materials

Article
Experimental Data Collection of Surface Quality Analysis of
CuCrZr Specimens Manufactured with SLM Technology:
Analysis of the Effects of Process Parameters
Ilaria Caravella 1, *, Daniele Cortis 1 , Luca Di Angelo 2 , Donato Orlandi 1

1 Gran Sasso National Laboratory, National Institute for Nuclear Physics, 67100 L’Aquila, Italy
2 Department of Industrial and Information Engineering and Economics, University of L’Aquila,
Piazzale Pontieri, Monteluco di Roio (AQ), 67100 L’Aquila, Italy
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: Selective laser melting (SLM) is the most widely used laser powder-bed fusion (L-PBF)
technology for the additive manufacturing (AM) of parts from metallic powders. The surface quality
of the SLM parts is highly dependent on many factors and process parameters. These factors
include the powder grain size, the layer thickness, and the building angle. This paper conducted
an experimental analysis of the effects of SLM process parameters on the surface quality of CuCrZr
cubic specimens. Thanks to its excellent thermal and mechanical properties, CrCrZr has become
one of the most widely used materials in SLM technology. The specimens have been produced
with different combinations of layer thickness, laser patterns, building angles, and scanning speed,
keeping the energy density constant. The results show how different combinations of parameters
affect the surface quality macroscopically (i.e., layer thickness, building angle, and scanning speed);
in contrast, other parameters (i.e., laser pattern) do not seem to have any contributions. By varying
these parameters within typical ranges of the AM machine used, variations in surface quality can
be achieved from 10.4 µm up to 40.8 µm. These results represent an important basis for developing
research activities that will further focus on implementing a mathematical/experimental model to
help designers optimize the surface quality during the AM pre-processing phase.
Citation: Caravella, I.; Cortis, D.; Di
Angelo, L.; Orlandi, D. Experimental Keywords: additive manufacturing; selective laser melting; process parameters; copper; CuCrZr;
Data Collection of Surface Quality surface quality; surface texture
Analysis of CuCrZr Specimens
Manufactured with SLM Technology:
Analysis of the Effects of Process
Parameters. Materials 2023, 16, 98. 1. Introduction
https://doi.org/10.3390/
Selective laser melting (SLM) is the most widely used laser powder bed-fusion (L-PBF)
ma16010098
technology for the additive manufacturing (AM) of parts from metallic powders. It is a
Academic Editor: Giulio Marchese process that melts and fuses selective powder regions layer by layer using a high-intensity
Received: 8 November 2022
laser as an energy source. Process parameters, such as laser power, scanning speed, hatch
Revised: 9 December 2022
spacing, and layer thickness, must be adjusted so that a single melt vector can fuse entirely
Accepted: 13 December 2022 with the neighboring melt vectors and the preceding layer [1]. SLM technology offers many
Published: 22 December 2022 merits, such as high flexibility in the design that allows:
• product customization at an acceptable cost (due to the lack of tooling or fixtures needed);
• production of components with complex geometry and high spatial resolution (e.g.,
porous structures [2], turbine discs [3], aeronautic components [4], and lightweight
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
cellular structures [5]);
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
• improved microstructure and properties [6].
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and Because the most common SLM machines use infrared laser sources with a wavelength
conditions of the Creative Commons of 1064 nm, they are primarily suitable for part fabrication by materials with low reflectivity
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// and low thermal conductivity and are free of low boiling point volatile elements [7]. Many
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ papers in the literature analyze the use of materials such as maraging steel [8], 316L stainless
4.0/). steel [9], titanium alloy [10], Inconel alloy [11], and aluminum alloy [12].

Materials 2023, 16, 98. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16010098 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/materials

Materials 2023, 16, 98 2 of 15

CuCrZr alloy has excellent thermal and electrical conductivity, hardness, and strength.
These characteristics, together with its good castability, machinability, and excellent mechan-
ical properties, have resulted in the use of this alloy in many high-tech applications [13].
Their utilization for manufacturing parts with SLM technology has been limited by cop-
per’s high laser reflectivity in the infrared range (90%) and high thermal conductivity
(400 W/m K at 300 K), which can easily cause melt instability and defects [14,15]. To exploit
the previously mentioned advantages of SLM and CuCrZr alloys, several researchers have
started to investigate the SLMed CuCrZr alloy. These efforts have been mainly focused on
the effect of the process parameters and heat treatment on the microstructure and properties
of the SLMed CuCrZr alloy [16] . In particular, the published research investigated the
process parameters and the influence of heat treatment on increasing strength, and electrical
conductivity [17–20].
All these methods ignore the analysis of a fundamental characteristic of AM objects:
surface quality. This feature is critical because currently, with metal AM technologies, it is
impossible to achieve surface qualities as good as those generated via CNC machining [21].
The surface quality of the SLM parts is highly dependent on many factors and process pa-
rameters. Among them, the grain size of powder particles, layer thickness, wall angle, and
melt pool size are the most relevant [22]. The wall angle and layer thickness combination
produce the well-known staircase effect that reduces the surface quality; this inevitable
and systematic error for some values of angles and thickness makes use of the well-known
roughness index R a inappropriate [23]. Other critical elements that cause poor surface
quality for AM technologies, such as the SLM, is the required connection between the part
and the building platform and supports for overhangs greater than 40° to prevent thermal
deformations of the built part. In addition, the removal of the support structures is highly
time-consuming and is most often carried out manually.
Janhs et al. [15] investigated the functional properties and heat treatment of SLMed
CuCr1Zr alloy generated by gas atomization. Regarding the surface quality, they analyzed
the surface roughness of a side and the upper surface of specimens, varying the laser power
(from 100 to 370 W) and the laser scanning velocity (400, 600, and 800 mm/s). The results
show that the Ra value increases with laser power, and the highest roughness was achieved
with a laser power of 370 W. Furthermore, the upper surfaces exhibit a lower roughness than
the side surfaces, possibly due to the multiple melting performed on the topmost powder
layer. Finally, parameters leading to the formation of the better surface of samples are those
that produce the worst relative optical densities. Because the typical surface roughness R a
of the SLMed CuCrZr parts ranges from 8 to 12 µm even after process optimization and this
surface quality is inadequate for meeting the requirements of many applications, the only
solution is machining the most critical surfaces [16]. Bai et al. [16] proposed the analysis and
comparison of the microstructure, mechanical properties, and machinability of as-built and
heat-treated CuCrZr alloys fabricated with SLM. Machining experiments were conducted
on the as-built and heat-treated samples to study the machinability, including cutting force,
surface quality, and chip morphology. Results regarding the surface quality show that
building direction and heat treatment have a significant influence on the machinability
of the SLMed CuCrZr alloy. High surface quality can be achieved for surfaces parallel to
the XZ plane machined after aging treatment. The conclusions of this paper are limited
to applications for which post-processing on surfaces of objects manufactured with SLM
technology is possible. Furthermore, an important limitation of the last two papers is
neglecting a critical parameter such as the wall angle.
A helpful design support would be a mathematical/experimental model that assists
the designer in global (e.g., deposition direction) and local surface-by-surface (e.g., machine
parameters) choices in manufacturing an object by SLM technology. Such a model would
be essential in all applications where surface quality is a necessary functional requirement
and post-processing is not possible on the surfaces of manufactured objects due to their
shape or accessibility. Characteristic and extreme examples are the internal surfaces of
Materials 2023, 16, 98 3 of 15

custom heat exchangers (e.g., lattice structures) and waveguides: the former requires a
rough surface, and the latter requires a surface with the best surface quality possible.
This paper analyzed the effect of SLM process parameters on the surface quality of
CuCrZr-manufactured cubic specimens. The main objective of the experiment is a pre-
liminary collection of data for implementing a mathematical/experimental model to help
designers optimize the surface quality during the AM pre-processing phase, considering
the final purpose of the component. Particular attention was given to geometrical process
parameters influencing surface quality, such as layer thickness, laser pattern, and building
angle. The results show how different combinations of process parameters affect the surface
quality macroscopically, and surface quality is exclusively affected by layer thickness and
building angle. The laser pattern strategy does not seem to have any contribution, and the
improvement in the texture is proportional to layer thickness. The tuning of the scanning
speed can also be used to improve surface quality.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Specimen Production
CuCrZr cubic specimens (9 × 9 × 9 mm) were produced using a SISMA MySint100
PM/RM machine based on SLM technology. The machine, specific for R&D activities, is
equipped with an infrared laser up to 200 W and a fixed spot diameter of 30 µm with a
Gaussian spatial distribution. The process parameters, such as hatch distance (µm), scan
speed (µm/s), layer thickness (µm), and laser pattern, are completely configurable by
the user, and they can be changed directly onboard a machine or with classic external
pre-processing software (e.g., Magics). The production of the specimens took place under
an inert nitrogen (N) atmosphere with an oxygen level below 0.1% using a brass building
platform. The powder material used in the research, whose chemical analysis is reported in
Table 1, was supplied by Metals4Printing company.

Table 1. Metal4Printing CuCrZr powder chemical analysis wt% (powder size 15–45 µm) [24].

Element Min Max

Cr 0.5 1.2
Zr 0.03 0.3
Fe 0.08
Si 0.01
Cu Base

The specimens were produced with different combinations of the following parameters:
• layer thickness,
• laser pattern,
• building angle.
These parameters constrained the energy density (E), transferred by the laser on the
powder, to an optimized level (E156 J/mm3 ), as defined by Equation (1):

P
E= (1)
v×h×t
where P represents the laser power, v is the laser scanning speed, h is the hatch distance,
and t is the layer thickness. The optimized energy density level resulted from preliminary
experimentation; the reported value permitted manufactured components with a good
material density without compromising the surface quality (i.e., without excessive powder
overburn on the sides of the specimens), which is useful for the proposed research.
The SLM process parameters were selected using a full factorial design of experiment
(DOE) with three levels (−1, 0, +1) for the variables mentioned above (i.e., N. = 33 =
27 combinations). Table 2 reports the combinations and the print jobs necessary to produce
the specimens.
Materials 2023, 16, 98 4 of 15

Table 2. Full Factorial design of experiment (DOE) of the SLM process parameters.

Variables & Level (−1, 0, +1)

Specimen
Print Job N. Layer Thickness Building Angle
#ID Laser Pattern
t [µm] [θ]
1 A1 40 0°/90° Linear
2 A2 40 0°/90° Chess 3 × 3 mm
3 A3 40 0°/90° Strip 3 mm
4 A4 40 30°/120° Linear
1 5 A5 40 30°/120° Chess 3 × 3 mm
6 A6 40 30°/120° Strip 3 mm
7 A7 40 60°/150° Linear
8 A8 40 60°/150° Chess 3 × 3 mm
9 A9 40 60°/150° Strip 3 mm
10 A10 50 0°/90° Linear
11 A11 50 0°/90° Chess 3 × 3 mm
12 A12 50 0°/90° Strip 3 mm
13 A13 50 30°/120° Linear
2 14 A14 50 30°/120° Chess 3 × 3 mm
15 A15 50 30°/120° Strip 3 mm
16 A16 50 60°/150° Linear
17 A17 50 60°/150° Chess 3 × 3 mm
18 A18 50 60°/150° Strip 3 mm
19 A19 60 0°/90° Linear
20 A20 60 0°/90° Chess 3 × 3 mm
21 A21 60 0°/90° Strip 3 mm
22 A22 60 30°/120° Linear
3 23 A23 60 30°/120° Chess 3 × 3 mm
24 A24 60 30°/120° Strip 3 mm
25 A25 60 60°/150° Linear
26 A26 60 60°/150° Chess 3 × 3 mm
27 A27 60 60°/150° Strip 3 mm

Because the powder grain sizes range from 15 to 45 µm, the minimum layer thickness
was defined at 40 µm to prevent any minimal voids in the distribution of the powder by
the recoater system of the SLM machine. On the other hand, the maximum layer thickness
has been defined considering the staircase effect so that no excessive approximation of side
geometry is introduced. Based on the results proposed by Huxol et al. [25], according to
which laser strategy affects mechanical characteristics, three different laser patterns are
tested (Figure 1): linear, chess 3 × 3 mm, and strip 3 mm. Figure 1 shows the three different
scanning patterns following the 90° clockwise rotation of the laser in two subsequent layers,
considering the constraints by the cubic dimension of the samples.
Moreover, the building angle (θ) has been defined as the clockwise angle between
the building direction (z-axis) and specimen surface, as reported in Figure 2. For each
specimen, the blue surface (BS) and the red surface (RS) are considered with respect to the
powder supply direction. As such, an evaluation of the surface quality as a function of the
building angle (θ) from 0° to 150° was performed, which also analyzed the influence of the
powder supplier direction. Building angles of surfaces requiring support structures were
not analyzed. For example, Figure 3 shows the result of Print Job I (A# specimens).
Materials 2023, 16, 98 5 of 15

Layer i

a1) b1) c1)

Layer i+1

a2) b2) c2)

Figure 1. Laser pattern characteristics for two subsequent layers: (a1) Linear, (b1) chess 3 × 3 mm,
and (c1) strip 3 mm at layer i-th; (a2) Linear, (b2) chess 3 × 3 mm, and (c2) strip 3 mm at layer i+1-th .

Figure 2. Building angle (θ) definition and analyzed surfaces: blue surface (BS) and red surface (RS).

Figure 3. Print Job I: A# specimens’ production results on the building platform.

2.2. Surface Quality Analysis

Although new methods for surface quality assessment have been published in the
literature in recent years [26], in this paper, to make the proposed procedure repeatable
and reproducible, areal methods defined by the EN ISO 25178-2 standard [27] are applied.
The measurements were performed using a KEYENCE VHX-7000 Digital Microscope
based on a non-contact/point autofocus probe, also known as focus variation technology,
according to the EN ISO 25178-605 standard [28]. The evaluated parameters within a
Materials 2023, 16, 98 6 of 15

definition area (A) are reported in Table 3. A short-wavelength filter with λs = 10 µm is

first applied. Considering the analyzed thicknesses and angles, a long-wavelength filter
with λs = 2.5 mm was used. This value is greater than the characteristic dimensions of
the texture surfaces considered here, so a typical texture surface with a long wavelength
(the staircase effect) is not filtered, and the roughness can be considered to analyze the
surface quality.

Table 3. Parameters for the determination of surface texture by areal methods [27].

Parameter Symbol Definition

Arithmetic mean of the absolute of the
Arithmetical mean height Sa
ordinate values
Maximum peak height Sp Largest peak height value
Maximum pit height Sv Minus the smallest pit height value
Sum of the maximum peak height value
Maximum height Sz
and the maximum pit height value
Quotient of the mean cube value of the
Skewness Ssk
ordinate values and the cube of Sq
Quotient of the mean quartic value of the
Kurtosis Sku
ordinate values and the fourth power of Sq

The Sa parameter, defined as follows:

1
ZZ
Sa = |z( x, y))|dxdy (2)
A A
can be directly correlated with the well-known linear surface roughness (R a ) [29].

3. Results and Discussion

Before proceeding with the surface quality analysis, each specimen was dimensionally
controlled using a KEYENCE IM-8000 Image Measurement System. This control has been
made to verify the potential presence of unexpected deformations on the specimen side
surface that could have affected the surface quality analysis. The results of the non-contact
measurement are reported in Table 4. Each reported value is calculated as the mean of three
measures. The data show how the building uncertainties along the three dimensions of the
cubic specimen are almost the same: approximately 0.1 ± 0.09 mm. The high number of
samples makes the results statistically reliable, showing that all pieces are dimensionally
acceptable without unexpected deformations.
In addition, before analyzing the quality of the surface of all specimens, preliminary
measures were carried out on a few samples to define the correct dimension of the definition
area (A) and to assess the repeatability of the SLM production process. According to ISO
25178-3: 2012 [27], the evaluation area A consists of a rectangular portion of the surface
over which extraction is made. Because the form typically influences the evaluation area’s
orientation, the rectangular area has to be parallel/orthogonal to the nominal geometry
(e.g., cylinder axis, sides of a rectangular flat, etc.). The size of the evaluation area has
the same length as the filter “nesting index”, and it is typically five times the scale of
the coarsest structure of interest. Because these scales were not known a priori for the
objects manufactured with the material and machine considered here, preliminary measures
were performed on a few samples. The objective of this was to find the maximum size
of the evaluation area for surface quality measurements unaffected by specimen edge
effects; the necessity to choose the maximum size results from the requirement to measure
the whole structure of interest with certainty. For this purpose, the A1, A4, and A7
specimens manufactured with the same level of variables (layer thickness = 40 µm, laser
pattern = linear) but with a different building angle (θ = 0° and 150°), were measured.
The preliminary measures of Sa were performed on both selected surfaces (i.e., BS and
RS), progressively increasing the evaluation area sizes from a minimum of 2 × 2 mm to
Materials 2023, 16, 98 7 of 15

9 × 9 mm (Figure 4). The results in Figure 5, each one representing the average of three
measurements, highlight a significant boundary effect for a definition area (A) of 9 × 9 mm.
By considering smaller areas, the edge effect quickly disappears as the measurements
become comparable. This evidence is compatible with the edge effects of SLM technology
due to the unmelted powder around the specimens, the hatch distance, and the distance of
the laser pattern to the outer edge of the specimen, set at 0.08 µm during the production.
Based on these considerations, the surface texture parameters (Sa , S p , Sv , Sz , Sq , Ssk , and
Sku ) were measured with a definition area (A) of 8 × 8 mm. With a magnification of 100×,
this allowed for acquisition of 7741 × 7741 points for each texture, on which the software
calculated surface quality parameters.

Table 4. Dimensional control of SLM-manufactured specimens.

Specimen Dimension
Print Job Specimen
x [mm] y [mm] z [mm]
A1 9.14 9.12 8.94
A2 9.15 9.14 9.1
A3 9.05 9.14 9.19
A4 8.91 9.12 9.12
I A5 9.08 9.11 9.12
A6 9.11 8.97 9.11
A7 9.12 9.03 9.11
A8 9.04 9.11 9.12
A9 9.07 9.12 9.1
A10 9.2 9.18 9.17
A11 9.17 9.18 9.17
A12 9.21 9.19 9.2
A13 9.17 9.1 9.08
II A14 9.16 9.09 8.99
A15 9.16 9.09 9.17
A16 9.16 9.04 9.18
A17 9.17 9.03 9.12
A18 8.99 9.16 9.17
A19 9.11 9.23 9.07
A20 8.98 9.22 9.09
A21 9.24 9.23 9.21
A22 9.21 9.15 9.06
III A23 9.22 8.89 8.85
A24 9.22 8.89 9.06
A25 9.21 9.05 9.22
A26 9.05 9.21 9.23
A27 9.09 8.98 9.17
mean 9.13 9.10 9.12
std. dev. ±0.08 ±0.09 ±0.09

Figure 4. Definition area (A) evaluation: influence of boundary effects.

Materials 2023, 16, 98 8 of 15

100
Linear pattern Blue Surface Red Surface
90 A = 2x2 mm A = 2x2 mm
A = 3x3 mm A = 3x3 mm
80 A = 4x4 mm A = 4x4 mm
A = 5x5 mm A = 5x5 mm
70 A = 6x6 mm A = 6x6 mm
A = 7x7 mm A = 7x7 mm

SSaa[μm]
A = 8x8 mm A = 8x8 mm
60
[µm] A = 9x9 mm A = 9x9 mm

50

40

30

20

10
0° 30° 60° 90° 120° 150°
ϑ
Figure 5. Preliminary measurements on A1, A4, and A7 specimens: evaluation of Sa parameter in
function of definition area (A) and building angle (θ).

Three different A1 samples manufactured with the same set of parameters were
analyzed to assess the repeatability of the SLM production process at varying building
angles. The results for the blue (0°) and red (90°) surfaces are reported in Tables 5 and 6.
Each reported value is calculated as the mean of three measures. The data show that the
objects with SLM technology manufactured with the same parameters, although they show
punctual differences in the generated surfaces (see S p , Sv , and Sz ), have a relative standard
deviation on Sa of 0.5% for the blue and 1.05% for the red surface. The resulting differences
are so minor that they may be caused by the randomness of the surface irregularities and
measurement errors. The repeatability in the construction of the surfaces can be considered
independent of the extreme values of building angles (0° and 90°).

Table 5. Assessment of the repeatability of the SLM production process: blue surface (BS).

Blue Surface (BS) − Definition Area (A) = 8 × 8 mm

Specimen #ID
Sa [µm] S p [µm] Sv [µm] Sz [µm] Sq [µm] Ssk Sku
A1-1 30.5 195.6 117.3 313.5 34.6 0.33 0.36
A1-2 30.5 194.9 89.9 284.8 37.4 0.55 0.07
A1-3 30.7 180.9 81.7 262.6 37.6 0.36 −0.26
Mean 30.6 190.5 96.3 287.0 36.5 0.4 0.1
Std. Dev. 0.12 8.29 18.64 25.52 1.68 0.12 0.31

Table 6. Assessment of the repeatability of the SLM production process: red surface (RS).

Red Surface (RS) − Definition Area (A) = 8 × 8 mm

Specimen #ID
Sa [µm] S p [µm] Sv [µm] Sz [µm] Sq [µm] Ssk Sku
A1-1 19.4 146.8 112.3 259.1 24.7 0.22 1.1
A1-2 19.5 157.8 105.8 263.6 25.7 0.66 1.54
A1-3 19.1 196.3 104.2 300.5 25.2 0.65 2.04
Mean 19.3 167.0 107.4 274.4 25.2 0.5 1.6
Std. Dev. 0.21 25.99 4.29 22.71 0.50 0.25 0.47

After these preliminary evaluations, the analysis of the surface texture parameters
for all specimens was performed using an evaluation area of 8 × 8 mm, and the results
are summarized in Tables 7 and 8, where the mean of the three measures are reported.
All the relative standard deviations on Sa values of the reported values vary between
Materials 2023, 16, 98 9 of 15

0.05% to 1.68%, showing no recognizable influence on the parameters considered here.

These non-zero values of the standard deviations are due to manual positioning of the
acquisition area by the operator using the graphical user interface of the KEYENCE VHX-
7000 Digital Microscope.

Table 7. Surface texture parameters results: BS with a definition area (A) = 8 × 8 mm.

Specimen Building Blue Surface (BS) − Definition Area (A) = 8 × 8 mm

#ID Angle θ Sa [µm] S p [µm] Sv [µm] Sz [µm] Sq [µm] Ssk Sku
A1 0° 30.5 195.6 117.3 313.5 34.6 0.33 0.36
A2 0° 30.4 245.8 96.9 342.7 40.2 1.26 3.1
A3 0° 30.3 193.7 133.1 326.8 38 0.49 0.45
A4 30° 28.6 225.4 118.1 343.4 35.4 0.63 0.41
A5 30° 31.6 253.7 124.2 377.9 40.8 1.17 2.44
A6 30° 26.9 181.9 94.8 276.7 33.2 0.57 0.12
A7 60° 18.3 122.9 110.1 232.9 23.9 0.64 1.19
A8 60° 22.1 242.2 113.1 355.3 29.3 0.92 2.53
A9 60° 17.3 164.7 84.9 249.6 23.1 0.96 1.98
B1 0° 34.1 219.8 120.5 340.3 42.4 0.2 −0.01
B2 0° 33.6 199.7 151.8 351.5 41.2 0.38 −0.14
B3 0° 36.3 202 111.4 313.4 44.5 0.25 −0.31
B4 30° 33.2 201 121.4 322.5 40.3 0.61 0
B5 30° 33.4 236.8 190.1 427 41.1 0.54 0.33
B6 30° 34.8 230.4 114.4 344.8 42.5 0.6 0.09
B7 60° 24.1 178.5 135.6 314 31.7 0.58 1.08
B8 60° 25.9 174.4 146.4 320.8 33.7 0.45 0.82
B9 60° 19.9 157.7 108.8 266.5 26.2 0.67 1.13
C1 0° 38.9 203.7 147.5 351.2 48.2 0.14 −0.21
C2 0° 37.9 230 132.2 362.2 46.7 0.39 −0.11
C3 0° 37.3 200 140.1 340.1 46.2 0.26 −0.1
C4 30° 39.5 195.6 171.1 366.7 47.7 0.43 −0.32
C5 30° 39.7 225.8 173 398.8 48.7 0.45 −0.04
C6 30° 40.8 255.2 155.6 410.7 49.8 0.49 −0.02
C7 60° 27.6 155.5 154.2 309.7 35.9 0.43 0.74
C8 60° 30.1 231.6 163.4 395 38.8 0.41 0.68
C9 60° 26.8 212.5 139.8 352.3 34.9 0.79 1.14

The results show how there is at most a ∼60% difference (i.e., Table 7, Specimen ID#
A9 and C6) between the largest and smallest value of Sa , demonstrating how the different
combination of variables affects the results macroscopically. The minimum value of Sa is
found for each group in the same combination: for BS with #9 (Table 7) and RS with #4
(Table 8). Considering the DOE analysis, the optimum conditions have been identified
for the BS as a layer thickness of 40 µm, a building angle of 60°, and a linear laser pattern.
For the RS, the optimum conditions were the same layer thickness and pattern strategy,
but with a building angle of 120°. The analysis results are summarized in Tables 9 and 10,
where for each level of variables (−1, 0, +1), the Sa mean value and the relative difference
in identification of the main effects of variables are reported. The Sa value is exclusively
affected by layer thickness and building angle, and the laser pattern strategy does not seem
to contribute anything. This experimental evidence can be explained considering that, from
a geometric point of view, the surface texture is rightly influenced by the layer thickness
of the building section and by its angle (i.e., the staircase effect). The laser pattern only
plays a role in the selective melting of powder material without apparently changing the
surface morphology. The DOE analysis returns the same indications when considering
the maximum height parameter (Sz ) instead of the Sa ; this supports the close correlation
between these two factors.
Materials 2023, 16, 98 10 of 15

Table 8. Surface texture parameters results: RS with a definition area (A) = 8 × 8 mm.

Specimen Building Red Surface (RS) − Definition Area (A) = 8 × 8 mm

#ID Angle θ Sa [µm] S p [µm] Sv [µm] Sz [µm] Sq [µm] Ssk Sku
A1 90° 19.4 146.8 112.3 259.1 24.7 0.22 1.1
A2 90° 23.5 294.6 113.4 408 34.4 1.84 7.76
A3 90° 20 142.7 103.9 246.6 25.9 0.37 0.8
A4 120° 19.0 225.1 92 317.1 26 0.93 2.56
A5 120° 22.2 276.3 138.5 414.8 33.4 2.34 9.45
A6 120° 20.3 128.4 160.1 288.5 26.6 0.19 1.03
A7 150° 26.2 183.1 111.4 294.5 32.5 0.7 0.32
A8 150° 29.7 217.2 108.8 325.9 37.2 0.87 1.06
A9 150° 27.8 174.9 227.3 402.3 35.1 0.5 0.84
B1 90° 26.6 156.1 169.3 325.3 34.2 0.28 0.59
B2 90° 29.4 187.9 149.7 337.6 37.8 0.18 0.61
B3 90° 29.1 229.7 150.6 380.3 37.3 0.08 0.55
B4 120° 24.5 223.9 152.5 376.4 32.4 0.73 1.76
B5 120° 24.8 192.7 136.8 329.5 32.5 0.58 1.31
B6 120° 26.7 214.6 161.3 375.8 34.9 0.22 0.94
B7 150° 32.7 186.2 115.8 302.1 39.8 0.59 −0.18
B8 150° 31.7 163.9 121.8 285.7 38.9 0.53 −0.07
B9 150° 31.9 198.7 135.5 334.2 39.2 0.53 0.06
C1 90° 30.5 172 169.1 341.1 39 0.09 0.39
C2 90° 31.8 205.9 185.7 391.6 41.2 −0.05 0.69
C3 90° 32.9 168.2 176.6 344.8 42.1 −0.08 0.34
C4 120° 29.8 151.1 188.1 339.2 38.5 0.35 0.53
C5 120° 29.9 206.9 183.3 390.1 38.6 0.45 0.79
C6 120° 32.1 206.3 209 415.3 41.4 0.19 0.64
C7 150° 37.9 231.6 160.2 391.9 46.5 0.53 −0.03
C8 150° 38.7 207.2 153.1 360.3 47.3 0.44 −0.21
C9 150° 37.1 206.7 184.4 391 45.5 0.29 −0.07

Table 9. Optimum conditions and main variables for blue surface (BS): Sa mean value for each level
of variables (−1, 0, +1).

Variables Level S¯a Mean Value S¯a Difference

a. 40 26.2 * a.−b. −4.4
Layer thickness ** b. 50 30.6 a.− c. −9.2 **
c. 60 35.4 b.−c. −4.8
a. 0° 34 a.−b. −0.2
Building angle ** b. 30° 34.3 a.−c. 10.5
c. 60° 23.6 * b.−c. 10.7 **
a. Linear 30.1* a.−b. −1.5
Laser pattern b. Chess 3 × 3 mm 31.6 a.−c. 0.1
c. Strip 3 mm 30.2 b.−c. 1.6
* Optimum condition; ** Main variables.

Taking the above considerations into account, the presence of any interactions between
layer thickness and building angle was assessed. Figures 6–8 show Sa as a function of
these two parameters, keeping the laser pattern fixed at a specific level. The plots correctly
describe the influence of the layer thickness on the Sa results for each pattern condition
and how the building angle between 60° and 120° produces the best results. Moreover, the
parallelism between the segments highlights no interactions between the variables, and the
reduction in Sa seems to be proportional as the layer decreases (∼5 µm).
Materials 2023, 16, 98 11 of 15

Table 10. Optimum conditions and main variables for red surface (RS): Sa mean value for each level
of variables (−1, 0, +1).

Variables Level S¯a Mean Value S¯a Difference

a. 40 23.1* a.−b. −5.5
Layer thickness ** b. 50 28.6 a.−c. −10.3 **
c. 60 33.4 b.−c. −4.8
a. 90° 27.0 a.−b. −1.5
Building angle ** b. 120° * 25.5 * a.−c. −5.7
c. 150° 32.6 * b.−c. 7.1 **
a. Linear 27.4 * a.−b. −1.7
Laser pattern b. Chess 3 × 3 mm 29.1 a.−c. −1.3
c. Strip 3 mm 28.7 b.−c. 0.4
* Optimum condition; ** main variables.

60
Layer 40 µm
Linear pattern
Blue surface Layer 50 µm
Layer 60 µm
50 Layer 40 µm
Red surface Layer 50 µm
Layer 60 µm
40
SaSa[μm]
[µ m]

30

20

10

0
0° 30° 60° 90° 120° 150°
ϑ


Figure 6. Sa as a function of layer thickness (t) and building angle (θ): linear laser pattern.
60
Layer 40 µm
Chess pattern
Blue surface Layer 50 µm
Layer 60 µm
50 Layer 40 µm
Red surface Layer 50 µm
Layer 60 µm
40
SaSa[μm]
[µ m]

30

20

10

0
0° 30° 60° 90° 120° 150°
ϑ

Figure 7. Sa as a function of layer thickness (t) and building angle (θ): chess laser pattern.
60
Layer 40 µm
Strip pattern
Blue surface Layer 50 µm
Layer 60 µm
50 Layer 40 µm
Red surface Layer 50 µm
Layer 60 µm
40
SaSa[μm]
[µ m]

30

20

10

0
0° 30° 60° 90° 120° 150°
ϑ

Figure 8. Sa as a function of layer thickness (t) and building angle (θ): strip laser pattern.
Materials 2023, 16, 98 12 of 15

The values obtained for surfaces with the same construction angles but oriented dif-
ferently to the powder supply (30° and 150°, 60° and 120°) are then compared. Although
they show punctual differences in the generated surfaces (see S p , Sv , and Sz ), the differ-
ences in terms of Sa are so minor that they could be caused by the randomness of the
surface irregularities.
The following further information can be deduced by analyzing the other surface
texture parameters:
• the root mean square height (Sq ) has the same trend as the Sa (Figure 9a,b);
• the skewness (Ssk ) has a mean value of about 0.5 and 0.6 for the BS and RS, respectively;
this indicates that the distribution of the measures (i.e., the ordinate value z( x, y)) is
almost similar to a Gaussian curve because it is not far from zero;
• the kurtosis (Sku ) shows that the distribution of the measures (i.e., the ordinate value
z( x, y)), except for a few outliers, has a very slight peak in the mid frequencies when
compared to a standard Gaussian curve, where Sku is zero (Tables 5 and 6).
Starting from machine parameters corresponding to the lowest Sa value (specimen A1,
layer thickness = 40 µm, laser pattern = linear, building angle θ = 0°), another experiment
was carried out to evaluate the influence of the laser scanning speed. For this purpose,
three specimens were manufactured with a laser scanning speed of 1.25, 2, and 4 times
the value used for A1, maintaining the same level of energy density (E ∼ 156 J/mm3 ).
The results, reported in Tables 11 and 12, again, each representing the average of three
measurements, demonstrate how the Sa can be reduced by half or even about a third with
a simple adjustment of the process parameters, particularly in the last building layers,
without compromising the average density of the component. This improvement is more
evident for the BS than for the RS, probably due to the smaller size of the melt pool
generated by the laser on the powder bed surface.

80
Sa Sq
70 Blue surface

60

50
[µ m]
[μm]

40

30

20

10

0
A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 A9 B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 B7 B8 B9 C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 C9

a) Specimen ID#
Specimen ID#
80
Sa Sq
70 Red surface

60

50
[µ m]
[μm]

40

30

20

10

0
A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 A9 B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 B7 B8 B9 C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 C9

b) Specimen
Specimen ID#ID#

Figure 9. Sa and Sq comparison: (a) blue surface (BS); (b) red surface (RS).
Materials 2023, 16, 98 13 of 15

Table 11. Surface texture parameters results increasing the laser scanning speed: blue surface (BS).

Specimen Laser Scan Blue Surface (BS) − Definition Area (A) = 8 × 8 mm

#ID Speed * Sa [µm] S p [µm] Sv [µm] Sz [µm] Sq [µm] Ssk Sku
A1-4 x4.0 10.4 61.2 101.4 162.6 13.5 −0.66 1.53
A1-5 x2.0 17.1 76.7 85.2 162.0 20.9 −0.05 −0.30
A1-6 x1.25 19.9 89.3 90.4 179.7 24.3 −0.21 −0.43
* With respect to the A1 standard laser scanning speed but with the same energy density (E ∼ 156 J/mm3 ).

Table 12. Surface texture parameters results increasing the laser scanning speed: red surface (RS).

Specimen Laser Scan Red Surface (RS) − Definition Area (A) = 8 × 8 mm

#ID Speed * Sa [µm] S p [µm] Sv [µm] Sz [µm] Sq [µm] Ssk Sku
A1-4 x4.0 16.1 101.9 86.3 188.2 20.3 0.05 0.13
A1-5 x2.0 19.3 132.5 107.4 239.9 24.9 0.16 0.61
A1-6 x1.25 19.7 106.3 105.6 211.9 25.6 −0.05 0.65
* With respect to the A1 standard laser scanning speed but with the same energy density (E ∼ 156 J/mm3 ).

Figure 10 summarizes some of the most important results from the experimentation
here presented. Figure 10a shows the interpolating surfaces of Sa data varying the building
angle and thickness for blue and red surfaces. Figure 10b shows for the vertical (blue
surface) and horizontal surfaces (red surface) the trend of Sa varying the laser scanning
speed. These graphs identifying the most critical parameters affecting the surface quality of
CuCrZr-manufactured parts represent the initial kernel of the mathematical/experimental
model to be implemented in future works.

building angle=0° building angle=90°

35

30
a) 25
Sa [μm]

20

15

10

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
b) Laser scanning speed ratio respect to A1

Figure 10. Key results obtained by the proposed experimentation.

4. Conclusions
This paper presented an experimental analysis to investigate the effect of SLM process
parameters on the surface quality of CuCrZr-manufactured cubic specimens. This experi-
mentation can be considered as a preliminary collection of data for implementation of a
mathematical/experimental model. That model should help the designer during the AM
pre-processing phase to optimize the surface quality, considering the final purpose of the
component. The reported experimentation focused on the influence of the following:
• layer thickness,
• laser pattern,
• building angle,
Materials 2023, 16, 98 14 of 15

• laser scanning speed.

These constrained the energy density (E), transferred by the laser on the powder, to
an optimized level (E ∼ 156 J/mm3 ). Furthermore, the specifically designed specimen
shape enabled the investigation of the influence of the power supplier direction. Surface
quality was evaluated using areal methods defined by the EN ISO 25178-2 standard [27].
Preliminary experimentation was conducted on a few samples to define the dimension
of the evaluation area (A) and to assess the repeatability of the SLM production process.
The results highlight that, for specimens with nominal sizes of 9 × 9 mm, the maximum
evaluation area sizes not affected by the edge effect is 8 × 8 mm. This fact shows a
significant edge effect due to unmelted powder on the edge of the specimens. Concerning
the SLM repeatability, better results are obtained in building surfaces facing the powder
supplier (i.e., building angle between 60° and 120°). Through extensive experimentation,
it was demonstrated that different combinations of process parameters affect the surface
quality macroscopically, and the surface area is exclusively affected by layer thickness
and building angle. The laser pattern strategy does not seem to have any contributions,
and the reduction in Sa is proportional to layer thickness. Finally, it has been verified that
increasing the laser scanning speed can reduce the Sa by half or about a third. This makes
it possible to improve surface quality, especially in the last layers, without compromising
the average density of the component. Further investigations will expand experimental
data by analyzing the other building angles to complete the maps of Figure 10. In addition,
future efforts will be addressed to investigate other methods for characterizing surface
quality, such as multi-scale methods [26].

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, I.C., D.C., L.D.A. and D.O., methodology, I.C., D.C. and
L.D.A.; software, I.C. and D.C.; validation, I.C. and D.C.; formal analysis, I.C. and D.C.; investigation,
I.C. and D.C.; resources, I.C., D.C. and D.O.; data curation, I.C. and D.C.; writing—original draft
preparation, I.C., D.C. and L.D.A.; writing—review and editing, I.C., D.C., L.D.A. and D.O.; visualiza-
tion, I.C., D.C. and L.D.A.; supervision, D.O.; project administration, D.O. All authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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