Maharashtra Public Service Commission Assistant Engineer Examination Civil Engineering Geotechnical Engineering Well Illustrated Theory with Solved Examples and Practice Questions MADE EASY —— PublicationaGeotechnical Engineering Contents UNIT TOPIC PAGE NO. 1. Soll Types of Formation aS 2. Properties of Soll ~ 3. Classification of Sol] == 4, Soll Compaction and Clay Mineralogy 5. Principle of Effective Stress, Capillarity & Permeability 6. SeepageThrough Soils —— 7. Stress Distribution in Soils 8. Compression and Compressibility, 9. Shear Strength of Soil 116-138 10, Stability of slopes ~ 139-148 11, Earth Pressures and Retaining Wall 149-173 12, Shallow Foundations 174-194 3, 195-208 14, 209-218 15. Soillmprovement~ 219-222 9000CHAPTER Properties of Soil 2.1 Introduction Matter may exist in nature in three different states, viz., solid, iquid and gaseous. A soil mass in its natural state may consist of al three phases. The basic ingredient is the solid grains which form the soil skeleton, while the intermittent void spaces are filled up by either air, or water, or both. Thus, a soil mass in its natural state may be considered a three phase system 2.2 Phase Diagram + Soil mass is in general a three phase system composed of solid, liquid and gaseous matter. + The diagrammatic representation of the cifferent phases in a soll massis called the “phase diagram” + AS-phase systemis applicable for partially saturated soll whereas, a 2-phase systemis for saturated and dry states of soil + Onphase diagram volume is written on the lefthand side and weights are written on right hand side. Ar Water vy vl | Water bee fav v w oP v sols sols be. 3-Phase (partially saturated condition) 2-Phase (saturated condition)MADE EASY Geotechnical Engineering Properties of Soil Pablesione Wher = Volume of solids = Volume of water ht Volume of air Total volume v lw W, = Weight of solids a = Weight of water Weight of air W = Total soil woights 2-Phase (Dry condition) Note: There can also be 4-phase diagram of soil when frozen water particles one also there is soil mass. * Various important relations can be defined on the basis of phase diagram. 2.3 Some Important Definitions 1. Water content (w): w= Me x100 * There is no upper limit of water contentie. w>0 * Generally, fine grained soils have higher water content than the coarse grained soil 2. Void ratio (e): V, + There is no upper limit of void ratio ie. 22 0 + Void ratio of fine grained soils greater than coarse grained sell 3. Porosity (n): Porosity can't exceed 100% i.e. 0. << 100% Note: In comparison to porosity, void ratio is more of frequently used because volume of solids remain same whereas total volume changes or volume of solids is more stable parameter than volume of scil 4. Degree of saturation (S): Is = Me 100) © Oss 100%. * for perfectly dry soil, = 0 * for perfectly saturated soil, s = 100%. * for partially saturated soil 0 < s < 100%. + VYAVaYy5. Ait content (a): Civil Engineering 7. Unit weights: (a) Buk unitweight (y) Wher psc Publlestions a,+S=t 6. Percentage air voids (n,): n, = “x10 n=na, WWW, Vai W = Total weight V= Total volume (©) Dry unitweight (y,) (0) Saturated u Dry unit weight is the measure of denseness of soll More dry unit weight means more compacted soil weight (4) (d) Submerged or Buoyant unit weight (7) Specific Gravity NOTE if ata tw ‘Specific gravity of soil solids (G) is the ratio of the weight ofa given volume of solids to the weight of an equivalent volume of water at Apparent or mass specific gravity (G,,) Mass specific gravity is the speci total weight of a given mass of soll to the weight of an equivalent volume of wat fic gravity of the soil mass and is defined as the ratio of the =“ 4] Ww Vw Soil in submerged condition will be in saturated state whereas soil in saturated state need not tobe in submerged state. For example: Soil mass below water table is submerged as well as saturated whereas soil mass in capillary saturated zone is in saturated condition only.MADE EASY Geotechnical Engineering Properties of Soil Assaturated sample of clay has a volume of 0.224 x 10m? and weighs 0.0367 kg. After over drying, the volume is 0.140 x 10~ m, The weight of dry soil is 0.0232 kg. Water content of saturated sample will be (a) 58.18% (b) 80% (0) 45% (d) 26% Ans. (a) ‘As we know that Wa wim 0.0367 0.0232 = 0.01: 0.0882 kg 9.08%. 5.100 = 58.18% 0282 Volume of water in 1 m? of soil is 0.30 m? and the volume of air is 0.50 m®. The degree of saturation will be (a) 40% (b) 37.5% (c) 60% (d) 44.6% Ans. (b) Yoo As we know, Degree of saturation, S = j-*100 V, = 0.30m* V, = Vy+Vy=0.5 +03=0.8m> os hu = 23100 =37.5% Thus, S= 38 What is the dry unit weight of soil when, weight of water is 230 kg in total soil weight of 1950 kg having 1 m of soil mass. (a) 150 kg/m* (b) 1720 kg/m* (6) 1905 kg/m? (4) 1675 kg/m? ‘Ans. (b) ‘As we know that, Yory Yay Gn W, = Wy +e NOTE 7. Specific gravity values are generally reported at 27°C (in India) Fen —_2_ If T°Cis the test temperature then Sp.Gr. at 27°C is given by, Unit Wt. of water at TC. Gene = Sre™ Gait of water al 27°C 3, Itkerosene (better weting agent) is used instead of water then, a W.-W, +07, 4. Gcanalso be determined indirectly by using shrinkage limit @ XK [k= Sp gt of Kerosene] 2.5.3 Methods for the determination of in-situ unit weight 1, Core-Cutter Method * Used in case of non-cohesive soils. * Cannotbe used in case of hard and gravelly sols, * Method consists of driving a core-cutter (Volume = 1000 cc) into the soll and removing it, the cutter filled with soil is weighed, Volume of cutter is known from its dimensions and in situ unit weight is obtained by dividing soil weight by volume of cutter. water content is known in laboratory, the dry unit weight can also be computed. y Ye" TewMADE EASY Geotechnical Engineering PropertesofSoil | 43 Pablesione 2. Sand Replacement Method * Used in case of hard and gravelly soils, + Anole in ground is made. The excavated soil is weighed. The volume of hole is determined by replacing it with sand. Insitu unit weight is obtained by dividing weight of excavated soil | ser EL sana with volume of hole. Ta9— Conical top * This method is adopted in construction of Tray highways. Hole formed by 3. Water Displacement Method Mee * Suitable for cohesive soils only, where itis possible to have lump sample. + Aregular shape, well immed sample is weighed, (W,). Itis coated with paraffin wax & again weighed (W,). The sample is now placed in a metal container filled with water upto the brim. Let the volume of displaced water be V,,. Then volume of uncoated specimen is calculated as, v= ty {tee Yp taking out soil where y, = unit. of paraine wax and bulk unit wt of sity= 2.6 Index properties of soil + Index properties ae those properties which are used for the identification and classiication of sols and determining the engineering behaviour of sol + Index properties include indices which help in determining the engineering behaviour such as (a) Strength —(b) Load bearing capacity —_(¢) Swelling and shrinkage —_(d) Seltlementete Index properties are divided into the types: 1. Soll grain properties * Depends on individual grain size of soil mass. * Most important grain properties are: (a) Grain size distribution: By sieve and sedimentation analysis. () Grain shape: Bulky, flaky shaped etc. 2. Soil aggregate properties * Soil aggregate properties depends on the soil mass. + The various soil aggregate properties are: (a) Unconfined compressive strength (g,). (b) Consistency and atterberg's limits. (c) Sensitivity (d) Thixotropy and soil activity (@) Relative density S.No. | Type of soll Index property 1._| Coarse soil | Partie size, gran, shape, relative density 2_[ Fine soll_| Allorborg’s imi, consistency, UCS, Thistropy, aliiy14 | Civil Engineering psc 2.7. Particle Size Analysis IS classification No Type ofsoil_ | Paice size Remarks 2 [Covbies ®mm- 900m [sand 0075 mm A7S mA (@) Ceara sand 2mm-A7emm | Coors sole (e) Media sand | 0.425 mm -2 mom (©)Fie and | 0.075 mm-0425 mm (@) Ceara sk | 0.02 mm-0076"mm | Fine sls (e)Medum sit | 0.01 mm -002 mn (Fine ait | 0.002 mm-0.01 mm & [Gays [= 0:02 mm Particle size analysis Pate sae anatysia Stove fnayis Sesimenthion ane 1 (forcoarse sas) lo (fotine sis) en Coarse ove of Finebieve of Pinot ethos ycrombior method (Sze> 478mm) (st20 475 mm) Dry process Wet process (oven ies are smal when nes are more) Sieve analysis Grain size distribution curves Poory grade °0 7 Gap wate a) r7 ze Artes 20 20 “0 Particle size (mm) — logarithmic scale Typical Particle size distribution curve Curve (1): Well graded soil-almost all size of particle are available Curve (2): Poorly or uniformly graded (coarse) soll very less range of particle is present which is coarse innature. Cutve (3): Gap graded soil: In this case, some of the particle sizes are missing. (Curve (4): Poorly graded or uniformly graded (fine) soils very less range of particles are present which are fine in nMADE EASY Geotechnical Engineering PropertesofSoil | 45 Pualiestone Note: 1. Ifthe shape of the curve is steep, soll is poorly graded 2. Ifthe slope is inclined it is well graded soll + Dicis that size below which 10% particles are finer than this size by weight. D,, is also called effective size * Djcis called average size. * Dyzand Dyy are the grain dia, (mm) corresponding to 30% fine and 60% fine. # Using D,., Dyy and Do, following shape parameters are defined (@) Coetticient of uniformity (Cu) D, Cu= Deo Dio For well graded sand, Cu>6 ; Forwell graded gravel, Cu>4 ; For poorly graded soll, Cu= 1 (©) Coetticient of curvature (Ce): For well graded soil, 1 C, (6) Conceptto of Percentage finer’ Weight of solrtainedin that sieve , 4 % retained on a particular sieve Total weight of soi taken Cumulative retained = Sum of % retained on al the sieves of largor size and % retained on that sieve % finer = 100 ~ Cumulative % retained 2. Sedimentation analysis Most convenient for determining the grain size distribution of the soil fraction finer than 75 ym. The analysis is based on stokes's law Ita single sphere is allowed to fall freely through a liquid of infinite extent, its vertical velocity is first increased rapidly under the action of gravity, but a constant velocity called the terminal velocity is, reached with ina short time. According to stokes law, the terminal velocity is given by, yO? 78H p, = Density of grains (gicm®) ; p, = Density of water (g/em®) i= Viscosity of water ; g= Acceleration due to gravity (cm/s®) D= Diameter of grain (cm) By putting the values at 20°C, we get, v=91 D? at 20°C Where vis in cm/s andDisinmm. — 2,V=107 D? at 27°c + Sickes law is applicable for spheres of diameter between 0.2 mm and 0.0002 mm, * Spheres of diameter larger than 0.2 mm falling through water cause turbulence, whereas, for spheres with diameter less than 0.0002 mm, Brownian motion takes place and the velocity of settlement is too small for accurate measurement.16 | Civil Engineering psc MADE EASY Publlestions Limitations of Stokes Law The analysis is based on the assumption that the falling grain is spherical. But in soils, the finer particles are never truly spherical 2, Stokes’s law considers the velocity of free fall of a single sphere in a suspension of infinite extent whereas, the grain size analysis is usualy catried outin a glass jarin which the extent of liquid is limited 8. The finor grains ofthe soll carry charge on their surface and have a tendeney for floc formation. Ifthe tendency to floc formation is not prevented, the diameter measured willbe the diameter ofthe floc and not of the individual grain, There are two methods of sedimentation analysis: (a) Pipette method + 10 mi of sample of suspension is drawn off with a pipet surface of different time intervals + This 10 mI volume of sample as put ina container and dried in oven to get dry unit weight and dry density from a specified depths {rom the Container at time't Initial container * Diameter ‘dof following particle is given by stokes law He _y_(G-Viw t 184 where, He = Effective depth through which particle settles. * % finer than‘d' = (b) Hydrometer method + The hydrometer method differs from the pipette analysis in that way, the weights of solids per me in suspension in the chosen depth at chosen instants of time are obtained indirectly by reading the sp. gravity of soil suspension with the aid of hydrometer. * Corrections to hydrometer readings: 4. Meniscus correction (C,,) —>Itis always (+)ve 2, Temperature correction (C) — If the temperature is more than the standard temperature correction is (+)ve and vice-versa, 3. Dettloculating agent correction (C,) : This correction is always negative 2.8 Consistency of clays: Atterberg Limits + Consistency represents relative ease with which a soil can be deformed + Inpractice, consistency isa property associated only with fine grained soils, especially clays. + Depending on percentage water content, four stages of consistency are used to describe the state of a clayey sol Prastc | Liquid 4, Solid State [ce 2 Semi Solid State said | Soha 3, Plastic State ae i 4, Liquid State Witer content wt) + Theboundary between any two states is called consistency limit. They are also known as Atterberg's limits after Swedish scientist Atterberg, who first demonstrated the significance of these limiERISY Geotechnical Engineering Properties of Soil 17 where, Vi, = Volume of dry soil mass Volume of soil at shrinkage limit Vp = Volume of scil at plastic limit V, = Volume of soil at lcd li w, = Liquid limit Wp = Plastic limit = Shrinkage limit Slope, ® = constant ax Vive _ Vo-Vy > WW We Ws Soldstate Semisolid state © Phastic state ° Tiguid state Determination of Liquid Limit Casagrande's apparatus + About 120g oven dried soilis taken and mixed wth water (say w, 9) o attain putty ke consistency. * Paste is placed inside casagrande apparatus cup and levelled + Agroove of 2mm size is cut and apparatus is given blows over a rubber pad and no. of blows required to close the 2 mm groove is noted as N, + Now same soil is mixed with water content w, and no. of blows required to close the 2 mm, groove is noted say Ny. + Same process is repeated with different water content, + Agraph is plotted between % water content and No. of blows in semi log scale. + The above curve is called flow curve and the siope of above curve is called flow index (1). ‘Water content Tea, Toa Teas Number of blows (Flow cure} * Flow index 1, represents the rate of loss of shear strength of soil with increase in its water content lh > I, he et '* Shear strength of soil « Rate of loss of shear strength of soil ‘Number ofbiows (og seal) + Liquid limit is the water content corresponding to 25 Number of Blows1g | Civil Engineering psc MADE EASY Cone penetration method Plastic limit (w,) + The water content at which soil sample changes from semi-solid to plastic state is known as Plastic Limit * Plastic limit is also defined as the water content at which soil would just begin to crumble when rolled into a thread of approximately 3mm diameter. Shrinkage Limit (w,) + Astate when the decrease in moisture content leads to solid state, no change in volume of soil mass is observed, the consistency of soil changes from semi-solid to solid state. The boundary water contents called shrinkage limit. * Shrinkage limit is the smallest value of water content at which soil mass is completely saturated. it means that below shrinkage limit, soil is partially saturated (2) Original Soi (b) Soil at shrinkage (6) ry soit it ae TT Wy wR G| * Shrinkage limit test can be used to determine sp.gravity of soil solids 1 @-—1__ tw Ws. (rss) where, y= unit weight of water ; yg= dry unit weight of soll % shrinkage limit * If specific gravity G and void ratio ¢ are known, then w= 228 (2 S=1) “GG * Shrinkage ratio (F) : It is defined as the ratio of a given volume change in a soll, expressed as a percentage of the dry volume to the corresponding change in water content above the shrinkage limit where V, = Volume of soil mass at water content ,% V, = Volume of soil mass at water content 2% V,, = Volume of dry soil mass.24 aa a2 as a4 as ae Civil Engineering psc STUDENT'S ASSIGNMENTS Which of one of the following gives the correct sequence of decreasing order of densities of asoil sample? (a) saturated, submerged, wet, dry (©) saturated, wet, submerged, dry (c) saturated, wet, dry, susmerged (a) wet, saturated, submerged, dry Which of the following correctly defines the term activity of clay? (a) Plasticity index / % of clay (0) Plastic limit / liquidity index (c) UCSiechesion (8) Strength of remoulded sample unconfined compressive strength of undisturbed sample The difference between maximum void ratio and minimum void ratio of sand sample is 0.30, If the relative density of sample is 66.6% at the void ratio of 0.40, then the void ratio of the sample at its too rest state will be (@) 040 (e) 0.60 (©) 050 (d) 0.75 ‘Asample has natural moisture content ¥, void ralio‘e’, specific gravity of solids 'G,’. The bulk Unit weight of soil ‘g’ is given by (y, is unit weight of water) (WG w (WG @ oS (WG. 5 (-W)Gr5 Oe tke It the specitic gravity of the soil sample is represented by G, and void ratio is ‘e’ the hydraulic gradient is expressed as G41 1-8 156, @ re [SS-JE-2007] Uniformity coefficient of well graded sand is (a) lessthan2 —(o) greather than 2 (¢) grealerthané —(d) Noneof these [SS-JE-2008] a7 as ag Q.10 a.t2 It the plasticity index of soll mass is zero, the soil is (a) Clay (c) Sand (b) Clayed silt (@) Silt [SS-JE-2012] Coefficient of curvature for a well graded soll must be in the range: (a) 0.5-1.0 (c) 4.0-5.0 (b) 3.0-4.0 (d) None of the above [SS-JE-2010] The moisture content of a soll, below which the soll volume becomes constant, Is called {@) Liquid limit (o) Plastic limit (c) Shrinkage limit (d) None of the above [SS-JE-2010] Asoil has a liquid limit of 45% and lies above Acline when plotted on a plasticity chart. The group symbol of the soil as per is soil classification is (@) CH () L ©) cl (@) ML (ESE-1997] The value of porosity of soil sample in which the total volume of soil grains is equal to twice the total volume of void would be (@) 75% (b) 66.66% (c) 50% (d) 83.33% [ESE-2000] The standard plasticity chart by cassagrande to classify fine grained soil is shown in the figure Pt) Kine Ey 35 5 me) The area marked P represents: (a) Inorganic clays of high plasticity (©) Organi clays and highly plastic organic sits (6) Organic and in organic silts (@) Clays [ESE-2016]MADE EASY Geotechnical Engineering Q.13 The mass specific gravity of a fully saturated specimen of clay having awic of 40% is 1.88. ‘On overn drying if mass specific gravity drops to 1.74 then the specific gravity of clay will be (a) 1.95 (b) 290 (c) 267 (d) 2.85 [DMRC-JE-2018] Q.14 Soil samples A and B have void ratios of 0.5 and 0.7 respectively. If 1.5 m* of soil sample A and 1.7 m* of soil sample B are mixed to form sample C having a volume of 3.2 m*, which one. of the following correctly represents the porosity of sample ©? (a) 0.375 (b) 0.60 (©) 1.66 (a) 266 Q.1 InCasagrande's liquid limit device, the material of the test specimen is harder than the standard rubber. This hardness indicates that the liquid limit, plasticity index, flow index and toughness index, respectively, of the specimen, are (@) more, less more and same (b) same, less, same and more (©) less, less, same and less (@)_ less, same, less and more Q.16 Which one of the following is the water content of the mixed soil made from 1 kg of soil (say A) with water content of 100% and 1 kg of soil (say B) with water content of 50%? (@) 66% (b) 71% (©) 75% (a) 82% Q.17 Given for a sample of a river sand Void ratio at the densest state = 0.40 Void ratio at the loosest state = 1.20 Which one of the following correctly represents. the relative density of a sample prepared with avoid ratio of 1.07 (a) 125% (©) 75% Q.18 A saturated sand deposite have natural moisture content of 30%. It was noticed that the maximum and minimum void ratios are 0.95 and 0.40 respectively. Assume specific gravity of sand solids are 2.7, the sand deposite will be classified as (a) Medium {c) Loose (0) 25% (a) 875% (b) Dense (d) Very dense Properties of Soil 25 Q.19 Two soil samples A and B have porosities ng = 40% and ng = 60%, respectively. What is the ratio of void ratio 4: €4? fa) 23 (©) 32 () 49 (@ 94 [ESE: 2004, DMRC-JE-2018] Acclay sample has a void ratio of 0.54 in dry stale, The specific gravity of soil solids is 2.7. What is the shrinkage limit of the soil? (a) 85% (b) 100% () 17.0% (d) 20.0% [ESE: 2005] Consider the folowing properties of clay X and Y. Q.20 azt S.No.| _ Propertos 1 LU) 2 PL) 3. | Natwal WiC(t) Clay (%) 42 20 30 Clay (4) 56 34 50 Which of the days, X or ¥ experiences larger settlement under identical loads; is more plastic; and is softer in consistency? (@) X.Yand xX (b) Y, Xand xX (©) ¥Xand¥ — (d) X,Xand¥ (ESE: 2009] STUDENT'S Danswerkey / idiiens 3 (6) & (@) 13. (b) 18. (o) 1 © 6 0 n @ 16. (b) 21. () 2 @ 7 © 12. f@) 17. (b) 40 2 (3 14 @) 19. (©) 5. (a) 10. (b) 15. (0 20. (d) STUDENT'S: uints & soLutions / IHN G,(1ew xe Fordrysol, w= 0 Gv a= THe and for submerged condition Yous = Youre26 Civil Engineering psc ite Thus, Year > Y> Yony > You Be Ip Higher the plasticity index, higher is the activity Bo Then 0.665 = Som —™ = we = 0.1948-+0.40 = ep, = 0.5998 0.6 | +. ~ (65-88) “tre and es= WG, (1+) > tte Be Hydraullic gradient) - 2! tre Ge For well graded sand Cu > 6 For well graded gravel, Cu> 4 (} Plasticity index of sand is ‘0’ Be For well graded soil 10,53 Be Below the shrinkage limit of soil, there is no change in volume. Bo ‘Above Aling = Clay, 4, = 45% (35% < w, < 50%) = Inlormodiate plasticity Group symbol is Cl Be Volume of voids: Porosity = “Total volume Wow 4 “Vi4V, W4V, 3 38.83% Be Pu) RY eine o cu 20 35 35 wn) . P lies in the area of inorganic clays of high plasticity. Bo w= 40% y= 188 ay = 174 Since soil is fully saturated, At w= 40% Thus, and and = 188(1+0.4G) = 146, = G,= 2901