Physiology and

Pathophysiology
Code: MD305
 Introduction to Physiology
 Human physiology is the science of studying
the physiological functions in human body
 On different levels from
– Cell to tissue,
– Tissue to organ,
– Organ to system, and of
– How the organism as a whole does particular
tasks essential for life.
 Physiology derived from two Greek words
– physis = nature; logos = study
Body composition
Levels of Structural Organization
Cell Structure and Function

Power house
of cell
 Metabolism
All the chemical processes that take place in
the organelles of the cells
 Anabolism
The use of energy for producing chemical
substances(e.g. glycogen synthesis from
glucose, protein from amino acids)
 Catabolism
The break down of complex, big molecules
into smaller ones, mostly yielding energy
(e.g. glycogenolysis… breakdown of glycogen
to glucose, protein to amino acids)
How Substances Enter and Leave the Cell
Levels of Structural Organization
Overview of Organ Systems
1. Integumentary 7. Lymphatic
2. Skeletal 8. Respiratory
3. Muscular 9. Digestive
4. Nervous 10.Urinary
5. Endocrine 11.Reproductive
6. Cardiovascular
IntegumentaryHair System
(integument Skin
(skin) and Nails
structures derived from it
(hair, nails, and oil sweat
glands)
1. Forms the external body
covering,
2. Protects the body
3. Regulates body temperature,
eliminates wastes, and
receives certain stimuli (tactile,
temperature, and pain)
Skeletal System (bone,
cartilage, ligaments
and joints)
1. Provides body support
and protection
2. Permits movement
3. Produces blood cells
(hematopoiesis)
4. Stores minerals.
Muscular System
(skeletal muscles)
Skeletal
muscles
1. Affects body
movements
2. Maintains posture,
and produces body
heat.
 Brain
Nervous System (brain,
spinal cord, peripheral
nerves and sense
organs)
1. Detects and responds to
changes in internal and
external environments
2. Enables reasoning and Nerves
Spinal
cord
memory, and regulates
body activities.
 Pineal gland

Endocrine SystemPituitary
Thyroid gland
gland
1. Controls and integrates
Thymus
body functions
Adrenal
such as
growth,gland
reproduction,
Pancreas
and nutrient use
(metabolism) via Testis
hormones secreted into
the bloodstream
Cardiovascular System
(heart, blood vessels)
1. Blood vessels transport
blood, which carries
oxygen, carbon dioxide,
nutrients, wastes, etc.
2. The heart pumps blood.
Lymphatic System/Immunity
Red bone

(lymphatic vessels,
marrow
lymph
Thymus

nodes, and other lymphatic Lymphatic

organs) vessels
Thoracic
duct
1. Houses white blood cells
(lymphocytes) involved in Spleen
immunity.
2. Removes foreign substances Lymph
nodes
and pathogens
3. Maintains tissue fluid balance
through picking up fluid leaked
from blood vessels and returning
it to blood.
Respiratory System
(nose, pharynx, larynx,
trachea, bronchi, lungs)
1. Supplies oxygen to the
blood and eliminates carbon
dioxide
2. Helps to regulate acid–base
balance
Pharynx is part of digestive
and respiratory system
Digestive system (mouth,
pharynx, esophagus,
stomach, small and large
intestines, liver)
1. Mechanically and chemically
breaks down foods for body
use
2. Eliminates undigested wastes
as feces
Urinary System (kidneys,
ureters, urinary bladder,
urethra)
1. Removes various wastes
from the blood
2. Regulates blood volume, and
electrolyte balance
3. Helps to maintain the acid–
base balance of the body.
Reproductive systems
Male: testes, penis,
prostate gland and
seminal vesicles
Female: ovaries, uterus,
vagina)

1. Production of sex
hormones
2. Overall function is
reproduction or production
of offspring.
 Digestive system Respiratory system
Takes in nutrients, breaks them Takes in oxygen and
down, and eliminates unabsorbed eliminates carbon dioxide
matter (feces)

Organ Systems
Food O2 CO2

Cardiovascular system

Interrelationships
Via the blood, distributes oxygen
and nutrients to all body cells and
delivers wastes and carbon
dioxide to disposal organs

•All cells depend on organ Blood

CO2

systems to meet their O2

survival needs. Urinary

system
Heart
Eliminates
Nutrients
nitrogenous
wastes and
Organ systems work Interstitial fluid
excess ions

cooperatively to perform
necessary life functions

Nutrients and wastes pass

between blood and cells
via the interstitial fluid

Integumentary system
Feces Protects the body as a whole Urine
from the external environment
 Key Elements in Physiology
Homeostasis
 Body systems work together (Integration
of function)
Communication and movement across
cell membranes
 Vital to integration & homeostasis

 Cells communicate with other cells, tissues

& organs
 Homeostasis
 Homeostasis homeo-
(same) is the existence
and maintenance of a
relatively constant
environment within the
body despite fluctuations
in either the external
environment or the
internal environment.
 Homeostatic Regulation
1. Receptor
2. Afferent Pathway
3. Integrating or
control center
4. Efferent Pathway
5. Effector
The signal sent by the effector is called
feedback, can be either negative or positive

 Negative feedback: when the effector opposes

the stimulus (such as a dropping temperature)
and reverses the direction of change (causing the
temperature to rise). Same with blood pressure
and glucose level)
 Positive feedback: when the effector reinforces
the stimulus (such as uterine contractions during
childbirth, which trigger the release of the
hormone oxytocin) and amplifies the direction of
change (causing even greater contractions and
further release of oxytocin). Same with blood
clotting)
Negative Feedback – Temp
Regulation
Positive Feedback during
childbirth
 Pathophysiology

 It is the study of disordered

physiological processes that cause,
result from, or are associated with a
disease or injury
 Causes of Cell Injury
 Oxygen deprivation (hypoxia or
ischemia)
 Physical Agents (trauma)
 Chemical agents and Drugs
 Infectious Agents
 Immunologic Reactions

 Genetic Derangements

 Nutritional Imbalances
Cellular Adaptation to Injury or Stress

Injury or Stress Adaptation

Increased stimulation Hyperplasia or hypertrophy

Decreased stimulation or Atrophy

lack of nutrients

Chronic irritation Metaplasia

Hypertrophy:
 increased in size due to increase in size of
cells (may be physiologic such as
increased workload increases skeletal
muscle size or pathologic such as cardiac
hypertrophy)
Hyperplasia:
 increased organ size due to increase in
number of cells (may be physiologic such
as female breast; puberty and pregnancy
or pathologic such as prostatic
hyperplasia)
Atrophy:
 Reduction of size due to a decrease in cell size
and number may be physiologic atrophy such
as post partum uterus or pathologic such as
muscle atrophy due to denervation
Metaplasia:
 reversible change in which one differentiated
cell type is replaced by another cell type.
Usually occurs in response to chronic irritation
e.g. myositis ossificans: repeated skeletal
muscle injury- muscle replaced by bone
 Cell Injury and Death

 Irreversibleinjury: two types of cell death

Necrosis: always pathologic
Apoptosis: may be physiologic
or pathologic
 General Characteristics

NECROSIS APOPTOSIS
“Not programmed” “Programmed”

Usually affects large areas of Usually affects scattered individual

contiguous cells cells

Cells and organelles swell Cells contract

Control of intracellular environment is Control of intracellular environment is

lost, cells rupture and spill contents maintained, cytoplasm packaged as
“apoptotic bodies”

INDUCES INFLAMMATION DOES NOT INDUCE INFLAMMATION

Necrosis vs. Apoptosis
 Inflammation
 Response to injury (including infection)

Types of Inflammation

 Acute inflammation  Chronic inflammation

– Short duration – Longer duration
– Edema – Lymphocytes &
– Mainly neutrophils macrophages
predominate
– Fibrosis
– New blood vessels
(angiogenesis)
Types of Inflammation: acute vs. chronic
Types of healing: resolution vs. fibrosis