第6章-Physical Basis of Yield Stress-F

The physical basis of yield stress
Fuhao MO
Email: [email protected]
Tel: 186 8495 1007
1. Strength of a crystal
The strength of a perfect crystal
The force F vs the distance r
of the atoms:
The maximum force appears

at 1.25r0 separation.
1.25r0
If the stress applied to the material exceeds this maximum force per
bond, fracture is bound to occur.----------Ideal strength
2
Ideal strength
More refined estimates

for idea strength using
real interatomic
potentials is E/15.
3
෥
𝝈 𝟏 𝟏
=
𝑬 𝟏𝟓 𝟏𝟓
1) Metals have yield strengths

far below the levels predicted by
our calculation—as much as a
factor of 105 less.
2) Most polymers have yield

strength close to upper limit.
Why?
4
2. Dislocations in crystals
In Chapter 5, many engineering materials (e.g., metals) are made up of
crystals. A perfect crystal was an assembly of atoms packed together
in a regularly repeating pattern.
But crystals are not perfect.
Edge dislocation
The dislocation is a particular type of defect that has the effect of allowing
materials to yield at stress levels much less than ideal strength. 5
How an edge dislocation moves through a crystal.
“Carpet-ruck” analogy
6
A screw dislocation
Any dislocation, in a real crystal, is either

a screw or an edge------ or can be thought
of as little steps of each.
7
An electron microscope picture of dislocation lines in stainless steel.
The picture was taken by firing

electrons through a very thin slice of
steel about 100 nm thick.
The dislocation lines here are only

about 1000 atom diameters long
because they have been “chopped off”
where they meet the top and bottom
surfaces of the thin slice.
A sugar-cube-sized piece of any engineering alloy contains about 105
km of dislocation line. 8
3. Force on a dislocation
The force acting on a dislocation
A shear stress (t) exerts a force on a dislocation, pushing it through the
crystal.
For yielding to take place,
this force must be great
enough to overcome the
resistance to the motion of
the dislocation.
The resistance is due to

intrinsic friction opposing
dislocation motion, plus
other contributions.
b, the relative displacement of the upper part to the lower part;

f, a intrinsic resistance per unit length. 9
4. Strengthening mechanism
For yielding in crystals,
a. Crystals contain dislocations.
b. A shear stress 𝝉, applied to the slip plane of a dislocation, exerts a

force 𝝉𝒃 per unit length of the dislocation trying to push it forward.
c. When dislocations move, the crystal deforms plastically (yields).
we examine ways of increasing the resistance to motion of a

dislocation— which determines the dislocation yield strength of a
single isolated crystal of a metal or ceramic.
10
4. Strengthening mechanism
How to increase the resistance to motion of a dislocation?
Most crystals have a certain intrinsic strength, caused by the bonds

between the atoms which have to be broken and reformed as the
dislocation moves.
Covalent bonding gives a very large intrinsic lattice resistance.
This causes the enormous strength and hardness of diamond, and the
carbides, oxides, nitrides and silicates.
------Used for abrasives and cutting tools.
Pure metals are very soft due to low lattice resistance.
Then it is useful to increase f by solid solution strengthening, by

precipitate or dispersion strengthening, or by work-hardening, or by
any combination of the three.
11
5. Solid solution hardening
Adding of zinc (Zn) to copper (Cu) to make the alloy called brass.
The zinc atoms replace copper atoms to form a random substitutional
solid solution.
These stresses “roughen” the slip plane,

making it harder for dislocations to move.
Single-phase brass, bronze, and

stainless steels, as well as many
other metallic alloys, derive their
strength in this way.
12
6. Precipitate and dispersion
Precipitate and dispersion strengthening
An impurity is dissolved in a metal or ceramic at a high temperature,
and the alloy is cooled to room temperature, the impurity may
precipitate as small particles.
Most steels are strengthened by precipitates of carbides.
Small particles can be introduced into metals or ceramics in other

ways.
The most obvious is to mix a dispersoid (such as an oxide) into a

powdered metal (aluminum and lead are both treated in this way),
and then compact and sinter the mixed powders.
13
Either approach distributes small, hard particles in the path of a
moving dislocation.
The stress 𝝉 has to push the dislocation
between the obstacles.
14
The critical configuration is the semicircular one: here the force 𝝉𝒃𝑳 on
one segment is just balanced by the force 2T due to the line tension,
acting on either side of the bulge.
The dislocation escapes (and yielding occurs) when
Critical situation
15
7. Work-hardening
Work hardening, also known as strain hardening or cold working, is the
strengthening of a metal by plastic deformation.
This strengthening occurs because of dislocation movements and

dislocation generation within the crystal structure of the material.
Collision of dislocations leads to work-hardening.
16
7. Work-hardening
Work (strain) hardening is a phenomenon which results in an increase
in hardness and strength of a metal subject to plastic deformation (cold
working) at temperatures lower than the recrystallization range.
1) Load to A point,
2) Unload following AB,
3) Reload via another

path.
Working(strain) hardening
17
8. Dislocation yield strength
The dislocation yield strength
It is adequate to assume that the strengthening methods contribute in
an additive way to the strength.
Then
we have calculated the yield strength of an isolated crystal in shear.

The yield strength of a polycrystalline aggregate in tension?
18
9. Onset of yielding
The onset of yielding and the shear strength
A tensile stress applied to a piece of material
will create a shear stress at an angle to the
tensile stress.
The shear stress is
19
The largest shear stress at 45°

20
Each crystal slips on the nearest lattice plane to 45°
On a microscopic scale, a polycrystal slips occurs

on a zigzig path but the average slip path is at 45
degrees to the tensile axis.
The shear stress on this plane is
We define this as the shear yield

strength:
21
10. Hardness test analysis
For hardness test,
22
As we press a flat indenter into the material, shear takes place on the
45°planes of maximum shear stress, at a value of shear stress equal
to k.
The plastic flow of material under a hardness indenter. 23

Simplify
The plastic flow of material under a hardness indenter. 24

11. Plastic instability
Plastic instability: necking in tensile loading
The formation of a neck in a bar of material that is being deformed
plastically.
The critical condition for the
start of necking is that
Volume is conserved
during plastic flow, so
25
This is the point of necking with
The rate of work-

hardening decrease
further.
The neck grows faster
and faster, until final
fracture takes place
26
Plastic is very important in processes like deep drawing sheet metal to
form car bodies, cans, and so on.
Mild steel Aluminum alloy
Flow a great deal Draw a little before

before necking starts. necking starts.
27
For polythene, at quite low stress
A stable neck
Due to the lining up of the polymer
chains in the neck along the
direction of the neck.
28
Mild steel sometimes show both stable and unstable necks.
Like annealed steel.
29
谢谢！
Thank you！
Fuhao MO
Email：[email protected]
Tel: +86 186 8495 1007
Address: College of Vehicle and Mechanical Engineering
410082 Changsha, China
30

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The physical basis of yield stress

The maximum force appears

More refined estimates

1) Metals have yield strengths

2) Most polymers have yield

Any dislocation, in a real crystal, is either

The picture was taken by firing

The dislocation lines here are only

The resistance is due to

b, the relative displacement of the upper part to the lower part;

b. A shear stress 𝝉, applied to the slip plane of a dislocation, exerts a

c. When dislocations move, the crystal deforms plastically (yields).

we examine ways of increasing the resistance to motion of a

Most crystals have a certain intrinsic strength, caused by the bonds

Then it is useful to increase f by solid solution strengthening, by

These stresses “roughen” the slip plane,

Single-phase brass, bronze, and

Most steels are strengthened by precipitates of carbides.

Small particles can be introduced into metals or ceramics in other

The most obvious is to mix a dispersoid (such as an oxide) into a

This strengthening occurs because of dislocation movements and

2) Unload following AB,

3) Reload via another

we have calculated the yield strength of an isolated crystal in shear.

The shear stress is

The largest shear stress at 45°

On a microscopic scale, a polycrystal slips occurs

The shear stress on this plane is

We define this as the shear yield

The plastic flow of material under a hardness indenter. 23

The plastic flow of material under a hardness indenter. 24

The rate of work-

Flow a great deal Draw a little before

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