ENGLISH for LAW SCHOOL STUDENTS

(Note de Curs pt. anul I DREPT I.D.)

Unit 1. The Legal Profession

1.1 The division of the legal profession
Unlike in most other countries the legal profession in England and Wales is divided into two branches and the expression lawyer may be used to refer to either a solicitor or a barrister. This duality of function between barristers and solicitors is peculiar to the English common law system and, indeed, is even not followed in the Diff United States. Read the following extract which outline the differences between barristers and solicitors.
In the popular mind, the distinction between barristers and solicitors is that the former are concerned with advocacy in court while the latter are concerned with legal work out of court. This is not quite the case. Barristers are primarily concerned with advocacy and they have an exclusive right of audience, in the High Court, the Court of Appeal and the House of Lords; but they are not confined to advocacy and may devote a deal of their time to giving expert opinions on legal matters. Nor are solicitors exclusively concerned with out-of-court work for they have a right of audience in magistrates' courts, county courts and, in some instances, in the Crown Court. This division of the legal profession is a curious one and is unknown even in many Commonwealth countries which might have been expected to adopt the English professional model along with their adoption of the common law. Hogan, Seago and Bennett, A Level Law (Sweet and Maxwell 1988), pp. 32-3.

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1.2 Legal education and training

The education of both barristers and solicitors has common features. Both will complete the academic stage of their legal education The first or academic stage is normally satisfied by a law degree. As an alternative, non-law graduates and mature students (over 25) can take a common professional examination at degree level. The second or professional stage consists of a full-time vocational course and final examination, based to a greater extent on the problems likely to be encountered in practice. The solicitor takes the Final Examination under the aegis of the Law Society while the barrister takes the Bar Examination under the aegis' of the Inns of Court School of Law This is followed by what is, in effect, an apprenticeship called articles for solicitors and pupillage for barristers, during which the trainee does practical work under the close supervision of an experienced member of his profession. As to their training, the difference is more marked. After completion of the prescribed period of articles of clerkship, the entrant will be admitted as a solicitor. For Barristers it is first necessary to be admitted to one of the four Inns of Court - Gray's Inn, Lincoln's Inn, Inner Temple, and Middle Temple. These are very old institutions dating from the fourteenth century. Each Inn is a combination of club, college, and professional organization and is governed by its senior members or Benchers, who are often judges. A student intending to practise must attend a full-time one year course in London in preparation for Bar Finals. After passing the examinations, the student will be called to the Bar by his Inn. Before practising on his own account, it is compulsory for him to undergo a period of pupillage by reading in chambers. (For 12 months he will be the pupil of a senior barrister).
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1.3 Legal practice

The practising solicitor. The solicitor may be described as the person who deals directly with the client and, where litigation is involved, instructs the barrister. The origins of this side of the profession go back to the mediaeval 'attornatus' (attorney) who was - as the solicitor still is, but the barrister is not - an officer of the court. The attorney's business was originally to help the client in the preparatory stages of cases. In the course of time a similar class of people practising in the Court of Chancery came to be called 'solicitors'. By the close of the Middle Ages the two sub-professions became merged. In 1845 the Law Society as the representative organisation of the solicitor's profession came into being. The 'attorney' disappeared. The work of a solicitor is too diverse to classify. After admission, the solicitor may take a salaried position in private practice or may seek an appointment with a local authority, the civil service, the Magistrates' Court Service, a nationalised undertaking or in the legal department of a business concern. Solicitors may form partnerships but not limited companies. The solicitor is the person to whom an individual first turns for advice and, in addition to dealing with a variety of legal problems, he may be asked to advise on business and family matters. Much of his time may be devoted to dealings with property, in particular the conveyancing of land and houses. (Conveyancing is the legal process of buying and selling property). Since 1804 it has been a criminal offence for any person other than a solicitor to undertake this work for gain. Conveyancing has become an important part of a solicitor's work providing over half the income of the average solicitor's practice. He may also be concerned with drawing up wills, the administration of estates and trusts, the execution of mortgages matrimonial disputes, the formation of partnerships and companies,

taxation problems, and representation of clients involved in criminal prosecutions and civil actions. Some solicitors may specialise in one or more of these matters or there may be specialisation by the different partners in a firm. Where the solicitor does not appear as advocate himself, he will be responsible for matters preparatory to the trial such as the preparation of documents and the collection of evidence; in particular he must take written 'proofs' of evidence from his witnesses. In many cases he will try to negotiate a settlement with the other side, for instance, with the insurance company in accident claims. In civil disputes, he may be primarily concerned with getting redress for his client without recourse to the courts. There are some 60 000 practising solicitors in England and Wales. Most matters appertaining to the profession are subject to statutory powers administered by The Law Society. The practising barrister. In the manner of the mediaeval guilds the Bar was, by the fourteenth century, organized as an association of members of the Inns of Court. Today there are only four of the Inns left (the Inner and Middle Temples, Lincolns Inn and Gray's Inn. Even to this day no one can practise at the Bar unless he has been 'called to the Bar' and become a member of an Inn. The best way of explaining the functions of a barrister is to call him a 'trial' lawyer. Barristers are not allowed to form partnerships but a number will normally combine to share rooms or Chambers. The newly called barrister will take a room or a seat in existing chambers and wait for work to be given to him by a solicitor. He may not advertise and may not normally deal with clients directly, but only through a solicitor.

1.4. Judges
Contrary to the practice in some continental countries, there is no separate judicial profession in England and all judgeships are filled by the appointment of practising barristers. Judges are not subject to ministerial direction or control. They are normally appointed from practising barristers (advocates in Scotland) or solicitors. Lay magistrates are trained to give them sufficient knowledge of the law. Another feature of the judiciary in this country is that there is no established system of promotion. Judgeships at any level, including the offices of Lord Chancellor and Lord Chief Justice, may be filled by practising barristers with no previous experience as judges.

1.5 Judicial offices

The Lord Chancellor (abbreviated as LC) holds an office which is partly political and partly judicial. As a Minister of State and member of the Cabinet, he holds office only for the duration of the Government. As head of the judicial system of the country he presides he is responsible for court administration, except Magistrates' Courts, and for appointment of most judges and magistrates. The Lord Chief Justice (LCJ) holds the senior judicial office in the country. He presides over the Queen's Bench Division of the High Court and the criminal division of the Court of Appeal. The Master of the Rolls (MR) presides over the civil division of the Court of Appeal. He has certain supervisory duties relating to solicitors. The Attorney- General is a barrister. He is the Head of the Bar and the Chief Law Officer of the Crown.

His deputy is the Solicitor- General who, contrary to his title, is also a barrister. He is also a political officer. The two are known as the Law Officers. The Director of Public Prosecutions (DPP) is a lawyer (barrister or solicitor) appointed by the Home Secretary, who acts under the supervision of the Attorney-General. He is, amongst other things, responsible for the carrying on of important criminal proceedings and giving advice in relation to prosecutions.

1.6 Administration of the law

There is no single person or body in this country responsible for the administration of the law in general or for particular matters such as the maintenance of the courts, judicial appointments, the legal profession, and law reform. While it would be true today to say that the major role is played by the Lord Chancellor, many functions rest with the Home Secretary, the Lord Chief Justice, the Attorney-General, the Director of Public Prosecutions, the Bar Council, and The Law Society. Suggestions have been made from time to time that these functions should be concentrated in a Ministry of Justice, but this has not been accepted by any Government. Perhaps some inefficiency is the price to pay to avoid the danger of vesting so much power in the hands of a single department.

UNIT 2. INTRODUCTION to ENGLISH LAW

2.1 The Nature of Law
Many books have been written and continue to be written about the nature of law. The word 'law' suggests the idea of rules; rules affecting the lives and activities of people. Some of these rules, such as the laws of science, enable us to predict what will happen in a given situation, but we have no control over them. We must accept, for example, the law of gravity; we regulate our conduct by it, but we cannot alter it. In any community or group of people, man-made rules will develop to control the relationships between members. When a person or persons having power in the community enforces the rule, then that rule will acquire the status of a 'law' in the generally accepted meaning of the word. As the society develops and becomes more complex, rules of a more definite nature emerge and a body of law comes into existence. At the same time some machinery for its enforcement must be established .

2.3 THE COMMON LAW

Origins of English law Until and for some time after the Norman Conquest, it could scarcely be said that there was such a thing as English law. There was a court in each shire; these courts were under the control of a local baron or other powerful person. The Norman Conquest made little immediate impact upon English law. William I promised that the English should keep their rights and their law, which meant the customary law. At the same time, the

Normans developed a strong central government and over the following 200 years greatly increased central control over the administration of the law. William I had used travelling commissioners to compile his national inventory known as the Domesday Book and this system had also been used to enquire into matters of local administration. The next step was to send out travelling commissioners with judicial powers. Judicial powers were given to be exercised at the sittings, or Assizes, of the itinerant justices. The Assizes (regional hearings), dealt with both civil and criminal cases. The emergence of common law The new institutions, particularly the travelling judges, brought with them a most important change in the law itself, the unification of the varying local customs. As they went around the country on circuit, the judges tended to select and apply certain customary rules in all cases rather than rely in every case upon enquiring into local customs. This process was assisted by the King who sometimes created new legal rules which were to apply nationally, and by the permanent courts which had nation-wide jurisdiction. In particular, Henry II created important new remedies in relation to land law. The different local customs were, therefore, replaced gradually by a body of rules applying throughout the country and known eventually as the common law. This process was substantially completed by the end of the thirteenth century. The judges accordingly looked to previous decisions for guidance in order to maintain consistency. In other words the doctrine of precedent began to emerge. If previous decisions were to be followed, it was essential that the judges' decisions be recorded, and we see the beginning of law reporting, at first by anonymous lawyers in the Year
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Books. The main stream of English law, therefore, began with the unification of local customs to form the common law and has been developed down to the present day by the judges, as precedent has been built upon precedent. There are three basic meanings of the term common law: - The most modern use of the term represents a particular set of rules based on judicial decisions in contrast to statute law and in contrast to the rules of equity. -It means national law, the general system of law which is common to the whole country. -It means law based on precedents, the term common law describing the historical development of law in England and Wales.

2.4 Equity
Common law which, by the end of the thirteenth century, was well established but which had already acquired a degree of rigidity. As the common law courts became separated from the King's Council, they became increasingly reluctant or unable to grant remedies for new and unfamiliar types of wrong. As conditions changed and new forms of property and interests in property developed, there came to be many types of wrong for which the courts could grant no remedy. Subjects unable to obtain a remedy from the common law courts would petition the King asking for justice, and these petitions were usually passed to the Chancellor. The latter was empowered to order the parties to appear before him under penalty for refusal and, after hearing the petition, he could make such order as appeared to him to be fair, just or 'equitable'. These sittings of the Chancellor became more regular and by the end of the fourteenth century had developed into a

new Court of Chancery, administering its own form of justice known as equity. The Chancellor, while not expressly overruling common law decisions, would sometimes, for instance, refuse to allow a legal owner of property to enforce his legal rights. After the period of rigidity which had led to the birth of equity, the common law again began to develop new rules. In the reign of James I, the principle was established that, in the event of a conflict between common law and equity, equity should prevail.
...This was by means of what was called a common injunction. Suppose that A brought an action against B in one of the common law courts, and in the view of the Court of Chancery the action was inequitable, B's proper course was to apply to the Court of Chancer for an order, called a common injunction, directed to A and ordering him not to continue his action. If A defied the injunction the Court of Chancery would put him in prison for contempt of court. Equity thus worked 'behind the scenes' of the common law action; the common law principles were theoretically left intact, but by means of this intricate mechanism they were superseded by equitable rules in all cases of 'conflict or variance.' The result justified the sarcasm of the critic who said that in England one',, court was set up to do injustice and another to stop it."' Williams, Learning the Law (Stevens 1982), pp. 26-7.

Equity was never a comprehensive system of law as was common law, but was for the most part a collection of individual rules or principles. If common law was the book, equity was a page of errata(S.B.Marsh and J.Soulsby Outlines of English Law p. 6). Nevertheless, equity played an important part in developing certain aspects of law.

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As the purpose of equity was to achieve justice and fairness, the courts have developed a set of rules to govern the application of equity. These are called the 'maxims' of equity. They are different from the rules which apply in the common law and these maxims are the reason why we distinguish between common law and equity. There are many equitable maxims of which the following are just brief examples: a Equity will not suffer a wrong to be without a remedy. Equity will only intervene when there is no adequate common law remedy. b Equity follows the law. Equity recognises legal rights and does not take the place of the common law. c He who comes to equity must come with clean hands. A litigant who has behaved unfairly in the dispute will be denied an equitable remedy. d Equitable remedies are discretionary. Litigants do not have a right to an equitable remedy. The courts will decide whether to grant a remedy after considering the individual circumstances of each case. One of the most important features of equity which distinguishes it from common law is the maxim that equitable remedies are discretionary. We will examine this by way of a case study. Case study: Miller v. Jackson [1977] QB 966
The facts: The plaintiffs 1 owned a house adjoining a cricket ground. Cricket had been The facts: The plaintiffs 1 owned a house adjoining a cricket ground. Cricket had been played on the ground for a long time before the house had been built. The plaintiffs complained of damage caused by cricket balls and loss of enjoyment of their property. They brought an action against the cricket club for private nuisance seeking damages (the common law remedy) and an injunction (an equitable remedy) to prevent cricket being played on the ground. The cricket club argued that it had done everything that was possible to stop the balls coming into the plaintiff's garden, including erecting a fifteen foot high fence. Held: The cricket club were liable 2 to the plaintiffs for private nuisance. An award of damages 3 was made against them but a majority of the Court of Appeal refused to grant an injunction preventing the playing of cricket. Per 4 Lord Denning MR: 5 'The court when deciding whether to exercise its equitable jurisdiction and grant an injunction must have in mind that it is

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under a duty to consider the public interest. Where the effect of granting an injunction would be to prevent cricket being played on a ground where it had been played for seventy years or so, the special circumstances are such that the public interest must prevail over the hardship of the individual householders who were deprived of the ability to enjoy, in peace and quiet, their house and garden while cricket was being played.'

Can you see the difference in the court's approach to the common law remedy and the equitable remedy? In order to be awarded damages the plaintiffs only had to prove that the defendants were liable in nuisance. Having proved this the court had no power to withhold the common law remedy (although the judges will determine the amount to be paid by the defendants). In contrast, because equitable remedies are discretionary, the court could refuse to grant an injunction because it considered it would not be just and fair to do so. Before concluding this introduction to equity you should be aware that although it was originally a flexible body of rules, the criticism that 'justice is as long as the Chancellor's foot' 6 can no longer be justified. Justice is a 7 subjective concept - what may appear just to one person would not be to another. Judicial decisions, and therefore the law, based on the individual judge's idea of justice creates uncertainty and in itself leads to injustice. Similar cases must be treated similarly if justice is to be achieved. Accordingly equity has developed over the years into a consistent body of rules which eliminates as far as possible a subjective and arbitrary8 application of its principles.

2.5 The Classification of Law

Public law consists of those fields of law which are primarily concerned with the State itself. Thus constitutional law, which regulates the functioning of the organs of the central government, and
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the relationship of the individual to them, is a branch of public law. Criminal law is also 'public' law because crimes are wrongs which the State is concerned to prevent. Private law is that part of the law which is primarily concerned with the rights and duties of individuals. Thus the branches of the law which govern private obligations - such as the law of contract and of torts - are all aspects of private law. So too, is the law of property. These are only examples of sub-divisions of public and private law. Both the main division and the sub-divisions are, to some extent, arbitrary. Out of the many ways in which the law can be classified, we shall limit our discussion the difference between criminal and civil law and substantive and adjective (procedural) law.

2.5.1 Civil and criminal law

The objectives of criminal law and civil law, although closely connected are different. Criminal law is concerned with conduct of which the state disapproves so strongly that it will punish the wrongdoer. It is felt that society cannot work if people are allowed to take the property of others at will; therefore, theft is forbidden and thieves are punished to deter them, and others of a like mind, from repeating this conduct. There are other aims of punishment but it is not the objective of criminal law to compensate the victim, except perhaps incidentally. Civil law has a complementary function. If a dispute arises between two individuals, each believing himself to be in the right, a quarrel may ensue and violence or other criminal conduct may result. To prevent this, rules of civil law were developed in order to determine which of the two parties was in the right. The party in the wrong was

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then obliged to make redress by compensating the other for any loss he may have caused. The object of the civil law therefore is to resolve disputes and give a remedy to the persons wronged, not to punish wrongdoers. Examples of civil law include the law of contract, tort (literally meaning wrong') and property. It is important to note that the same series of events may sometimes give rise both to criminal and civil proceedings. For instance, if A is alleged to have driven carelessly and injured B, two types of issue arise. Careless driving is conduct which has been made a criminal offence and A may be prosecuted by the Crown in a criminal court and, if found guilty of the offence, punished. The issue of whether A has caused loss to B through negligence and should therefore pay B compensation will be determined in a separate civil action brought by B in a civil court, although in this type of situation the loss will normally be met by A's insurance company. There are many other instances, such as the failure to guard dangerous factory machinery and the sale of mis-described goods, where the same incident may give rise to both criminal and civil actions. Let us examine this more fully by reading the following extract.
These examples show that the distinction between a crime and civil wrong cannot be stated as depending upon what is done, because what is done (or not done) may be the same in each case. The true distinction resides 1 , therefore, not in the nature of the wrongful act but in the legal consequences 5 that may follow it. If the wrongful act (or omission) is capable of being followed by what are called criminal proceedings, that means that it is regarded as a crime (otherwise called an offence). If it is capable of being followed by civil proceedings, that means that it is regarded as a civil wrong. If it is capable of being followed by both, it is both a crime and a civil wrong. Criminal and civil proceedings are (in the normal case) easily distinguishable: the procedure is different, the outcome is different, and the terminology is different. In criminal proceedings the terminology is as follows. You have a prosecutor prosecuting a defendant, and the result of the prosecution is 15 successful is a conviction, and the defendant may be punished by one of a variety of punishments ranging from life imprisonment to a fine, or else may be released on probation or discharged without punishment or dealt with in

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various other ways. Turning to civil proceedings, the terminology generally is that a plaintiff sues (e.g. brings an action against) a defendant. The proceedings if successful result in judgement for the plaintiff, and the judgement may order the defendant to pay the plaintiff money, or to transfer property to him, or to do or not to do something (injunction), or to perform a contract (specific performance). It is hardly necessary to point out that the terminology of the one type of proceedings should never be transferred to the other. -Criminal action,- for example, is a misnomer; so is "civil offence" (the proper expression is "civil wrong"). One does not speak of a plaintiff prosecuting or of the criminal accused being sued. The common announcement "Trespassers will be prosecuted" has been called a "wooden 2 lie," for trespass has traditionally been a civil wrong, not (generally) a crime. (There are some statutory offences of trespass, such as trespass on a railway line; and a "squatter 3 or other trespasser in a house that is occupied or required for occupation generally commits an offence if he fails to leave upon request. Again, the word "guilty" is used primarily of criminals. The corresponding word in civil cases is "liable"; but this word is also used in criminal contexts. Civil and criminal courts are partly but not entirely distinct. The Crown Court has almost exclusively criminal jurisdiction. Magistrates are chiefly concerned with criminal cases, but they have important civil jurisdiction over licensing and family matters. On the other hand, the county court is only civil, and so is the High Court apart from appeals. Williams, Learning the Law (Stevens 1982), pp. 3-4.

Text notes: 1 is 2 this refers to the notice board which is often made of wood 3 person occupying building without permission.

You should be aware from studying this passage that, the parties and the terminology differ. In our hypothetical situation, whilst the one act constituted both a criminal offence and a civil wrong, the legal consequences under the criminal and civil law will be different Most countries, including England, find it convenient to set up separate systems of criminal courts and civil courts. In England, a criminal prosecution is usually begun in the name of the Crown (i.e. the state) through the machinery of the police and the Crown Prosecution Service, and the decision as to whether or not to press the prosecution is not the concern of the victim. In a civil case, the law is set in motion by a private individual, or a firm, who has the right to determine how
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far the action shall continue. Thus in the criminal case of R. v. Smith, the Crown (R. signifying Regina or the Queen) prosecutes the accused, who may also be referred to as the prisoner or defendant. In the civil case of Jones v. Smith, the plaintiff sues the defendant. Differences also exist in the rules of evidence and procedure, reflecting the fact that a criminal conviction is likely to be far more damaging to a person's character than failure in a civil action. The rules of evidence are much stricter in criminal cases; for example, a confession will be carefully examined to see if any pressure was brought to bear upon the accused, but an admission in a civil case will be fully accepted. The standard of proof required in criminal cases is greater, for the accused must be proved guilty beyond all reasonable doubt. A plaintiff in a civil action will succeed on the balance of probabilities that is if he can convince the court that he has only a marginally stronger case than the defendant. You would be prosecuted by the state in the criminal courts for dangerous driving and sued by the elderly lady in the civil courts for negligence. The two actions will be totally separate. As judicial decisions form an important part of the law it is necessary that they should be available to lawyers and the public. The judgements in the higher courts are published in a series of law reports the most common of which are:
All England Law Reports Weekly Law Reports Queen's Bench Appeal Cases Chancery Criminal Law Reports

There is a standard form of reference which tells the reader where the report of an individual case may be found. This reference contains the year in which the case was published, the name of the publication in abbreviated form and the page number at which the case can be

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found. In addition, when the case reports for a single year are contained in more than one volume of a publication the number of the volume will appear before the name of the publication. So, for example, a case reported at [1979] 3 All ER 365 will be found in the third volume of the All. England Law Reports for the year 1979 at page 365. You will notice the use of square brackets; this signifies that knowing the year is essential to finding the case report. If the case is cited with the year only and not the reference, round brackets are used, for example Donaghue v. Stevenson (1932). A final point you should remember at this stage is that case names are always highlighted in some way. In most books this will be by italics but if you are writing by hand you should underline the case names. It is important that you get into the habit of doing this from the start of your legal studies.

Legal exercises What is wrong in the following situation and why? Bob has been charged with murder and is sued in the county court. The plaintiff is successful in the action and Bob is found liable. He is punished by being ordered to pay the plaintiff 10,000 in damages. Explain, with examples, the difference between criminal law and civil law. Why is it necessary to draw this distinction? Jones, a shop assistant, takes money regularly from the till over a period of several months and spends this on an extravagant way of life. His employer has now discovered this. What legal consequences may now arise?

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A further difference between civil and criminal law is the way that cases are cited.
It is helpful to know certain rules for the naming of cases. Trials on indictment 1 are in the name of the Queen (as representing the State); thus a criminal case is generally called Reg. v. whomever it is - Reg. being short for Regina (pronounced "Regyna"), and v. being short for versus. When 5 there is a king on the throne, Rex is used instead of Reg. Rex and Regina both conveniently abbreviate to R., which saves having to remember which is which. Thus Rex v. Sikes or Reg. v. Sikes may both be written R. v. Sikes. Some textbooks on criminal law even print simply Sikes. This last is a convenient usage for the student of criminal law. 10 In some types of criminal case the title of the case will not contain Rex or Reg. before the "v.," but will contain the name of a private person. This happens when the case is tried summarily2 before magistrates3 (i.e. justice of the peace); here the name of the actual prosecutor (e.g. a policeman) appears instead of the nominal prosecutor, the Queen. 15 Civil cases will usually be cited by the names oftheparties,thus:Rylands v. Fletcher. If the Queen (as representing the Government) is a party she is, in civil cases, usually called "The Queen," and similarly with the King, thus: British Coal Corporation v.the King; but R. may also be used. There are peculiar conventions in pronouncing the names of cases. (1) A 20 criminal case, such as R. v. Sikes, can be referred to informally as "R.v. Sikes" (pronounced as written), or "Rex" (or, "Regina") "v. Sikes" (again pronounced as written). In court, however, the proper method is to call it "The King" (or, "The Queen") "against Sikes." (2) In civil cases the "v." coupling the names of the parties is pronounced "and," both in court and out 25 of it. Thus Smith v. Hughes is always pronounced (but never written) "Smith and Hughes,'' and similarly British Coal Corporation v. The King (which was a civil proceeding against the Crown) is pronounced with an "and" Lawyers thus write one thing and say another. Williams, Learning the Law (Stevens 1982), pp. 17-18. Text notes: 1 i.e. more serious crime 2 i.e. less serious crimes 3 judges without legal qualifications

2.5.2 Substantive and procedural law

Williams in Learning the Law defines substantive law in the following way: Substantive law lays down people's rights, duties, liberties and powers.' By this is meant the actual content or substance of the law. These are the rules on which the courts base their decisions. Procedural or adjectival law is also a set of rules.
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As you read the next passage think about these questions: a Why was procedure so important in the past? b Is procedure still important today?
Rules of procedure or "adjective" law, as it is sometimes called, are the rules which determine the course of an action; they govern such matters as how the case is to be presented, in what court it shall lie, or where it is to be tried. Procedural rules are, in other words, the rules which govern the machinery as opposed to the subject-matter of litigation. It is a striking fact, much remarked upon by historians, that in the earlier stages of legal development these rules assume paramount importance: form is better understood than substance, and in early law formal requirements, rather than abstract principles, usually determined legal rights. Because the development of the common law has been continuous this early dominance of procedure has had a lasting influence upon many of the doctrines of the modern substantive law. Generally speaking, however, procedure, though it is of great importance to the practitioner, is today treated as the servant and not the master of substance, and the rules of procedure are now more flexible than once they were. They derive from various sources. Most proceedings in the Supreme Court (that is, most of the more important civil proceedings) are now governed by a code of rules known as the Rules of the Supreme Court(R.S.C.) . . . These rules, which were originally authorized by the Judicature Acts 1873-1875, are amended from time to time, under powers first conferred by those Acts, by a committee known as the "Rule Committee- which is headed by the Lord Chancellor. The R.S.C. are set out in the Annual Practice (The "White Book"). Similar rules are laid down for the County Courts: these appear in the County Court Practice. With some exceptions such as the magistrates' courts rules - the rules of criminal procedure have not been codified; they are to be found in works such as Archbold's Criminal Pleading, Evidence and Practice and Stone's Justices' Manual,which treats of the work of the magistrates' courts. James, Introduction to English Law (Butterworths 1985), p. 62.

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BIBLIOGRAFIE
*** *** *** *** *** *** Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English,Longman,1995 Britains System of Government, Foreign and Commonwealth Romanian Legislation, vol.38,Bucureti, 1999 Codul penal romn, Ed. Lumina Lex, Bucureti, 1997 Codul civil romn Codul juristului

Abadinsky, Howard, Law and Justice, Nelson-Hall Publishers, 1990 Bogdan, M., Trifu, S., Dicionar Englez-Romn, Bucureti, 1965 Cazan, I., Curtui, A., Brookes, M., Holden, D., Engleza pentru juriti, Ed. Teora, Bucureti, 1997 Hutchinson, W., 'Barrister's rights go in strategic reforms'. Dyer, C., The Guardian, 8 December 1989 Garner, Bryan, A Dictionary of Modern Legal Usage, Oxford University Press, 1987 Grillot, Harold, J., Introduction to Law and the Legal System, Houghton Mifflin Company, 1979 Hogan, Seago and Bennett, A Level Law, Sweet and Maxwell, 1988 Hanga, V., Calciu, R., Dictionar juridic, Ed. Lumina Lex,Bucuresti, 1994 James, P., S., Introduction to English Law, Butterworths, 1985 Marsh, S., B., Soulsby, J., Outlines of English Law, London: McGrow-Hill, 1990 OConnell, Sue, Focus on Advanced English C.A.E., Longman, 1999 Sim, R. ,S., and Scott,M.,M., A Level Law, 6th edn., London: Butterworths, 1984 Stroia, Olga, English for Law School Students, Sibiu Editura Alma Mater, 2003 Stroia, Olga, United Kingdoms Constitution and Government, Sibiu Alma Mater, 2004 Thomson, A., Martinet, A., A Practical English Grammar, Oxford University Press,1986 White, R., C., A., The Administration of Justice, Blackwell, 1985 Williams, G., Learning the Law, 11th ed., London: Stevens, 1982

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