Instruction Manual

PH 516 Advanced Physics Laboratory

M.Sc. Physics

Semester IV

Department of Physics
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY GUWAHATI
January—May, 2024
 PH 516 Advanced Physics Laboratory

M.Sc. Physics
Semester IV

Contents

A. Instructions 3
B. Errors in Measurements 4
C. Least Squares Fit 6
EXPERIMENT
TITLE OF THE EXPERIMENT PAGE
NO.

1 Statistics of Radioactive Decay 7-8

2 Atomic Spectra 9-10

3 Zeeman Effect 11-15

4 Solar Cell 16-20

5 Faraday Effect 21-23

6 Microwave antenna 24

7 X-Ray Absorption and Diffraction 25-29

8 Fourier Optics 30-33

9 NMR spectroscopy 34-37

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 Instructions

This laboratory manual contains six experiments picked up from different areas of contemporary
physics. Being an advanced level lab, only a brief outline of each experiment is given. Guidelines
for preparing tables, graphs to be plotted with the data collected, method of performing calculations
using formulae given and estimation of errors in the measurements and their expression have not
been given. You have to do this yourself with available material. You are also advised to refer
other sources to learn more about each experiment.

The experiments are allotted date-wise to each student. For each experiment, two laboratory
sessions having six hours are allotted to each student. One must complete everything within this
period and submit the lab report by the end of session (i.e. on the day two). Since no extra time will
be given to complete any experiment, you need proper preparation and time plan.

INITIAL PREPARATION: You must read and understand the theory of your experiment before
you come to the lab. Submit a write-up (for all parts of the expts.) containing the title-page, aim
and theory (including working formula, schematic diagram) of the experiment at the start of the
lab. Your initial write-up should be brief and it should not be a blind copy of the manual.
You will lose all credits if you turn up without an initial preparation as specified above.

Set up your apparatus and complete all data collection on the first three hours. Show the instructor
that the apparatus is properly set and that you are able to record data in correct manner. Get the
raw data signed by the instructor at the time of recording them. While leaving the lab, you must
leave behind all papers/records. Taking any record outside the lab is not permitted.

You must complete all calculations, graphical representations, error analysis and estimates,
etc. within the stipulated time. Insert the original sheets of recorded (raw) data that had been signed
by the instructor. A fair copy of data is not acceptable. Graphs should be drawn by hand on graph
sheets, if not instructed otherwise. Submit the complete report of your experiment by the end of
the experiment.

Note that your final report should include all: title-page, aim, theory, least counts,
observation tables, graph plots, calculations, error analysis and error estimates, final results.

Assessment of your performance will be based on (a) your initial preparation, (b) your
understanding and skill/performance in carrying out the experiment, (c) whether you have taken
sufficient amount of relevant data, (d) proper graphs, calculations, error analysis and error
estimates, final results. Further assessment will be through a quiz and a final examination
(laboratory).

Credits: Lab Classes: 50%, Quiz: 20 %, End semester assessment: 30%.

You should handle all instruments and components carefully. Please do not hesitate to give your
feedback at any time.

With Best Wishes

The Instructors,
January - May, 2024 session.

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 Experiment No. 1
Statistics of Radioactive Decay

Objectives

1. To determine the statistical distribution law of radioactive decay events

2. To determine the goodness of the fit by chi-square test.

Theory

Radioactive decay of a nucleus is a random process governed by the laws of quantum

mechanics. Thus we can talk about only the probability of a decay. Most radioactive samples
that are handled in the laboratory classes have long half-lives indicating that the probability of
decay is small. In this experiment the statistical distribution law of the decay events will be
found out employing the Geiger-Müller Counter. This experiment may be divided into two
parts as given below.

Counting Statistics: If N is the number of counts observed for a fixed duration of time, then
the distribution f(N) cannot be distinguished from a Gaussian distribution. f(N) can be
identified with the frequency of obtaining N counts for the same fixed duration of time.

Decay Statistics: This can be determined by observing the time sequence of the radioactive
decays. It can be shown that the probability distribution is given by

fn(τ) = ρ (ρτ)n–1 e–ρτ / (n–1)!

where n is the number of counts between which the time intervals τ are measured; for example,
n = 1 if the time interval between every count is measured. Here ρ is the mean counts per unit
time; the same time units are to be used for measuring τ.

In this experiment, you have to determine the Decay Statistics.

Procedure

1. Before switching on, make sure that all the knobs are set at minimum.
2. Place the given source (say Cs137) at 1 or 2 cm from the end window of the GM tube.
3. Increase slowly the EHT voltage supply to the GM tube and stop exactly when the counter
starts recording counting. Verify whether this voltage is a reasonable value of starting
voltage. If yes, proceed to the next step.
4. Continue to increase slowly the EHT voltage and set it to the operating voltage of the given
GM tube. The operating voltage may be around 550 V (verify!)
5. Set the Counting System in the “Acquisition Mode” and connect it to the DSO.
6. Observe the time sequence of events on the DSO.
7. Connect the DSO to the computer through the USB port.
8. Open the “NI Signal Express” program. Click “Next”, choose “TDS2000B”, and click
“finish”.

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 GM tube

Insulator C
Scaler
Wire

Ar Gas Amplifier
Source
R

HV supply

Fig. 1: Schematics of the GM tube and the associated electronics

9. Click “Sync to Scope” and click “Run”.

10. In “Step setup” click “vertical” and set “Channel No.”, “Scale” at 1 V/div. (or mV/div),
“probe type” to voltage, “probe attenuation” at 1X, “position” at –3 or –3.5, “bandwidth”
full. Then click “horizontal” and set “scale” around 10 ms and “acquisition mode” to
sample.
11. Now click “data view”, drag the next icon (TDS2014B) to the window displaying a graph
sheet.
12. Time sequence of peaks will be observed on the graph sheet.
13. Click “stop” and record the data.
14. Click “run”. Click “stop”. (Alternatively, click “Run Once”.) Record the data once again
(in a separate table).
15. Repeat Step 11 many times until sufficient data is collected. From this data you should be
able to find fn(τ).
16. Plot histograms corresponding to fn(τ) for n = 1, 3.
17. Find the parameter(s) of the distributions fn(τ).
18. Superpose theoretical curves on the histograms.
19. Estimate the goodness of the fit for n = 3 by chi-square test.

Attention: Before leaving, decrease slowly the EHT voltage to zero; also set all other knobs
to minimum.

References

1. G. Knoll, Radiation Detection and Measurement, John Wiley, 1999.

2. K. S. Krane, Introductory Nuclear Physics, John Wiley, 1988.
3. W. Feller, An Introduction to Probability Theory and its Applications, vols. 1 and 2, John
Wiley.

8
 Experiment No. 2
Atomic Spectra
Objective

To determine the wavelengths of emission lines of an element employing a constant deviation

spectrometer

Background and Theory

The emission spectra of many elements, including hydrogen, has been observed and
experimented with for a long time since long before the advent of Quantum Mechanics. Such
measurements find applications in Astronomy, Astrophysics, Plasma Physics apart from being
of pure academic interest. It is of course known to everybody that without the experimental
study of atomic spectra the validity of Quantum Mechanics could not have been tested in a
straightforward way.

In this experiment a constant deviation spectrometer is used. This spectrometer has two arms
CP and PT fixed at right angles (see figure 2.1). One of the arms (CP) is fitted with a collimator
while the other (PT) with a telescope. At the junction P where the arms would meet, a constant
deviation prism is held at a proper orientation. The prism can be rotated with the help of a
drum. The collimator slit is illuminated with the desired light and the resulting spectrum is
observed through the telescope. The telescope eyepiece can be displaced horizontally with a
micrometer.

Fig. 2.1: Constant Deviation Spectrometer

The wavelengths of Sodium lines will be assumed known in this experiment. The wavelengths
of Hydrogen lines are to be determined with respect to the sodium lines. To do this, first a
sodium lamp is placed in front of the collimator slit and next the hydrogen discharge tube is
placed. To find wavelengths, Hartmann’s interpolation method can be employed:
λi = A + B / (xi – C)

9
where xi is the position of the ith line with wavelength λi and A, B, C are constants. Three
known wavelengths can be used to evaluate the constants A, B, and C. This formula works
well when the unknown wavelengths fall within the three known wavelengths used above.

Procedure

1. Place the Sodium lamp in front of the collimator slit.

2. Rotate the prism and ensure that most lines of Sodium are visible.
3. Fix the prism so that the left part of the spectrum is in the field of view of the telescope.
4. Displace the eyepiece with the help of the micrometer screw and make the crosswire
coincident with one line. Note down the colour and the micrometer reading.
5. Without rotating the prism, displace the eyepiece crosswire to the next line. Note down
observations.
6. Repeat Step 5 until all lines in the field of view are exhausted.
7. Replace the Sodium light with the discharge tube provided.
8. Repeat observations as were done in Steps 4, 5, and 6 for the most prominent lines in the
longer wavelength side
9. Note that the prism must be fixed in the above steps as was initially set in Step 3.
10. Place the Sodium source again
11. Rotate the prism so that the next part of the spectrum is in the field of view.
12. Now keep the prism in this second fixed position repeat Steps 3 to 6.
13. Similarly, you can note down a third part of the spectra as well.
14. Use Hartmann’s interpolation method separately in different regions of the spectra.
Hence find the wavelengths of spectral lines.

Sodium Lines
VB (v.v.v. 4494—4498 Å
faint)
B (v. faint) 4665—4669 Å G (bright) 5683—5688 Å
B (v.v. faint) 4748—4752 Å Y (D lines) 5890—5896 Å
G 4979—4983 Å R (bright) 6154—6161 Å
G (faint) 5149—5154 Å

Questions
1. What determines the resolution of the spectrometer?
2. Do you think the spectral lines are due to electric dipole transitions?

References

1. J. L. Powell and B. Crasemann, Quantum Mechanics, Narosa.

2. H. E. White, Introduction to Atomic Spectra, McGraw-Hill.

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 Experiment No. 3
Zeeman Effect

Objective: To verify the ratio of the Bohr magneton and the fundamental constant hc using
Zeeman effect.

Apparatus:
 Electromagnet with power supply
 Mercury discharge tube with power supply
 IR filter, Green filter, polarizer
 Fabry-Perot etalon, CCD camera

Theory: Zeeman Effect is the phenomenon of splitting of energy levels of an atom in the
presence of an external magnetic field. The spectral term associated with an energy level is
denoted by 2S+1LJ, where L, S and J are the respective orbital angular momentum, spin angular
momentum and the total angular momentum quantum numbers. In the presence of a magnetic
field (B), the magnetic moment J associated with J will have number of orientations
represented by the quantum number mJ, where mJ = J, J-1,…….., -J+1, -J. Different
orientations of the magnetic dipole in the field B correspond to different potential energies, so
that the shift in energy of a particular mJ level is given by

E=gJ mJ B B (1)

𝐽(𝐽+1)−𝐿(𝐿+1)+𝑆(𝑆+1)
Where 𝑔𝐽 = 1 + is the Lande g factor, and
2𝐽(𝐽+1)

𝑒
B=Bohr magneton=2𝑚 ℏ = 9.2740154 × 10−24 𝐴𝑚2.
𝑒

B=0 B0 mJ
3 1
7 S1 0
-1

2
3 1
6 P2 0
-1
(-components)
-2

546.1 nm 546.1 nm (-components)

Figure 3.1

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The selection rule for allowed transition is given by ∆𝑚𝐽 = 0, ±1. When viewed perpendicular
to the magnetic field, the radiation due to ∆𝑚𝐽 = 0 transition (-components) are plane
polarized parallel to B while the radiation due to ∆𝑚𝐽 = ±1 transitions (-components) are
plane polarized perpendicular to the magnetic field.
If g1 and g2 are the g factors of the lower and upper energy levels, respectively, then the energy
shift (relative to the original line) of a -component corresponding to a given mJ is

E(mJ) =(g2-g1) mJ B B (2)

Considering two -components corresponding to mJ and -mJ

E(mJ)+ E(-mJ) =2(g2-g1) mJ B B (3)

Writing the energy shift in the wave number unit

(mJ)+ (-mJ)= 2(g2-g1) mJ B B/(hc) (4)

Hence the ratio

B /(hc)= {(mJ)+ (-mJ)}/{ 2(g2-g1) mJ B} (5)

Thus measuring the wave number shifts for the two -components, the ratio of the fundamental
constant can be obtained as g1, g2, mJ and B are known.

(a) (b)
m+2
m+1
m
1 2 3
abc

Figure 3.2
The experimental setup:
In this experiment the Zeeman splitting of the 546.1 nm line due to 73S1 63P2
transition of mercury is considered. The transitions in the absence of and in the presence B are
shown in figure 2B.1. The filters in the set up as in figure 3.3 ensure that light around 546.1
nm only enters the Fabry-Perot etalon. Using the polarizer it can further be ensured that only
light with polarization parallel to B (i.e. -components) is considered. Transmitted light
through the etalon are focused by a lens onto the camera. If the plates of the etalon are properly
aligned and B=0, circular fringes as in figure 3.2 (a) will be seen in the camera image.

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The radius of the circular fringes m, m+1, m+2, etc can be measured from the CCD image by
knowing the dimension of one CCD pixel (as provided in the set up for each camera). If
n2=m+n2-m2 , the thickness of the etalon, t, is given by

t = nD2/n2 (6)
where D=65 or 85 mm is the separation between camera and etalon (as mentioned in the set
up.
As the magnetic field increases from 0, each circular fringe will split into three. As seen in
figure 3.2 (b) three rings corresponding to each order are having square of the radii as a, b, and
c. Defining ab=b-a and <ab> as the mean over all the orders in the field of view and <> as
the mean of 12, 23, 34, where mn is difference between square of the radii of nth order circular
fringe and mth order circular fringe, the wave number separation corresponding to a and c can
be written as
  ab 
 ab  (7)
2t   
Similarly,
  bc 
 bc  (8)
2t   
Therefore, using equation (5) and for the given transition 73S1 63P2
B
 ( bc   bc ) / B (9)
hc
Thus the ratio of the fundamental constants can be verified.

Procedure:
Magnetic Field Calibration

Calibration table is provided.

Experiment set up:

Figure 3.3
Replace the gauss meter probe with mercury lamp. Place the Zeeman Effect Experimental
setup as shown in the above figure. Install the USB camera driver software and Image analysis
software in the computer. Plug in the camera probe to USB port. Now we can see the fringes

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of the etalon in the monitor. Fine tune of the etalon in order to get better results (Caution: Care
should be taken while tuning the etalon. It is not an easy job to make the plates of the etalon
exactly parallel. If the fringes are not perfect, we can’t observe Zeeman splitting clearly).

For taking photographs, we can find out a camera icon on the task bar of the monitor.
Right click the mouse and select ‘snap shot’. Save the image of zero magnetic fields as Z0
(say). Switch on the electromagnet power supply and increase the current. Rotate the
polarizer in order to get only two transitions on a single line. Take photographs with
various current and save it in the computer.

Thickness of the Etalon

For finding the thickness of the etalon we measure the radius of the circular fringes. Open the
image of zero magnetic field with the image analysis software ‘Image J’ {File: open (file
name)}. Select ‘\’. Measure the length of the fringe by dragging the mouse. Note that the line
should be exactly straight. We can take the reading from the top menu of the software window.
The radius of the first circular fringe is taken as χ𝑚 and the following as χ𝑚 , χ𝑚+1 , χ𝑚+2 , χ𝑚+3
etc. These values are in pixels. Convert the values in to standard units using the pixel value
provided in the set up.

The distance between the etalon and the camera as D. Here, D = 65 mm or 85mm as mentioned
in the experimental setup.

χ𝑚 = 𝜒𝑛2 = 𝜒𝑚+𝑛
2 2
− 𝜒𝑚 2
χ𝑚+1 = Si. No. D (meter) 𝒅 = 𝑛𝐷 𝜆⁄𝜒 2
𝑛
χ𝑚+2 =
χ𝑚+3 =

Mean ‘t’ = Thickness of the Etalon t =..............................................

Zeeman Effect

Apply magnetic field with different

current. Take the photographs for
different currents. Open the photographs
with Image analysis software and take the
measurements.

Radius2 (Pixels 2 )
Ring No. Average
a 𝛿𝑎𝑏 b 𝛿𝑏𝑐 c
1
𝛿12

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 2 𝛿12 =
𝛿23
3 𝛿23 =
𝛿34
4 𝛿34 =
Average 𝛿𝑎𝑏 = 𝛿𝑏𝑐 =

Where, 𝛿𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏 − 𝑎, 𝛿𝑏𝑐 = 𝑐 − 𝑏, 𝛿12 = 2 − 1, 𝛿23 = 3 − 2, 𝛿34 = 4 − 3

< 𝛿𝑎𝑏 >

∆𝜈𝑎𝑏 =
2𝑡 < ∆>

Where <∆> is the average of the 𝛿12 , 𝛿23 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛿34 values, ‘t’ is the thickness of the Etalon.
By putting 𝛿𝑏𝑐 in the above equation, we can also find ∆𝜈𝑏𝑐 . From the above discussion, we
know that,

µ0 ( ∆𝜈𝑎𝑏 + ∆𝜈𝑏𝑐 )
⁄ℎ𝑐 = ⁄|𝐵|

µ −1
This comparable to the expected value of 0⁄ℎ𝑐 , 4.6654 × 10−5 cm ⁄gauss . The
experiment can be repeated for various values of currents and can take average value.

Fundamental constants:

Bohr magneton (µ0 ) = 9.27400915 × 10−28 Joule/Gauss

Planks constant (h) = 6.62606896 x 10-34 Joule- Sec
Velocity of light (c) = 3 × 1010 cm/Sec

From experiment, µ0 /ℎ𝑐 =........................................

𝑐𝑚−1
µ0 /ℎ𝑐 = 4.6654 3 × 10−5 𝐺𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑠
Percentage of Error =......................................
References:
1. “The Physics of atoms and quanta”, Haken and Wolf
2. “Introduction to atomic spectra”, H E White
3. “Optics”, E Hecht.

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 Experiment No. 4
Solar Cell
The experiment consists three parts
Objectives
(a) To demonstrate the I-V and P-V characteristics of PV module with varying radiation and
temperature level.
(b) To demonstrate the I-V and P-V characteristics of series and parallel combination of PV
modules.

Theory: Part (a)

PV module is characterized by its I-V and P-V characteristics. At a particular solar insolation
and temperature, module characteristic curves are shown in Fig. 4.1 and 4.2 respectively.

Fig. 4.1: I-V characteristic of PV module

Fig. 4.2: P-V characteristic of PV module

Characteristic curves of solar cell

In I-V characteristic maximum current at zero voltage is the short circuit current (Isc) which
can be measured by shorting the PV module and maximum voltage at zero current is the open
circuit voltage (Voc). In P-V curve the maximum power is achieved only at a single point
which is called MPP (maximum power point) and the voltage and current corresponding to
this point are referred as Vmp and Imp. On increasing the temperature, Voc of module
decreases as shown in Fig. 4.3, while Isc remains the same which in turn reduces the power.
For most crystalline silicon solar cells modules the reduction is about 0.50%/°C.

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 Fig. 4.3: Variation in VOC with change in temperature

On changing the solar insolation Isc of the module increases while the Voc increases very
slightly as shown in Fig. 4.4

Fig. 4.4: Variation in I-V characteristic with insolation

Fill factor:
The Fill Factor (FF) is essentially a measure of quality of the solar cell. It is the ratio of the
actual achievable maximum power to the theoretical maximum power (PT) that would be
achieved with open circuit voltage and short circuit current together. FF can also be interpreted
graphically as the ratio of the rectangular areas depicted in Fig 4.5. A larger fill factor is
desirable, and corresponds to an I-V sweep that is more square-like. Typical fill factors range
from 0.5 to 0.82. Fill factor is also often represented as a percentage.

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 Fig. 4.5: Graphical interpretation of the Fill factor (FF)

Experimental set-up
The circuit diagram to evaluate I-V and P-V characteristics of a module is shown in Fig. 4.6.
Form a PV system which includes PV module and a variable resistor (pot meter) with ammeter
and voltmeter for measurement. Pot meter in this circuit works as a variable load for the
module. When load on the module is varied by pot meter the current and voltage of the module
gets changed which shift the operating point on I-V and P-V characteristics.

Fig. 4.6: Circuit diagram for evaluation of I-V and P-V characteristics

Observations:
Table for I-V and P-V characteristics of PV module:

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Take 3 sets of data for different radiation and temperature levels but in one set the values of
radiation and temperature will be constant.
Theory: Part (b)

PV module is characterized by its I-V and P-V characteristics. At a particular level of solar
insolation and temperature it will show a unique I-V and P-V characteristics. These
characteristics can be altered as per requirement by connecting both modules in series or
parallel to get higher voltage or higher current as shown in Fig. 4.7 and 4.8 respectively.
Therefore, if modules are connected in series then power reduction is twice when connected in
parallel. On changing the solar insolation, Isc of the module increases while the Voc increases
very slightly, therefore there is overall power increase. In parallel connection power increment
is twice than when connected in series. On increasing the temperature, Voc of modules
decrease while Isc remains same which in turn reduces the power.

Fig. 4.7: I-V characteristic of

series connected modules

Fig. 4.8: I-V characteristic of

parallel connected modules

Experimental set-up
Form a PV system with modules in either series or parallel and a variable resistor (Pot meter)
with ammeter and voltmeter for measurement. Modules in series or parallel are connected to
variable load (pot meter). The effect of load change on output voltage and current of the
modules connected in series or parallel can be seen by varying load resistance (pot meter).

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Observations:
Table for I-V and P-V characteristics of PV modules in series:

Table for I-V and P-V characteristics of PV modules in parallel:

20
 Experiment No. 5
Faraday Effect
Objective
To study the Faraday effect and to determine the Verdet constant of the material for a given
wavelength of light

Principle: The Verdet constant is the proportionality constant between the angle of rotation 𝛳
of the plane polarized light and the product of the path length 𝑙 through the sample and the
applied magnetic field 𝐵, that is, 𝛳 = 𝑉𝑙𝐵 or Verdet Constant, 𝑉 = 𝛳/𝑙𝐵.

Fig. 5.1 : Experimental setup

Theory: The Faraday Effect is a widely used magneto-optical effect in which the plane of
polarization is rotated as it passes through a medium placed in a magnetic field. The magnetic
moment associated with the electron spin in the medium experiences a force trying to align it
along the DC magnetic field. This results in a precession of the spinning electrons about the
direction of the magnetic field. A linearly polarized light beam passing through the medium
parallel to the magnetic field can be considered to be comprising two opposite circular
polarizations. Owing to the precession of the magnetic moments each circular polarization
experiences a different magnetic permeability inside the medium. As a result, the two circular
polarizations travel with different speeds and come out from the other side of the medium with
a phase difference. These two opposite circular polarizations when recombined gives rise to a
linear polarization rotated by a certain angle with respect to the original polarization direction.
The amount of rotation is proportional to the distance travelled by the light through the medium
and the strength of the magnetic field. Thus θ = VlB. The proportionality constant V is called
the Verdet constant. The strength of the magnetic field is B = µ0NI, where N is the number of
turns per unit length of the solenoid and I the current through the solenoid.

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 Fig. 5.2 : Rotation of the polarization plane
Procedure:
Arrange the components as shown in figure 5.1 above. Align the laser beam in order to pass it
through the axis of the solenoid containing the glass rod and the centre of the pin hole detector.
Rotate the polarizer and the analyzer to get the maximum transmitted light. Now rotate the
analyzer to get the minimum intensity. Switch on the power supply of the electro magnet.
Increase the current through the solenoid at suitable intervals (so that the change in polarization
angle can be detected) starting with zero current. The intensity will increase slightly. Now
rotate the lead screw of the analyzer in order to get a minimum intensity position and note the
corresponding readings from the dial of the analyzer (relative to the zero current position).
This is the angle of rotation 𝛳. Perform the experiment for both the lasers (green and red) and
comment on your observations.

Fig. 5.3 : Verdet constant as a function of wavelength

Observations:
Number of turns in the solenoid = 2508
Length of the solenoid = 15 cm
Number of turns per unit length N = 2508/15 = 167.2 𝑐𝑚−1
Length of the glass rod l = 10 cm

22
Calculate the Least count (in minutes).

Magnetic Field
SI Current I 𝛳 Verdet Constant
B=µ0NI
No. (ampere) (minute) 𝑉 = 𝛳/𝑙𝐵
(oersted)

Find the Verdet

constant by
plotting I vs 
and making a
least square fit.

Note that N is the number of turns per unit length

Result: Verdet constant of the substance = ............................... minute / oersted / cm

Reference

K. Iizuka, Elements of Photonics, Wiley-Interscience (2002)

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 Experiment No. 6
Microwave Antenna
Objective
(a) To study the polarization properties of microwave using horn antennas.
(b) To find the wavelength of microwave radiation using Lloyd’s Mirror.
(c) To study diffraction of microwave using double slit.
Background
Horn antennas can produce a uniform wave front. Such antennas are not new; the Indian
physicist, Jagadish Chandra Bose, constructed a pyramidal horn antenna in 1897. In this
experiment, two pyramidal horns will be used — one functioning as the radiator (or
transmitter) while the other as detector (or receiver). Both the horns are mounted on graduated
rails (scales) and their position can be varied. The transmitter emits in the microwave region.
In this experiment various properties of microwaves will be studied.
Procedure for Polarization measurements
1. Set the rails holding the transmitter and receiver collinearly.
2. On the Gunn Power Supply Box, set the “Gunn Bias” high.
3. On the Microwave Receiver Box, set the “Gain” high.
4. Adjust the “Sensitivity” knobs so that a proper zero offset is made.
5. The settings at the transmitter and receiver knobs should be such that full scale (or large)
deflection can be observed on the meter connected with the receiver. Care should be taken
the zero offset is maintained. Check for zero offset after doing all adjustments.
6. Rotate the receiver about its “axis” in steps of 10o and note down the meter readings.
7. Plot a suitable graph with the above data.
8. Set the receiver so that it is in the same orientation as the transmitter (use above result).
9. Put the polarizer between the transmitter and receiver (so that the slits are inclined at 45o).
10. Repeat steps 6 and 7 above.
Procedure for Lloyd’s Mirror experiment
1. Set the transmitter and receiver arms collinearly and at the same distance from the centre.
2. Use the previous results to set the receiver and transmitter in the same orientation.
3. Set the third arm perpendicular to the transmitter and put the reflector on it.
4. Slide the reflector backward from the centre.
5. Record deflections and the corresponding positions of the reflector as it is moved in steps
of a few millimetres.
6. Draw suitable graph using the above data.
7. Find the wavelength of the microwave radiation from the above.
Procedure for Double slit diffraction measurements
1. Use the previous results to set the receiver and transmitter in the same orientation.
2. Put the double slit arrangement between the transmitter and receiver.
3. Measure the slit widths with a scale.
4. Note down the meter reading when the receiver arm is collinear with the transmitter arm.
5. Rotate the receiver arm in steps of 1o or 2o and note down the corresponding deflections.
6. Plot a suitable graph to see the diffraction pattern.
7. From the above, find the wavelength of the microwave radiation.
References
1. J. D. Kraus, Antennas, Tata McGraw-Hill, 2nd edition, New Delhi.
2. D. M. Pozar, Microwave Engineering, John Wiley, 3rd edition,

24
 Experiment No. 7
X-ray
(Do not operate the instrument without the presence of the lab demonstrator)

PART A: Moseley’s law and the Rydberg constant

1. Analyse the copper X-radiation with the aid of a LiF monocrystal and as a function of the
Bragg angle without and with several K edge absorption samples as absorbers. Determine
the K absorption edges of different absorbers based on the spectra.
2. Calculate the Rydberg constant and the screening constant based on the energy values of
the K absorption edges.

Principle
Samples of various thicknesses are irradiated with the polychromatic X-rays of a copper X-ray
tube. The radiation that passes through the samples is analyzed with the aid of a monocrystal.
The Rydberg constant is calculated based on the glancing angles of the absorption edges.

Theory
When X-rays interacts with matter, they lose energy due to Compton scattering, pair
production, and photoelectric effects. The respective strengths of these three effects depend on
the energy of the radiation. In the range of energy in this experiment, the photoelectric effect
plays the most important role. The cause of the irregularity that is known as “edge absorption”
is the photoelectric effect. The binding energy En of an electron in the nth shell is
approximately:
m e4 1
E n   e2 2 (Z   ) 2 2 (1)
80 h n
where  = screening constant, n is the principal quantum number. Equation 1 can be written
in terms of Rydberg constant R as
En = – R (Z – σ)2 / n2 (2)

For electrons in the K shell (n=1),   1. Using Bragg equation 2dsin   n , with n=1 and E
= hc/λ gives the edge absorption E = (hc)/(2d sin θ). Thus from equation (2), we have

Z = (E/R)1/2 + σ (3)

Setup: Take help of your demonstrator to connect the goniometer if not connected already.
Preparation of samples: At least four samples are already prepared

Settings of the goniometer and X-ray unit:

 2:1 coupling mode
 Scanning range: 4°-21°
 Angle step width 0.1°
 Anode voltage UA = 35 kV; anode current IA = 1 mA

Recording without an absorber: Gate time 2s

Recording with a K edge absorber: Gate time 4s

Procedure

25
 1. Connect the X-ray unit via USB cable to the USB port of your computer
2. Start the “measure” program. A virtual X-ray unit will be displayed on the screen.
3. You can control the X-ray unit by clicking the various features on and under the virtual
X-ray unit. Alternatively, you can also change the parameters at the real X-ray unit.
The program will automatically adopt the settings.
4. Click the experiment chamber to change the parameters for the experiment. Select the
settings as shown in the overview for the various experiments.
5. For the recording, use the diaphragm tube with a diameter of 2 mm.
6. If you click the X-ray tube you can change the voltage and current of the X-ray tube.
7. Start the measurement by clicking the red circle.

Observations

1. Record the characteristic spectrum of Cu using the LiF crystal without absorber
2. Record the characteristic spectrum of Cu using the LiF crystal with the given absorbers
3. Identify the K absorption edges
4. Determine the edge absorption energy E. For LiF, interplanar spacing d = 201.4 pm.
5. Present your result in the following tabular form

Element Atomic number (Z) exp (in degrees) K Edge energy E

in keV

6. Make a plot of Z vs E , which should follow a straight line.

7. Determine R (in eV) and  from the plot (via least square fit).



Fig. 7.1: Diaphragm and the goniometer setup

26
 PART B: Structural analysis using Laue method

Objectives
1. Take a photograph of the Laue pattern of a LiF monocrystal.
2. Assign the Laue reflections to the lattice planes of the crystal.

Principle
Laue diagrams are produced when mono-crystals are irradiated with polychromatic X-rays.
This method is primarily used for the determination of crystal symmetries and the orientation
of crystals. When a LiF mono-crystal is irradiated with polychromatic X-rays, a characteristic
diffraction pattern results in. This pattern is photographed and then evaluated.

Theory
Laue diagrams are produced when mono-crystals are irradiated with polychromatic X-rays.
This method is used mainly for the determination of crystal symmetries and the orientation of
crystals. A complete analysis of the diagrams is only possible with simple crystal structures.
A necessary, although insufficient, condition for the constructive reflection at the various
lattice planes is the Bragg condition:
2dsin   n (4)

(d = inter-planar spacing, θ = glancing angle, λ = wavelength, and n = 1, 2, 3, ...)


L
Z
Diffracted
D beam
h
kl

h nhkl
kl
Incident
X ray X
Fig. 7.2

With the lattice constant a of a cubic crystal, the following is valid for the spacing d(hkl)
between the individual lattice planes:
a
d(hkl)  (5)
h  k 2  l2
2

 27
 Z
[h k l]


[h* k* l*]
 y

X
Fig. 7.3
If L is the distance between a reflection and the centre of the Laue pattern, and D the distance
between the film and the sample (Fig. 7.2), then the glancing angle θexp that is determined in
an experimental manner is:
1 L
exp  arctan ; L  x 2  y 2 (6)
2 D
y and z are the distances of the reflection in a system of rectangular coordinates with its origin
in the centre of the pattern.
If the X-ray beam coincides with a certain crystallographic direction [h*,k*,l*] (here, the [100]
direction) and if it impinges  on a crystal plane (h,k,l), then the angle of incidence α is
determined by the scalar product of the normal vector of the plane and the incident vector.

hh *  kk*  ll*
cos  (7)
(h 2  k 2  l 2 ){(h * ) 2  (k * ) 2  (l* ) 2 )

Then, the following is valid for the glancing angle: θcal = 90° – α.
According to the addition theorem and with (h*,k*,l*) = (100), it follows from (7) that:
 h
sin   (8)
h  k 2  l2
2

Task 1: Take a photograph of the Laue pattern of a LiF monocrystal

rotated by 90° around the direction of the primary beam, it is again

If the diffraction pattern is
brought to coincidence. Since the primary beam impinges perpendicularly on the (100)-plane
of the LiF crystal, the crystal direction [100] is a four fold axis of symmetry. The intensity of
the reflections depends on the reflecting crystal surface as well as on the spectral intensity
distribution of the X-rays.

Task 2: Assign the Laue reflections to the lattice planes of the crystal

The glancing angle θcal is calculated from (8) for all of the planes with low (h,k,l) indices. The
angle θexp is determined using (6) based on the diagram. The assignment of the reflections to

28
the lattice planes is found when the angles coincide (θcal = θexp) and when the condition k/l =
y/z is fulfilled, with z and y being the coordinates of the reflections.
Present your result in the following tabular form:

Spot y (mm) z (mm) L (mm) exp (h k l) cal k/l y/z

No. (in deg) (in deg)

Taking a Laue photograph with the aid of self-developing X-ray film

A monocrystal X-ray structure analysis can be performed with the aid of self developing X-
ray films in combination with the XR 4.0 expert unit. The Cu X-ray tube takes only about10-
12 minutes.

X ray unit settings for the Cu X-ray plug-in unit

Tube voltage: 35 kV
Beam current: 1 mA
Diaphragm: 1 mm
Exposure time: 30 minutes
Position of the screen: To be determined with the aid of the mm scale on the optical bench.

The X-ray film is not positioned centrally in front of the crystal. Instead, it is offset, since only
a quadrant of the diagram is sufficient for the evaluation. As far as the development of the
film is concerned, please refer to the instructions for use that are enclosed with the films. We
recommend developing the film for 2 minutes instead of only 50 seconds. It is very important
to hold the developed film under flowing water once it has been taken out of the wrap. Do not
wipe the film with towels. Only let it air-dry.

Procedure
Insert the diaphragm tube with a diameter of 1 mm into the beam outlet of the X-ray plug-
in unit. Add the crystal holder for Laue patterns. Install the LiF crystal with its two pins in
the holder so that the rounded sides of the crystal holder face the X-ray tube. Position the
film and confirm that the holder is firmly closed. Fix the holder into the holder of the
fluorescent screen and position it on the internal optical bench at a distance D = 1.5-2 cm
from the crystal. The precise determination of this distance is very important for the
subsequent evaluation. The film plane should be parallel to the crystal surface.
The X-ray tube is used at maximum power (anode voltage UA = 35 kV, anode current IA
= 1 mA). In the case of a tungsten tube, the exposure time is 15-30 minutes. It can be set
and activated as follows:
1. Select the tube operating parameters and confirm them with “Enter”.
2. Under “Menu”, select “Timer” → “Duration”. Set the desired time with the aid of the
arrow buttons. Confirm with “Enter”.
3. The window “Mode” appears. Select “On” and confirm with “Enter”.
4. To start the experiment, close and lock the sliding door and press the button under
“Start”.
The irradiation starts. It will stop automatically after the preset exposure time. On the
display, the remaining time can be observed based on a backwards running clock and a
display bar.

29
 Experiment No. 8
Fourier Optics
Objectives:
To study the realization of 2D Fourier transform of a target optically in beam diffracted by the
target and focused by a lens.

Theory:

f f
Collimated
laser beam
tA(x, y) U(u, v)
Figure 8.1

Let O(x, y) be a two dimensional function. Its Fourier transform is defined as,
 
 2i ( f x x  f y y )
F{O( x, y)}  G( f x , f y )    O( x, y)e dxdy (1)
 
where fx and fy are the spatial frequency coordinates. It can be shown using the scalar
diffraction theory that lens can act as a Fourier transforming tool for an object kept in its front
focal plane and illuminated by a coherent plane wave. Light diffracted by the object is focused
by the lens to realize the Fourier transform of the transmittance function of the object at the
back focal plane of the focusing lens.
Let an object with transmittance function tA(x, y) be placed in the front focal plane of a lens of
focal length f as shown in figure 8.1. If the object is illuminated by a monochromatic plane
wave of wavelength  and amplitude A, then under paraxial approximations, the amplitude in
the back focal plane is given by

2i
   ( xu  yv )
A f
U (u, v) 
if
  t A ( x, y)e dxdy (2)
 
Comparing (1) and (2) it is seen that apart from a constant factor, U(u,v) is nothing but the
Fourier transform of tA(x, y). The spatial frequencies are given as
u v
fx  , fy  (3)
f f
Let O(x, y) represent a cosinusoidal grating whose transmittance function is
1 1 
t A ( x, y )    cos(2f 0 x) (4)
2 2 
where f0 is the frequency of the grating. The Fourier transform of the same is given by

30
 1 1  1 1 1
F   cos(2f 0 x)   ( f x , f y )   ( f x  f 0 , f y )   ( f x  f 0 , f y ) (6)
2 2  2 4 4
Here  (...) is the Dirac-delta function. Thus there will be three orders (i.e. focal spots) in the
Fourier plane. One is the 0 order, and the other two are +1 and -1 order corresponding spatial
frequency f0.

Part (i): Optical Fourier transform

100 mm f
25.4mm
Laser CCD
f
Object plane
Figure 8.2
1) Align the diode laser (=650nm) and the CMOS (with its shutter closed) so that the
beam hits the shutter at its centre. Put the 25.4 mm focal length lens in front of the laser
followed by a 100mm focal length lens. Adjust the position of the 100 mm lens so as
to get a well collimated beam.
a. To collimate the beam put a plane mirror with a kinematic mount in the object
plane (i.e. location where the pattern is placed). Adjust the mirror orientation
so that the reflected beam can travel atleast a 2 metre long distance. Take a piece
of white paper and mark the boundaries of the beam immediately after the 100
mm lens and after a distance of about 2 metres from the mirror. Adjust the
position of the 100 mm lens so that the beam size at those two locations are
exactly same.

2) Place the grating pattern in the object plane. A magnified view of the pattern is shown
below.

(note that the grating pattern in your setup may not have the same orientation as the one
shown above)
3) Focus the diffracted light using a lens of 100 mm focal length and adjust the CMOS
position to image the Fourier plane.
4) Run the program FourierOptics.vi in the PC desktop. The image captured by the CMOS
will appear in front panel of the program. If all optical components are properly aligned
you will see the focused diffraction pattern in the CMOS image. You may have to put
a combination of polarizer and ND filter in front of the laser to reduce the power
of the beam, and reduce the camera exposure time in order not to saturate the
camera pixels. Move the CMOS axially and observe the change in the diffraction
pattern. Do fine adjustment of its position to get the Fourier transform of the pattern in

31
 the CMOS. You may use the “drawline>new line” button to get a line plot of the
diffraction spots. It also saves the data along the line in an excel file in the folder,
“MSc_Data”. You may also save the current image in the same folder by using the
“Save image” button.
5) Each grating pattern will give rise to at least 3 focal spots (i.e. 0 order, +1 order and -1
order). In addition there may be some higher orders as the grating is not perfectly
sinusoidal.
6) Use the “Locate Pixel” button to see location of the +1 order spots in the image w.r.t.
the centre. You may have to rotate the laser or temporarily block some of the gratings
with a piece of paper, to see 1 order spots of each of the four gratings.
7) Estimate the spatial frequencies, and hence the grating period, of each grating (three
measurements for each grating) using the equations (3) and (6). Given that the CMOS
camera has 1280x1024 pixels with a pixel size of 3.6 m.
8) Show your result in the following tabular form

Grating Actual grating period Estimated grating period

(average of three sets)
Top left 4mm/20
Top right 4mm/16
Bottom left 4mm/12
Bottom right 4mm/8

PART (ii): Digital Fourier transform

2f 2f

LED CCD

Object Image
plane Imaging lens plane
Figure 8.3
1) Replace the laser by a green LED which can be considered as an incoherent source (in
order to avoid speckles formed when the illumination is with a laser).
2) Illuminate the grating pattern kept in the object plane and place the f=100 mm lens at
a distance 2f from the object.
3) Image the object onto the CMOS kept at a distance 2f behind the lens, so that lateral
magnification in the image M=1.
4) Adjust the CMOS position and exposure time to get sharp image of the gratings.
5) Use “Draw line>new line” option to draw a line perpendicular to the rulings of one of
the gratings. Estimate the fundamental spatial frequency of the grating from the plot.

32
 6) Use the “Fourier analysis” button to obtain a digital Fourier transform of the normalized
line plot. The second figure shows one half of the normalized Fourier transform. You
may modify the axis range to see a magnified version of the plot in the relevant region.
Note down the position of the fundamental frequency with respect to the zero
frequency.

7) To find the fundamental frequency:

Let the line plot in the real space be over N number of pixels (shown near the line
plot). Thus digital Fourier transform displayed is over N/2 pixels. In accordance with
the Nyquist rate, the maximum possible spatial frequency of a cosine wave will be
0.5 /pixel since using N pixels we can at the most describe N/2 number of cosine
waves (i.e. grating rulings). Therefore the pixel number N/2 in the Fourier space
corresponds to a spatial frequency of 0.5/(camera pixel). If the fundamental
frequency is located at pixel number Nf its spatial frequency will be
0.5 N f
 (camera pixel) 1
N /2
8) Repeat steps 5-7 for all the four gratings (three sets for each grating).

9) Present your result in the following tabular form

Grating Actual grating period Estimated grating period

(average)
Top left 4mm/20
Top right 4mm/16
Bottom left 4mm/12
Bottom right 4mm/8

10) If time is there you may also look at the block diagram of the Labview program to
perform this experiment. (However do not save any modifications in the program).

Important instructions:

1) Keep the CMOS capped unless you are imaging something.

2) In this experiment proper alignment of all components is extremely crucial. Plane of
each component should be centred with the centre of the beam and their planes
perpendicular to the beam axis.
3) You should never touch the surface of the lenses, and CMOS pixel plane.
4)
Reference

1. Goodman, Joseph., Introduction to Fourier optics (Roberts & Company, 2005)

2. Steward, Edward G., Fourier optics: an introduction (Courier Dover Publications,
2004)

33
 Experiment No. 9
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance spectroscopy

Experiment Objectives:
Understanding Nuclear Magnetic Resonance on protons and determination of its ‘g’- factor.

Components of the experimental set up:

NMR Supply Unit, NMR probe, Coil, DC Power supply, DSO, Glycerine and Polystyrene samples for
analysis.

Theory:
Nucleus of certain atoms such as hydrogen atom behaves like small magnets, due to the spin associated
with the nucleons which are also fermions just like the electrons. Orientation of the resultant magnetic
moment of the nucleus with respect to an external magnetic field can change the energy of nucleus. For
instance if the magnetic moment is parallel to the magnetic field, the energy of the atom is less than the
case when the magnetic moment is anti-parallel to the magnetic field. Since the separation between the
two energy levels is a function of the external magnetic field, for a given magnitude of the magnetic
field there exists a specific frequency of electromagnetic radiation whose energy per photon is equal to
the separation between the two energy levels. Thus for a given magnetic field a specific frequency of
the radiation or for a given frequency of radiation, a specific magnitude of magnetic field can be in
resonance when the atom absorbs the radiation. This is referred to as nuclear magnetic resonance, or
NMR. Nuclear magnetic resonance is therefore based on a magnetic property of atomic nuclei, their
spin. Only atomic nuclei which have a spin quantum number (I) different from 0, possess a magnetic
moment and hence can exhibit NMR spectrum.

Working principle:
The NMR apparatus consists of the probe which sits on an electromagnet. This creates a homogeneous
magnetic field (main magnetic field). Arranged vertically to this, an induction coil placed around the
sample generates a field alternating at a high frequency. Now, either the strength of the magnetic field
or the frequency of the alternating field can be varied until resonance occurs with the sample. When
resonance occurs, the sample absorbs energy. Therefore, an additional amount of energy is necessary
to maintain the alternating field. This NMR signal, is measurable with an oscilloscope, as explained in
the below procedure.
NMR is based on the magnetic properties of the nucleus. Atoms with a nucleus which possesses a
nuclear spin I have a magnetic moment µn according the relation:

The magnetic moment of a nucleus is given as

µ = -g . µn . I ……………….(I)

µn: nuclear magneton, g = g-factor (gyromagnetic constant), and I = nuclear spin

⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
Energy in the presence of a magnetic field B0 can be written as 𝐸 = 𝜇. 𝐵0 = −𝑔𝜇𝑛 𝐵0 𝐼𝑧

Hence E=−𝑔𝜇𝑛 𝐵0 {𝐼𝑧 − (𝐼𝑧 -1)}h . ν = -g . µn . B0

g = h/ µn . ν/B0 …………….. (II)

h = 6.626 . 10-34 Js
µn = 5.051 .10-27 J/T

34
Thus knowing ν and B0 at resonance “g” can be determined.

Literature values of “g” factor:

gH, Hydrogen = 5.8
gF, Fluorine = 5.6

Experiment Procedure:

Mechanical setup:
 Mount both 10 A coils onto the U-core. These provide the electromagnets as shown in Fig 1.
 Mount the NMR probe/pole shoes onto the U-core as shown in Fig 1, the sample opening
pointing upwards.
 Slide the two modulation coils onto the pole shoes from both sides up to the measuring chamber
in parallel alignment.

Electrical Setup:
 Connect port “E” of 1st coil to the port “E’ of second coil as shown in Fig 9.1.
 Connect the 10 A coils in series to the DC power supply.
 Connect the modulation coils in series to the MODULATION COILS output of the NMR
supply unit.
 Connect the NMR probe to the PROBE input. Do not lengthen the short BNC cable.
 Connect a BNC T connector to NMR SIGNAL output and connect another BNC T connector
to ΔB SIGNAL output.
 Connect the NMR SIGNAL output to the channel “Y” of scope and the ΔB SIGNAL output to
the channel “X” of the scope.

Please arrange the experimental setup as shown below or with BNC T connectors:

Fig. 9.1

35
 Fig. 9.2

Fig. 9.3

Steps to estimate the g factor:

 Calibration table for current vs. magnetic field will be provided in the experimental set up.
 Insert the sample tube with glycerin into the chamber.
 Move the O-ring of the sample tube so that the sample is immersed roughly up to the centre of
the measuring chamber.
 On the NMR supply unit, set the HF amplitude to minimum and the frequency and modulation
amplitude to maximum. Choose FAST SWEEP and switch on the NMR supply unit.
 Increase the HF amplitude as slowly as possible until the LED lights up.
 Set the value of the frequency to a maximum value.
 On the DC power supply, slowly increase the magnet current through both 10 A coils and set
the current at around 3A roughly.
 Now reduce the frequency using the knob slowly until an NMR signal appears in the
oscilloscope as shown in fig. 3 and note down the frequency value corresponding to the applied
current through the coils.
 Vary the HF amplitude slowly and optimize the NMR signal.
 Adjust the phase of the signal until the signal of up and down sweep coincides.
 Record the data passing different currents through the coils at certain intervals
 Repeat the experiment for the polystyrene sample.
 Prepare the data table as shown in table 1.
 Plot a graph between resonance frequency and applied magnetic field and do a least square
fitting.

36
  From the slope of the plot calculate the value of g-factor for the proton using equation (II)
 Perform the relevant error analysis in the calculation of g-factor for proton.
 Repeat the experiment with the other sample. In case of insufficient data points, calculate “g”
by taking the mean of the measurements.

Format of the data table:

Current through the

electromagnet coil (A) Magnetic field (T) Resonance frequency (MHz)
2.8
3
..
..
..
3.6

Table: 1

Reference: Fundamentals of molecular spectroscopy, Banwell and Mc Cash, Tata McGraw Hill, (2000)

………………..………………………Best Wishes……………………………………………

37