 1.23, which approximates the main phase of oil generation (%Ro = 0.7). The thermal
stretching geometrically proposed by Genik’s (1992) maturity of Santonian source rocks corresponds to an
estimate of extension from 150 to 200 km (which interval between the onset of the oil window and the
results in a beta of 1.33). Moreover, such an increase main oil generation phase (%Ro = 0.7 to 1).
in synrift palaeo-heat flows at values similar to the Exploration strategies within the Termit Basin
present-day value at Soudana -1, which later decayed to should take into consideration the timing of maturation
the present-day values, would reconcile the difference with respect to differing fault pathways which
between the Tmax and the kinetics. accompanied the tectonic pulses. This may have led to
the development of hydrocarbon accumulations with
CONCLUSIONS differing oil-gas compositions in different reservoir
compartments.
Three episodes of tectonic subsidence indicative of
crustal extension which correspond to the observed ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
fault mechanical stratigraphy within the Termit
Basin are identified in this study: Late Cretaceous, We are indebted to J. P. Passeron, formerly Manager
Maastrichtian to early Paleocene, and Oligocene. These Lake Chad/Niger, Africa/Middle East Business Unit
episodes fall within the regional tectonic phases for the at Exxon Exploration Company, and Dirk Laenerts
West African Rift System delineated by Genik (1992). (General Manager, Esso Exploration & Production
The Termit Basin exhibits substantial heterogeneity in Niger Inc.) who took part in the initiation of this study
the magnitude of tectonic episodes and consequently and gave permission to sample borehole cuttings.
in thermal maturities. Special thanks are due to the Secretary General of
The thermal modelling suggests that most Oligocene the Ministry of Mines and Energy of Niger and his
source rocks are immature except in the Goumeri-1 colleagues of the “Direction des Hydrocarbures”, who
and Faringa-1 wells, where they are mid-mature and granted authorization to conduct this research project.
early mature respectively. Eocene source rocks are The American Department of State provided financial
immature in the Sountellane-1 and Soudana-1 wells; support through the Council for International Exchange
however, they have reached the early mature stage in of Scholars (CIES). We gratefully acknowledge Mrs
Yogou-1, Sokor-1, Karam-1 and Boujamah-1, mid Konto (American Cultural Center, Niamey), Debra
mature in Faringa-1, and late mature in Goumeri-1. Egan and Michelle Grant (Fulbright Scholar Program,
Paleocene source rocks are immature in Soudana-1 Africa/Western Hemisphere). Finally, the manuscript
but have entered in the early mature phase in Karam-1, was significantly improved following the constructive
Sountellane-1 and Boujamah-1. The mid mature stage comments of Ralf Littke and an anonymous reviewer
was reached by Paleocene source rocks at the Faringa-1 who helped the authors question the premises of their
well. All source rocks from the Lower Paleocene – conclusions more thoroughly.
Upper Maastrichtian interval are mature and have
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