By Assistant Professor

Eshita Sahu

Research methodology

Introduction

The unique characteristic of human mind is the curiosity to know about the universe. Innumerable
questions arise in our mind about our environment, planet and the universe. Most of these questions
starting with what, why, how and soon. For example, what are stars? , why day and night alternate?
How is rain formed and why the mode of life and activities of human beings vary from place to place?
Whenever such questions arise we seek answer to them or we try to find out solutions to them. Seeking
answers to questions and finding solutions to the problems have been the basis of human progress. A
systematic search for an answer to a question or a solution to a problem is called research.

Actually research is simply the process of arriving as dependable solution to a problem through the
planned and systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of a data. Research is the most important
process for advancing knowledge for promoting progress and to enable man to relate more effectively
to his environment to accomplish his purpose and to solve his conflicts.

Although it is not the only way, it is one of the most effective ways of solving problems. The term
research consist of two words,’ Re’+’Search’. “Re” means again and again and “Search” means to find
out something.

Therefore, the research is a process of which a person observes the phenomena again and again and
collects the data and on the basis of data he draws some conclusions. Research seeks to find out
explanations to unexplained phenomena to clarify the doubtful propositions and to correct the
misconceived facts. It simply means a search for facts, answer to questions and solutions to problems.
The search for facts may be made through either

(a) arbitrary (unscientific) method or

(b) scientific method.

Arbitrary method of seeking answer to questions is based on imagination, blind belief or impression. It is
vague and inaccurate.

Scientific method is a systematic rational approach to seeking fact. It is objective, precise and arrives at
conclusions on the basis of verifiable evidences. Hence research is systematic and logical study of an
issue problem or phenomenon through scientific method. Following definitions may reveal the proper
meaning of the concept of research.

Meaning of Research

' Research ' implies ' search again ' , i.e. , it is a study wherein the researchers take a careful look at the
data repeatedly to gain all the knowledge that can be known about the subject under study . In common
parlance , research means ' search for knowledge ' .
Research is a purposeful , precise and systematic search for new knowledge , skills , attitudes and values
or for the re - interpretation of existing knowledge , skills , attitudes and values . It is a systematic
investigation carried out for the purpose of finding solutions to a problem directly connected to a
problem statement and goal of research . It provides a structure for decision making . It is defined as
human activity based on intellectual application in the investigation of matter .

Definition of Research:

a) According to Black and Champion, “scientific research consist of obtaining information through
empirical observation that can be used for systematic development of logically related propositions
attempting to establish casual relations among variable”.

b) Emory defines research as “any organized inquiry designed and carried out to provide information for
solving a problem”.

c) Kerlinger defines research as a” systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of

hypothetical relations among natural phenomena”.

d) L.V. Redman and A.V.H. Morry have defined “systematic effort to gain new knowledge we call
research”.

Another definitions of research:

1. " A systematic investigation to find solutions to a problem . " -Robert Burns

2. " It is a systematic and objective attempt to study a problem for the purpose of deriving general
principles . " -Theodorson and Theodorson

3. " A careful investigation or inquiry speci ally through search of new facts in any branch of knowledge .
" - Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English

4. " Research comprises of defining and redefining problems , formulating hypot hesis or suggested
solutions ; collecting , organizing and evaluating data ; making deductions and reaching conclusions ; and
at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formul ating hypothesis . "

- Clifford Woody

Characteristic of Research

The above definitions reveal the following characteristics of research.

a) Research is a systematic and critical investigation to a phenomenon.

b) It aims at interpreting and explaining a phenomenon.
c) It adopts scientific method.
d) It is based on empirical evidences and observable experience.
e) It develops generalizations, principles or theories.
f) It directed towards finding answer to the questions and solutions to the problems.

Characteristics of Research

1. Reliability
2. Validity

3. Accuracy

4. Credibility

5. Generalization

6. Empirical

7. Systematic

8. Controlled

Reliability:Reliability refers to consistency through out a series of measurements . For e.g .: if a

respondent gives out a response to a particular item , he is expected to give the same response to that
item even if he is asked repeatedly . If he is changing his response to the same item , the consistency will
be lost .Or it can be defined as , the repeatability of any research , research instrument , tool or
procedure . If any research yields similar results each time it is undertaken with similar population and
with similar procedures , it is called to be a reliable research .

Suppose a research is conducted on the effects of single parenting on the class performance of the
children . If the results conclude that it causes low grades in class , these results should have to be
reliable for another sample taken from a similar population . More the results are similar ; more
reliability is present in the research .

Validity :Validity determines the applicability of the research . Validity of the research instrument can be
defined as the suitability of the research instrument to the research problem or how accurately the
instrument measures the problem .Any measuring device or instrument is said to be valid when it
measures what it is expected to measure .

For e.g .: an intelligence test conducted for measuring the I.Q should measure only the intelligence and
nothing else . Some researchers say that validity and reliability are co related , but the validity is much
more important than reliability . Without validity , research goes in the wrong direction . ARKOWE

Accuracy:Accuracy is also the degree to which each research process , instrument , and tool is related to
each other . Accuracy also measures whether research tools have been selected in best possible manner
and research procedures suits the research problem or not . For example if a research has to be
conducted on the trans - gender people , several data collection tools can be used depending on the
research problems . If you find that population less cooperative the best way is to observe them rather
than submitting questionnaire because in questionnaire either they will give biased responses or they
will not return the questionnaires at all . So choosing the best data collection tool improves the accuracy
of research .

Credibility : Credibility comes with the use of the best source of information and best procedures in
research . If you are using second - hand information in your research due to any reason your research
might complete in less time but its credibility will be at stake because secondary data has been
manipulated by human beings and is therefore not very valid to use in research .
A certain percentage of secondary data can be used if the primary source is not available but basing a
research completely on secondary data when primary data can be gathered is least credible . When
researcher gives accurate references in the research the credibility of the research increases but fake
references also decrease the credibility of the research .

Generalization: Generalization is the extent to which a research findings can be applied to larger
population . When a researcher conducts a study he / she chooses a target population and from this
population he takes a small sample to conduct the research . This sample is representative of the whole
population so the findings should also be .If research findings can be applied to any sample from the
population , the results of the research are said to be generalizable .

Empirical :Empirical means any conclusion drawn are based upon hard evidences gathered from
information collected from real life experiences or observations .

Systematic :Systematic approach is the only approach to carry on a research . No research can be
conducted haphazardly . Each step must follow other . There are set of procedures that have been
tested over a period of time and are thus suitable to use in research . Each research , therefore , should
follow a procedure .

Controlled: The concept of control implies that , in explaining causality in relation to two variables , you
set up a research in such a way that minimizes the effect of other factors affecting the relationship . M

Purpose / Aims / Objectives of Research

1. To find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been discovered so far.
2. Aims at advancing systematic knowledge and formulating basic theories about the forces
influencing the relation between groups as well as those acting on personality development and
is adjustment with individuals.
3. Try to improve tools of analysis or to test these against the complex human behaviour and
institutions.
4. To understand social life and thereby to gain a greater measure of control over social behaviour.
5. To provide an educational program in the accumulated knowledge of group dynamics, in Skills of
research, in techniques of training leaders and in social action.

Purpose of Research

The purposes or objectives of research are varied. They are,

Research extends knowledge of human beings social life and environment.

Research reveals the mysteries of nature.

Research establishes generalizations and general laws and contributes to theory building in various
Fields of knowledge
BUSINESS RESEARCH: MEANING AND OBJECTIVE
Meaning of Business Research:

Business research may be defined as research activities carried out relating to the different
functionaries in the business and corporate world. Business research is a process of acquiring
detailed information of all the areas of business and using such information in maximizing the
sales and profit of the business. Such a study helps companies determine which product/service
is most profitable or in demand. The definition of business research involves acquiring
information and knowledge for professional or commercial purposes such as determining
opportunities and goals for a business. An example of business research is gathering sales
information and writing a detailed report on marketing and sales.

Business research is a systematic inquiry that provides information to guide managerial decisions.
In other words, it is a process of planning, acquiring, analyzing, and disseminating relevant data,
information, and insights to decision makers in ways that mobilize the organization to take
appropriate actions that, in turn, maximize performance.

This entire process by which we attempt to solve problems is called research. Thus, research
involves a series of well-thought-out and carefully executed activities that will enable the
manager to know how organizational problems can be solved, or at least considerably
minimized. Business research is an organized, systematic, data-based, critical, objective, scientific
inquiry or investigation into a specific problem, undertaken with the purpose of finding answers
or solutions to it. Fundamentally, research provides the needed information that guides managers
to make informed decisions to successfully deal with problems.

When you run a business, there are several things you can research on. You research everything
from market shares to sales. Business research helps you make intelligent and informed decisions
and identify the key areas to invest your money in.

For example, an automobile company plans to unveil the latest car model in the market. For that,
they need to develop strategies to explore and monitor customer demand. So, the company will
conduct research to collect information and analyze market trends. This will help them draw better
conclusions and come up with a fine quality car at the right price resulting in a larger market share.

In business, research is usually primarily conducted to resolve problematic issues in the areas of
accounting, finance, management, and marketing. In Accounting, budget control systems,
practices, and procedures are frequently examined. Inventory costing methods, accelerated
depreciation, time-series behavior of quarterly earnings, transfer pricing, cash recovery rates,
and taxation methods are some of the other areas that are researched. In Finance, the
operations of financial institutions, optimum financial ratios, mergers and acquisitions, leveraged
buyouts, inter corporate financing, yields on mortgages, the behavior of the stock exchange, etc
become the focus of investigation. In Management research may cover the study of employee
attitudes and behaviors, human resources management, the impact of changing demographics on
management practices, production operations management, strategy formulation, information
systems, etc. In Marketing research may address issues relating to product image, advertising,
sales pro- motion, distribution, packaging, pricing, after-sales service, consumer preferences,
new product development, and other marketing aspects.

Objective of Business Research:

The ultimate aim of research is to find (search) answer to questions by applying a scientific research
process. Although, there are different research objectives for different research studies, some general
objectives may be mentioned hereunder:

1.To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (exploratory or formulative
research studies)

2.To describe accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group. (descriptive
research)

3.To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with something
else. (studies with this object known as diagnostic research)

4.To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables. (such studies are known as hypothesis
testing research)
TYPES OF RESEARCH

The essential types of research are as follows:

1.Basic Research:

•It is also known as pure or fundamental research.

•This research is mainly conducted to increase knowledge base. It is driven purely by interest and a desire
to expand our knowledge.

•This type of research tends not to be directly applicable to the real world in a direct way, but enhances
our understanding of the world around us.

•Pure research can be exploratory, descriptive or explanatory.

•Basic research generates new ideas, principles and theories indifferent fields.
•Basic research concentrates on fundamental principles and testing theories.

•It is sometimes implicitly said that basic research doesn’t have practical applications. For example,
someone conducting basic research on cheating behavior may design a study examining whether students
from illiterate families cheat more often than students from literate families.

•Notice that the research is not done to reduce cheating or help people who cheat or any other “applied”
aspect, but to increase the understanding of cheating behavior.

2.Applied Research:

•Applied research is mainly related with solving practical problems rather than focusing on knowledge
expansion.

•It is mainly used to find solutions to problems which occur on a daily basis and develop new innovative
technologies.

•The main aim of applied research is to provide better technologies for humans to enhance their standard
of living.

•Example: Investigating which treatment approach is the most effective for treating cancer patients
whereas researching which strategies work best to motivate workers.

3.Quantitative Research:

•Quantitative research is generally related with the positivist concept.

•It usually involves collecting and converting data into numerical form so that statistical calculations can
be made and conclusions drawn.

•Objectivity is very vital in quantitative research.

•Therefore, researchers try to avoid their own presence, behavior or attitude affecting the results (e.g.,
by changing the circumstances being studied or causing participants to behave differently).

•They also examine their methods and results for any possible bias.

•The aim of quantitative research is to develop mathematical models, theories related to phenomenon.
Quantitative research is mainly used in social sciences.

4.Qualitative Research:

•Qualitative research is the approach usually related with the social constructivist concept which
emphasizes the socially constructed nature of reality.
•It is about recording, analyzing and attempting to reveal the in debt meaning and significance of human
behavior and experience, including conflicting beliefs, behaviors and emotions.

•The qualitative method tries to answer why and how of decision-making rather than what and when.

•The approach to data collection and analysis is logical but allows for greater flexibility than in quantitative
research.

•Data is collected in textual form on the basis of observation and communication with the participants,
e.g. through participant observation, in-depth interviews and focus groups.

•It is not converted into numerical form and is not statistically analyzed.

5.Descriptive Research:

•Descriptive research is used to describe characteristics of an observable fact being studied.

•Descriptive studies are structured in such a way that it cannot be changed frequently, so it can be said
that they are rigid in nature.

•They cannot identify cause and effect relationship between variables.

•Descriptive research answers questions such as who, when, where, what and how.

•This type of research describes what exists and may help to reveal new facts and meaning.

•The purpose of descriptive research is to observe, describe and document.

6.Exploratory Research:

•Exploratory research is carried out for a problem that has not been clearly defined.

•The main aim of this research is to gather initial information which helps to define problems and
recommend hypothesis.

•Exploratory research helps to settle on the best research design, data collection method and selection
of subjects.

•Exploratory research often relies on secondary research such as reviewing available literature, or
qualitative approaches such as informal discussions with consumers, employees, management or
competitors, and more formal approaches through indepth interviews, focus groups, projective methods,
case studies or pilot studies.

•Exploratory research can mainly be conducted when researchers lack clear idea of the problem.
•The results of exploratory research are not generally useful for decision-making, but they can provide
major insight into a given situation.

7.Historical Research:

•It is defined as the type of research that examines past events or combinations of events to arrive at an
account of what has happened in the past.

•Historical research is carried out to discover the unknown; answer questions, recognize the relationship
that the past has to the present; record and assess activities of individuals, agencies, or institutions; and
assist in understanding the culture in which we live.

•Historical research can exhibit patterns that occurred in the past and over time which can facilitate us to
see where we came from and what kinds of solutions we have used in the past.

•We usually will notice that what we do today is expressly rooted in the past. Historical research involves
the process of collecting and reading the research material collected, and writing the document from the
data collected.

8.Experimental Research:

•It is commonly used in sciences such as sociology and psychology, physics, chemistry, biology, medicine,
etc.

•It is a collection of research designs which use manipulation and controlled testing to understand
fundamental processes.

•Usually, one or more variables are manipulated to establish their effect on a dependent variable.

•Experimental Research is mainly used when: there is time priority in a causal relationship (cause
precedes effect) or there is uniformity in a causal relationship (a cause will always lead to the same effect)
or the magnitude of the correlation is great.

•Experimental research is important to society as it helps us to improve our daily lives.

(Note: Researchers use various research methods to collect relevant data so that business enterprises
can make wiser decisions. There are two main types of methods to carry out business research.

9 Quantitative Business Research

It is a method of analyzing the largest group that meets your target goals. It uses mathematical techniques
and data to explain the important stats about your business and market. Usually, this data uses multiple-
choice questionnaires that can help you be profitable with your sales. For instance, quantitative research
can answer questions such as;
•Are your customers aware of the services or products you offer?

•How many people are interested in buying your products or services?

•Who are your best customers and what are their buying habits?

•How long the visitor stays on your website, and which is their exit page?

The result of quantitative business research is in the numerical form, such as;

•40% of customers rate the new product as “attractive”

•70% of prospective customers use the Internet to book their hotel room

•6 out of 10 customers will buy a new food product after trying the free in-store sample The quantitative
research methods include various surveys such as postal, telephone, online, and face-to-face.

10. Qualitative Business Research

This business research focuses on attitudes, intentions, and beliefs. Qualitative research includes
questions such as “Why”? or “How?”.

The aim of this research is to gain insights into customers’ distinct behaviors and response to a new
product. This research is beneficial for your new products and marketing initiatives to test reactions and
rectify your approach.

You can collect qualitative data using common methods such as case studies, focus groups, and interviews.
This data is often valuable but can be time-consuming and expensive to collect, especially for a small
business or a startup.)

IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH IN BUSINESS DECISION MAKING

Business research helps businesses understand their customers’ buying patterns, preferences and pain
points, gain deeper insights into the contenders, current market trends, and demographics. Using
effective strategies to understand the demand and supply of the market, businesses can always stay
ahead of the competition. Using business research, they can reduce costs and design solutions that aim
at the market demand and their target audience.

In business chances of failures are less with business research as it gives an idea of the target customers
and the perfect time to launch a product. In addition, with a deep understanding of brand value,
businesses can constantly innovate to meet customer requirements. This is essential to grow market share
and revenue. The SWOT analysis in business research is crucial to make an informed decision and making
the business a huge success.
Research is the building block of any business. It acts as a catalyst to thrive in the market. So, never
underestimate the value of market research and leverage its benefits to give an extra edge to your
business.

Besides the above the following are the importance of Business Research:

1.A research problem refers to a complexity which a researcher or a scientific community or an industry
or a government organization or a society experiences. It may be a theoretical or a practical situation. It
calls for a systematic understanding and possible solution.

2.Research on existing theories and concepts help us recognize their range and applications.

3.It is the bank of knowledge and provides strategy for solving problems.

4.It is important in industry and business for higher profits, output, efficiency and to improve the quality
of products.

5.Mathematical and logical research on business and industry reduces the problems in them.

6.It leads to the identification and categorization of new materials, new living things, new stars, etc.

7.Inventions can be done through research 8. Social research helps find answers to social problems. They
explain social phenomena and try to find solution to social problems.

Significance of Research

“ Increased amount of research makes progress possible . “ In context of the above statement ,
significance of research can be well understood with the help of following points :

1. Research inculcates scientific and inductive thinking hence it promotes the habit of logical thinking , in
the organization .

2. The role of research has increased tremendously in several fields of applied economics .

3. It provides the basis for mostly all government policies in our economic system .

4. Research is also important for sociologists in studying social relationships and while discovering
answers to social problems .

5. Research can be chosen as a career by those students who are to write a master’s or Ph.D. thesis . 6.
Research as a profession has been developed a lot and provide a source of livelihood to many .

7. Research is helpful in development of new styles and creative work .

 From the above mentioned points , it can be concluded that a research helps a business to make sound
strategic decisions . It also helps in solving various operational and planning problems of business and
industry . This can be better understood with the help of some examples such as , a business by doing
market and demand analysis ( studying market and demand factors ) can adjust its supply schedule within
the limits of its projected capacity and accordingly can increase or decrease its - production capacity in
future .

The other example which stands good for conducting research for a business is the research study of its
sales . After doing sales forecasting , with the help of purchasing and financial plans an efficient production
and investment programme can be set up by the business . The sales estimates thus obtained ultimately
result in business budgeting i.e. the projected profit or loss .

Another important example for a business to conduct research which helps it to take certain decisions is
of knowing the level of customer satisfaction . This research study is most efficiently carried out by the
banks . The banks conduct these mainly focusing on certain areas such as , the work efficiency of the bank
, the customer care services and also the value added services It provides . By knowing about these points
, the bank can improve or make its customer care services and its work efficiency more effective .

Thus , it can be said that research acts as an important source of providing guidelines for solving different
business problems and enables one to understand the new developments in his field in a better way .

Need For Research (Importance of Research)

The main importance of research is to produce knowledge that can be applied outside a research
setting. Research also forms the foundation of program development and policies everywhere around
the universe. It also solves particular existing problems of concern. Research is important because we
are able to learn more about things, people, and events. In doing research, we are able to make smart
decisions.

Marketing research is important because it allows consumers and producers to become more familiar
with the products, goods, and services around them. Research is important to society because it allows
us to discover more and more that might make are lives easier, more comfortable, and safer. It presents
more information for investigation. This allows for improvements based on greater information and
study. It is very important. Research encourages interdisciplinary approaches to find solution to
problems and to make new discoveries. Research is a basic ingredient for development and therefore
serves as a means for rapid economic development.

The main Importance or uses may be listed as under:

• It provides basis for government policies

• Helps in solving various operational and planning problems of business and industry
• Research helps in problem solving
 • Is useful to students, professionals, philosophers, literary men, analysts and intellectuals.

Criteria of good research

Whatever may be the types of research works and studies, one thing that is important is that they all
meet on the common ground of scientific method employed by them. One expects scientific research to
satisfy the following criteria:

1. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used.
2. The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another
researcher to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of what has
already been attained.
3. The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that areas
objective as possible
4. The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design andestimate
their effects upon the findings.
5. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and themethods of
analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the data should be checked
carefully.
6. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limited to
those for which the data provide an adequate basis.

7.Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good

reputation in research and is a person of integrity.

CRITERIA OF GOOD RESEARCH –

-THE PURPOSE OF THE RESEARC SHOULD BE CLEARLY DEFINED

-THE RESEARCH PROCEDURE USED SHOULD BE DESCRIBED IN SUFFICIENT DETAIL SO THE OTHER
RESEARCH COULD TAKE GUIDANCE AND USE IT FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

- THE PROCEDURAL DESIGN OF THE RESEARCH SHOULD BE CAREFULLY PLANNED

- THE VALIDITY AND RELIABILTY SHOULD BE CHECKED CAREFULLY

-THE ANALYSIS OF THE DATA SHOULD BE SUFFICIENTLY ADEQUATE TO REVEAL ITS SIGNIFICANCE AND –

-CONCLUSION SHOULD BE ON THE BASIS OF DATA ANALYSIS

-SHOULD ALSO DESCRIBE THE LIMITATION OF THE STUDY

-RESEARCH SHOULD BE DONE IN STRUCTURED AND SYSTEMATIC MANNER

- RESEARCH IS GUIDED BY THE RULE OF LOGICAL REASONING AND LOGICAL PROCESS OF INDUCTION
AND DEDUCTION

- GOOD RESEARCH IS EMPIRICAL : RELATED BASICALLY TO REAL SITUATION

- GOOD RESEARCH IS REPLICABLE : VERIFIED BY REPLICATING THE STUDY AND BUILDING A SOUND BASIS
FOR DECISIONS
Limitations of Research

• Conclusions in research are based upon data collected. Therefore when the data collected are
not valid or adequate, the conclusion will not be conclusive or appropriate.
• Research results in theory
• Activities in a society are influenced by various internal and external factors
• Small organizations cannot afford to have research on various issues
• Many people in society depend on customs, traditions, routines and practices for taking
decision; instead of going for research.
• Research is usually based on sample studies. But in many cases samples are not true
representatives. Therefore the research reports based on these samples may not be accurate.

ETHICS IN BUSINESS RESEARCH

Ethics in business research refers to a code of conduct or expected societal norm of behavior while
conducting research. Ethical conduct applies to the organization and the members that sponsor the
research, the researchers who undertake the research, and the respondents who provide them with
the necessary data. The observance of ethics begins with the person instituting the research, who
should do so in good faith, pay attention to what the results indicate, and surrendering the ego,
pursue organizational rather than self-interests. Ethical conduct should also be reflected in the behavior
of the researchers who conduct the investigation, the participants who provide the data, the analysts
who provide the results, and the entire research team that presents the interpretation of the results
and suggests alternative solutions.

Thus, ethical behavior pervades each step of the research process—data collection, data analysis,
reporting, and dissemination of information on the Internet, if such an activity is undertaken. How the
subjects are treated and how confidential information is safeguarded are all guided by business ethics.
The American Psychological Association has established certain guidelines for conducting research, to
ensure that organizational research is conducted in an ethical manner and the interests of all concerned
are safeguarded.

As in other aspects of business, all parties in research should exhibit ethical behavior. Ethics are norms or
standards of behavior that guide moral choices about our behavior and our relationships with others. The
goal of ethics in research is to ensure that no one is harmed or suffers adverse consequences from
research activities. This objective is usually achieved. However, unethical activities are pervasive and
include violating nondisclosure agreements, breaking participant confidentiality, misrepresenting results,
deceiving people, using invoicing irregularities, avoiding legal liability, and more.
The recognition of ethics as a problem for economic organizations is repeatedly revealed in surveys.
Despite an increase in awareness of formal ethics programs and the presence of written ethical codes of
conduct there is a reporting of ethical misconduct. There is no single approach to ethics. Advocating strict
adherence to a set of laws is difficult because of the unforeseen constraint put on researchers.
Alternatively, relying on each individual’s personal sense of morality is equally problematic.

Consider the clash between those who believe death is deliverance from a life of suffering and those who
value life to the point of preserving it in definitely through mechanical means. Each value system claims
superior knowledge of moral correctness. Clearly, a middle ground between being completely code
governed or relying on ethical relativism is necessary. The foundation for that middle ground is an
emerging consensus on ethical standards for researchers. Codes and regulations guide researchers and
sponsors. Review boards and peer groups help researchers examine their research proposals for ethical
dilemmas.

Many design-based ethical problems can be eliminated by careful planning and constant vigilance. In the
end, responsible research anticipates ethical dilemmas and attempts to adjust the design, procedures,
and protocols during the planning process rather than treating them as an afterthought. Ethical research
requires personal integrity from the researcher, the project manager, and the research sponsor. Integrity
in research is vital.

RESEARCH ETHICS

Ethics are the principles and guidelines that help us to uphold the things we value . Ethics and law are
different aspects , although laws of the land are intended to be based on certain ethics . Almost all
societies have legal rules to govern certain behaviour in a country or society , but ethical norms tend to
be broader and more informal than laws . An action may be legal but unethical or illegal but ethical . Ethics
aim to achieve two fundamental objectives , i.e. , to tell us how we ought to act in a given situation and
to provide us with strong rea sons for doing so .

Ethics always emerge from conflict between values , and research ethics are not an exception . In research
, these conflicts may take different forms , such as participant’s concern for privacy versus some
justification for manipulation , openness and replication versus confidentiality , present loss versus future
benefits and so on . Each decision made in research involves a potential compromise of one value for
another . However , still researchers must try to minimize the risk to participants , colleagues and society
while trying to optimize the quality of outcome . Research ethics help us to reconcile value conflicts .

The benefits of observing ethics in research studies are as follows :

1. It helps in promoting the aims of research , such as bringing out the truth and avoidance of errors .

2. It promotes the values that are essential to collaborative work , such as trust , accountability , mutual
respect and fairness .
3. It holds the researcher accountable to the public and society .

4. It helps in building public support for research , which in return can help in getting participants who
take part in the research willingly.

Some Desirable Elements to Ensure Ethics in Research

The following is a general summary of some research ethical guidelines and principals that various codes
address .

1. Honesty in reporting data , results , methods and procedures and publication status .

2. Objectivity to avoid bias in experimental design , data analysis , interpretation and peer review .

3. Integrity , acting with sincerity , striving for consistency of thought and action .

4. Carefulness to avoid careless errors and negligence and proper documentation of all aspects .

5. Openness in sharing data , results , ideas , tools , resources and openness to criticisms and new ideas .
6. Respect for intellectual property rights , such as patents , copyrights and other forms of intellectual
property .

7. Confidentiality in context of communications , personal records and privacy issues .

8. Responsible publication with an aim to serve the society . Avoiding wasteful and duplicative publication
9. Responsible mentoring in terms of guiding research students .

10. Respect for colleagues translates to extending fair treatment to the colleagues .

11. Social responsibility means to serve the society and different stakeholders .

12. Non - discrimination against colleagues or students on the basis of sex , race or factors that are not
related to their scientific competence and integrity .

13. Enhancing competence for own professional advancement or lifelong learning and taking steps to
promote competence in science as a whole .

14. Ensuring legality of the whole process by obeying relevant laws , i.e. , institutional and governmental
policies .

15. Animal care through proper experimental designs .

Ethical Issues Relating to Participants

There are many ethical issues in relation to participants of a research activity . One of the most commonly
cited ethical principles is that we should not cause harm to our research participants . The issue of ethics
in research mainly caught the attention of policy makers as a result of many gruesome instances , few
which have been mentioned below .

1. Medical experiments conducted by Nazi doctors in German concentration camps in 1930s . Nazi do tors
in German concentration camps killed twis gypsy teenagers in order to determine why some of them had
differently coloured eyes while conducting experiments .

2. A South African oncologist experimented with women suffering from cancer to excessive do ages of
chemotherapeutics without informing the patients and taking their due consents ,

3. Ethical issues during organ transplant , sterilization and so on .

4. Experiments on animals . In research , specifically in medical sciences , the obser vance of ethics is very
crucial . Even now , when pharmaceutical companies want to conduct clinical trials in underdeveloped or
developing countries , this issue crops up again and again . It is a general understanding that ethical
research issues are more moral than legal . Apart from physical injury , the psychological dis tress or
emotional harm , loss of self - esteem , being persuaded to conduct morally reprehensible acts and
hampering one's physical , intellectual or emotional development are other important concerns . We must
also be careful about the security of our research records , so that respondents may not be identified or
otherwise harmed through loss of confidentiality . During the initial phase of medical research his tory ,
people participating in trials were referred to as research subjects . Now , they are known as trial partici
pants . Now , their role has transformed from a passive subject to that of an active participant . Thus , we
can see that research ethics are basically about means of ensuring that vulnerable people are protected
from exploitation and other forms of harm .

The ethical issues are to be observed at every stage of a research process .

1. Collecting information : Before a researcher actually collects information , his request for information
may put pressure or create anxiety on a respondent and it may not be ethical , but with out research ,
there will be no intellectual progress or development in the society . A researcher is required to improve
the conditions by considering various points in the ensuing discussion .

2. Seeking consent of participants : Informed con sent refers to an individual's willingness to participate
in a study . Individuals who provide informed consent have been made aware of the design and
prosedures with enough detail to exercise a ratio pal decision to participate . & Providing incentives : Most
people do not participate in a study because of incentives , but they are motivated because of the
importance of the study . Giving a gift before data collection is not ethical on the part of a researcher .

4 Seeking sensitive information : Some pieces of information can be regarded as sensitive or confidential
by some people . This may be akin to invading their privacy Seeking such kind of information may make
them upset . Questions on income , age , marital status , etc. , may be considered as intrusive . However
, it may not be unethical to enquire if the participants be explained before the research and give them
sufficient time to decide if they want to participate without any major inducement ,

5. Possibility of causing harm to the participants : When you collect data from the respondents or involve
subjects in an experiment , you need to examine carefully whether their involvement is likely to harm
them in any way . Harm may include use of chemicals , drugs , discomfort , anxiety , harassment , invasion
of privacy or demeaning or dehumanizing procedures . Even after the con sent , the researcher must make
sure that the risk is minimal .

6. Maintaining confidentiality : In case , the researcher has to identify the respondent as information
needs to be sought more than once , sharing information about a respondent with others for purposes
other than research is not ethical and at least the information provided by the respondent should be kept
anonymous .

Ethical Issues Relating to the Researcher

1. Avoiding bias : Objectivity in research means to avoid bias in the research process as it is consid ered
unethical . Bias means deliberate attempt to either hide facts or to under represent or over rep resent
them . It may undermine the truth .

2. Provision or deprivation of a treatment : This is specifically true in case of medical research . Is it ethical
to provide to a study population with an intervention or treatment that has not yet been conclusively
proven effective ? Thus , it imposes an ethical dilemma before researchers . Informed con sent , minimum
risk and frank discussion can help to resolve the ethical issues .

3. Using inappropriate research methodology : The deliberate use of a highly biased sample , method or
procedure is unethical .

4. Incorrect reporting : This can be done to advance the interests of the researcher .

5. Inappropriate use of the information : Some times , it is possible to harm individuals in the process of
achieving benefits for the organization . An example would be a study to help in the formulation of a
policy by the organization . New policy may not serve the interests of certain individuals but may be
good for the organization as such . Should you ask respondents for information that is likely to be used
against them ?

Some of the key terms used in the context of ethical issues concerning researchers are as follows :

1. Fabricating behaviour : Creation of spurious data by researcher , their recording and drawing
inferences .

2. Falsification : It manipulates the research material , equipment and processes or changes or omits
data or results such that the research is not accurately represented in the research records .

3. Plagiarism : It is the act of appropriating some body else's ideas , thoughts , pictures , theories , words
or stories as your own . If a researcher plagiarizes the work of others , the integrity , ethics and
trustworthiness of the sum total of his or her research becomes questionable . Plagiarism is both an
illegal and punishable act and is considered to be on the same level as stealing from the author who
originally created it . It can take the following forms . ( a ) Intra - corpal : A case of plagiarism where one
student has copied from another in the same submission is known as intra - corpal plagiarism . ( b ) Extra
- corpal : It is an instance of plagiarism where a student has copied the material from an external source
( Example : Books , journal article , world wide web , etc. ) . ( c ) Autoplagiarism : It is citing one's own
work without acknowledgement .

4. Multiple authorship : There can be many improprieties in authorship . Improper assignment of credit ,
such as excluding other authors , inclusion of other as authors who have not made a definite
contribution towards the work published or sub mission of multi - authored publication without the
knowledge of all the authors .

5. Peer review : It is the process in which an author submits a written manuscript or an article to a
journal for publication . The journal editor distributes the article to experts or reviewers . The peer
review process seldom proceeds in a straight line . The entire process may involve several rounds of
communication between the editor , the reviewers and the original author before an article is ready for
publication . The two most important ethics in the process are maintaining confidentiality and
protection of intellectual property . Reviewers and author should not know the names of each other .
Only then , the peer review process can be genuinely open and beneficial . None in the process can
publicly disclose the information in the article or use the information in a submitted article for personal
gain .

6. Duplicate and partial publication : It is publishing the same data and same results in more than one
publication or journal . This is unethical but may be acceptable in certain cases , such as publishing
results in a journal to provide research participants with a summary of the results . Partial publication
involves publishing parts of your results in different journals . It is specifically unethical for a small ,
focused study . However , in case of large studies with many variables , this may be acceptable as
different publications involve different research questions and different data and it actually advances
the interest of the study .

Important Measures to Make Research More Ethical

1. Informed consent : The provision of informed con sent also includes the knowledge that the informed
participation is voluntary and that participants can withdraw from the study at any time .

2. Protective research design : This involves estimating the probability of happening of harmful effects ,
their severity and the likely duration of these effects .

3. Screening : It is an attempt to select only those individuals for study who show a high tolerance for
potential risks .

4. Pilot studies : When the potential harms are uncertain , a useful precaution involves a pilot study with
follow - up diagnostic interviews to assess the effects and request advice from the participants .

5. Outside proposal review : Requesting others to review research proposals is a helpful precaution in
minimizing risks .
6. Professional codes : Two features of professional codes are important for discussion . Firstly ,
professional codes have been developed inductively from the wide research experiences of
professionals . Secondly , professional codes place strong emphasis on researchers ' responsibility for
their research .

7. Government regulations : Government regulations such as state and central laws are designed to
protect or advance the interests of society and its individuals . Thus , the researchers are required to
take certain precautions .