Assembly Language Tools

TMS320C28x Assembly Language Tools
v21.6.0.LTS
User’s Guide
Literature Number: SPRU513W

AUGUST 2001 – REVISED JUNE 2021
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Table of Contents
Read This First......................................................................................................................................................................... 11

About This Manual..................................................................................................................................................................11
How to Use This Manual........................................................................................................................................................ 11
Notational Conventions.......................................................................................................................................................... 12
Related Documentation From Texas Instruments.................................................................................................................. 13
Trademarks............................................................................................................................................................................ 13
1 Introduction to the Software Development Tools.............................................................................................................. 15
1.1 Software Development Tools Overview........................................................................................................................... 16
1.2 Tools Descriptions............................................................................................................................................................ 17
2 Introduction to Object Modules...........................................................................................................................................19
2.1 Object File Format Specifications.................................................................................................................................... 20
2.2 Executable Object Files................................................................................................................................................... 20
2.3 Introduction to Sections....................................................................................................................................................20
2.3.1 Special Section Names............................................................................................................................................. 21
2.4 How the Assembler Handles Sections............................................................................................................................. 21
2.4.1 Uninitialized Sections................................................................................................................................................ 22
2.4.2 Initialized Sections.....................................................................................................................................................22
2.4.3 User-Named Sections............................................................................................................................................... 23
2.4.4 Current Section..........................................................................................................................................................23
2.4.5 Section Program Counters........................................................................................................................................ 24
2.4.6 Subsections............................................................................................................................................................... 24
2.4.7 Using Sections Directives..........................................................................................................................................25
2.5 How the Linker Handles Sections.................................................................................................................................... 27
2.5.1 Combining Input Sections..........................................................................................................................................28
2.5.2 Placing Sections........................................................................................................................................................ 29
2.6 Symbols........................................................................................................................................................................... 29
2.6.1 Global (External) Symbols.........................................................................................................................................29
2.6.2 Local Symbols........................................................................................................................................................... 30
2.6.3 Weak Symbols...........................................................................................................................................................30
2.6.4 The Symbol Table......................................................................................................................................................31
2.7 Symbolic Relocations.......................................................................................................................................................32
2.7.1 Expressions With Multiple Relocatable Symbols (COFF Only)................................................................................. 32
2.8 Loading a Program...........................................................................................................................................................33
3 Program Loading and Running........................................................................................................................................... 35
3.1 Loading............................................................................................................................................................................ 36
3.1.1 Load and Run Addresses.......................................................................................................................................... 36
3.1.2 Bootstrap Loading..................................................................................................................................................... 37
3.2 Entry Point........................................................................................................................................................................40
3.3 Run-Time Initialization......................................................................................................................................................41
3.3.1 The _c_int00 Function............................................................................................................................................... 41
3.3.2 RAM Model vs. ROM Model...................................................................................................................................... 41
3.3.3 About Linker-Generated Copy Tables....................................................................................................................... 43
3.4 Arguments to main........................................................................................................................................................... 44
3.5 Run-Time Relocation........................................................................................................................................................44
3.6 Additional Information...................................................................................................................................................... 44
4 Assembler Description.........................................................................................................................................................45
4.1 Assembler Overview........................................................................................................................................................ 46
4.2 The Assembler's Role in the Software Development Flow.............................................................................................. 47
4.3 Invoking the Assembler....................................................................................................................................................48
4.4 Controlling Application Binary Interface........................................................................................................................... 49
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4.5 Naming Alternate Directories for Assembler Input........................................................................................................... 49

4.5.1 Using the --include_path Assembler Option.............................................................................................................. 50
4.5.2 Using the C2000_A_DIR Environment Variable........................................................................................................ 51
4.6 Source Statement Format................................................................................................................................................ 52
4.6.1 Label Field................................................................................................................................................................. 53
4.6.2 Mnemonic Field......................................................................................................................................................... 53
4.6.3 Operand Field............................................................................................................................................................54
4.6.4 Comment Field.......................................................................................................................................................... 54
4.7 Literal Constants.............................................................................................................................................................. 54
4.7.1 Integer Literals...........................................................................................................................................................54
4.7.2 Character String Literals............................................................................................................................................56
4.7.3 Floating-Point Literals................................................................................................................................................57
4.8 Assembler Symbols......................................................................................................................................................... 57
4.8.1 Identifiers................................................................................................................................................................... 57
4.8.2 Labels........................................................................................................................................................................ 57
4.8.3 Local Labels.............................................................................................................................................................. 58
4.8.4 Symbolic Constants...................................................................................................................................................59
4.8.5 Defining Symbolic Constants (--asm_define Option).................................................................................................60
Example 4-3. Using Symbolic Constants Defined on Command Line................................................................................61
4.8.6 Predefined Symbolic Constants................................................................................................................................ 61
4.8.7 Registers................................................................................................................................................................... 61
4.8.8 Substitution Symbols................................................................................................................................................. 62
4.9 Expressions......................................................................................................................................................................63
4.9.1 Mathematical and Logical Operators.........................................................................................................................64
4.9.2 Relational Operators and Conditional Expressions................................................................................................... 65
4.9.3 Well-Defined Expressions..........................................................................................................................................65
4.9.4 Legal Expressions..................................................................................................................................................... 65
4.10 Built-in Functions and Operators....................................................................................................................................66
4.10.1 Built-In Math and Trigonometric Functions.............................................................................................................. 66
4.11 TMS320C28x Assembler Extensions............................................................................................................................. 67
4.11.1 C28x Support........................................................................................................................................................... 67
4.11.2 C28x FPU32 and FPU64 Extensions.......................................................................................................................68
4.11.3 C28x CLA Extensions.............................................................................................................................................. 68
4.12 Source Listings...............................................................................................................................................................69
4.13 Debugging Assembly Source.........................................................................................................................................71
4.14 Cross-Reference Listings...............................................................................................................................................72
4.15 Smart Encoding..............................................................................................................................................................73
4.16 Pipeline Conflict Detection............................................................................................................................................. 74
4.16.1 Protected and Unprotected Pipeline Instructions.................................................................................................... 74
4.16.2 Pipeline Conflict Prevention and Detection............................................................................................................. 74
4.16.3 Pipeline Conflicts Detected......................................................................................................................................74
5 Assembler Directives........................................................................................................................................................... 77
5.1 Directives Summary......................................................................................................................................................... 78
5.2 Directives that Define Sections........................................................................................................................................ 82
Example 5-1. Sections Directives.......................................................................................................................................83
5.3 Directives that Initialize Values.........................................................................................................................................83
5.4 Directives that Perform Alignment and Reserve Space................................................................................................... 86
5.5 Directives that Format the Output Listings....................................................................................................................... 87
5.6 Directives that Reference Other Files.............................................................................................................................. 88
5.7 Directives that Enable Conditional Assembly...................................................................................................................89
5.8 Directives that Define Union or Structure Types.............................................................................................................. 89
5.9 Directives that Define Enumerated Types........................................................................................................................89
5.10 Directives that Define Symbols at Assembly Time.........................................................................................................89
5.11 Miscellaneous Directives................................................................................................................................................ 90
5.12 Directives Reference......................................................................................................................................................91
6 Macro Language Description.............................................................................................................................................155
6.1 Using Macros................................................................................................................................................................. 156
6.2 Defining Macros............................................................................................................................................................. 157
6.3 Macro Parameters/Substitution Symbols....................................................................................................................... 158
6.3.1 Directives That Define Substitution Symbols...........................................................................................................159
6.3.2 Built-In Substitution Symbol Functions.................................................................................................................... 160
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6.3.3 Recursive Substitution Symbols.............................................................................................................................. 161

6.3.4 Forced Substitution..................................................................................................................................................161
6.3.5 Accessing Individual Characters of Subscripted Substitution Symbols...................................................................161
6.3.6 Substitution Symbols as Local Variables in Macros................................................................................................ 162
6.4 Macro Libraries.............................................................................................................................................................. 163
6.5 Using Conditional Assembly in Macros..........................................................................................................................163
6.6 Using Labels in Macros..................................................................................................................................................165
6.7 Producing Messages in Macros..................................................................................................................................... 166
6.8 Using Directives to Format the Output Listing................................................................................................................166
6.9 Using Recursive and Nested Macros.............................................................................................................................168
6.10 Macro Directives Summary.......................................................................................................................................... 169
7 Archiver Description.......................................................................................................................................................... 171
7.1 Archiver Overview.......................................................................................................................................................... 172
7.2 The Archiver's Role in the Software Development Flow................................................................................................ 172
7.3 Invoking the Archiver......................................................................................................................................................173
7.4 Archiver Examples......................................................................................................................................................... 173
7.5 Library Information Archiver Description........................................................................................................................ 175
7.5.1 Invoking the Library Information Archiver................................................................................................................ 175
7.5.2 Library Information Archiver Example..................................................................................................................... 176
7.5.3 Listing the Contents of an Index Library.................................................................................................................. 176
7.5.4 Requirements.......................................................................................................................................................... 176
8 Linker Description.............................................................................................................................................................. 177
8.1 Linker Overview............................................................................................................................................................. 178
8.2 The Linker's Role in the Software Development Flow....................................................................................................178
8.3 Invoking the Linker......................................................................................................................................................... 179
8.4 Linker Options................................................................................................................................................................ 180
8.4.1 Wildcards in File, Section, and Symbol Patterns.....................................................................................................182
8.4.2 Specifying C/C++ Symbols with Linker Options...................................................................................................... 182
8.4.3 Relocation Capabilities (--absolute_exe and --relocatable Options)....................................................................... 182
8.4.4 Allocate Memory for Use by the Loader to Pass Arguments (--arg_size Option)....................................................183
8.4.5 Compression (--cinit_compression and --copy_compression Option).....................................................................184
8.4.6 Compress DWARF Information (--compress_dwarf Option)................................................................................... 184
8.4.7 Control Linker Diagnostics.......................................................................................................................................184
8.4.8 Automatic Library Selection (--disable_auto_rts Option)......................................................................................... 185
8.4.9 Disable Conditional Linking (--disable_clink Option)............................................................................................... 185
8.4.10 Do Not Remove Unused Sections (--unused_section_elimination Option)........................................................... 185
8.4.11 Linker Command File Preprocessing (--disable_pp, --define and --undefine Options)..........................................185
8.4.12 Error Correcting Code Testing (--ecc Options)...................................................................................................... 187
8.4.13 Define an Entry Point (--entry_point Option)......................................................................................................... 188
8.4.14 Set Default Fill Value (--fill_value Option).............................................................................................................. 188
8.4.15 Define Heap Size (--heap_size Option).................................................................................................................189
8.4.16 Hiding Symbols......................................................................................................................................................189
8.4.17 Alter the Library Search Algorithm (--library, --search_path, and C2000_C_DIR )................................................189
8.4.18 Change Symbol Localization................................................................................................................................. 192
8.4.19 Create a Map File (--map_file Option)................................................................................................................... 193
8.4.20 Managing Map File Contents (--mapfile_contents Option).................................................................................... 194
8.4.21 Disable Name Demangling (--no_demangle)........................................................................................................ 195
8.4.22 Disable Merging of Symbolic Debugging Information (--no_sym_merge Option) ................................................ 196
8.4.23 Strip Symbolic Information (--no_symtable Option)...............................................................................................196
8.4.24 Name an Output Module (--output_file Option)..................................................................................................... 196
8.4.25 Prioritizing Function Placement (--preferred_order Option)...................................................................................197
8.4.26 C Language Options (--ram_model and --rom_model Options)............................................................................ 197
8.4.27 Retain Discarded Sections (--retain Option)..........................................................................................................197
8.4.28 Create an Absolute Listing File (--run_abs Option)............................................................................................... 198
8.4.29 Scan All Libraries for Duplicate Symbol Definitions (--scan_libraries)...................................................................198
8.4.30 Define Stack Size (--stack_size Option)................................................................................................................ 198
8.4.31 Enforce Strict Compatibility (--strict_compatibility Option).....................................................................................198
8.4.32 Mapping of Symbols (--symbol_map Option)........................................................................................................ 198
8.4.33 Introduce an Unresolved Symbol (--undef_sym Option)....................................................................................... 199
8.4.34 Display a Message When an Undefined Output Section Is Created (--warn_sections)........................................ 199
8.4.35 Generate XML Link Information File (--xml_link_info Option)................................................................................199
8.4.36 Zero Initialization (--zero_init Option).................................................................................................................... 199

8.5 Linker Command Files................................................................................................................................................... 200
8.5.1 Reserved Names in Linker Command Files............................................................................................................ 201
8.5.2 Constants in Linker Command Files........................................................................................................................201
8.5.3 Accessing Files and Libraries from a Linker Command File................................................................................... 201
8.5.4 The MEMORY Directive.......................................................................................................................................... 203
8.5.5 The SECTIONS Directive........................................................................................................................................ 206
8.5.6 Placing a Section at Different Load and Run Addresses.........................................................................................219
8.5.7 Using GROUP and UNION Statements.................................................................................................................. 222
8.5.8 Overlaying Pages.................................................................................................................................................... 227
8.5.9 Special Section Types (DSECT, COPY, NOLOAD, and NOINIT)............................................................................ 229
8.5.10 Configuring Error Correcting Code (ECC) with the Linker.....................................................................................230
8.5.11 Assigning Symbols at Link Time............................................................................................................................ 232
8.5.12 Creating and Filling Holes..................................................................................................................................... 238
8.6 Linker Symbols...............................................................................................................................................................242
8.6.1 Using Linker Symbols in C/C++ Applications.......................................................................................................... 242
8.6.2 Declaring Weak Symbols.........................................................................................................................................243
8.6.3 Resolving Symbols with Object Libraries................................................................................................................ 243
8.7 Default Placement Algorithm..........................................................................................................................................244
8.7.1 How the Allocation Algorithm Creates Output Sections.......................................................................................... 245
8.7.2 Reducing Memory Fragmentation........................................................................................................................... 245
8.8 Using Linker-Generated Copy Tables............................................................................................................................ 245
8.8.1 Using Copy Tables for Boot Loading....................................................................................................................... 246
8.8.2 Using Built-in Link Operators in Copy Tables.......................................................................................................... 246
8.8.3 Overlay Management Example............................................................................................................................... 247
8.8.4 Generating Copy Tables With the table() Operator................................................................................................. 247
8.8.5 Compression........................................................................................................................................................... 251
8.8.6 Copy Table Contents............................................................................................................................................... 255
8.8.7 General Purpose Copy Routine...............................................................................................................................256
8.9 Linker-Generated CRC Tables and CRC Over Memory Ranges................................................................................... 257
8.9.1 Using the crc_table() Operator in the SECTIONS Directive.................................................................................... 257
8.9.2 Using the crc() Operator in the MEMORY Directive................................................................................................ 262
8.9.3 A Special Note Regarding 16-Bit char.....................................................................................................................266
8.10 Partial (Incremental) Linking........................................................................................................................................ 267
8.11 Linking C/C++ Code..................................................................................................................................................... 267
8.11.1 Run-Time Initialization........................................................................................................................................... 268
8.11.2 Object Libraries and Run-Time Support................................................................................................................ 268
8.11.3 Setting the Size of the Stack and Heap Sections.................................................................................................. 268
8.11.4 Initializing and AutoInitialzing Variables at Run Time.............................................................................................268
8.12 Linker Example............................................................................................................................................................ 269
9 Absolute Lister Description...............................................................................................................................................273
9.1 Producing an Absolute Listing........................................................................................................................................274
9.2 Invoking the Absolute Lister........................................................................................................................................... 275
9.3 Absolute Lister Example................................................................................................................................................ 276
10 Cross-Reference Lister Description............................................................................................................................... 279
10.1 Producing a Cross-Reference Listing.......................................................................................................................... 280
10.2 Invoking the Cross-Reference Lister............................................................................................................................281
10.3 Cross-Reference Listing Example................................................................................................................................282
11 Object File Utilities............................................................................................................................................................283
11.1 Invoking the Object File Display Utility......................................................................................................................... 284
11.2 Invoking the Disassembler........................................................................................................................................... 285
11.3 Invoking the Name Utility..............................................................................................................................................285
11.4 Invoking the Strip Utility................................................................................................................................................ 286
12 Hex Conversion Utility Description.................................................................................................................................287
12.1 The Hex Conversion Utility's Role in the Software Development Flow........................................................................ 288
12.2 Invoking the Hex Conversion Utility............................................................................................................................. 289
12.2.1 Invoking the Hex Conversion Utility From the Command Line.............................................................................. 289
12.2.2 Invoking the Hex Conversion Utility With a Command File................................................................................... 292
12.3 Understanding Memory Widths....................................................................................................................................293
12.3.1 Target Width.......................................................................................................................................................... 293
12.3.2 Specifying the Memory Width................................................................................................................................293
12.3.3 Partitioning Data Into Output Files.........................................................................................................................294

12.3.4 Specifying Word Order for Output Words.............................................................................................................. 297
12.4 The ROMS Directive.................................................................................................................................................... 297
12.4.1 When to Use the ROMS Directive......................................................................................................................... 298
12.4.2 An Example of the ROMS Directive...................................................................................................................... 299
12.5 The SECTIONS Directive.............................................................................................................................................300
12.6 The Load Image Format (--load_image Option)...........................................................................................................302
12.6.1 Load Image Section Formation............................................................................................................................. 302
12.6.2 Load Image Characteristics...................................................................................................................................302
12.7 Excluding a Specified Section......................................................................................................................................303
12.8 Assigning Output Filenames........................................................................................................................................ 303
12.9 Image Mode and the --fill Option..................................................................................................................................304
12.9.1 Generating a Memory Image.................................................................................................................................304
12.9.2 Specifying a Fill Value............................................................................................................................................304
12.9.3 Steps to Follow in Using Image Mode................................................................................................................... 305
12.10 Array Output Format.................................................................................................................................................. 305
12.11 Building a Table for an On-Chip Boot Loader............................................................................................................. 305
12.11.1 Description of the Boot Table............................................................................................................................... 305
12.11.2 The Boot Table Format........................................................................................................................................ 305
12.11.3 How to Build the Boot Table.................................................................................................................................306
12.11.4 Booting From a Device Peripheral....................................................................................................................... 306
12.11.5 Setting the Entry Point for the Boot Table............................................................................................................ 307
12.11.6 Using the C28x Boot Loader................................................................................................................................307
12.12 Using Secure Flash Boot on TMS320F2838x Devices.............................................................................................. 312
12.13 Controlling the ROM Device Address........................................................................................................................ 313
12.14 Control Hex Conversion Utility Diagnostics................................................................................................................314
12.15 Description of the Object Formats..............................................................................................................................315
12.15.1 ASCII-Hex Object Format (--ascii Option)........................................................................................................... 315
12.15.2 Intel MCS-86 Object Format (--intel Option)........................................................................................................316
12.15.3 Motorola Exorciser Object Format (--motorola Option)....................................................................................... 317
12.15.4 Extended Tektronix Object Format (--tektronix Option)....................................................................................... 318
12.15.5 Texas Instruments SDSMAC (TI-Tagged) Object Format (--ti_tagged Option)................................................... 319
12.15.6 TI-TXT Hex Format (--ti_txt Option).....................................................................................................................320
12.16 Hex Conversion Utility Error Messages..................................................................................................................... 321
13 Sharing C/C++ Header Files With Assembly Source.....................................................................................................323
13.1 Overview of the .cdecls Directive................................................................................................................................. 324
13.2 Notes on C/C++ Conversions...................................................................................................................................... 324
13.2.1 Comments............................................................................................................................................................. 324
13.2.2 Conditional Compilation (#if/#else/#ifdef/etc.)....................................................................................................... 325
13.2.3 Pragmas................................................................................................................................................................ 325
13.2.4 The #error and #warning Directives...................................................................................................................... 325
13.2.5 Predefined symbol __ASM_HEADER__............................................................................................................... 325
13.2.6 Usage Within C/C++ asm( ) Statements............................................................................................................... 325
13.2.7 The #include Directive........................................................................................................................................... 325
13.2.8 Conversion of #define Macros...............................................................................................................................325
13.2.9 The #undef Directive............................................................................................................................................. 326
13.2.10 Enumerations...................................................................................................................................................... 326
13.2.11 C Strings.............................................................................................................................................................. 326
13.2.12 C/C++ Built-In Functions..................................................................................................................................... 327
13.2.13 Structures and Unions......................................................................................................................................... 327
13.2.14 Function/Variable Prototypes...............................................................................................................................328
13.2.15 C Constant Suffixes............................................................................................................................................. 328
13.2.16 Basic C/C++ Types..............................................................................................................................................328
13.3 Notes on C++ Specific Conversions............................................................................................................................ 328
13.3.1 Name Mangling..................................................................................................................................................... 328
13.3.2 Derived Classes.................................................................................................................................................... 329
13.3.3 Templates.............................................................................................................................................................. 329
13.3.4 Virtual Functions.................................................................................................................................................... 329
13.4 Special Assembler Support..........................................................................................................................................329
13.4.1 Enumerations (.enum/.emember/.endenum).........................................................................................................329
13.4.2 The .define Directive..............................................................................................................................................330
13.4.3 The .undefine/.unasg Directives............................................................................................................................ 330

13.4.4 The $defined( ) Built-In Function........................................................................................................................... 330
13.4.5 The $sizeof Built-In Function................................................................................................................................. 330
13.4.6 Structure/Union Alignment and $alignof( ).............................................................................................................331
13.4.7 The .cstring Directive.............................................................................................................................................331
A Symbolic Debugging Directives....................................................................................................................................... 333
A.1 DWARF Debugging Format........................................................................................................................................... 334
A.2 Debug Directive Syntax................................................................................................................................................. 334
B XML Link Information File Description.............................................................................................................................335
B.1 XML Information File Element Types.............................................................................................................................336
B.2 Document Elements...................................................................................................................................................... 336
B.2.1 Header Elements.................................................................................................................................................... 336
B.2.2 Input File List...........................................................................................................................................................337
B.2.3 Object Component List............................................................................................................................................338
B.2.4 Logical Group List................................................................................................................................................... 339
B.2.5 Placement Map....................................................................................................................................................... 341
B.2.6 Symbol Table...........................................................................................................................................................342
C CRC Reference Implementation........................................................................................................................................343
C.1 Compilation Instructions................................................................................................................................................ 344
C.2 Reference CRC Calculation Routine............................................................................................................................. 344
Example C-1. Reference Implementation of a CRC Calculation Function: ref_crc.c....................................................... 344
C.3 Linker-Generated Copy Tables and CRC Tables...........................................................................................................347
Example C-2. Main Routine for Example Application: main.c.......................................................................................... 347
Example C-3. Checking CRC Values: check_crc.c.......................................................................................................... 348
Example C-4. Task1 Routine: task1.c...............................................................................................................................348
Example C-7. Example 1 Command File: ex1.cmd (for COFF)....................................................................................... 349
D Glossary..............................................................................................................................................................................351
D.1 Terminology................................................................................................................................................................... 351
Revision History.................................................................................................................................................................... 358
List of Figures
Figure 1-1. TMS320C28x Software Development Flow............................................................................................................ 16
Figure 2-1. Partitioning Memory Into Logical Blocks................................................................................................................. 21
Figure 2-2. Using Sections Directives Example.........................................................................................................................26
Figure 2-3. Object Code Generated by the File in Figure 2-2 ...................................................................................................27
Figure 2-4. Combining Input Sections to Form an Executable Object Module.......................................................................... 28
Figure 3-1. Bootloading Sequence (Simplified)......................................................................................................................... 37
Figure 3-2. Bootloading Sequence with Secondary Bootloader................................................................................................ 38
Figure 3-3. Autoinitialization at Run Time.................................................................................................................................. 42
Figure 3-4. Initialization at Load Time........................................................................................................................................43
Figure 4-1. The Assembler in the TMS320C28x Software Development Flow......................................................................... 47
Figure 4-2. Example Assembler Listing..................................................................................................................................... 70
Figure 5-1. The .field Directive...................................................................................................................................................84
Figure 5-2. Initialization Directives.............................................................................................................................................85
Figure 5-3. The .align Directive..................................................................................................................................................86
Figure 5-4. The .space and .bes Directives............................................................................................................................... 87
Figure 5-5. The .field Directive................................................................................................................................................. 114
Figure 5-6. Single-Precision Floating-Point Format................................................................................................................. 115
Figure 5-7. The .usect Directive...............................................................................................................................................153
Figure 7-1. The Archiver in the TMS320C28x Software Development Flow........................................................................... 172
Figure 8-1. The Linker in the TMS320C28x Software Development Flow...............................................................................178
Figure 8-2. Memory Map Defined in The MEMORY Directive ................................................................................................ 205
Figure 8-3. Section Placement Defined by The SECTIONS Directive ....................................................................................208
Figure 8-4. Run-Time Execution of Moving a Function from Slow to Fast Memory at Run Time ........................................... 222
Figure 8-5. Memory Allocation Shown in The UNION Statement and Separate Load Addresses for UNION Sections .........224
Figure 8-6. Overlay Pages Defined in Example 8-5 and Example 8-6 ................................................................................... 229
Figure 8-7. Compressed Copy Table....................................................................................................................................... 251
Figure 8-8. Handler Table........................................................................................................................................................ 252
Figure 8-9. CRC_TABLE Conceptual Model............................................................................................................................260
Figure 8-10. CRC Storage Format for Memory Ranges.......................................................................................................... 265

Figure 8-11. CRC Data Flow Example.....................................................................................................................................266
Figure 9-1. Absolute Lister Development Flow........................................................................................................................274
Figure 10-1. The Cross-Reference Lister Development Flow................................................................................................. 280
Figure 12-1. The Hex Conversion Utility in the TMS320C28x Software Development Flow................................................... 288
Figure 12-2. Hex Conversion Utility Process Flow.................................................................................................................. 293
Figure 12-3. Object File Data and Memory Widths..................................................................................................................294
Figure 12-4. Data, Memory, and ROM Widths.........................................................................................................................296
Figure 12-5. The infile.out File Partitioned Into Four Output Files........................................................................................... 299
Figure 12-6. Sample Hex Converter Out File for Booting From 8-Bit SPI Boot....................................................................... 309
Figure 12-7. Sample Hex Converter Out File for C28x 16-Bit Parallel Boot GP I/O................................................................ 310
Figure 12-8. Sample Hex Converter Out File for Booting From 8-Bit SCI Boot....................................................................... 311
Figure 12-9. ASCII-Hex Object Format....................................................................................................................................315
Figure 12-10. Intel Hexadecimal Object Format...................................................................................................................... 316
Figure 12-11. Motorola-S Format.............................................................................................................................................317
Figure 12-12. Extended Tektronix Object Format.................................................................................................................... 318
Figure 12-13. TI-Tagged Object Format.................................................................................................................................. 319
Figure 12-14. TI-TXT Object Format....................................................................................................................................... 321
List of Tables
Table 4-1. TMS320C28x Assembler Options.............................................................................................................................48
Table 4-2. C28x Processor Symbolic Constants........................................................................................................................61
Table 4-3. CPU and CPU Control Registers.............................................................................................................................. 62
Table 4-4. FPU and FPU Control Registers...............................................................................................................................62
Table 4-5. VCU Registers.......................................................................................................................................................... 62
Table 4-6. Operators Used in Expressions (Precedence)..........................................................................................................64
Table 4-7. Built-In Mathematical Functions................................................................................................................................66
Table 4-8. Symbol Attributes......................................................................................................................................................72
Table 4-9. Smart Encoding for Efficiency................................................................................................................................... 73
Table 4-10. Smart Encoding Intuitively...................................................................................................................................... 73
Table 4-11. Instructions That Avoid Smart Encoding................................................................................................................. 74
Table 5-1. Directives that Control Section Use.......................................................................................................................... 78
Table 5-2. Directives that Gather Sections into Common Groups............................................................................................. 78
Table 5-3. Directives that Affect Unused Section Elimination.................................................................................................... 78
Table 5-4. Directives that Initialize Values (Data and Memory)..................................................................................................78
Table 5-5. Directives that Perform Alignment and Reserve Space............................................................................................79
Table 5-6. Directives that Format the Output Listing..................................................................................................................79
Table 5-7. Directives that Reference Other Files....................................................................................................................... 80
Table 5-8. Directives that Affect Symbol Linkage and Visibility..................................................................................................80
Table 5-9. Directives that Define Symbols at Assembly Time ...................................................................................................80
Table 5-10. Directives that Enable Conditional Assembly......................................................................................................... 80
Table 5-11. Directives that Define Union or Structure Types..................................................................................................... 81
Table 5-12. Directives that Create or Affect Macros.................................................................................................................. 81
Table 5-13. Directives that Control Diagnostics......................................................................................................................... 81
Table 5-14. Directives that Perform Assembly Source Debug...................................................................................................81
Table 5-15. Directives that Are Used by the Absolute Lister......................................................................................................81
Table 5-16. Directives that Perform Miscellaneous Functions................................................................................................... 81
Table 6-1. Substitution Symbol Functions and Return Values................................................................................................. 160
Table 6-2. Creating Macros......................................................................................................................................................169
Table 6-3. Manipulating Substitution Symbols......................................................................................................................... 169
Table 6-4. Conditional Assembly............................................................................................................................................. 169
Table 6-5. Producing Assembly-Time Messages.....................................................................................................................169
Table 6-6. Formatting the Listing............................................................................................................................................. 169
Table 8-1. Basic Options Summary......................................................................................................................................... 180
Table 8-2. File Search Path Options Summary........................................................................................................................180
Table 8-3. Command File Preprocessing Options Summary...................................................................................................180
Table 8-4. Diagnostic Options Summary................................................................................................................................. 180
Table 8-5. Linker Output Options Summary.............................................................................................................................181
Table 8-6. Symbol Management Options Summary................................................................................................................ 181
Table 8-7. Run-Time Environment Options Summary............................................................................................................. 181
Table 8-8. Link-Time Optimization Options Summary..............................................................................................................181
Table 8-9. Miscellaneous Options Summary........................................................................................................................... 182

Table 8-10. Predefined C28x Macro Names............................................................................................................................186
Table 8-11. Groups of Operators Used in Expressions (Precedence)..................................................................................... 234
Table 10-1. Symbol Attributes in Cross-Reference Listing...................................................................................................... 282
Table 12-1. Basic Hex Conversion Utility Options................................................................................................................... 289
Table 12-2. Boot-Loader Options.............................................................................................................................................306
Table 12-3. Boot Table Source Formats.................................................................................................................................. 307
Table 12-4. Boot Table Format.................................................................................................................................................307
Table 12-5. Options for Specifying Hex Conversion Formats.................................................................................................. 315
Table A-1. Symbolic Debugging Directives..............................................................................................................................334
www.ti.com Read This First
Preface
Read This First
About This Manual

The TMS320C28x Assembly Language Tools User's Guide explains how to use the following Texas Instruments
Code Generation object file tools:
• Assembler
• Archiver
• Linker
• Library information archiver
• Absolute lister
• Cross-reference lister
• Disassembler
• Object file display utility
• Name utility
• Strip utility
• Hex conversion utility
How to Use This Manual
This book helps you learn how to use the Texas Instruments object file and assembly language tools designed
specifically for the TMS320C28x™ 16-bit devices. This book consists of four parts:
• Introductory information, consisting of Chapter 1 through Chapter 3, gives you an overview of the object
file and assembly language development tools. Chapter 2, in particular, explains object modules and how
they can be managed to help your TMS320C28x application load and run. It is highly recommended that
developers become familiar with what object modules are and how they are used before using the assembler
and linker.
• Assembler description, consisting of Chapter 4 through Chapter 6, contains detailed information about
using the assembler. Chapter 4 and Chapter 5 explain how to invoke the assembler and discuss source
statement format, valid constants and expressions, assembler output, and assembler directives. Chapter 6
focuses on the macro language.
• Linker and other object file tools description, consisting of Chapter 7 through Chapter 12, describes in
detail each of the tools provided with the assembler to help you create executable object files. Chapter 7
provides details about using the archiver to create object libraries. Chapter 8 explains how to invoke the
linker, how the linker operates, and how to use linker directives. Chapter 11 provides a brief overview of some
of the object file utilities that can be useful in examining the content of object files as well as removing symbol
and debug information to reduce the size of a given object file. Chapter 12 explains how to use the hex
conversion utility.
• Additional Reference material, consisting of Appendix A through Appendix D, provides supplementary
information including symbolic debugging directives used by the TMS320C28x C/C++ compiler. A description
of the XML link information file and a glossary are also provided.
Read This First www.ti.com
Notational Conventions
This document uses the following conventions:
• Program listings, program examples, and interactive displays are shown in a special typeface .
Interactive displays use a bold version of the special typeface to distinguish commands that you enter from
items that the system displays (such as prompts, command output, error messages, etc.).
Here is a sample of C code:
#include <stdio.h>
main()
{ printf("hello world\n");
}
• In syntax descriptions, the instruction, command, or directive is in a bold typeface and parameters are in an
italic typeface. Portions of a syntax that are in bold should be entered as shown; portions of a syntax that are
in italics describe the type of information that should be entered.
• Square brackets ( [ and ] ) identify an optional parameter. If you use an optional parameter, you specify
the information within the brackets. Unless the square brackets are in the bold typeface, do not enter the
brackets themselves. The following is an example of a command that has an optional parameter:
cl2000 [options] [filenames] [--run_linker [link_options] [object files]]
• Braces ( { and } ) indicate that you must choose one of the parameters within the braces; you do not enter the
braces themselves. This is an example of a command with braces that are not included in the actual syntax
but indicate that you must specify either the --rom_model or --ram_model option:
cl2000 --run_linker {--rom_model | --ram_model} filenames
[--output_file= name.out] --library= libraryname
• In assembler syntax statements, The leftmost character position, column 1, is reserved for the first character
of a label or symbol. If the label or symbol is optional, it is usually not shown. If it is a required parameter,
it is shown starting against the left margin of the box, as in the example below. No instruction, command,
directive, or parameter, other than a symbol or label, can begin in column 1.
symbol .usect "section name", size in bytes[, alignment]
• Some directives can have a varying number of parameters. For example, the .byte directive can have
multiple parameters. This syntax is shown as [, ..., parameter].
.byte parameter1[, ... , parametern]
• The TMS320C2800 core is referred to as TMS320C28x or C28x.

• Other symbols and abbreviations used throughout this document include the following:
Symbol Definition
B,b Suffix — binary integer
H, h Suffix — hexadecimal integer
LSB Least significant bit
MSB Most significant bit
0x Prefix — hexadecimal integer
Q, q Suffix — octal integer
www.ti.com Read This First
Related Documentation From Texas Instruments

See the following resources for further information about the TI Code Generation Tools:
• Code Composer Studio: Documentation Overview
• Texas Instruments E2E Community: Software Tools Forum
You can use the following books to supplement this user's guide:
SPRU514 TMS320C28x Optimizing C/C++ Compiler User's Guide. Describes the TMS320C28x C/C++
compiler. This C/C++ compiler accepts ANSI standard C/C++ source code and produces assembly
language source code for the TMS320C28x devices.
SPRU127 TMS320C2xx User's Guide. Discusses the hardware aspects of the TMS320C2xx 16-bit fixed-
point digital signal processors. It describes the architecture, the instruction set, and the on-chip
peripherals.
SPRU430 TMS320C28x DSP CPU and Instruction Set Reference Guide. Describes the central processing
unit (CPU) and the assembly language instructions of the TMS320C28x fixed-point CPU. It also
describes emulation features available on these devices.
SPRU566 TMS320x28xx, 28xxx DSP Peripherals Reference Guide. Describes all the peripherals available
for TMS320x28xx and TMS320x28xxx devices.
SPRUHS1 TMS320C28x Extended Instruction Sets Technical Reference Manual describes the
architecture, pipeline, and instruction sets of the TMU, VCRC, VCU-II, FPU32, and FPU64
accelerators.
SPRAC71 TMS320C28x Embedded Application Binary Interface Application Report. Provides a
specification for the ELF-based Embedded Application Binary Interface (EABI) for the TMS320C28x
family of processors from Texas Instruments. The EABI defines the low-level interface between
programs, program components, and the execution environment, including the operating system if
one is present.
SPRAAO8 Common Object File Format Application Report. Provides supplementary information on the
internal format of COFF object files. Much of this information pertains to the symbolic debugging
information that is produced by the C compiler.
Trademarks
TMS320C28x™ are trademarks of Texas Instruments.
All trademarks are the property of their respective owners.
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www.ti.com Introduction to the Software Development Tools
Chapter 1
Introduction to the Software Development Tools
The TMS320C28x™ is supported by a set of software development tools, which includes an optimizing C/C++
compiler, an assembler, a linker, and assorted utilities. This chapter provides an overview of these tools.
The TMS320C28x is supported by the following assembly language development tools:
• Assembler
• Archiver
• Linker
• Library information archiver
• Absolute lister
• Cross-reference lister
• Object file display utility
• Disassembler
• Name utility
• Strip utility
• Hex conversion utility
This chapter shows how these tools fit into the general software tools development flow and gives a brief
description of each tool. For convenience, it also summarizes the C/C++ compiler and debugging tools. For
detailed information on the compiler and debugger, and for complete descriptions of the TMS320C28x, refer to
the books listed in Related Documentation From Texas Instruments.
1.1 Software Development Tools Overview....................................................................................................................16

1.2 Tools Descriptions......................................................................................................................................................17
Introduction to the Software Development Tools www.ti.com
1.1 Software Development Tools Overview

Figure 1-1 shows the TMS320C28x software development flow. The shaded portion highlights the most common
development path; the other portions are optional. The other portions are peripheral functions that enhance the
development process.
C
source
files
Macro C2xx
source C/C++
compiler assembler
files source
Assembler Transition
Archiver
source assistant
Macro Assembler
library Assembler
source
Object Library-build
Archiver files utility
Debugging
tools
Library of Run-time-
object support
files Linker library
Post-link
optimizer
Executable
object file
Hex-conversion
utility
EPROM Cross-reference Object file C28x

Absolute lister
programmer lister utilities
Figure 1-1. TMS320C28x Software Development Flow
www.ti.com Introduction to the Software Development Tools
1.2 Tools Descriptions

The following list describes the tools that are shown in Figure 1-1:
• The C/C++ compiler accepts C/C++ source code and produces TMS320C28x machine code object
modules. See the TMS320C28x Optimizing C/C++ Compiler User's Guide for more information. A shell
program, an optimizer, and an interlist utility are included in the installation:
– The shell program enables you to compile, assemble, and link source modules in one step.
– The optimizer modifies code to improve the efficiency of C/C++ programs.
– The interlist utility interlists C/C++ source statements with assembly language output to correlate code
produced by the compiler with your source code.
• The assembler translates assembly language source files into machine language object modules. Source
files can contain instructions, assembler directives, and macro directives. You can use assembler directives
to control the assembly process, including the source listing format, data alignment, and section content.
See Chapter 4 through Chapter 6. See the TMS320C28x DSP CPU and Instruction Set Reference Guide for
detailed information on the assembly language instruction set.
• The linker combines object files into a single executable object module. It performs symbolic relocation and
resolves external references. The linker accepts relocatable object modules (created by the assembler) as
input. It also accepts archiver library members and output modules created by a previous linker run. Link
directives allow you to combine object file sections, bind sections or symbols to addresses or within memory
ranges, and define global symbols. See Chapter 8.
• The archiver allows you to collect a group of files into a single archive file, called a library. The most common
use of the archiver is to collect a group of object files into an object library. The linker extracts object library
members to resolve external references during the link. You can also use the archiver to collect several
macros into a macro library. The assembler searches the library and uses the members that are called as
macros by the source file. The archiver allows you to modify a library by deleting, replacing, extracting, or
adding members. See Section 7.1.
• The library information archiver allows you to create an index library of several object file library variants,
which is useful when several variants of a library with different options are available. Rather than refer to
a specific library, you can link against the index library, and the linker will choose the best match from the
indexed libraries. See Section 7.5 for more information about using the archiver to manage the content of a
library.
• You can use the library-build utility to build your own customized run-time-support library. See the
TMS320C28x Optimizing C/C++ Compiler User's Guide for more information.
• The hex conversion utility converts object files to TI-Tagged, ASCII-Hex, Intel, Motorola-S, or Tektronix
object format. Converted files can be downloaded to an EPROM programmer. See Chapter 12.
• The absolute lister uses linked object files to create .abs files. These files can be assembled to produce a
listing of the absolute addresses of object code. See Chapter 9.
• The cross-reference lister uses object files to produce a cross-reference listing showing symbols, their
definition, and their references in the linked source files. See Chapter 10.
• The main product of this development process is a executable object file that can be executed on a
TMS320C28x device. You can use one of several debugging tools to refine and correct your code. Available
products include:
– An instruction-accurate and clock-accurate software simulator
– An XDS emulator
Introduction to the Software Development Tools www.ti.com
In addition, the following utilities are provided to help examine or manage the content of a given object file:
• The object file display utility prints the contents of object files and object libraries in either human readable
or XML formats. See Section 11.1.
• The disassembler decodes the machine code from object modules to show the assembly instructions that it
represents. See Section 11.2.
• The name utility prints a list of symbol names for objects and functions defined or referenced in an object file
or object archive. See Section 11.3.
• The strip utility removes symbol table and debugging information from object files and object libraries. See
Section 11.4.
www.ti.com Introduction to Object Modules
Chapter 2
Introduction to Object Modules
The assembler creates object modules from assembly code, and the linker creates executable object files from
object modules. These executable object files can be executed by a TMS320C28x device.
Object modules make modular programming easier because they encourage you to think in terms of blocks of
code and data when you write an assembly language program. These blocks are known as sections. Both the
assembler and the linker provide directives that allow you to create and manipulate sections.
This chapter focuses on the concept and use of sections in assembly language programs.
2.1 Object File Format Specifications.............................................................................................................................20

2.2 Executable Object Files............................................................................................................................................. 20
2.3 Introduction to Sections............................................................................................................................................ 20
2.4 How the Assembler Handles Sections..................................................................................................................... 21
2.5 How the Linker Handles Sections.............................................................................................................................27
2.6 Symbols.......................................................................................................................................................................29
2.7 Symbolic Relocations................................................................................................................................................ 32
2.8 Loading a Program.....................................................................................................................................................33
Introduction to Object Modules www.ti.com
2.1 Object File Format Specifications

The TI Code Generation Tools for C28x support the use of either the COFF ABI or the Embedded Application
Binary Interface (EABI). The ABI used is determined by the --abi command-line option. The default ABI is COFF.
The object file format generated by the tools differs depending on the ABI used:
• COFF: These object files conform to the Common Object File Format (COFF). See the Common Object File
Format Application Report (SPRAAO8) for details on this format.
• EABI: These object files conform to the ELF (Executable and Linking Format) binary format, which is used by
EABI. See the TMS320C28x Optimizing C/C++ Compiler User's Guide (SPRU514) for information on using
the EABI ABI. The complete EABI specifications can be found in the C28x Embedded Application Binary
Interface Application Report (SPRAC71. The ELF object files conform to the December 17, 2003 snapshot of
the System V generic ABI (or gABI). This specification is currently maintained by SCO.
2.2 Executable Object Files
The linker can be used to produce static executable object modules. An executable object module has the same
format as object files that are used as linker input. The sections in an executable object module, however, have
been combined and placed in target memory, and the relocations are all resolved.
To run a program, the data in the executable object module must be transferred, or loaded, into target system
memory. See Chapter 3 for details about loading and running programs.
2.3 Introduction to Sections
The smallest unit of an object file is a section. A section is a block of code or data that occupies contiguous
space in the memory map. Each section of an object file is separate and distinct.
COFF format executable object files contain sections.
ELF format executable object files contain segments. An ELF segment is a meta-section. It represents a
contiguous region of target memory. It is a collection of sections that have the same property, such as writeable
or readable. An ELF loader needs the segment information, but does not need the section information. The ELF
standard allows the linker to omit ELF section information entirely from the executable object file.
Object files usually contain three default sections:
.text section Contains executable code 1
.data section Usually contains initialized data
.ebss section (for COFF) Usually reserves space for uninitialized variables
.bss section (for EABI)
Note that the .data section is used mainly for EABI. For COFF, the compiler generates .cinit sections that are
used to initialize the .ebss section. The assembler can be used to place initialized data in the .data section for
both COFF and EABI.
The assembler and linker allow you to create, name, and link other kinds of sections. The .text, .data, and .ebss
or .bss sections are archetypes for how sections are handled.
There are two basic types of sections:
Initialized sections Contain data or code. The .text and .data sections are initialized; user-named sections created with
the .sect assembler directive are also initialized.
Uninitialized sections Reserve space in the memory map for uninitialized data. The .ebss or .bss section is uninitialized;
user-named sections created with the .usect assembler directive are also uninitialized.
1 Some targets allow content other than text, such as constants, in .text sections.
Several assembler directives allow you to associate various portions of code and data with the appropriate
sections. The assembler builds these sections during the assembly process, creating an object file organized as
shown in Figure 2-1.
One of the linker's functions is to relocate sections into the target system's memory map; this function is called
placement. Because most systems contain several types of memory, using sections can help you use target
memory more efficiently. All sections are independently relocatable; you can place any section into any allocated
block of target memory. For example, you can define a section that contains an initialization routine and then
allocate the routine in a portion of the memory map that contains ROM. For information on section placement,
see the "Specifying Where to Allocate Sections in Memory" section of the TMS320C28x Optimizing C/C++
Compiler User's Guide.
Figure 2-1 shows the relationship between sections in an object file and a hypothetical target memory. (This
figure shows COFF sections. For EABI, the .ebss section would be .bss.) ROM may be EEPROM, FLASH or
some other type of physical memory in an actual system.
Figure 2-1. Partitioning Memory Into Logical Blocks
2.3.1 Special Section Names

You can use the .sect and .usect directives to create any section name you like, but certain sections are treated
in a special manner by the linker and the compiler's run-time support library. If you create a section with the
same name as a special section, you should take care to follow the rules for that special section.
A few common special sections are:
• .text -- Used for program code.
• .data -- Used for initialized non-const objects (global variables). (Used mainly with EABI)
• .ebss (COFF) or .bss (EABI) -- Used for uninitialized objects (global variables).
• .econst (COFF) or .const (EABI) -- Used for initialized const objects (string constants, variables declared
const).
• .cinit -- Used to initialize C global variables at startup.
• .stack -- Used for the function call stack.
• .esysmem (COFF) or .sysmem (EABI) - Used for the dynamic memory allocation pool.
For more information on sections, see the "Specifying Where to Allocate Sections in Memory" section of the
TMS320C28x Optimizing C/C++ Compiler User's Guide.
2.4 How the Assembler Handles Sections
The assembler identifies the portions of an assembly language program that belong in a given section. The
assembler has the following directives that support this function:
• .bss
• .data
• .sect
• .text
• .usect
The .bss and .usect directives create uninitialized sections; the .text, .data, and .sect directives create initialized
sections.
You can create subsections of any section to give you tighter control of the memory map. Subsections are
created using the .sect and .usect directives. Subsections are identified with the base section name and a
subsection name separated by a colon; see Section 2.4.6.
Note
If you do not use a section directive, the assembler assembles everything into the .text section.
2.4.1 Uninitialized Sections

Uninitialized sections reserve space in TMS320C28x memory; they are usually placed in RAM. These sections
have no actual contents in the object file; they simply reserve memory. A program can use this space at run time
for creating and storing variables.
Uninitialized data areas are built by using the following assembler directives.
• The .bss directive reserves space in the .bss section.
• The .usect directive reserves space in a specific uninitialized user-named section.
Each time you invoke the .bss or .usect directive, the assembler reserves additional space in the .bss or the
user-named section. The syntax is:
.bss symbol , size in words[,blocking flag[,alignment flag] ]
symbol .usect " section name ", size in words[,blocking flag[,alignment flag] ]
symbol points to the first word reserved by this invocation of the .usect directive. The symbol corresponds to the name of
the variable for which you are reserving space. It can be referenced by any other section and can also be declared
as a global symbol (with the .global directive).
size in words is an absolute expression (see Section 4.9). The .usect directive reserves size in words words in section name. You
must specify a size; there is no default value.
blocking flag is an optional parameter. If you specify a value greater than 0 for this parameter, the assembler allocates size in
words contiguously. This means the allocated space does not cross a page boundary unless its size is greater than
a page, in which case the allocated space starts a page boundary. By default, the compiler causes this flag to be set
to 0 so that DP load optimization is used. The compiler provides the "blocked" and "noblocked" variable attributes
for controlling blocking on a per-variable basis. For examples of DP load optimization, see the Tools Insider blog in
TI's E2E community.
alignment flag is an optional parameter. It causes the assembler to allocate the specified size in words on long word boundaries.
The resulting alignment will be on a boundary that is 2 to the power of the specified alignment flag. For example, an
alignment flag of 5 gives an alignment of 2**5, which is 32 words.
section name specifies the user-named section in which to reserve space. See Section 2.4.3.
Initialized section directives (.text, .data, and .sect) change which section is considered the current section
(see Section 2.4.4). However, the .bss and .usect directives do not change the current section; they simply
escape from the current section temporarily. Immediately after a .bss or .usect directive, the assembler resumes
assembling into whatever the current section was before the directive. The .bss and .usect directives can appear
anywhere in an initialized section without affecting its contents. For an example, see Section 2.4.7.
The .usect directive can also be used to create uninitialized subsections. See Section 2.4.6 for more information
on creating subsections.
The .common directive (EABI only) is similar to directives that create uninitialized data sections, except that
common symbols are created by the linker instead.
2.4.2 Initialized Sections
Initialized sections contain executable code or initialized data. The contents of these sections are stored in
the object file and placed in TMS320C28x memory when the program is loaded. Each initialized section is
independently relocatable and may reference symbols that are defined in other sections. The linker automatically
resolves these references. The following directives tell the assembler to place code or data into a section. The
syntaxes for these directives are:
.text
.data
.sect " section name "
The .sect directive can also be used to create initialized subsections. See Section 2.4.6, for more information on
creating subsections.
2.4.3 User-Named Sections
User-named sections are sections that you create. You can use them like the default .text, .data, and .ebss
or .bss sections, but each section with a distinct name is kept distinct during assembly.
For example, repeated use of the .text directive builds up a single .text section in the object file. This .text section
is allocated in memory as a single unit. Suppose there is a portion of executable code (perhaps an initialization
routine) that you want the linker to place in a different location than the rest of .text. If you assemble this segment
of code into a user-named section, it is assembled separately from .text, and you can use the linker to allocate it
into memory separately. You can also assemble initialized data that is separate from the .data section, and you
can reserve space for uninitialized variables that is separate from the .ebss or .bss section.
These directives let you create user-named sections:
• The .usect directive creates uninitialized sections that are used like the .ebss or .bss section. These sections
reserve space in RAM for variables.
• The .sect directive creates initialized sections, like the default .text and .data sections, that can contain code
or data. The .sect directive creates user-named sections with relocatable addresses.
The syntaxes for these directives are:
symbol .usect " section name ", size in words[,blocking flag[,alignment flag ] ]
.sect " section name "
When using COFF, you can create up to 32,767 distinct named sections. When using EABI, the maximum
number of sections is 232-1 (4294967295).
The section name parameter is the name of the section. For the .usect and .sect directives, a section name can
refer to a subsection; see Section 2.4.6 for details.
Each time you invoke one of these directives with a new name, you create a new user-named section. Each
time you invoke one of these directives with a name that was already used, the assembler resumes assembling
code or data (or reserves space) into the section with that name. You cannot use the same names with different
directives. That is, you cannot create a section with the .usect directive and then try to use the same section
with .sect .
2.4.4 Current Section
The assembler adds code or data to one section at a time. The section the assembler is currently filling is the
current section. The .text, .data, and .sect directives change which section is considered the current section.
When the assembler encounters one of these directives, it stops assembling into the current section (acting as
an implied end of current section command). The assembler sets the designated section as the current section
and assembles subsequent code into the designated section until it encounters another .text, .data, or .sect
directive.
If one of these directives sets the current section to a section that already has code or data in it from earlier in
the file, the assembler resumes adding to the end of that section. The assembler generates only one contiguous
section for each given section name. This section is formed by concatenating all of the code or data which was
placed in that section.
2.4.5 Section Program Counters

The assembler maintains a separate program counter for each section. These program counters are known as
section program counters, or SPCs.
An SPC represents the current address within a section of code or data. Initially, the assembler sets each
SPC to 0. As the assembler fills a section with code or data, it increments the appropriate SPC. If you resume
assembling into a section, the assembler remembers the appropriate SPC's previous value and continues
incrementing the SPC from that value.
The assembler treats each section as if it began at address 0; the linker relocates the symbols in each section
according to the final address of the section in which that symbol is defined. See Section 2.7 for information on
relocation.
2.4.6 Subsections
A subsection is created by creating a section with a colon in its name. Subsections are logical subdivisions of
larger sections. Subsections are themselves sections and can be manipulated by the assembler and linker.
The assembler has no concept of subsections; to the assembler, the colon in the name is not special. The
subsection .text:rts would be considered completely unrelated to its parent section .text, and the assembler will
not combine subsections with their parent sections.
Subsections are used to keep parts of a section as distinct sections so that they can be separately manipulated.
For instance, by placing each function and object in a uniquely-named subsection, the linker gets a finer-grained
view of the section for memory placement and unused-function elimination.
By default, when the linker sees a SECTION directive in the linker command file like ".text", it will gather .text
and all subsections of .text into one large output section named ".text". You can instead use the SECTION
directive to control the subsection independently. See Section 8.5.5.1 for an example.
You can create subsections in the same way you create other user-named sections: by using the .sect or .usect
directive.
The syntaxes for a subsection name are:
symbol .usect " section_name : subsection_name ", size in words[,blocking flag[,alignment flag] ]
.sect " section_name : subsection_name "
A subsection is identified by the base section name followed by a colon and the name of the subsection. The
subsection name may not contain any spaces.
A subsection can be allocated separately or grouped with other sections using the same base name. For
example, you create a subsection called _func within the .text section:
.sect ".text:_func"
Using the linker's SECTIONS directive, you can allocate .text:_func separately, or with all the .text sections.
You can create two types of subsections:
• Initialized subsections are created using the .sect directive. See Section 2.4.2.
• Uninitialized subsections are created using the .usect directive. See Section 2.4.1.
Subsections are placed in the same manner as sections. See Section 8.5.5 for information on the SECTIONS
directive.
2.4.7 Using Sections Directives

Figure 2-2 shows how you can build sections incrementally, using the sections directives to swap back and forth
between the different sections. You can use sections directives to begin assembling into a section for the first
time, or to continue assembling into a section that already contains code. In the latter case, the assembler simply
appends the new code to the code that is already in the section.
The format in Figure 2-2 is a listing file. Figure 2-2 shows how the SPCs are modified during assembly. A line in
a listing file has four fields:
Field 1 contains the source code line counter.
Field 2 contains the section program counter.
Field 3 contains the object code.
Field 4 contains the original source statement.
See Section 4.12 for more information on interpreting the fields in a source listing.
Figure 2-2. Using Sections Directives Example
As Figure 2-3 shows, the example code in Figure 2-2 creates four sections:
.text contains twelve 16-bit words of object code.
.data contains seven 16-bit words of initialized data.
.bss reserves ten 16-bit words in memory.
newvars is a user-named section created with the .usect directive; it contains eight 16-bit words in memory.
The second column shows the object code that is assembled into these sections; the first column shows the
source statements that generated the object code.
Figure 2-3. Object Code Generated by the File in Figure 2-2
2.5 How the Linker Handles Sections

The linker has two main functions related to sections. First, the linker uses the sections in object files as building
blocks; it combines input sections to create output sections in an executable output module. Second, the linker
chooses memory addresses for the output sections; this is called placement. Two linker directives support these
functions:
• The MEMORY directive allows you to define the memory map of a target system. You can name portions of
memory and specify their starting addresses and their lengths.
• The SECTIONS directive tells the linker how to combine input sections into output sections and where to
place these output sections in memory.
Subsections let you manipulate the placement of sections with greater precision. You can specify the location
of each subsection with the linker's SECTIONS directive. If you do not specify a subsection, the subsection is
combined with the other sections with the same base section name. See Section 8.5.5.1.
It is not always necessary to use linker directives. If you do not use them, the linker uses the target processor's
default placement algorithm described in Section 8.7. When you do use linker directives, you must specify them
in a linker command file.
Refer to the following sections for more information about linker command files and linker directives:
• Section 8.5, Linker Command Files
• Section 8.5.4, The MEMORY Directive
• Section 8.5.5, The SECTIONS Directive
• Section 8.7, Default Placement Algorithm
2.5.1 Combining Input Sections
Figure 2-4 provides a simplified example of the process of linking two files together.
Note that this is a simplified example, so it does not show all the sections that will be created or the actual
sequence of the sections. See Section 8.7 for the actual default memory placement map for TMS320C28x. (The
following figure shows sections used by COFF. For EABI, change the .ebss section to .bss.)
Figure 2-4. Combining Input Sections to Form an Executable Object Module
In Figure 2-4, file1.obj and file2.obj have been assembled to be used as linker input. Each contains
the .text, .data, and .ebss default sections; in addition, each contains a user-named section. The executable
object module shows the combined sections. The linker combines the .text section from file1.obj and the .text
section from file2.obj to form one .text section, then combines the two .data sections and the two .ebss sections,
and finally places the user-named sections at the end. The memory map shows the combined sections to be
placed into memory.
2.5.2 Placing Sections
Figure 2-4 illustrates the linker's default method for combining sections. Sometimes you may not want to use
the default setup. For example, you may not want all of the .text sections to be combined into a single .text
section. Or you may want a user-named section placed where the .data section would normally be allocated.
Most memory maps contain various types of memory (RAM, ROM, EEPROM, FLASH, etc.) in varying amounts;
you may want to place a section in a specific type of memory.
For further explanation of section placement within the memory map, see the discussions in Section 8.5.4 and
Section 8.5.5. See Section 8.7 for the actual default memory allocation map for TMS320C28x.
2.6 Symbols
An object file contains a symbol table that stores information about symbols in the object file. The linker uses this
table when it performs relocation. See Section 2.7.
An object file symbol is a named 32-bit integer value, usually representing an address. A symbol can represent
things like the start address of a function, variable, section, or an absolute integer (such as the size of the stack).
Symbols are defined in assembly by adding a label or a directive such as .set .equ .bss, or .usect.
Symbols have a binding, which is similar to the C concept of linkage. Both COFF and ELF file formats may
contain symbols bound locally and globally. ELF also binds symbols as weak symbols.
• Global symbols are visible to the entire program. The linker does not allow more than one global definition
of a particular symbol; it issues a multiple-definition error if a global symbol is defined more than once. (The
assembler can provide a similar multiple-definition error for local symbols.) A reference to a global symbol
from any object file refers to the one and only allowed global definition of that symbol. Assembly code must
explicitly make a symbol global by adding a .def, .ref, or .global directive. (See Section 2.6.1.)
• Local symbols are visible only within one object file; each object file that uses a symbol needs its own local
definition. References to local symbols in an object file are entirely unrelated to local symbols of the same
name in another object file. By default, a symbol is local. (See Section 2.6.2.)
• Weak symbols (EABI only) are symbols that may be used but not defined in the current module. They
may or may not be defined in another module. A weak symbol is intended to be overridden by a strong
(non-weak) global symbol definition of the same name in another object file. If a strong definition is available,
the weak symbol is replaced by the strong symbol. If no definition is available (that is, if the weak symbol
is unresolved), no error is generated, but the weak variable's address is considered to be null (0). For
this reason, application code that accesses a weak variable must check that its address is not zero before
attempting to access the variable. (See Section 2.6.3.)
Absolute symbols are symbols with a numeric value. They may be constants. To the linker, such symbols are
unsigned, but the integer may be treated as signed or unsigned depending on how it is used. The range of legal
values for an absolute integer is 0 to 2^32-1 for unsigned treatment and -2^31 to 2^31-1 for signed treatment.
In general, common symbols (see .common directive) are preferred over weak symbols.
See Section 4.8 for information about assembler symbols.
2.6.1 Global (External) Symbols
Global symbols are symbols that are either accessed in the current module but defined in another (an external
symbol) or defined in the current module and accessed in another. Such symbols are visible across object
modules. You must use the .def, .ref, or .global directive to identify a symbol as external:
.def The symbol is defined in the current file and may be used in another file.
.ref The symbol is referenced in the current file, but defined in another file.
.global The symbol can be either of the above. The assembler chooses either .def or .ref as appropriate for each symbol.
The following code fragment illustrates these definitions.

.def x
.ref y
.global z
.global q
x: ADD AR1, #56h
B y, UNC
q: ADD AR1, #56h
B z, UNC
In this example, the .def definition of x says that it is an external symbol defined in this file and that other
files can reference x. The .ref definition of y says that it is an undefined symbol that is defined in another file.
The .global definition of z says that it is defined in some file and available in this file. The .global definition of q
says that it is defined in this file and that other files can reference q.
The assembler places x, y, z, and q in the object file's symbol table. When the file is linked with other object files,
the entries for x and q resolve references to x and q in other files. The entries for y and z cause the linker to look
through the symbol tables of other files for y's and z's definitions.
The linker attempts to match all references with corresponding definitions. If the linker cannot find a symbol's
definition, it prints an error message about the unresolved reference. This type of error prevents the linker from
creating an executable object module.
An error also occurs if the same symbol is defined more than once.
2.6.2 Local Symbols
Local symbols are visible within a single object file. Each object file may have its own local definition for a
particular symbol. References to local symbols in an object file are entirely unrelated to local symbols of the
same name in another object file.
By default, a symbol is local.
2.6.3 Weak Symbols
Weak symbols are symbols that may or may not be defined.
Note
Weak symbols are supported only in EABI mode.
The linker processes symbols that are defined with a "weak" binding differently from symbols that are defined
with global binding. Instead of including a weak symbol in the object file's symbol table (as it would for a global
symbol), the linker only includes a weak symbol in the output of a "final" link if the symbol is required to resolve
an otherwise unresolved reference.
This allows the linker to minimize the number of symbols it includes in the output file's symbol table by omitting
those that are not needed to resolve references. Reducing the size of the output file's symbol table reduces the
time required to link, especially if there are a large number of pre-loaded symbols to link against. This feature is
particularly helpful for OpenCL applications.
You can define a weak symbol using either the .weak assembly directive or the weak operator in the linker
command file.
• Using Assembly: To define a weak symbol in an input object file, the source file can be written in assembly.
Use the .weak and .set directives in combination as shown in the following example, which defines a weak
symbol "ext_addr_sym":
.weak ext_addr_sym
ext_addr_sym .set 0x12345678
Assemble the source file that defines weak symbols, and include the resulting object file in the link. The
"ext_addr_sym" in this example is available as a weak symbol in a final link. It is a candidate for removal if
the symbol is not referenced elsewhere in the application. See .weak directive.
• Using the Linker Command File: To define a weak symbol in a linker command file, use the "weak"
operator in an assignment expression to designate that the symbol as eligible for removal from the output
file's symbol table if it is not referenced. In a linker command file, an assignment expression outside a
MEMORY or SECTIONS directive can be used to define a weak linker-defined symbol. For example, you can
define "ext_addr_sym" as follows:
weak(ext_addr_sym) = 0x12345678;
If the linker command file is used to perform the final link, then "ext_addr_sym" is presented to the linker as
a weak symbol; it will not be included in the resulting output file if the symbol is not referenced. See Section
8.6.2.
• Using C/C++ code: See information about the WEAK pragma and weak GCC-style variable attribute in the
If there are multiple definitions of the same symbol, the linker uses certain rules to determine which definition
takes precedence. Some definitions may have weak binding and others may have strong binding. "Strong" in
this context means that the symbol has not been given a weak binding by either of the two methods described
above. Some definitions may come from an input object file (that is, using assembly directives) and others may
come from an assignment statement in a linker command file.
The linker uses the following guidelines to determine which definition is used when resolving references to a
symbol:
• A strongly bound symbol always takes precedence over a weakly bound symbol.
• If two symbols are both strongly bound or both weakly bound, a symbol defined in a linker command file
takes precedence over a symbol defined in an input object file.
• If two symbols are both strongly bound and both are defined in an input object file, the linker provides a
symbol redefinition error and halts the link process.
2.6.4 The Symbol Table
The assembler generates entries with global (external) binding in the symbol table for each of the following:
• Each .ref, .def, or .global directive (see Section 2.6.1)
• The beginning of each section
The assembler generates entries with local binding for each locally-available function.
For informational purposes, there are also entries in the symbol table for each symbol in a program.
2.7 Symbolic Relocations

The assembler treats each section as if it began at address 0. Of course, all sections cannot actually begin at
address 0 in memory, so the linker must relocate sections. For COFF, all relocations are relative to address 0 in
their sections. For EABI, relocations are symbol-relative rather than section-relative.
The linker can relocate sections by:
• Allocating them into the memory map so that they begin at the appropriate address as defined with the
linker's MEMORY directive
• Adjusting symbol values to correspond to the new section addresses
• Adjusting references to relocated symbols to reflect the adjusted symbol values
The linker uses relocation entries to adjust references to symbol values. The assembler creates a relocation
entry each time a relocatable symbol is referenced. The linker then uses these entries to patch the references
after the symbols are relocated. The following example contains a code fragment for a TMS320C28x device for
which the assembler generates relocation entries.
1 .global X
2 00000000 .text
3 00000000 0080' LC Y ; Generates a relocation entry
00000001 0004
4 00000002 28A1! MOV AR1,#X ; Generates a relocation entry
00000003 0000
5 00000004 7621 Y: IDLE
2.7.1 Expressions With Multiple Relocatable Symbols (COFF Only)

Sometimes an expression contains more than one relocatable symbol, or cannot be evaluated at assembly time.
In this case, the assembler encodes the entire expression in the object file. After determining the addresses of
the symbols, the linker computes the value of the expression.
Note
Expression Cannot Be Larger Than Space Reserved
If the value of an expression is larger, in bits, than the space reserved for it, you will receive an error
message from the linker.
Each section in an object module has a table of relocation entries. The table contains one relocation entry for
each relocatable reference in the section. The linker usually removes relocation entries after it uses them. This
prevents the output file from being relocated again (if it is relinked or when it is loaded). A file that contains no
relocation entries is an absolute file (all its addresses are absolute addresses, which are addresses known at
assembly time). If you want the linker to retain relocation entries, invoke the linker with the --relocatable option
(see Section 8.4.3.2).
In the example in Section 2.7, both symbols X and Y are relocatable. Y is defined in the .text section of this
module; X is defined in another module. When the code is assembled, X has a value of 0 (the assembler
assumes all undefined external symbols have values of 0), and Y has a value of 4 (relative to address 0 in
the .text section). The assembler generates two relocation entries: one for X and one for Y. The reference to X
is an external reference (indicated by the ! character in the listing). The reference to Y is to an internally defined
relocatable symbol (indicated by the ' character in the listing).
After the code is linked, suppose that X is relocated to address 0x7100. Suppose also that the .text section is
relocated to begin at address 0x7200; Y now has a relocated value of 0x7204. The linker uses the two relocation
entries to patch the two references in the object code:
0080' LC Y becomes 0080'
0004 7204
28A1! MOV AR1,#X becomes 28A1!
0000 7100
Sometimes an expression contains more than one relocatable symbol, or cannot be evaluated at assembly time.
In this case, the assembler encodes the entire expression in the object file. After determining the addresses of
the symbols, the linker computes the value of the expression as shown in the following example.
1 .global sym1, sym2
2
3 00000000 FF20% MOV ACC, #(sym2-sym1)
00000001 0000
The symbols sym1 and sym2 are both externally defined. Therefore, the assembler cannot evaluate the
expression sym2 - sym1, so it encodes the expression in the object file. The '%' listing character indicates a
relocation expression. Suppose the linker relocates sym2 to 300h and sym1 to 200h. Then the linker computes
the value of the expression to be 300h - 200h = 100h. Thus the MOV instruction is patched to:
00000000 FF20 MOV ACC, #(sym2-sym1)
00000001 0100
2.8 Loading a Program

The linker creates an executable object file which can be loaded in several ways, depending on your execution
environment. These methods include using Code Composer Studio or the hex conversion utility. For details, see
Section 3.1.
www.ti.com Program Loading and Running
Chapter 3
Program Loading and Running
Even after a program is written, compiled, and linked into an executable object file, there are still many tasks that
need to be performed before the program does its job. The program must be loaded onto the target, memory
and registers must be initialized, and the program must be set to running.
Some of these tasks need to be built into the program itself. Bootstrapping is the process of a program
performing some of its own initialization. Many of the necessary tasks are handled for you by the compiler and
linker, but if you need more control over these tasks, it helps to understand how the pieces are expected to fit
together.
This chapter will introduce you to the concepts involved in program loading, initialization, and startup.
This chapter does not cover dynamic loading.
This chapter currently provides examples for the C6000 device family. Refer to your device documentation for
various device-specific aspects of bootstrapping.
3.1 Loading........................................................................................................................................................................36
3.2 Entry Point...................................................................................................................................................................40
3.3 Run-Time Initialization............................................................................................................................................... 41
3.4 Arguments to main.....................................................................................................................................................44
3.5 Run-Time Relocation..................................................................................................................................................44
3.6 Additional Information............................................................................................................................................... 44
Program Loading and Running www.ti.com
3.1 Loading
A program needs to be placed into the target device's memory before it may be executed. Loading is the
process of preparing a program for execution by initializing device memory with the program's code and data. A
loader might be another program on the device, an external agent (for example, a debugger), or the device might
initialize itself after power-on, which is known as bootstrap loading, or bootloading.
The loader is responsible for constructing the load image in memory before the program starts. The load image
is the program's code and data in memory before execution. What exactly constitutes loading depends on the
environment, such as whether an operating system is present. This section describes several loading schemes
for bare-metal devices. This section is not exhaustive. Additionally, with the COFF RAM model, the loader is
responsible for parsing the .cinit section and performing the initializations encoded therein at load time.
A program may be loaded in the following ways:
• A debugger running on a connected host workstation. In a typical embedded development setup, the
device is subordinate to a host running a debugger such as Code Composer Studio (CCS). The device is
connected with a communication channel such as a JTAG interface. CCS reads the program and writes the
load image directly to target memory through the communications interface.
• "Burning" the load image onto an EPROM module. The hex converter (hex2000) can assist with this by
converting the executable object file into a format suitable for input to an EPROM programmer. The EPROM
is placed onto the device itself and becomes a part of the device's memory. See Chapter 12 for details.
• Bootstrap loading from a dedicated peripheral, such as an I2C peripheral. The device may require a
small program called a bootloader to perform the loading from the peripheral. The hex converter can assist in
creating a bootloader.
• Another program running on the device. The running program can create the load image and transfer
control to the loaded program. If an operating system is present, it may have the ability to load and run
programs.
3.1.1 Load and Run Addresses
Consider an embedded device for which the program's load image is burned onto EPROM/ROM. Variable data
in the program must be writable, and so must be located in writable memory, typically RAM. However, RAM is
volatile, meaning it will lose its contents when the power goes out. If this data must have an initial value, that
initial value must be stored somewhere else in the load image, or it would be lost when power is cycled. The
initial value must be copied from the non-volatile ROM to its run-time location in RAM before it is used. See
Section 8.8 for ways this is done.
The load address is the location of an object in the load image.
The run address is the location of the object as it exists during program execution.
An object is a chunk of memory. It represents a section, segment, function, or data.
The load and run addresses for an object may be the same. This is commonly the case for program code
and read-only data, such as the .econst section. In this case, the program can read the data directly from the
load address. Sections that have no initial value, such as the .ebss section, do not have load data and are
considered to have load and run addresses that are the same. If you specify different load and run addresses for
an uninitialized section, the linker provides a warning and ignores the load address.
The load and run addresses for an object may be different. This is commonly the case for writable data, such as
the .data section. The .data section's starting contents are placed in ROM and copied to RAM. This often occurs
during program startup, but depending on the needs of the object, it may be deferred to sometime later in the
program as described in Section 3.5.
Symbols in assembly code and object files almost always refer to the run address. When you look at an address
in the program, you are almost always looking at the run address. The load address is rarely used for anything
but initialization.
The load and run addresses for a section are controlled by the linker command file and are recorded in the
object file metadata.
The load address determines where a loader places the raw data for the section. Any references to the section
(such as references to labels in it) refer to its run address. The application must copy the section from its load
address to its run address before the first reference of the symbol is encountered at run time; this does not
happen automatically simply because you specify a separate run address. For examples that specify load and
run addresses, see Section 8.5.6.1.
For an example that illustrates how to move a block of code at run time, see Moving a Function from Slow
to Fast Memory at Run Time. To create a symbol that lets you refer to the load-time address, rather than the
run-time address, see the .label directive. To use copy tables to copy objects from load-space to run-space at
boot time, see Section 8.8.
ELF format executable object files contain segments. See Section 2.3 for information about sections and
segments. COFF format executable object files contain sections.
3.1.2 Bootstrap Loading
The details of bootstrap loading (bootloading) vary a great deal between devices. Not every device supports
every bootloading mode, and using the bootloader is optional. This section discusses various bootloading
schemes to help you understand how they work. Refer to your device's data sheet to see which bootloading
schemes are available and how to use them.
A typical embedded system uses bootloading to initialize the device. The program code and data may be stored
in ROM or FLASH memory. At power-on, an on-chip bootloader (the primary bootloader) built into the device
hardware starts automatically.
Figure 3-1. Bootloading Sequence (Simplified)
The primary bootloader is typically very small and copies a limited amount of memory from a dedicated location
in ROM to a dedicated location in RAM. (Some bootloaders support copying the program from an I/O peripheral.)
After the copy is completed, it transfers control to the program.
For many programs, the primary bootloader is not capable of loading the entire program, so these programs
supply a more capable secondary bootloader. The primary bootloader loads the secondary bootloader and
transfers control to it. Then, the secondary bootloader loads the rest of the program and transfers control to it.
There can be any number of layers of bootloaders, each loading a more capable bootloader to which it transfers
control.
Figure 3-2. Bootloading Sequence with Secondary Bootloader
3.1.2.1 Boot, Load, and Run Addresses

The boot address of a bootloaded object is where its raw data exists in ROM before power-on.
The boot, load, and run addresses for an object may all be the same; this is commonly the case for .const data.
If they are different, the object's contents must be copied to the correct location before the object may be used.
The boot address may be different than the load address. The bootloader is responsible for copying the raw data
to the load address.
The boot address is not controlled by the linker command file or recorded in the object file; it is strictly a
convention shared by the bootloader and the program.
3.1.2.2 Primary Bootloader
The detailed operation of the primary bootloader is device-specific. Some devices have complex capabilities
such as booting from an I/O peripheral or configuring memory controller parameters.
3.1.2.3 Secondary Bootloader
The hex converter assumes the secondary bootloader is of a particular format. The hex converter's model
bootloader uses a boot table. You can use whatever format you want, but if you follow this model, the hex
converter can create the boot table automatically.
3.1.2.4 Boot Table
The input for the model secondary bootloader is the boot table. The boot table contains records that instruct the
secondary bootloader to copy blocks of data contained in the table to specified destination addresses. The hex
conversion utility automatically builds the boot table for the secondary bootloader. Using the utility, you specify
the sections you want to initialize, the boot table location, and the name of the section containing the secondary
bootloader routine and where it should be located. The hex conversion utility builds a complete image of the
table and adds it to the program.
The boot table is target-specific. For C6000, the format of the boot table is simple. A header record contains
a 4-byte field that indicates where the boot loader should branch after it has completed copying data. After the
header, each section that is to be included in the boot table has the following contents:
• 4-byte field containing the size of the section
• 4-byte field containing the destination address for the copy
• the raw data
• 0 to 3 bytes of trailing padding to make the next field aligned to 4 bytes
More than one section can be entered; a termination block containing an all-zero 4-byte field follows the last
section.
See Section 12.11.2 for details about the boot table format.
3.1.2.5 Bootloader Routine
The bootloader routine is a normal function, except that it executes before the C environment is set up. For this
reason, it can't use the C stack, and it can't call any functions that have yet to be loaded!
The following sample code is for C6000 and is from Creating a Second-Level Bootloader for FLASH Bootloading
on TMS320C6000 Platform With Code Composer Studio (SPRA999).
Example 3-1. Sample Secondary Bootloader Routine
; ======== boot_c671x.s62 ========

; global EMIF symbols defined for the c671x family
.include boot_c671x.h62
.sect ".boot_load"
.global _boot
_boot:
;************************************************************************
;* DEBUG LOOP − COMMENT OUT B FOR NORMAL OPERATION
;************************************************************************
zero B1
_myloop: ; [!B1] B _myloop
nop 5
_myloopend: nop
;************************************************************************
;* CONFIGURE EMIF
;************************************************************************
;****************************************************************
; *EMIF_GCTL = EMIF_GCTL_V;
;****************************************************************
mvkl EMIF_GCTL,A4
|| mvkl EMIF_GCTL_V,B4
mvkh EMIF_GCTL,A4
|| mvkh EMIF_GCTL_V,B4
stw B4,*A4
;****************************************************************
; *EMIF_CE0 = EMIF_CE0_V
;****************************************************************
mvkl EMIF_CE0,A4
|| mvkl EMIF_CE0_V,B4
mvkh EMIF_CE0,A4
|| mvkh EMIF_CE0_V,B4
stw B4,*A4
;****************************************************************
; *EMIF_CE1 = EMIF_CE1_V (setup for 8−bit async)
;****************************************************************
mvkl EMIF_CE1,A4
mvkh EMIF_CE1,A4
stw B4,*A4
;****************************************************************
;****************************************************************
mvkl EMIF_CE2,A4
mvkh EMIF_CE2,A4
stw B4,*A4
;****************************************************************
;****************************************************************
|| mvkl EMIF_CE3,A4
|| mvkl EMIF_CE3_V,B4 ;
mvkh EMIF_CE3,A4
stw B4,*A4
;****************************************************************
; *EMIF_SDRAMCTL = EMIF_SDRAMCTL_V
;****************************************************************
|| mvkl EMIF_SDRAMCTL,A4
|| mvkl EMIF_SDRAMCTL_V,B4 ;
mvkh EMIF_SDRAMCTL,A4
|| mvkh EMIF_SDRAMCTL_V,B4
stw B4,*A4
;****************************************************************
; *EMIF_SDRAMTIM = EMIF_SDRAMTIM_V
;****************************************************************
|| mvkl EMIF_SDRAMTIM,A4
|| mvkl EMIF_SDRAMTIM_V,B4 ;
mvkh EMIF_SDRAMTIM,A4
|| mvkh EMIF_SDRAMTIM_V,B4
stw B4,*A4
;****************************************************************
; *EMIF_SDRAMEXT = EMIF_SDRAMEXT_V
;****************************************************************
|| mvkl EMIF_SDRAMEXT,A4
|| mvkl EMIF_SDRAMEXT_V,B4 ;
mvkh EMIF_SDRAMEXT,A4
|| mvkh EMIF_SDRAMEXT_V,B4
stw B4,*A4
;****************************************************************************
; copy sections
;****************************************************************************
mvkl COPY_TABLE, a3 ; load table pointer
mvkh COPY_TABLE, a3
ldw *a3++, b1 ; Load entry point
copy_section_top:
ldw *a3++, b0 ; byte count
ldw *a3++, a4 ; ram start address
nop 3
[!b0] b copy_done ; have we copied all sections?
nop 5
copy_loop:
ldb *a3++,b5
sub b0,1,b0 ; decrement counter
[ b0] b copy_loop ; setup branch if not done
[!b0] b copy_section_top
zero a1
[!b0] and 3,a3,a1
stb b5,*a4++
[!b0] and −4,a3,a5 ; round address up to next multiple of 4
[ a1] add 4,a5,a3 ; round address up to next multiple of 4
;****************************************************************************
; jump to entry point
;****************************************************************************
copy_done:
b .S2 b1
nop 5
3.2 Entry Point

The entry point is the address at which the execution of the program begins. This is the address of the startup
routine. The startup routine is responsible for initializing and calling the rest of the program. For a C/C++
program, the startup routine is usually named _c_int00 (see Section 3.3.1). After the program is loaded, the
value of the entry point is placed in the PC register and the CPU is allowed to run.
The object file has an entry point field. For a C/C++ program, the linker will fill in _c_int00 by default. You can
select a custom entry point; see Section 8.4.13. The device itself cannot read the entry point field from the object
file, so it has to be encoded in the program somewhere.
• If you are using a bootloader, the boot table includes an entry point field. When it finishes running, the
bootloader branches to the entry point.
• If you are using an interrupt vector, the entry point is installed as the RESET interrupt handler. When RESET
is applied, the startup routine will be invoked.
• If you are using a hosted debugger, such as CCS, the debugger may explicitly set the program counter (PC)
to the value of the entry point.
3.3 Run-Time Initialization
After the load image is in place, the program can run. The subsections that follow describe bootstrap initialization
of a C/C++ program. An assembly-only program may not need to perform all of these steps.
3.3.1 The _c_int00 Function
The function _c_int00 is the startup routine (also called the boot routine) for C/C++ programs. It performs all the
steps necessary for a C/C++ program to initialize itself.
The name _c_int00 means that it is the interrupt handler for interrupt number 0, RESET, and that it sets up
the C environment. Its name need not be exactly _c_int00, but the linker sets _c_int00 as the entry point for C
programs by default. The compiler's run-time-support library provides a default implementation of _c_int00.
The startup routine is responsible for performing the following actions:
1. Set up status and configuration registers
2. Set up the stack
3. Process the .cinit run-time initialization table to autoinitialize global variables (when using the --rom_model
option)
4. Call all global object constructors in .init_array (for EABI) .pinit (for COFF)
5. Call the function main
6. Call exit when main returns
3.3.2 RAM Model vs. ROM Model
Choose a startup model based on the needs of your application. The ROM model performs more work during the
boot routine. The RAM model performs more work while loading the application.
If your application is likely to need frequent RESETs or is a standalone application, the ROM model may be a
better choice, because the boot routine will have all the data it needs to initialize RAM variables. However, for a
system with an operating system, it may be better to use the RAM model.
In the COFF RAM model, the loader is first responsible for processing the .cinit section. The .cinit section is a
NOLOAD section, which means it does not get allocated to target memory. Instead, the loader is responsible for
parsing the .cinit section and performing the initializations encoded therein at load time.
In both the COFF ROM and EABI ROM models, the C boot routine copies data from the .cinit section to the
run-time location of the variables to be initialized.
In the EABI RAM model, no .cinit records are generated at startup.
3.3.2.1 Autoinitializing Variables at Run Time (--rom_model)
Autoinitializing variables at run time is the default method of autoinitialization. To use this method, invoke the
linker with the --rom_model option.
The ROM model allows initialization data to be stored in slow non-volatile memory and copied to fast memory
each time the program is reset. Use this method if your application runs from code burned into slow memory or
needs to survive a reset.
For the ROM model with EABI, the .cinit section is loaded into memory along with all the other initialized
sections. The linker defines a special symbol called __TI_CINIT_Base that points to the beginning of the
initialization tables in memory. When the program begins running, the C boot routine copies data from the tables
(pointed to by .cinit) into the run-time location of the variables.
For the ROM model with COFF, the .cinit section is loaded into memory along with all the other initialized
sections. The linker defines a special symbol called cinit that points to the beginning of the initialization tables in
memory. When the program begins running, the C boot routine copies data from the tables (pointed to by .cinit)
into the specified variables in the .ebss or user-defined section.
Figure 3-3 illustrates autoinitialization at run time for the COFF ABI using the ROM model.
Figure 3-3. Autoinitialization at Run Time
3.3.2.2 Initializing Variables at Load Time (--ram_model)

The RAM model Initializes variables at load time. To use this method, invoke the linker with the --ram_model
option.
This model may reduce boot time and save memory used by the initialization tables.
When you use the --ram_model linker option, the linker sets the STYP_COPY bit in the .cinit section's header.
This tells the loader not to load the .cinit section into memory. (The .cinit section occupies no space in the
memory map.)
For COFF, the linker also sets the cinit symbol to -1 (normally, cinit points to the beginning of the initialization
tables). This indicates to the boot routine that the initialization tables are not present in memory; accordingly, no
run-time initialization is performed at boot time.
For EABI, the linker sets __TI_CINIT_Base equal to __TI_CINIT_Limit to indicate there are no .cinit records.
A COFF loader must be able to perform the following tasks to use initialization at load time:
• Detect the presence of the .cinit section in the object file.
• Determine that STYP_COPY is set in the .cinit section header, so that it knows not to copy the .cinit section
into memory.
• Understand the format of the initialization tables.
For EABI, the loader copies values directly from the .data section to memory.
Figure 3-4 illustrates the initialization of variables at load time for the COFF ABI..
Figure 3-4. Initialization at Load Time
3.3.2.3 The --rom_model and --ram_model Linker Options

The following list outlines what happens when you invoke the linker with the --ram_model or --rom_model option.
• The symbol _c_int00 is defined as the program entry point. The _c_int00 symbol is the start of the C
boot routine in boot.c.obj. Referencing _c_int00 ensures that boot.c.obj is automatically linked in from the
appropriate run-time-support library.
• For COFF, the .cinit output section is padded with a termination record to tell the boot routine (autoinitialize at
run time) or the loader (initialize at load time) when to stop reading initialization tables.
• When you use the ROM model to autoinitialize at run time (--rom_model option):
– For EABI, the linker defines a special symbol called __TI_CINIT_Base that points to the beginning of the
initialization tables in memory. When the program begins running, the C boot routine copies data from the
tables (pointed to by .cinit) into the run-time location of the variables.
– For COFF, the linker defines cinit as the starting address of the .cinit section. The C boot routine uses this
symbol as the starting point for autoinitialization.
• When you use the RAM model to initialize at load time (--ram_model option):
– For EABI, the linker sets __TI_CINIT_Base equal to __TI_CINIT_Limit to indicate there are no .cinit
records.
– For COFF, the linker sets cinit to -1. This indicates that the initialization tables are not in memory, so no
initialization is performed at run time. The linker sets the STYP_COPY flag (0010h) in the .cinit section
header. STYP_COPY is a special attribute that tells the loader to perform initialization directly and not to
load the .cinit section into memory. The linker does not allocate space in memory for the .cinit section.
Note
Loader
A loader is not included as part of the TMS320C28x C/C++ compiler tools. Use Code Composer
Studio as a loader.
3.3.3 About Linker-Generated Copy Tables

The RTS function copy_in can be used at run-time to move code and data around, usually from its load address
to its run address. This function reads size and location information from copy tables. The linker automatically
generates several kinds of copy tables. Refer to Section 8.8.
You can create and control code overlays with copy tables. See Section 8.8.4 for details and examples.
Copy tables can be used by the linker to implement run-time relocations as described in Section 3.5, however
copy tables require a specific table format.
3.3.3.1 BINIT
The BINIT (boot-time initialization) copy table is special in that the target will automatically perform the copying at
auto-initialization time. Refer to Section 8.8.4.2 for more about the BINIT copy table name. The BINIT copy table
is copied before .cinit processing.
3.3.3.2 CINIT
EABI .cinit tables are special kinds of copy tables. Refer to Section 3.3.2.1 for more about using the .cinit section
with the ROM model and Section 3.3.2.2 for more using it with the RAM model.
COFF .cinit tables can be used to provide copy table functionality. See Section 8.8 for more information.
3.4 Arguments to main
Some programs expect arguments to main (argc, argv) to be valid. Normally this isn't possible for an embedded
program, but the TI runtime does provide a way to do it. The user must allocate an .args section of an
appropriate size using the --args linker option. It is the responsibility of the loader to populate the .args section. It
is not specified how the loader determines which arguments to pass to the target. The format of the arguments is
the same as an array of pointers to char on the target.
See Section 8.4.4 for information about allocating memory for argument passing.
3.5 Run-Time Relocation
At times you may want to load code into one area of memory and move it to another area before running it.
For example, you may have performance-critical code in an external-memory-based system. The code must be
loaded into external memory, but it would run faster in internal memory. Because internal memory is limited, you
might swap in different speed-critical functions at different times.
The linker provides a way to handle this. Using the SECTIONS directive, you can optionally direct the linker
to allocate a section twice: first to set its load address and again to set its run address. Use the load keyword
for the load address and the run keyword for the run address. See Section 3.1.1 for more about load and run
addresses. If a section is assigned two addresses at link time, all labels defined in the section are relocated to
refer to the run-time address so that references to the section (such as branches) are correct when the code
runs.
If you provide only one allocation (either load or run) for a section, the section is allocated only once and loads
and runs at the same address. If you provide both allocations, the section is actually allocated as if it were two
separate sections. The two sections are the same size if the load section is not compressed.
Uninitialized sections (such as .ebss or .bss) are not loaded, so the only significant address is the run address.
The linker allocates uninitialized sections only once; if you specify both run and load addresses, the linker warns
you and ignores the load address.
For a complete description of run-time relocation, see Section 8.5.6.
3.6 Additional Information
See the following sections and documents for additional information:
Section 8.4.4, "Allocate Memory for Use by the Loader to Pass Arguments (--arg_size Option)"
Section 8.4.13, "Define an Entry Point (--entry_point Option)"
Section 8.5.6.1 ,"Specifying Load and Run Addresses"
Section 8.8, "Linker-Generated Copy Tables"
Section 8.11.1, "Run-Time Initialization"
Chapter 12, "Hex Conversion Utility Description"
"Run-Time Initialization" and "System Initialization" sections in the TMS320C28x Optimizing C/C++ Compiler
User's Guide
www.ti.com Assembler Description
Chapter 4
Assembler Description
The TMS320C28x assembler translates assembly language source files into machine language object files.
These files are object modules, which are discussed in Chapter 2. Source files can contain the following
assembly language elements:
Assembler directives described in Chapter 5
Macro directives described in Chapter 6
Assembly language instructions described in the TMS320C28x DSP CPU and Instruction Set Reference Guide.
4.1 Assembler Overview.................................................................................................................................................. 46

4.2 The Assembler's Role in the Software Development Flow.....................................................................................47
4.3 Invoking the Assembler............................................................................................................................................. 48
4.4 Controlling Application Binary Interface..................................................................................................................49
4.5 Naming Alternate Directories for Assembler Input................................................................................................. 49
4.6 Source Statement Format..........................................................................................................................................52
4.7 Literal Constants........................................................................................................................................................ 54
4.8 Assembler Symbols................................................................................................................................................... 57
4.9 Expressions................................................................................................................................................................ 63
4.10 Built-in Functions and Operators............................................................................................................................66
4.11 TMS320C28x Assembler Extensions...................................................................................................................... 67
4.12 Source Listings.........................................................................................................................................................69
4.13 Debugging Assembly Source..................................................................................................................................71
4.14 Cross-Reference Listings........................................................................................................................................ 72
4.15 Smart Encoding........................................................................................................................................................ 73
4.16 Pipeline Conflict Detection...................................................................................................................................... 74
Assembler Description www.ti.com
4.1 Assembler Overview

The 2-pass assembler does the following:
• Processes the source statements in a text file to produce a relocatable object file
• Produces a source listing (if requested) and provides you with control over this listing
• Allows you to divide your code into sections and maintain a section program counter (SPC) for each section
of object code
• Defines and references global symbols and appends a cross-reference listing to the source listing (if
requested)
• Allows conditional assembly
• Supports macros, allowing you to define macros inline or in a library
4.2 The Assembler's Role in the Software Development Flow

Figure 4-1 illustrates the assembler's role in the software development flow. The shaded portion highlights the
most common assembler development path. The assembler accepts assembly language source files as input,
both those you create and those created by the TMS320C28x C/C++ compiler.
C
source
files
Macro C2xx
source C/C++
compiler assembler
files source
Archiver
source assistant
Macro Assembler
library Assembler
source
Debugging
tools
object support
Post-link
optimizer
Executable
object file
Hex-conversion
utility

Absolute lister
Figure 4-1. The Assembler in the TMS320C28x Software Development Flow
4.3 Invoking the Assembler

To invoke the assembler, enter the following:
cl2000 input file [options]
cl2000 is the command that invokes the assembler through the compiler. The compiler considers any file with an .asm extension
to be an assembly file and invokes the assembler.
input file names the assembly language source file.
options identify the assembler options that you want to use. Options are case sensitive and can appear anywhere on the
command line following the command. Precede each option with one or two hyphens as shown.
The valid assembler options are listed in Table 4-1.
Table 4-1. TMS320C28x Assembler Options

Option Alias Description
--absolute_listing -aa Creates an absolute listing. When you use --absolute_listing, the assembler does not produce
an object file. The --absolute_listing option is used in conjunction with the absolute lister.
--asm_define=name[=def] -ad Sets the name symbol. This is equivalent to defining name with a .set directive in the case of a
numeric value or with an .asg directive otherwise. If value is omitted, the symbol is set to 1. See
Section 4.8.5.
--asm_dependency -apd Performs preprocessing for assembly files, but instead of writing preprocessed output, writes a
list of dependency lines suitable for input to a standard make utility. The list is written to a file
with the same name as the source file but with a .ppa extension.
--asm_includes -api Performs preprocessing for assembly files, but instead of writing preprocessed output, writes a
list of files included with the .include directive. The list is written to a file with the same name as
the source file but with a .ppa extension.
--asm_listing -al Produces a listing file with the same name as the input file with a .lst extension.
--asm_listing_cross_reference -ax Produces a cross-reference table and appends it to the end of the listing file; it also adds
cross-reference information to the object file for use by the cross-reference utility. If you do not
request a listing file but use the --asm_listing_cross_reference option, the assembler creates a
listing file automatically, naming it with the same name as the input file with a .lst extension.
--asm_undefine=name -au Undefines the predefined constant name, which overrides any --asm_define options for the
specified constant.
--cla_support[=cla0|cla1|cla2] Specifies TMS320C28x Control Law Accelerator (CLA) Type 0, Type 1, or Type 2 support. This
option is used to compile or assemble code written for the CLA. This option does not need
any special library support when linking; the libraries used for C28x with/without FPU support
should be sufficient.
--cmd_file=filename -@ Appends the contents of a file to the command line. You can use this option to avoid limitations
on command line length imposed by the host operating system. Use an asterisk or a semicolon
(* or ;) at the beginning of a line in the command file to include comments. Comments that
begin in any other column must begin with a semicolon. Within the command file, filenames or
option parameters containing embedded spaces or hyphens must be surrounded with quotation
marks. For example: "this-file.asm"
--float_support={ fpu32 | fpu64 } Assembles code for C28x with 32-bit or 64-bit hardware FPU support.
--include_file=filename -ahi Includes the specified file for the assembly module. The file is included before source file
statements. The included file does not appear in the assembly listing files.
--include_path=pathname -I Specifies a directory where the assembler can find files named by the .copy, .include, or .mlib
directives. There is no limit to the number of directories you can specify in this manner; each
pathname must be preceded by the --include_path option. See Section 4.5.1.
--lfu_reference_elf=path - In order to create a Live Firmware Update (LFU) compatible executable binary, specify the
lfu=pat path to a previous ELF executable binary to use as a reference from which to obtain a list
h of the memory addresses of global and static symbols. This previous binary may be an LFU-
compatible binary, but this is not required. (LFU is supported for EABI only)
--quiet -q Suppresses the banner and progress information (assembler runs in quiet mode).
Table 4-1. TMS320C28x Assembler Options (continued)

Option Alias Description
--symdebug:dwarf or -g (DWARF is on by default) Enables assembler source debugging in the C source debugger. Line
--symdebug:none information is output to the object module for every line of source in the assembly language
source file. You cannot use this option on assembly code that contains .line directives. See
Section 4.13.
--vcu_support[=vcu0|vcu2|vcrc] The vcu0 and vcu2 settings specify there is support for Type 0 or Type 2 of the Viterbi, Complex
Math and CRC Unit (VCU). Note that there is no VCU Type 1. The default is vcu0.
The vcrc setting specifies support for Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) algorithms only.
Support for vcrc is available only if FPU32 or FPU64 is used.
This option is useful only if the source is in assembly code, written for the VCU. The option is
ignored for C/C++ code. This option does not require any special library support from the linker;
the libraries used for C28x with/without VCU support should be sufficient.
4.4 Controlling Application Binary Interface

An Application Binary Interface (ABI) defines the low level interface between object files, and between an
executable and its execution environment. The ABI exists to allow ABI-compliant object code to link together,
regardless of its source, and allows the resulting executable to run on any system that supports that ABI.
The C28x Code Generation Tools support both the COFF ABI and the EABI ABI. The ABI used by the assembler
is determined by the --abi command-line option.
• COFF ABI: (--abi=coffabi, the default)
When using the COFF ABI, the output files are in COFF format. See the Common Object File Format
Application Report (SPRAAO8) for details.
• EABI: (--abi=eabi)
When using EABI, the output files are in Executable and Linking Format (ELF). See the TMS320C28x
Optimizing C/C++ Compiler User's Guide (SPRU514) and the C28x Embedded Application Binary Interface
Application Report (SPRAC71) for information on the EABI ABI.
All object files in an application must be built for the same ABI. The linker detects situations where object
modules conform to different ABIs and generates an error.
Converting an assembly file from the COFF API to EABI requires some changes to the assembly code. For
example, you would typically need to make the following changes when a memory section is referenced:
• .ebss to .bss
• .esysmem to .sysmem
• .econst to .const
• .pinit to .init_array
The examples in this guide are generally written for the COFF ABI.
4.5 Naming Alternate Directories for Assembler Input
The .copy, .include, and .mlib directives tell the assembler to use code from external files. The .copy and .include
directives tell the assembler to read source statements from another file, and the .mlib directive names a library
that contains macro functions. Chapter 5 contains examples of the .copy, .include, and .mlib directives. The
syntax for these directives is:
.copy ["]filename["]
.include ["]filename["]
.mlib ["]filename["]
The filename names a copy/include file that the assembler reads statements from or a macro library that
contains macro definitions. If filename begins with a number the double quotes are required. Quotes are
recommended so that there is no issue in dealing with path information that is included in the filename
specification or path names that include white space. The filename may be a complete pathname, a partial
pathname, or a filename with no path information.
The assembler searches for the file in the following locations in the order given:
1. The directory that contains the current source file. The current source file is the file being assembled when
the .copy, .include, or .mlib directive is encountered.
2. Any directories named with the --include_path option
3. Any directories named with the C2000_A_DIR environment variable
4. Any directories named with the C2000_C_DIR environment variable
Because of this search hierarchy, you can augment the assembler's directory search algorithm by using the
--include_path option (described in Section 4.5.1) or the C2000_A_DIR environment variable (described in
Section 4.5.2). The C2000_C_DIR environment variable is discussed in the TMS320C28x Optimizing C/C++
4.5.1 Using the --include_path Assembler Option
The --include_path assembler option names an alternate directory that contains copy/include files or macro
libraries. The format of the --include_path option is as follows:
cl2000 --include_path= pathname source filename [other options]
There is no limit to the number of --include_path options per invocation; each --include_path option names
one pathname. In assembly source, you can use the .copy, .include, or .mlib directive without specifying path
information. If the assembler does not find the file in the directory that contains the current source file, it
searches the paths designated by the --include_path options.
For example, assume that a file called source.asm is in the current directory; source.asm contains the following
directive statement:
.copy "copy.asm"
Assume the following paths for the copy.asm file:

UNIX: /tools/files/copy.asm
Windows: c:\tools\files\copy.asm
You could set up the search path with the commands shown below:
Operating System Enter
UNIX (Bourne shell) cl2000 --include_path=/tools/files source.asm
Windows cl2000 --include_path=c:\tools\files source.asm
The assembler first searches for copy.asm in the current directory because source.asm is in the current
directory. Then the assembler searches in the directory named with the --include_path option.
4.5.2 Using the C2000_A_DIR Environment Variable

An environment variable is a system symbol that you define and assign a string to. The assembler uses
the C2000_A_DIR environment variable to name alternate directories that contain copy/include files or macro
libraries.
The assembler looks for the C2000_A_DIR environment variable and then reads and processes it. If the
assembler does not find the C2000_A_DIR variable, it then searches for C2000_C_DIR. The processor-specific
variables are useful when you are using Texas Instruments tools for different processors at the same time.
See the TMS320C28x Optimizing C/C++ Compiler User's Guide for details on C2000_C_DIR.
The command syntax for assigning the environment variable is as follows:
UNIX (Bourne Shell) C2000_A_DIR=" pathname1 ; pathname2 ; . . . "; export C2000_A_DIR
Windows set C2000_A_DIR= pathname1 ; pathname2 ; . . .
The pathnames are directories that contain copy/include files or macro libraries. The pathnames must follow
these constraints:
• Pathnames must be separated with a semicolon.
• Spaces or tabs at the beginning or end of a path are ignored. For example the space before and after the
semicolon in the following is ignored:
set C28X_A_DIR= c:\path\one\to\tools ; c:\path\two\to\tools
• Spaces and tabs are allowed within paths to accommodate Windows directories that contain spaces. For
example, the pathnames in the following are valid:
set C28X_A_DIR=c:\first path\to\tools;d:\second path\to\tools
In assembly source, you can use the .copy, .include, or .mlib directive without specifying path information. If the
assembler does not find the file in the directory that contains the current source file or in directories named by
the --include_path option, it searches the paths named by the environment variable.
For example, assume that a file called source.asm contains these statements:
.copy "copy1.asm"
.copy "copy2.asm"
Assume the following paths for the files:

UNIX: /tools/files/copy1.asm and /dsys/copy2.asm
Windows: c:\tools\files\copy1.asm and c:\dsys\copy2.asm
You could set up the search path with the commands shown below:
UNIX (Bourne shell) C2000_A_DIR="/dsys"; export C2000_A_DIR
cl2000 --include_path=/tools/files source.asm
Windows C2000_A_DIR=c:\dsys
cl2000 --include_path=c:\tools\files source.asm
The assembler first searches for copy1.asm and copy2.asm in the current directory because source.asm is in
the current directory. Then the assembler searches in the directory named with the --include_path option and
finds copy1.asm. Finally, the assembler searches the directory named with C2000_A_DIR and finds copy2.asm.
The environment variable remains set until you reboot the system or reset the variable by entering one of these
commands:
UNIX (Bourne shell) unset C2000_A_DIR
Windows set C2000_A_DIR=
4.6 Source Statement Format

Each line in a TMS320C28x assembly input file can be empty, a comment, an assembler directive, a macro
invocation, or an assembly instruction.
Assembly language source statements can contain four ordered fields (label, mnemonic, operand list, and
comment). The general syntax for source statements is as follows:
[label[:] ] [||] mnemonic [operand list] [;comment]
Labels cannot be placed on instructions that have parallel bars.

Following are examples of source statements:
two .set 2 ; Symbol two = 2
Begin: MOV AR1,#two ; Load AR1 with 2
.word 016h ; Initialize a word with 016h
The C28x assembler reads an unlimited number of characters per line. Source statements that extend beyond
400 characters in length (including comments) are truncated in the listing file.
Follow these guidelines:
• All statements must begin with a label, a blank, an asterisk, or a semicolon.
• Labels are optional for most statements; if used, they must begin in column 1.
• One or more space or tab characters must separate each field.
• Comments are optional. Comments that begin in column 1 can begin with an asterisk or a semicolon (* or ;),
but comments that begin in any other column must begin with a semicolon.
Note
A mnemonic cannot begin in column 1 or it will be interpreted as a label. Mnemonic opcodes and
assembler directive names without the . prefix are valid label names. Remember to always use
whitespace before the mnemonic, or the assembler will think the identifier is a new label definition.
The following sections describe each of the fields.
4.6.1 Label Field

A label must be a legal identifier (see Section 4.8.1) placed in column 1. Every instruction may optionally have a
label. Many directives allow a label, and some require a label.
A label can be followed by a colon (:). The colon is not treated as part of the label name. If you do not use a
label, the first character position must contain a blank, a semicolon, or an asterisk.
When you use a label on an assembly instruction or data directive, an assembler symbol (Section 4.8) with the
same name is created. Its value is the current value of the section program counter (SPC, see Section 2.4.5).
This symbol represents the address of that instruction. In the following example, the .word directive is used to
create an array of 3 words. Because a label was used, the assembly symbol Start refers to the first word, and
the symbol will have the value 40h.
. . . .
9 * Assume some code was assembled
10 000040 000A Start: .word 0Ah,3,7
000044 0003
000048 0007
A label on a line by itself is a valid statement. When a label appears on a line by itself, it points to the instruction
on the next line (the SPC is not incremented):
1 000000 Here:
2 000000 0003 .word 3
A label on a line by itself is equivalent to writing:

Here: .equ $ ; $ provides the current value of the SPC
If you do not use a label, the character in column 1 must be a blank, an asterisk, or a semicolon.
4.6.2 Mnemonic Field
The mnemonic field follows the label field. The mnemonic field cannot start in column 1; if it does, it is interpreted
as a label. The mnemonic field can begin with pipe symbols (||) when the previous instruction is a RPT. Pipe
symbols that follow a RPT instruction indicate instructions that are repeated. For example:
RPT
|| Inst2 This instruction is repeated.
In the case of C28x with FPU support, the mnemonic field can begin with pipe symbols to indicate instructions
that are to be executed in parallel. For example, in the instance given below, Inst1 and Inst2 are FPU instructions
that execute in parallel:
Instr1
|| Instr2
Next, the mnemonic field contains one of the following items:

• Machine-instruction mnemonic (such as ADD, MOV, or B)
• Assembler directive (such as .data, .list, .equ)
• Macro directive (such as .macro, .var, .mexit)
• Macro invocation
4.6.3 Operand Field

The operand field follows the mnemonic field and contains zero or more comma-separated operands. An
operand can be one of the following:
• an immediate operand (usually a constant or symbol) (see Section 4.7 and Section 4.8)
• a register operand
• a memory reference operand
• an expression that evaluates to one of the above (see Section 4.9)
An immediate operand is encoded directly in the instruction. The value of an immediate operand must be a
constant expression. Most instructions with an immediate operand require an absolute constant expression,
such as 1234. Some instructions (such as a call instruction) allow a relocatable constant expression, such as a
symbol defined in another file. (See Section 4.9 for details about types of expressions.)
A register operand is a special pre-defined symbol that represents a CPU register.
A memory reference operand uses one of several memory addressing modes to refer to a location in memory.
Memory reference operands use a special target-specific syntax defined in the appropriate CPU and Instruction
Set Reference Guide.
You must separate operands with commas. Not all operand types are supported for all operands. See the
description of the specific instruction in the CPU and Instruction Set Reference Guide for your device family.
4.6.4 Comment Field
A comment can begin in any column and extends to the end of the source line. A comment can contain any
ASCII character, including blanks. Comments are printed in the assembly source listing, but they do not affect
the assembly.
A source statement that contains only a comment is valid. If it begins in column 1, it can start with a semicolon
( ; ) or an asterisk ( *). Comments that begin anywhere else on the line must begin with a semicolon. The
asterisk identifies a comment only if it appears in column 1.
4.7 Literal Constants
A literal constant (also known as a literal or in some other documents as an immediate value) is a value that
represents itself, such as 12, 3.14, or "hello".
The assembler supports several types of literals:
• Binary integer literals
• Octal integer literals
• Decimal integer literals
• Hexadecimal integer literals
• Character literals
• Character string literals
• Floating-point literals
Error checking for invalid or incomplete literals is performed.
4.7.1 Integer Literals
The assembler maintains each integer literal internally as a 32-bit signless quantity. Literals are considered
unsigned values, and are not sign extended. For example, the literal 00FFh is equal to 00FF (base 16) or 255
(base 10); it does not equal -1. which is 0FFFFFFFFh (base 16). Note that if you store 0FFh in a .byte location,
the bits will be exactly the same as if you had stored -1. It is up to the reader of that location to interpret the
signedness of the bits.
4.7.1.1 Binary Integer Literals

A binary integer literal is a string of up to 32 binary digits (0s and 1s) followed by the suffix B (or b). Binary literals
of the form "0[bB][10]+" are also supported. If fewer than 32 digits are specified, the assembler right justifies the
value and fills the unspecified bits with zeros. These are examples of valid binary literals:
00000000B Literal equal to 010 or 016
0100000b Literal equal to 3210 or 2016
01b Literal equal to 110 or 116
11111000B Literal equal to 24810 or 0F816
0b00101010 Literal equal to 4210 or 2A16
0B101010 Literal equal to 4210 or 2A16
4.7.1.2 Octal Integer Literals

An octal integer literal is a string of up to 11 octal digits (0 through 7) followed by the suffix Q (or q). Octal literals
may also begin with a 0, contain no 8 or 9 digits, and end with no suffix. These are examples of valid octal
literals:
10Q Literal equal to 810 or 816
054321 Literal equal to 2273710 or 58D116
100000Q Literal equal to 3276810 or 800016
226q Literal equal to 15010 or 9616
4.7.1.3 Decimal Integer Literals

A decimal integer literal is a string of decimal digits ranging from -2147 483 648 to 4 294 967 295. These are
examples of valid decimal integer literals:
1000 Literal equal to 100010 or 3E816
-32768 Literal equal to -32 76810 or -800016
25 Literal equal to 2510 or 1916
4815162342 Literal equal to 481516234210 or 11F018BE616
4.7.1.4 Hexadecimal Integer Literals

A hexadecimal integer literal is a string of up to eight hexadecimal digits followed by the suffix H (or h) or
preceded by 0x. A hexadecimal literal must begin with a decimal value (0-9) if it is indicated by the H or h suffix.
Hexadecimal digits include the decimal values 0-9 and the letters A-F or a-f. If fewer than eight hexadecimal
digits are specified, the assembler right-justifies the bits.
These are examples of valid hexadecimal literals:
78h Literal equal to 12010 or 007816
0x78 Literal equal to 12010 or 007816
0Fh Literal equal to 1510 or 000F16
37ACh Literal equal to 1425210 or 37AC16
4.7.1.5 Character Literals

A character literal is a single character enclosed in single quotes. The characters are represented internally as
8-bit ASCII characters. Two consecutive single quotes are required to represent each single quote that is part of
a character literal. A character literal consisting only of two single quotes is valid and is assigned the value 0.
These are examples of valid character literals:
'a' Defines the character literal a and is represented internally as 6116
'C' Defines the character literal C and is represented internally as 4316
'''' Defines the character literal ' and is represented internally as 2716
'' Defines a null character and is represented internally as 0016
Notice the difference between character literals and character string literals (Section 4.7.2 discusses character strings). A character literal
represents a single integer value; a string is a sequence of characters.
4.7.2 Character String Literals

A character string is a sequence of characters enclosed in double quotes. Double quotes that are part of
character strings are represented by two consecutive double quotes. The maximum length of a string varies and
is defined for each directive that requires a character string. Characters are represented internally as 8-bit ASCII
characters.
These are examples of valid character strings:
"sample program" defines the 14-character string sample program.
"PLAN ""C""" defines the 8-character string PLAN "C".
Character strings are used for the following:

• Filenames, as in .copy "filename"
• Section names, as in .sect "section name"
• Data initialization directives, as in .byte "charstring"
• Operands of .string directives
4.7.3 Floating-Point Literals

A floating-point literal is a string of decimal digits followed by a required decimal point, an optional fractional
portion, and an optional exponent portion. The syntax for a floating-point number is:
[ +|- ] nnn . [ nnn] [ E|e [ +|- ] nnn ]
Replace nnn with a string of decimal digits. You can precede nnn with a + or a -. You must specify a decimal
point. For example, 3.e5 is valid, but 3e5 is not valid. The exponent indicates a power of 10. These are examples
of valid floating-point literals:
3.0
3.14
3.
-0.314e13
+314.59e-2
The assembler syntax does not support all C89-style float literals nor C99-style hexadecimal constants, but the
$strtod built-in mathematical function supports both. If you want to specify a floating-point literal using one of
those formats, use $strtod. For example:
$strtod(".3")
$strtod("0x1.234p-5")
You cannot directly use NaN, Inf, or -Inf as floating-point literals. Instead, use $strtod to express these values.
The "NaN" and "Inf" strings are handled case-insensitively.
$strtod("NaN")
$strtod("Inf")
4.8 Assembler Symbols

An assembler symbol is a named 32-bit signless integer value, usually representing an address or absolute
integer. A symbol can represent such things as the starting address of a function, variable, or section. The name
of a symbol must be a legal identifier. The identifier becomes a symbolic representation of the symbol's value,
and may be used in subsequent instructions to refer to the symbol's location or value.
Some assembler symbols become external symbols, and are placed in the object file's symbol table. A symbol
is valid only within the module in which it is defined, unless you use the .global directive or the .def directive to
declare it as an external symbol (see .global directive).
See Section 2.6 for more about symbols and the symbol tables in object files.
4.8.1 Identifiers
Identifiers are names used as labels, registers, symbols, and substitution symbols. An identifier is a string of
alphanumeric characters, the dollar sign, and underscores (A-Z, a-z, 0-9, $, and _). The first character in an
identifier cannot be a number, and identifiers cannot contain embedded blanks. The identifiers you define are
case sensitive; for example, the assembler recognizes ABC, Abc, and abc as three distinct identifiers.
4.8.2 Labels
An identifier used as a label becomes an assembler symbol, which represent an address in the program. Labels
within a file must be unique.
Note
A mnemonic cannot begin in column 1 or it will be interpreted as a label. Mnemonic opcodes and
assembler directive names without the . prefix are valid label names. Remember to always use
whitespace before the mnemonic, or the assembler will think the identifier is a new label definition.
Symbols derived from labels can also be used as the operands of .bss, .global, .ref, or .def directives.
.global label1
label2: NOP
ADD AR1, label1
SB label2, UNC
4.8.3 Local Labels

Local labels are special labels whose scope and effect are temporary. A local label can be defined in two ways:
• $n, where n is a decimal digit in the range 0-9. For example, $4 and $1 are valid local labels. See Example
4-1.
• name?, where name is any legal identifier as described above. The assembler replaces the question mark
with a period followed by a unique number. When the source code is expanded, you will not see the unique
number in the listing file. Your label appears with the question mark as it did in the source definition. See
Example 4-2.
You cannot declare these types of labels as global.
Normal labels must be unique (they can be declared only once), and they can be used as constants in the
operand field. Local labels, however, can be undefined and defined again. Local labels cannot be defined by
directives.
A local label can be undefined or reset in one of these ways:
• By using the .newblock directive
• By changing sections (using a .sect, .text, or .data directive)
• By entering an include file (specified by the .include or .copy directive)
• By leaving an include file (specified by the .include or .copy directive)
Example 4-1. Local Labels of the Form $n
This is an example of code that declares and uses a local label legally:
$1:
ADDB AL, #-7
B $1, GEQ
.newblock ; undefine $1 to use it again.
$1 MOV T, AL
MPYB ACC, T, #7
CMP AL, #1000
B $1, LT
The following code uses a local label illegally:

$1:
ADDB AL, #-7
B $1, GEQ
$1 MOV T, AL ; WRONG - $1 is multiply defined.
MPYB ACC, T, #7
CMP AL, #1000
B $1, LT
The $1 label is not undefined before being reused by the second branch instruction. Therefore, $1 is redefined,
which is illegal.
Local labels are especially useful in macros. If a macro contains a normal label and is called more than once, the
assembler issues a multiple-definition error. If you use a local label and .newblock within a macro, however, the
local label is used and reset each time the macro is expanded.
Up to ten local labels of the $n form can be in effect at one time. Local labels of the form name? are not limited.
After you undefine a local label, you can define it and use it again. Local labels do not appear in the object code
symbol table.
Example 4-2. Local Labels of the Form name?
****************************************************************
** First definition of local label mylab **
****************************************************************
nop
mylab? nop
B mylab?, UNC
****************************************************************
** Include file has second definition of mylab **
****************************************************************
.copy "a.inc"
****************************************************************
** Third definition of mylab, reset upon exit from .include **
****************************************************************
mylab? nop
B mylab?, UNC
****************************************************************
** Fourth definition of mylab in macro, macros use different **
** namespace to avoid conflicts **
****************************************************************
mymac .macro
mylab? nop
B mylab?, UNC
.endm
****************************************************************
** Macro invocation **
****************************************************************
mymac
****************************************************************
** Reference to third definition of mylab. Definition is not **
** reset by macro invocation. **
****************************************************************
B mylab?, UNC
****************************************************************
** Changing section, allowing fifth definition of mylab **
****************************************************************
.sect "Sect_One"
nop
mylab? .word 0
nop
nop
B mylab?, UNC
****************************************************************
** The .newblock directive allows sixth definition of mylab **
****************************************************************
.newblock
mylab? .word 0
nop
nop
B mylab?, UNC
For more information about using labels in macros see Section 6.6.
4.8.4 Symbolic Constants
A symbolic constant is a symbol with a value that is an absolute constant expression (see Section
4.9). By using symbolic constants, you can assign meaningful names to constant expressions. The .set
and .struct/.tag/.endstruct directives enable you to set symbolic constants (see Define Assembly-Time Constant).
Once defined, symbolic constants cannot be redefined.
If you use the .set directive to assign a value to a symbol , the symbol becomes a symbolic constant and may be
used where a constant expression is expected. For example:
shift3 .set 3
MOV AR1, #shift3
You can also use the .set directive to assign symbolic constants for other symbols, such as register names. In
this case, the symbolic constant becomes a synonym for the register:
myReg .set AR1
MOV myReg, #3
The following example shows how the .set directive can be used with the .struct, .tag. and .endstruct directives.
It creates the symbolic constants K, maxbuf, item, value, delta, and i_len.
K .set 1024 ; constant definitions
maxbuf .set 2*K
item .struct ; item structure definition
value .int ; value offset = 0
delta .int ; delta offset = 4
i_len .endstruct ; item size = 8
array .tag item

array .usect ".ebss", i_len*K ; declare an array of K "items"
.text
MOV array.delta, AR1 ; access array .delta
The assembler also has many predefined symbolic constants; these are discussed in Section 4.8.6.
4.8.5 Defining Symbolic Constants (--asm_define Option)
The --asm_define option equates a constant value or a string with a symbol. The symbol can then be used in
place of a value in assembly source. The format of the --asm_define option is as follows:
cl2000 --asm_define= name[= value]
The name is the name of the symbol you want to define. The value is the constant or string value you want to
assign to the symbol. If the value is omitted, the symbol is set to 1. If you want to define a quoted string and keep
the quotation marks, do one of the following:
• For Windows, use --asm_define= name ="\" value \"". For example, --asm_define=car="\"sedan\""
• For UNIX, use --asm_define= name ='" value "'. For example, --asm_define=car='"sedan"'
• For Code Composer, enter the definition in a file and include that file with the --cmd_file (or -@) option.
Once you have defined the name with the --asm_define option, the symbol can be used with assembly directives
and instructions as if it had been defined with the .set directive. For example, on the command line you enter:
cl2000 --asm_define=SYM1=1 --asm_define=SYM2=2 --asm_define=SYM3=3 --asm_define=SYM4=4 value.asm
Since you have assigned values to SYM1, SYM2, SYM3, and SYM4, you can use them in source code. Example
4-3 shows how the value.asm file uses these symbols without defining them explicitly.
In assembler source, you can test the symbol defined with the --asm_define option with these directives:
Type of Test Directive Usage
Existence .if $isdefed(" name ")
Nonexistence .if $isdefed(" name ") = 0
Equal to value .if name = value
Not equal to value .if name != value
The argument to the $isdefed built-in function must be enclosed in quotes. The quotes cause the argument to be
interpreted literally rather than as a substitution symbol.
Example 4-3. Using Symbolic Constants Defined on Command Line
IF_4: .if SYM4 = SYM2 * SYM2

.byte SYM4 ; Equal values
.else
.byte SYM2 * SYM2 ; Unequal values
.endif
IF_5: .if SYM1 <= 10
.byte 10 ; Less than / equal
.else
.byte SYM1 ; Greater than
.endif
IF_6: .if SYM3 * SYM2 != SYM4 + SYM2
.byte SYM3 * SYM2 ; Unequal value
.else
.byte SYM4 + SYM4 ; Equal values
.endif
IF_7: .if SYM1 = SYM2
.byte SYM1
.elseif SYM2 + SYM3 = 5
.byte SYM2 + SYM3
.endif
4.8.6 Predefined Symbolic Constants

The assembler has several types of predefined symbols.
$, the dollar-sign character, represents the current value of the section program counter (SPC). $ is a relocatable
symbol if you are using COFF.
In addition, the following predefined processor symbolic constants are available:
Table 4-2. C28x Processor Symbolic Constants
Symbol name Description
__TI_EABI__ Set to 1 if EABI is enabled. Otherwise, COFF is used.
.TMS320C2000 Always set to 1
.TMS320C2800 Set to 1 for C28x
.TMS320C2800_CLA0 Set to 1 if --cla_support=cla0 or greater is used.
.TMS320C2800_CLA1 Set to 1 if --cla_support=cla1 or greater is used.
.TMS320C2800_CLA2 Set to 1 if --cla_support=cla2 is used.
.TMS320C2800_FPU32 Set to 1 if --float_support=fpu32 is used, otherwise 0.
.TMS320C2800_FPU64 Set to 1 if --float_support=fpu64 is used, otherwise 0.
.TMS320C2800_IDIV Set to 1 if --idiv_support=idiv0 is used.
.TMS320C2800_TMU0 Set to 1 if --tmu_support=tmu0 or greater is used.
.TMS320C2800_TMU1 Set to 1 if --tmu_support=tmu1 or greater is used.
.TMS320C2800_VCU0 Set to 1 if --vcu_support=vcu0 or greater is used.
.TMS320C2800_VCU2 Set to 1 if --vcu_support=vcu2 or greater is used.
.TMS320C2800_VCRC Set to 1 if --vcu_support=vcrc is used.
4.8.7 Registers
The names of C28x registers are predefined symbols.
In addition, control register names are predefined symbols.
Register symbols and aliases can be entered as all uppercase or all lowercase characters.
Control register symbols can be entered in all upper-case or all lower-case characters. For example, IER can
also be entered as ier.
See the "Register Conventions" section of the TMS320C28x Optimizing C/C++ Compiler User's Guide for details
about the registers and their uses.
Table 4-3. CPU and CPU Control Registers
Register Description
ACC/AH, AL Accumulator/accumulator high, accumulator low
DBGIER Debug interrupt enable register
DP Data page pointer
IER Interrupt enable register
IFR Interrupt flag pointer
P/PH, PL Product register/product high, product low
PC Program counter
RPC Return program counter
ST0 Status register 0
ST1 Status register 1
SP Stack pointer register
TH Multiplicant high register; an alias of T register
XAR0/AR0H, AR0 Auxiliary register 0/auxiliary 0 high, auxiliary 0 low
XT/T, TL Multiplicand register/Multiplicant high, multiplicant low
Table 4-4. FPU and FPU Control Registers

R0H Floating point register 0
STF Floating point status register
RB Repeat block register
Table 4-5. VCU Registers

VSTATUS VCU status and control register
VR0-VR8 VCU registers
VT0, VT1 VCU transition bit registers
VCRC VCU CRC result register
4.8.8 Substitution Symbols

Symbols can be assigned a string value. This enables you to create aliases for character strings by equating
them to symbolic names. Symbols that represent character strings are called substitution symbols. When the
assembler encounters a substitution symbol, its string value is substituted for the symbol name. Unlike symbolic
constants, substitution symbols can be redefined.
A string can be assigned to a substitution symbol anywhere within a program; for example:
.asg "AR1", myReg ;register AR1
.asg "*+XAR2 [2]", ARG1 ;first arg
.asg "*+XAR2 [1]", ARG2 ;second arg
When you are using macros, substitution symbols are important because macro parameters are actually
substitution symbols that are assigned a macro argument. The following code shows how substitution symbols
are used in macros:
add2 .macro A, B ; add2 macro definition
MOV AL, A
ADD AL, B
.endm
*add2 invocation
add2 LOC1, LOC2 ;add "LOC1" argument to a
;second argument "LOC2".
MOV AL,LOC1
ADD AL,LOC2
See Chapter 6 for more information about macros.

4.9 Expressions
Nearly all values and operands in assembly language are expressions, which may be any of the following:
• a literal constant
• a register
• a register pair
• a memory reference
• a symbol
• a built-in function invocation
• a mathematical or logical operation on one or more expressions
This section defines several types of expressions that are referred to throughout this document. Some instruction
operands accept limited types of expressions. For example, the .if directive requires its operand be an absolute
constant expression with an integer value. Absolute in the context of assembly code means that the value of the
expression must be known at assembly time.
A constant expression is any expression that does not in any way refer to a register or memory reference.
An immediate operand will usually not accept a register or memory reference. It must be given a constant
expression. Constant expressions may be any of the following:
• an address constant expression
• a symbol whose value is a constant expression
• a built-in function invocation on a constant expression
• a mathematical or logical operation on one or more constant expressions
An address constant expression is a special case of a constant expression. Some immediate operands that
require an address value can accept a symbol plus an addend; for example, some branch instructions. The
symbol must have a value that is an address, and it may be an external symbol. The addend must be
an absolute constant expression with an integer value. For example, a valid address constant expression is
"array+4".
A constant expression may be absolute or relocatable. Absolute means known at assembly time. Relocatable
means constant, but not known until link time. External symbols are relocatable, even if they refer to a symbol
defined in the same module.
An absolute constant expression may not refer to any external symbols anywhere in the expression. In other
words, an absolute constant expression may be any of the following:
• an absolute address constant expression
• a symbol whose value is an absolute constant expression
• a built-in function invocation whose arguments are all absolute constant expressions
• a mathematical or logical operation on one or more absolute constant expressions
A relocatable constant expression refers to at least one external symbol. For ELF, such expressions may contain
at most one external symbol. A relocatable constant expression may be any of the following:
• an external symbol
• a relocatable address constant expression
• a symbol whose value is a relocatable constant expression
• a built-in function invocation with any arguments that are relocatable constant expressions
• a mathematical or logical operation on one or more expressions, at least one of which is a relocatable
constant expression
In some cases, the value of a relocatable address expression may be known at assembly time. For example, a
relative displacement branch may branch to a label defined in the same section.
4.9.1 Mathematical and Logical Operators
The operands of a mathematical or logical operator must be well-defined expressions. That is, you must use the
correct number of operands and the operation must make sense. For example, you cannot take the XOR of a
floating-point value. In addition, well-defined expressions contain only symbols or assembly-time constants that
have been defined before they occur in the directive's expression.
Three main factors influence the order of expression evaluation:
Parentheses Expressions enclosed in parentheses are always evaluated first.
8 / (4 / 2) = 4, but 8 / 4 / 2 = 1
You cannot substitute braces ( { } ) or brackets ( [ ] ) for parentheses.
Precedence groups Operators, listed in Table 4-6, are divided into nine precedence groups. When parentheses do not determine
the order of expression evaluation, the highest precedence operation is evaluated first.
8 + 4 / 2 = 10 (4 / 2 is evaluated first)
Left-to-right evaluation When parentheses and precedence groups do not determine the order of expression evaluation, the
expressions are evaluated from left to right, except for Group 1, which is evaluated from right to left.
8 / 4*2 = 4, but 8 / (4*2) = 1
Table 4-6 lists the operators that can be used in expressions, according to precedence group.
Table 4-6. Operators Used in Expressions (Precedence)
Group(1) Operator Description(2)
1 + Unary plus
- Unary minus
~ 1s complement
! Logical NOT
2 * Multiplication
/ Division
% Modulo
3 + Addition
- Subtraction
4 << Shift left
>> Shift right
5 < Less than
<= Less than or equal to
> Greater than
>= Greater than or equal to
Table 4-6. Operators Used in Expressions (Precedence) (continued)

Group(1) Operator Description(2)
6 =[=] Equal to
!= Not equal to
7 & Bitwise AND
8 ^ Bitwise exclusive OR (XOR)
9 | Bitwise OR
(1) Group 1 operators are evaluated right to left. All other operators are evaluated left to right.
(2) Unary + and - have higher precedence than the binary forms.
The assembler checks for overflow and underflow conditions when arithmetic operations are performed during
assembly. It issues a warning (the "value truncated" message) whenever an overflow or underflow occurs. The
assembler does not check for overflow or underflow in multiplication.
4.9.2 Relational Operators and Conditional Expressions
The assembler supports relational operators that can be used in any expression; they are especially useful for
conditional assembly. Relational operators include the following:
= Equal to != Not equal to
< Less than <= Less than or equal to

> Greater than >= Greater than or equal to
Conditional expressions evaluate to 1 if true and 0 if false and can be used only on operands of equivalent types;
for example, absolute value compared to absolute value, but not absolute value compared to relocatable value.
4.9.3 Well-Defined Expressions
Some assembler directives, such as .if, require well-defined absolute constant expressions as operands. Well-
defined expressions contain only symbols or assembly-time constants that have been defined before they occur
in the directive's expression. In addition, they must use the correct number of operands and the operation must
make sense. The evaluation of a well-defined expression must be unambiguous.
This is an example of a well-defined expression:
1000h+X
where X was previously defined as an absolute symbol.

4.9.4 Legal Expressions
With the exception of the following expression contexts, there is no restriction on combinations of operations,
constants, internally defined symbols, and externally defined symbols.
When an expression contains more than one relocatable symbol or cannot be evaluated during assembly, the
assembler encodes a relocation expression in the object file that is later evaluated by the linker. If the final value
of the expression is larger in bits than the space reserved for it, you receive an error message from the linker.
See Section 2.7 for more information on relocation expressions.
When using the register relative addressing mode, the expression in brackets or parenthesis must be a well-
defined expression, as described in Section 4.9.3. For example:
*+XA4[7]
4.10 Built-in Functions and Operators

The assembler supports built-in mathematical functions and built-in addressing operators.
The built-in substitution symbol functions are discussed in Section 6.3.2.
4.10.1 Built-In Math and Trigonometric Functions
The assembler supports many built-in mathematical functions. The built-in functions always return a value and
they can be used in conditional assembly or any place where a constant can be used.
In Table 4-7 x, y and z are type float, n is an int. The functions $cvi, $int and $sgn return an integer and all other
functions return a float. Angles for trigonometric functions are expressed in radians.
Table 4-7. Built-In Mathematical Functions
Function Description
$acos(x) Returns cos-1(x) in range [0, π], -1<=x<=1
$asin(x) Returns sin-1(x) in range [-π/2, π/2], -1<=x<=1
$atan x) Returns tan-1(x) in range [-π/2, π/2]
$atan2(x, y) Returns tan-1(y/x) in range [-π, π]
$ceil(x) Returns the smallest integer not less than x, as a float
$cos(x) Returns the cosine of x
$cosh(x) Returns the hyperbolic cosine of x
$cvf(n) Converts an integer to a float
$cvi(x) Converts a float to an integer. Returns an integer.
$exp(x) Returns the exponential function ex
$fabs(x) Returns the absolute value |x|
$floor(x) Returns the largest integer not greater than x, as a float
$fmod(x, y) Returns the floating-point remainder of x/y, with the same sign as x
$int(x) Returns 1 if x has an integer value; else returns 0. Returns an integer.
$ldexp(x, n) Multiplies x by an integer power of 2. That is, x × 2n
$log(x) Returns the natural logarithm ln(x), where x>0
$log10(x) Returns the base-10 logarithm log10(x), where x>0
$max(x, y, ...z) Returns the greatest value from the argument list
$min(x, y, ...z) Returns the smallest value from the argument list
$pow(x, y) Returns xy
$round(x) Returns x rounded to the nearest integer
$sgn(x) Returns the sign of x. Returns 1 if x is positive, 0 if x is zero, and -1 if x is negative. Returns an integer.
$sin(x) Returns the sine of x
$sinh(x) Returns the hyperbolic sine of x
$sqrt(x) Returns the square root of x, x≥0
$strtod(str) Converts a character string to a double precision floating-point value. The string contains a properly-formatted
C99-style floating-point literal.
$tan(x) Returns the tangent of x
$tanh(x) Returns the hyperbolic tangent of x
$trunc(x) Returns x truncated toward 0
4.11 TMS320C28x Assembler Extensions

The C28x assembler operates with a variety of extensions. These extensions are controlled by options as
follows:
-v28: The -v28 is the default, and no other silicon version is supported for the -v option. Therefore you do not
need to specify -v28 explicitly.
--cla_support: Accept CLA instructions. To support special floating point instructions that run on the Control
Law Accelerator (CLA), the assembler operates with CLA extensions. Section 4.11.3 describes the CLA
support. CLA Type 0, Type 1, or Type 2 can be specified. This extension is controlled by the following option:
--cla_support=[cla0|cla1|cla2].
--float_support: Accept FPU32 or FPU64 instructions. Support is available for special floating point instructions
when a 32-bit or 64-bit floating point unit (FPU) is available. Section 4.11.2 describes the FPU support. This
extension is controlled by the following option: --float_support=[fpu32|fpu64].
--idiv_support: Substitute fast integer division instructions. These instructions support division and modulo
operations. This extension is controlled by the following option: --idiv_support=idiv0.
--tmu_support: Substitute TMU instructions. To support the Trigonometric Math Unit (TMU), TMU instructions
are used for floating point division and trigonometric functions. The options are tmu0 (default) and tmu1. The
tmu1 setting provides support for all tmu0 functionality plus the LOG2F32 and IEXP2F32 instructions. This
extension is controlled by the following option: --tmu_support=[tmu0|tmu1].
--vcu_support: Accept VCU instructions in assembly code. To support the Viterbi, Complex Math and CRC Unit
(VCU) instructions, the assembler operates with VCU support. The VCU Type 0, Type 2, or Cyclic Redundancy
Check (CRC) option can be specified. Note that there is no VCU Type 1. This option does not require any
special library support from the linker; the libraries used for C28x with/without VCU support should be sufficient.
• The vcu0 setting specifies there is support for Type 0 of the VCU. This is the default.
• The vcu2 setting specifies there is support for Type 2 of the VCU.
• The vcrc setting specifies support for Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) algorithms only. Support for vcrc is
available only if FPU32 or FPU64 support is used.
Refer to the TMS320C28x DSP CPU and Instruction Set Reference Guide for more details on the different object
and addressing extensions supported by the C28x processor.
4.11.1 C28x Support
The default support includes all the C28x instructions and generates C28x object code.
An error occurs if old C27x syntax is used. For example, the following instructions are illegal:
MOV AL, *AR0++ ; *AR0++ is illegal addressing for C28x.
4.11.2 C28x FPU32 and FPU64 Extensions

FPU instructions may be used when the 32-bit or 64-bit floating-point co-processor hardware is available on the
C28x.
FPU32 instructions are enabled by specifying the --float_support=fpu32 option. FPU32 instructions are
supported for both the COFF ABI and EABI.
FPU64 instructions are enabled by specifying the --float_support=fpu64 option. The FPU64 instruction set
includes all of the FPU32 instructions plus some additional 64-bit instructions. FPU64 is supported only for EABI.
When FPU support is enabled, the differences are as follows:
• Some special floating point instructions are supported. These are documented in the TMS320C28x Floating
Point Unit and Instruction Set Reference Guide.
• The assembler checks for pipeline conflicts. This is because the FPU instructions are not pipeline protected.
Regular C28x instructions are pipeline protected, which means that a new instruction cannot read/write its
operands until all preceding C28x instructions have finished writing those operands. This is not the case
with FPU instructions, which can access operands while another instruction is writing them, causing race
conditions. Thus the assembler has to check for pipeline conflicts and issue warnings/errors as appropriate.
The pipeline conflict detection feature is described in Section 4.16.
4.11.3 C28x CLA Extensions
A set of instructions to support the Control Law Accelerator (CLA) co-processor is available for the C28x.
These instructions are enabled by invoking the compiler with the --cla_support=[cla0|cla1|cla2] option. Using
cla0 indicates a CLA Type 0 device, cla1 indicates a Type 1 device, and so on. The --cla_support option can
be specified along with other C28x options, such as those for specifying FPU support. Specifying both FPU and
CLA options means that support is available for both types of accelerators. The CLA support is similar to the
base C28x support (with/without FPU support). The differences are:
• The CLA is similar to a cut-down version of the FPU32 that is optimized to perform math tasks only.
Some special floating point instructions are supported. These are documented in TMS320x28xx, 28xxx DSP
Peripherals Reference Guide.
• The CLA pipeline is unprotected, but at this time, the tools do not detect pipeline conflicts for the CLA. You
need to write CLA instructions in such a way that there are no pipeline conflicts.
• Assembly files containing CLA instructions can also contain C28x and FPU instructions. However, the CLA
instructions should always be in a separate, named section. This section cannot contain any non-CLA
instructions. Mixing CLA and non-CLA instructions in the same section is illegal and results in an assembler/
linker error.
• When a linker command file is written, care must be taken to put all data referenced by CLA instructions
within addresses 0-64K. This is because the CLA data read bus only has a 64K address range.
• A linker output section containing a CLA input section cannot contain any non-CLA input sections.
• The CLA support does not need any special library support. Any of the C28x libraries suffices.
• The name of the section containing CLA instructions should be unique both within the file and across all files
that are compiled and linked into the same output file.
The CLA compiler places all CLA function data, arguments, and temporary storage in function
frames in the .scratchpad section. Function frame scratchpad sections are named in the form
".scratchpad:functionSectionName". (Each function has its own subsection and therefore a unique section
name.) For example: .scratchpad:Cla1Prog:_Cla1Task2 would be the compiler-generated scratchpad section
name for a function called Cla1Task2().
The CLA compiler's naming convention for the function scratchpad symbol is of the form
__cla_functionSymbol_sp, but this is not required in assembly code.
CLA2 background tasks are placed in the scratchpad with function frame sections of the form
".scratchpad:background:functionSectionName". The background task frame cannot be overlaid with any other
function frames, since the background task is likely to be returned to after yielding to interrupts.
The following example shows compiled code with a .sect directive for a CLA function and a .usect directive
to identify the function scratchpad frame. This .usect directive identifies the function frame as part of
the .scratchpad section and allows the compiler to use overlays when possible. Overlaid function frames use
the same physical memory, thereby reducing memory utilization. It is recommended that assembly code follow
the ".scratchpad:" naming convention to reduce memory requirements.
.sect "Cla1Prog:_Cla1Task2"
.align 2
__cla_Cla1Task2_sp .usect ".scratchpad:Cla1Prog:_Cla1Task2",14,0,1
.global _Cla1Task2
;***************************************************************
;* FNAME: _Cla1Task2 FR SIZE: 14 *
;* *
;* FUNCTION ENVIRONMENT *
;* *
;* FUNCTION PROPERTIES *
;* 14 Auto, 12 SOE *
;***************************************************************
_Cla1Task2:
[ ... ]
If the CLA function in the example above were a CLA2 background task, the .usect directive would instead
identify the scratchpad frame as ".scratchpad:background:Cla1Prog:_Cla1Task2".
See the "CLA Compiler" chapter in the TMS320C28x Optimizing C/C++ Compiler User's Guide for more details.
4.12 Source Listings
A source listing shows source statements and the object code they produce. To obtain a listing file, invoke the
assembler with the --asm_listing option (see Section 4.3).
Two banner lines, a blank line, and a title line are at the top of each source listing page. Any title supplied by
the .title directive is printed on the title line. A page number is printed to the right of the title. If you do not use
the .title directive, the name of the source file is printed. The assembler inserts a blank line below the title line.
Each line in the source file produces at least one line in the listing file. This line shows a source statement
number, an SPC value, the object code assembled, and the source statement. Figure 4-2 shows these in an
actual listing file.
Field 1: Source Statement Number
Line number
The source statement number is a decimal number. The assembler numbers source lines as it encounters them
in the source file; some statements increment the line counter but are not listed. (For example, .title statements
and statements following a .nolist are not listed.) The difference between two consecutive source line numbers
indicates the number of intervening statements in the source file that are not listed.
Include file letter
A letter preceding the line number indicates the line is assembled from the include file designated by the letter.
Nesting level number
A number preceding the line number indicates the nesting level of macro expansions or loop blocks.
Field 2: Section Program Counter
This field contains the SPC value, which is hexadecimal. All sections (.text, .data, .bss, .ebss, and named
sections) maintain separate SPCs. Some directives do not affect the SPC and leave this field blank.
Field 3: Object Code

This field contains the hexadecimal representation of the object code. All machine instructions and directives use
this field to list object code. This field also indicates the relocation type associated with an operand for this line
of source code. If more than one operand is relocatable, this column indicates the relocation type for the first
operand. The characters that can appear in this column and their associated relocation types are listed below:
! undefined external reference
' .text relocatable
+ .sect relocatable
" .data relocatable
- .bss, .usect relocatable
% relocation expression
Field 4: Source Statement Field

This field contains the characters of the source statement as they were scanned by the assembler. The
assembler accepts a maximum line length of 200 characters. Spacing in this field is determined by the spacing in
the source statement.
Figure 4-2 shows an assembler listing with each of the four fields identified.
1 add1 .macro S1, S2, S3, S4

2
3 MOV AL, S1
4 ADD AL, S2
5 ADD AL, S3
6 ADD AL, S4
7 .endm
8
9 .global c1, c2, c3, c4
10 .global _main
11
12 0001 c1 .set 1
13 0002 c2 .set 2
14 0003 c3 .set 3
15 0004 c4 .set 4
16
17 000000 _main:
18 000000 add1 #c1, #c2, #c3, #c4
1
1 000000 9A01 MOV AL, #c1
1 000001 9C02 ADD AL, #c2
1 000002 9C03 ADD AL, #c3
1 000003 9C04 ADD AL, #c4
19
20 .end
Field 1Field 2 Field 3 Field 4
Figure 4-2. Example Assembler Listing
4.13 Debugging Assembly Source

By default, when you compile an assembly file, the assembler provides symbolic debugging information that
allows you to step through your assembly code in a debugger rather than using the Disassembly window in
Code Composer Studio. This enables you to view source comments and other source-code annotations while
debugging. The default has the same behavior as using the --symdebug:dwarf option. You can disable the
generation of debugging information by using the --symdebug:none option.
The .asmfunc and .endasmfunc (see .asmfunc directive) directives enable you to use C characteristics in
assembly code that makes the process of debugging an assembly file more closely resemble debugging a
C/C++ source file.
The .asmfunc and .endasmfunc directives allow you to name certain areas of your code, and make these
areas appear in the debugger as C functions. Contiguous sections of assembly code that are not enclosed by
the .asmfunc and .endasmfunc directives are automatically placed in assembler-defined functions named with
this syntax:
$ filename : starting source line : ending source line $
If you want to view your variables as a user-defined type in C code, the types must be declared and the variables
must be defined in a C file. This C file can then be referenced in assembly code using the .ref directive (see .ref
directive). The C example that follows shows the cvar.c program that defines a variable, svar, as the structure
type X. The svar variable is then referenced in the addfive.asm assembly program that follows, and 5 is added to
svar's second data member.
Compile both source files with the --symdebug:dwarf option (-g) and link them as follows:
cl2000 -symdebug:dwarf cvars.c addfive.asm --run_linker --library=lnk.cmd
--library=rts2800_ml.lib --output_file=addfive.out
When you load this program into a symbolic debugger, addfive appears as a C function. You can monitor the
values in svar while stepping through main just as you would any regular C variable.
Viewing Assembly Variables as C Types C Program
typedef struct {
int m1;
int m2;
} X;
X svar = { 1, 2 };
addfive.asm Assembly Program

;------------------------------------------------------------------------------
; Tell assembler we reference variable _svar, which is defined in cvars.c file.
;------------------------------------------------------------------------------
.ref _svar
;------------------------------------------------------------------------------
; addfive() - Add five to the second data member of _svar
;------------------------------------------------------------------------------
.text
.global addfive
addfive: .asmfunc
MOVZ DP,#_svar+1 ; load the DP with svar's memory page
ADD @_svar+1,#5 ; add 5 to svar.m2
LRETR ; return from function
.endasmfunc
4.14 Cross-Reference Listings

A cross-reference listing shows symbols and their definitions. To obtain a cross-reference listing, invoke the
assembler with the --asm_listing_cross_reference option (see Section 4.3) or use the .option directive with the
X operand (see Select Listing Options). The assembler appends the cross-reference to the end of the source
listing. The following example shows the four fields contained in the cross-reference listing.
LABEL VALUE DEFN REF
.TMS320C2800 00000001 0
_func 00000000' 18
var1 00000000- 4 17
var2 00000004- 5 18
Label column contains each symbol that was defined or referenced during the assembly.
Value column contains an 8-digit hexadecimal number (which is the value assigned to the symbol) or a name that
describes the symbol's attributes. A value may also be preceded by a character that describes the symbol's
attributes. The following table lists these characters and names.
Definition (DEFN) column contains the statement number that defines the symbol. This column is blank for undefined
symbols.
Reference (REF) column lists the line numbers of statements that reference the symbol. A blank in this column indicates
that the symbol was never used.
Table 4-8. Symbol Attributes

Character or Name Meaning
REF External reference (global symbol)
UNDF Undefined
' Symbol defined in a .text section
" Symbol defined in a .data section
+ Symbol defined in a .sect section
- Symbol defined in a .bss or .usect section
4.15 Smart Encoding

To improve efficiency, the assembler reduces instruction size whenever possible. For example, a branch
instruction of two words can be changed to a short branch one-word instruction if the offset is 8 bits. Table
4-9 lists the instruction to be changed and the change that occurs.
Table 4-9. Smart Encoding for Efficiency
This instruction... Is encoded as...
MOV AX, #8Bit MOVB AX, #8Bit
ADD AX, #8BitSigned ADDB AX, #8BitSigned
CMP AX, #8Bit CMPB AX, #8Bit
ADD ACC, #8Bit ADDB ACC, #8Bit
SUB ACC, #8Bit SUBB ACC, #8Bit
AND AX, #8BitMask ANDB AX, #8BitMask
OR AX, #8BitMask ORB AX, #8BitMask
XOR AX, #8BitMask XORB AX, #8BitMask
B 8BitOffset, cond SB 8BitOffset, cond
LB 8BitOffset, cond SB 8BitOffset, cond
MOVH loc, ACC << 0 MOV loc, AH
MOV loc, ACC << 0 MOV loc, AL
MOVL XARn, #8Bit MOVB XARn, #8Bit
The assembler also intuitively changes instruction formats during smart encoding. For example, to push the
accumulator value to the stack, you use MOV *SP++, ACC. Since it would be intuitive to use PUSH ACC for
this operation, the assembler accepts PUSH ACC and through smart encoding, changes it to MOV *SP++, ACC.
Table 4-10 shows a list of instructions recognized during intuitive smart encoding and what the instruction is
changed to.
Table 4-10. Smart Encoding Intuitively
MOV P, #0 MPY P, T, #0
SUB loc, #16BitSigned ADD loc, #-16BitSigned
ADDB SP, #-7Bit SUBB SP, #7Bit
ADDB aux, #-7Bit SUBB aux, #7Bit
SUBB AX, #8BitSigned ADDB AX, #-8BitSigned
PUSH IER MOV *SP++, IER
POP IER MOV IER, *--SP
PUSH ACC MOV *SP++, ACC
POP ACC MOV ACC, *--SP
PUSH XARn MOV *SP++, XARn
POP XARn MOV XARn, *--SP
PUSH #16Bit MOV *SP++, #16Bit
MPY ACC, T, #8Bit MPYB ACC, T, #8Bit
In some cases, you might want a 2-word instruction even when there is an equivalent 1-word instruction
available. In such cases, smart encoding for efficiency could be a problem. Therefore, the equivalent instructions
in Table 4-11 are provided; these instructions will not be optimized.
Table 4-11. Instructions That Avoid Smart Encoding

MOVW AX, #8Bit MOV AX, #8Bit
ADDW AX, #8Bit ADD AX, #8Bit
CMPW AX, #8Bit CMP AX, #8Bit
ADDW ACC, #8Bit ADD ACC, #8Bit
SUBW ACC, #8Bit SUB ACC, #8Bit
JMP 8BitOffset, cond B 8BitOffset, cond
4.16 Pipeline Conflict Detection

Pipeline Conflict Detection (PCD) is a feature implemented on the TMS320C28x 5.0 Compiler, for targets with
hardware floating point unit (FPU) support only. This is because the FPU instructions are not pipeline protected
whereas the C28x instructions are. Beginning with version 6.0, similar protections are provided for targets with
support for the Viterbi, Complex Math and CRC Unit (VCU).
4.16.1 Protected and Unprotected Pipeline Instructions
The C28x target with FPU/VCU support has a mix of protected and unprotected pipeline instructions. This
necessitates some checks in the compiler and assembler that are not necessary for a C28x target without such
support.
By design, a (non-FPU) C28x instruction does not read/write an operand until all previous instructions have
finished writing that operand. The hardware stalls until this condition is true. As hardware stalls are employed
to preserve operand integrity, the compiler and assembler need not keep track of register reads and writes by
instructions in the pipeline. Thus, the C28x instructions are pipeline protected, meaning that an instruction will
not attempt to read/write a register while that register is still being written by another instruction.
The situation is different when FPU support is enabled. While the non-FPU instructions are pipeline protected,
the FPU instructions aren't. This implies that an FPU instruction could attempt to read/write a register while it is
still being written by a previous instruction. This can cause undefined behavior, and the compiler and assembler
need to protect against such conflicting register accesses. The same is true for VCU instructions.
4.16.2 Pipeline Conflict Prevention and Detection
The compiler, when generating assembly code from C/C++ programs, ensures that the generated code does not
have any pipeline conflicts. It does this by either scheduling non-conflicting instructions between two potentially
conflicting instructions, or inserting NOP instructions wherever necessary. For details on the compiler, please
see the .
While conflict prevention by the compiler is sufficient for C/C++ test cases, this does not cover manually-written
assembly language code. Assembly code can contain instructions that have pipeline conflicts. The assembler
needs to detect such conflicts and issue warnings or errors, depending on the severity of the situation. This is
what the Pipeline Conflict Detection (PCD) feature in the assembler, is designed to do.
4.16.3 Pipeline Conflicts Detected
The assembler detects certain pipeline conflicts, and based on their severity, issues either an error message or a
warning. The types of pipeline conflicts detected are listed below, along with the assembler actions in the event
of each conflict.
• Pipeline Conflict:
An instruction reads a register when it is being written by another instruction.
Assembler Response:
The assembler generates an error message and aborts.
Two instructions write the same register in the same cycle.
Assembler Response:
The assembler generates an error message and aborts.
Instructions FRACF32, I16TOF32, UI16TOF32, F32TOI32, and/or F32TOUI32 are present in the delay slot of
a specific type of MOV32 instruction that moves a value from a CPU register or memory location to an FPU
register.
Assembler Response:
The assembler gives an error message and aborts, as the hardware is not able to correctly execute this
sequence.
Parallel operations have the same destination register.
Assembler Response:
The assembler gives a warning.
A read/write happens in the delay slot of a write of the same register.
Assembler Response:
A SAVE operation happens in the delay slot of a pipeline operation.
Assembler Response:
A RESTORE operation happens in the delay slot of a pipeline operation.
Assembler Response:
A SETFLG instruction tries to modify the LUF or LVF flag while certain instructions that modify LUF/LVF (such
as ADDF32, SUBF32, EINVF32, EISQRTF32 etc) have pending writes.
Assembler Response:
The assembler does not check for which instructions have pending writes; on encountering a SETFLG when
any write is pending, the assembler issues a detailed warning, asking you to ensure that the SETFLG is not
in the delay slot of the specified instructions.
For the actual timing of each FPU instruction, and pipeline modeling, please refer to the TMS320C28x Floating
Point Unit and Instruction Set Reference Guide. Timing information for VCU instructions can be found in the
TMS320x28xx, 28xxx DSP Peripherals Reference Guide.
www.ti.com Assembler Directives
Chapter 5
Assembler Directives
Assembler directives supply data to the program and control the assembly process. Assembler directives enable
you to do the following:
• Assemble code and data into specified sections
• Reserve space in memory for uninitialized variables
• Control the appearance of listings
• Initialize memory
• Assemble conditional blocks
• Define global variables
• Specify libraries from which the assembler can obtain macros
• Examine symbolic debugging information
This chapter is divided into two parts: the first part (Section 5.1 through Section 5.11) describes the directives
according to function, and the second part (Section 5.12) is an alphabetical reference.
5.1 Directives Summary................................................................................................................................................... 78

5.2 Directives that Define Sections.................................................................................................................................82
5.3 Directives that Initialize Values................................................................................................................................. 83
5.4 Directives that Perform Alignment and Reserve Space......................................................................................... 86
5.5 Directives that Format the Output Listings..............................................................................................................87
5.6 Directives that Reference Other Files.......................................................................................................................88
5.7 Directives that Enable Conditional Assembly......................................................................................................... 89
5.8 Directives that Define Union or Structure Types..................................................................................................... 89
5.9 Directives that Define Enumerated Types................................................................................................................ 89
5.10 Directives that Define Symbols at Assembly Time............................................................................................... 89
5.11 Miscellaneous Directives......................................................................................................................................... 90
5.12 Directives Reference................................................................................................................................................ 91
Assembler Directives www.ti.com
5.1 Directives Summary

Table 5-1 through Table 5-16 summarize the assembler directives.
Besides the assembler directives documented here, the TMS320C28x software tools support the following
directives:
• Macro directives are discussed in Chapter 6; they are not discussed in this chapter.
• The C compiler uses directives for symbolic debugging. Unlike other directives, symbolic debugging
directives are not used in most assembly language programs. Appendix A discusses these directives; they
are not discussed in this chapter.
Note
Labels and Comments Are Not Shown in Syntaxes
Most source statements that contain a directive can also contain a label and a comment. Labels begin
in the first column (only labels and comments can appear in the first column), and comments must be
preceded by a semicolon, or an asterisk if the comment is the only element in the line. To improve
readability, labels and comments are not shown as part of the directive syntax here. See the detailed
description of each directive for using labels with directives.
Table 5-1. Directives that Control Section Use

Mnemonic and Syntax Description See
.bss symbol, size in words [,blocking flag Reserves size words in the .bss (uninitialized data) section .bss topic
[,alignment] ]
.data Assembles into the .data (initialized data) section .data topic
.sblock Designates section for blocking .sblock topic
.sect " section name " Assembles into a named (initialized) section .sect topic
.text Assembles into the .text (executable code) section .text topic
symbol .usect " section name ", size in words Reserves size words in a named (uninitialized) section .usect topic
[,blocking flag[,alignment flag]]
Table 5-2. Directives that Gather Sections into Common Groups

.endgroup Ends the group declaration. (EABI only) .endgroup topic
.gmember section name Designates section name as a member of the group. (EABI only) .gmember topic
.group group section name group type : Begins a group declaration. (EABI only) .group topic
Table 5-3. Directives that Affect Unused Section Elimination

.clink " section name " Enables conditional linking for the current or specified section. .clink topic
(COFF only)
.retain " section name " Instructs the linker to include the current or specified section in the .retain topic
linked output file, regardless of whether the section is referenced or
not. (EABI only)
.retainrefs " section name " Instructs the linker to include any data object that references the .retain topic
current or specified section. (EABI only)
Table 5-4. Directives that Initialize Values (Data and Memory)

.bits value1[, ... , valuen] Initializes one or more successive bits in the current section .bits topic
.byte value1[, ... , valuen] Initializes one or more successive words in the current section .byte topic
.char value1[, ... , valuen] Initializes one or more successive words in the current section .char topic
.cstring {expr1|" string1 "}[,... , {exprn|" stringn "}] Initializes one or more text strings .string topic
.field value[, size] Initializes a field of size bits (1-32) with value .field topic
Table 5-4. Directives that Initialize Values (Data and Memory) (continued)
.float value1[, ... , valuen] Initializes one or more 32-bit, IEEE single-precision, floating-point .float topic
constants
.int value1[, ... , valuen] Initializes one or more 16-bit integers .int topic
.long value1[, ... , valuen] Initializes one or more 32-bit integers .long topic
.pstring {expr1|" string1 "}[,... , {exprn|" stringn "}] Places 8-bit characters from a character string into the current .pstring topic
section.
.string {expr1|" string1 "}[,... , {exprn|" stringn "}] Initializes one or more text strings .string topic
.ubyte value1[, ... , valuen] Initializes one or more successive unsigned bytes in the current .ubyte topic
section
.uchar value1[, ... , valuen] Initializes one or more successive unsigned bytes in the current .uchar topic
section
.uint value1[, ... , valuen] Initializes one or more unsigned 32-bit integers .uint topic
.ulong value1[, ... , valuen] Initializes one or more unsigned 32-bit integers .long topic
.uword value1[, ... , valuen] Initializes one or more unsigned 16-bit integers .uword topic
.word value1[, ... , valuen] Initializes one or more 16-bit integers .word topic
.xfloat value1[, ... , valuen] Places the 32-bit floating-point representation of one or more .xfloat topic
floating-point constants into the current section
.xldouble value1[, ... , valuen] Places the 64-bit floating-point representation of one or more .xfloat topic
floating-point double constants into the current section
.xlong value1[, ... , valuen] Places one or more 32-bit values into consecutive words in the .xlong topic
current section
Table 5-5. Directives that Perform Alignment and Reserve Space

.align [size in words] Aligns the SPC on a boundary specified by size in words, which .align topic
must be a power of 2; defaults to 64-byte or page boundary
.bes size Reserves size bits in the current section; a label points to the end of .bes topic
the reserved space
.space size Reserves size words in the current section; a label points to the .space topic
beginning of the reserved space
Table 5-6. Directives that Format the Output Listing

.drlist Enables listing of all directive lines (default) .drlist topic
.drnolist Suppresses listing of certain directive lines .drnolist topic
.fclist Allows false conditional code block listing (default) .fclist topic
.fcnolist Suppresses false conditional code block listing .fcnolist topic
.length [page length] Sets the page length of the source listing .length topic
.list Restarts the source listing .list topic
.mlist Allows macro listings and loop blocks (default) .mlist topic
.mnolist Suppresses macro listings and loop blocks .mnolist topic
.nolist Stops the source listing .nolist topic
.option option1[, option2 , . . .] Selects output listing options; available options are B, L, M, R, T, W, .option topic
and X
.page Ejects a page in the source listing .page topic
.sslist Allows expanded substitution symbol listing .sslist topic
.ssnolist Suppresses expanded substitution symbol listing (default) .ssnolist topic
.tab size Sets tab to size characters .tab topic
.title " string " Prints a title in the listing page heading .title topic
.width [page width] Sets the page width of the source listing .width topic
Table 5-7. Directives that Reference Other Files

.copy ["]filename["] Includes source statements from another file .copy topic
.include ["]filename["] Includes source statements from another file .include topic
.mlib ["]filename["] Specifies a macro library from which to retrieve macro definitions .mlib topic
Table 5-8. Directives that Affect Symbol Linkage and Visibility

.common symbol, size in bytes [, alignment] Defines a common symbol for a variable. (EABI only) .common topic
.common symbol, structure tag [, alignment]
.def symbol1[, ... , symboln] Identifies one or more symbols that are defined in the current .def topic
module and that can be used in other modules.
.global symbol1[, ... , symboln] Identifies one or more global (external) symbols. .global topic
.preserve symbol Causes a symbol's address and value to be preserved during a .preserve topic
warm start. This directive must be used in the asm header block.
The executable must be in ELF format and compiled for Live
Firmware Update (LFU).
.ref symbol1[, ... , symboln] Identifies one or more symbols used in the current module that are .ref topic
defined in another module.
.symdepend dst symbol name[, src symbol name] Creates an artificial reference from a section to a symbol. .symdepend topic
.weak symbol name Identifies a symbol used in the current module that is defined in .weak topic
another module. (EABI only)
Table 5-9. Directives that Define Symbols at Assembly Time

.asg ["]character string["], substitution symbol Assigns a character string to substitution symbol. Substitution .asg topic
symbols created with .asg can be redefined.
.define ["]character string["], substitution symbol Assigns a character string to substitution symbol. Substitution .asg topic
symbols created with .define cannot be redefined.
.elfsym name, SYM_SIZE(size) Provides ELF symbol information. (EABI only) .elfsym topic
.eval expression , Performs arithmetic on a numeric substitution symbol .eval topic
substitution symbol
.label symbol Defines a load-time relocatable label in a section .label topic
.newblock Undefines local labels .newblock topic
symbol .set value Equates value with symbol .set topic
.unasg symbol Turns off assignment of symbol as a substitution symbol .unasg topic
.undefine symbol Turns off assignment of symbol as a substitution symbol .unasg topic
Table 5-10. Directives that Enable Conditional Assembly

.if condition Assembles code block if the condition is true .if topic
.else Assembles code block if the .if condition is false. When using the .if .else topic
construct, the .else construct is optional.
.elseif condition Assembles code block if the .if condition is false and the .elseif .elseif topic
condition is true. When using the .if construct, the .elseif construct is
optional.
.endif Ends .if code block .endif topic
.loop [count] Begins repeatable assembly of a code block; the loop count is .loop topic
determined by the count.
.break [end condition] Ends .loop assembly if end condition is true. When using the .loop .break topic
construct, the .break construct is optional.
.endloop Ends .loop code block .endloop topic
Table 5-11. Directives that Define Union or Structure Types

.cstruct Acts like .struct, but adds padding and alignment like that which is .cstruct topic
done to C structures
.cunion Acts like .union, but adds padding and alignment like that which is .cunion topic
done to C unions
.emember Sets up C-like enumerated types in assembly code Section 5.9
.endenum Sets up C-like enumerated types in assembly code Section 5.9
.endstruct Ends a structure definition .cstruct
topic, .struct topic
.endunion Ends a union definition .cunion
topic, .union topic
.enum Sets up C-like enumerated types in assembly code Section 5.9
.union Begins a union definition .union topic
.struct Begins structure definition .struct topic
.tag Assigns structure attributes to a label .cstruct
topic, .struct
topic .union topic
Table 5-12. Directives that Create or Affect Macros

macname .macro [parameter1][,... , parametern ] Begin definition of macro named macname .macro topic
.endm End macro definition .endm topic
.mexit Go to .endm Section 6.2
.mlib filename Identify library containing macro definitions .mlib topic
.var Adds a local substitution symbol to a macro's parameter list .var topic
Table 5-13. Directives that Control Diagnostics

.emsg string Sends user-defined error messages to the output device; .emsg topic
produces no .obj file
.mmsg string Sends user-defined messages to the output device .mmsg topic
.wmsg string Sends user-defined warning messages to the output device .wmsg topic
Table 5-14. Directives that Perform Assembly Source Debug

.asmfunc Identifies the beginning of a block of code that contains a function .asmfunc topic
.endasmfunc Identifies the end of a block of code that contains a function .endasmfunc topic
Table 5-15. Directives that Are Used by the Absolute Lister

.setsect Produced by absolute lister; sets a section Chapter 9
.setsym Produced by the absolute lister; sets a symbol Chapter 9
Table 5-16. Directives that Perform Miscellaneous Functions

.cdecls [options ,]" filename "[, " filename2 "[, ...] Share C headers between C and assembly code .cdecls topic
.end Ends program .end topic
In addition to the assembly directives that you can use in your code, the C/C++ compiler produces several
directives when it creates assembly code. These directives are to be used only by the compiler; do not attempt
to use these directives:
• DWARF directives listed in Appendix A.1
• The .compiler_opts directive indicates that the assembly code was produced by the compiler, and which
build model options were used for this file.
5.2 Directives that Define Sections
These directives associate portions of an assembly language program with the appropriate sections:
• The .bss directive reserves space in the .bss section for uninitialized variables.
• The .clink directive enables conditional linking by telling the linker to leave the named section out of the final
object module output of the linker if there are no references found to any symbol in the section. The .clink
directive can be applied to initialized sections. (COFF only)
• The .data directive identifies portions of code in the .data section. The .data section usually contains
initialized data.
• The .retain directive can be used to indicate that the current or specified section must be included in the
linked output. Thus even if no other sections included in the link reference the current or specified section, it
is still included in the link. (EABI only)
• The .retainrefs directive can be used to force sections that refer to the specified section. This is useful in the
case of interrupt vectors. (EABI only)
• The .sect directive defines an initialized named section and associates subsequent code or data with that
section. A section defined with .sect can contain code or data.
• The .text directive identifies portions of code in the .text section. The .text section usually contains executable
code.
• The .usect directive reserves space in an uninitialized named section. The .usect directive is similar to
the .bss directive, but it allows you to reserve space separately from the .bss section.
Chapter 2 discusses these sections in detail.
Example 5-1 shows how you can use sections directives to associate code and data with the proper sections.
This is an output listing; column 1 shows line numbers, and column 2 shows the SPC values. (Each section has
its own program counter, or SPC.) When code is first placed in a section, its SPC equals 0. When you resume
assembling into a section after other code is assembled, the section's SPC resumes counting as if there had
been no intervening code.
The directives in Example 5-1 perform the following tasks:
.text initializes words with the values 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8.
.data initializes words with the values 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, and 16.
var_defs initializes words with the values 17 and 18.
.usect reserves 19 words
xy reserves 20 words.
The .bss and .usect directives do not end the current section or begin new sections; they reserve the specified
amount of space, and then the assembler resumes assembling code or data into the current section.
Example 5-1. Sections Directives
1 ***************************************************
2 * Start assembling into the .text section *
3 ***************************************************
4 000000 .text
5 000000 0001 .word 1, 2
000001 0002
6 000002 0003 .word 3, 4
000003 0004
7
8 ***************************************************
9 * Start assembling into the .data section *
10 ***************************************************
11 000000 .data
12 000000 0009 .word 9, 10
000001 000A
13 000002 000B .word 11, 12
000003 000C
14
15 ***************************************************
16 * Start assembling into a named, *
17 * initialized section, var_defs *
18 ***************************************************
19 000000 .sect "var_defs"
20 000000 0011 .word 17, 18
000001 0012
21
22 ***************************************************
23 * Resume assembling into the .data section *
24 ***************************************************
25 000004 .data
26 000004 000D .word 13, 14
000005 000E
27 000000 sym .usect ".ebss", 19 ; Reserve space in .ebss
28 000006 000F .word 15, 16 ; Still in .data
000007 0010
29
30 ***************************************************
31 * Resume assembling into the .text section *
32 ***************************************************
33 000004 .text
34 000004 0005 .word 5, 6
000005 0006
35 000000 usym .usect "xy", 20 ; Reserve space in xy
36 000006 0007 .word 7, 8 ; Still in .text
37 000007 0008
5.3 Directives that Initialize Values

Several directives assemble values for the current section. For example:
• The .byte and .char directives place one or more 8-bit values into consecutive 16-bit words of the current
section. These directives are similar to .word, .int, and .long, except that the width of each value is restricted
to 8 bits.
• The .field and .bits directives place a single value into a specified number of bits in the current word.
With .field, you can pack multiple fields into a single word; the assembler does not increment the SPC until
a word is filled. If a field will not fit in the space remaining in the current word, .field will insert zeros to fill
the current word and then place the field in the next word. The .bits directive is similar but does not force
alignment to a field boundary. See the .field topic and .bits topic.
Figure 5-1 shows how fields are packed into a word. Using the following assembled code, notice that the
SPC does not change (the fields are packed into the same word):
1 000000 0003 .field 3, 3
2 000000 0008 .field 8, 6
3 000000 0010 .field 16, 5
15 2 1 0
0 1 1 .field 3, 3
3 bits
15 8 7 6 5 4 3
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 .field 8, 6
6 bits
15 13 12 11 10 9
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 .field 16, 5
5 bits
Figure 5-1. The .field Directive
• The .float and .xfloat directives calculate the single-precision (32-bit) IEEE floating-point representation of a
single floating-point value and store it in a word in the current section that is aligned to a word boundary.
• The .int and .word directives place one or more 16-bit values into consecutive 16-bit fields (words) in the
current section. The .int and .word directives automatically align to a word boundary.
• The .long and .xlong directives place one or more 32-bit values into consecutive 32-bit fields (words) in the
current section. The .long directive automatically aligns to a word boundary.
• The .xldouble directive calculates the double-precision (64-bit) IEEE floating-point representation of a double
floating-point value and stores it into consecutive 32-bit fields (words) in the current section that is aligned to
a word boundary. Note that the .double directive is not a synonym and is not recommended.
• The .string , .cstring, and .pstring directives place 8-bit characters from one or more character strings into
the current section. The .string and .cstring directives are similar to .byte, placing an 8-bit character in each
consecutive 16-bit word of the current section. The .cstring directive adds a NUL character needed by C;
the .string directive does not add a NUL character. With the .pstring directive, the data is packed so that each
word contains two 8-bit bytes.
• The .ubyte, .uchar, .uint, .ulong, and .uword directives are provided as unsigned versions of their
respective signed directives. These directives are used primarily by the C/C++ compiler to support unsigned
types in C/C++.
Note
Directives that Initialize Constants When Used in a .struct/.endstruct Sequence
The .bits, .byte, .char, .int, .long, .word, .ubyte, .uchar, .uint, .ulong, .uword, .string, .pstring, .float, .xflo
at, .xldouble, and .field directives do not initialize memory when they are part of a .struct/ .endstruct
sequence; rather, they define a member’s size. For more information, see the .struct/.endstruct
directives.
Figure 5-2 compares the .byte, .word, .long, and .string directives using the following assembled code:
1 000000 00AB .byte 0ABh
2 000001 CDEF .word 0CDEFh
3 000002 CDEF .long 089ABCDEFh
000003 89AB
4 000004 0068 .string "help"
000005 0065
000006 006C
000007 0070
Word Contents Code
1 0 0 A B .byte 0ABh
2 C D E F .word 0CDEFh
3 C D E F .long 089ABCDEFh
4 8 9 A B
5 0 0 68 .string “help”
h
6 0 0 65
e
7 0 0 6C
l
8 0 0 70
Figure 5-2. Initialization Directives
5.4 Directives that Perform Alignment and Reserve Space

These directives align the section program counter (SPC) or reserve space in a section:
• The .align directive aligns the SPC at the next word boundary. This directive is useful with the .field directive
when you do not want to pack two adjacent fields in the same word.
Figure 5-3 demonstrates the .align directive. Using the following assembled code:
1 000000 0002 .field 2,3
2 000000 005A .field 11,8
3 .align 2
4 000002 0065 .string "errorcnt"
000003 0072
000004 0072
000005 006F
000006 0072
000007 0063
000008 006E
000009 0074
5 .align
6 000040 0004 .byte 4
(a) Result of .align 2
New SPC = 06h

after assembling
.align 2 directive
05h
Current Word
SPC = 05h
(b) Result of .align without an argument
80h
Current
SPC = 88h 64 word New SPC = C0h
after assembling
.align directive
C0h
Figure 5-3. The .align Directive
• The .bes and .space directives reserve a specified number of bits in the current section. The assembler fills
these reserved bits with 0s.
– When you use a label with .space, it points to the first word that contains reserved bits.
– When you use a label with .bes, it points to the last word that contains reserved bits.
• Figure 5-4 shows how the .space and .bes directives work for the following assembled code:
1
2
3 000000 0100 .word 100h, 200h
000001 0200
4 000002 Res_1 .space 17
5 000004 000F .word 15
6 000006 Res_2 .bes 20
7 000007 00BA .byte 0BAh
Res_1 points to the first word in the space reserved by .space. Res_2 points to the last word in the space
reserved by .bes.
Res_1 = 02h
17 bits
reserved
20 bits
reserved
Res_2 = 06h
Figure 5-4. The .space and .bes Directives

5.5 Directives that Format the Output Listings
These directives format the listing file:
• The .drlist directive causes printing of the directive lines to the listing; the .drnolist directive turns it off for
certain directives. You can use the .drnolist directive to suppress the printing of the following directives. You
can use the .drlist directive to turn the listing on again.
.asg .eval .length .mnolist .var
.break .fclist .mlist .sslist .width
.emsg .fcnolist .mmsg .ssnolist .wmsg
• The source code listing includes false conditional blocks that do not generate code. The .fclist and .fcnolist
directives turn this listing on and off. You can use the .fclist directive to list false conditional blocks exactly as
they appear in the source code. You can use the .fcnolist directive to list only the conditional blocks that are
actually assembled.
• The .length directive controls the page length of the listing file. You can use this directive to adjust listings for
various output devices.
• The .list and .nolist directives turn the output listing on and off. You can use the .nolist directive to prevent
the assembler from printing selected source statements in the listing file. Use the .list directive to turn the
listing on again.
• The source code listing includes macro expansions and loop blocks. The .mlist and .mnolist directives turn
this listing on and off. You can use the .mlist directive to print all macro expansions and loop blocks to the
listing, and the .mnolist directive to suppress this listing.
• The .option directive controls certain features in the listing file. This directive has the following operands:
A turns on listing of all directives and data, and subsequent expansions, macros, and blocks.
B limits the listing of .byte and .char directives to one line.
D turns off the listing of certain directives (same effect as .drnolist).
L limits the listing of .long directives to one line.
M turns off macro expansions in the listing.
N turns off listing (performs .nolist).
O turns on listing (performs .list).
R resets the B, L, M, T, and W directives (turns off the limits of B, L, T, and W).
T limits the listing of .string directives to one line.
W limits the listing of .word and .int directives to one line.
X produces a cross-reference listing of symbols. You can also obtain a cross-reference listing by invoking the assembler
with the --asm_listing_cross_reference option (see Section 4.3).
• The .page directive causes a page eject in the output listing.

• The source code listing includes substitution symbol expansions. The .sslist and .ssnolist directives turn this
listing on and off. You can use the .sslist directive to print all substitution symbol expansions to the listing,
and the .ssnolist directive to suppress this listing. These directives are useful for debugging the expansion of
substitution symbols.
• The .tab directive defines tab size.
• The .title directive supplies a title that the assembler prints at the top of each page.
• The .width directive controls the page width of the listing file. You can use this directive to adjust listings for
various output devices.
5.6 Directives that Reference Other Files
These directives supply information for or about other files that can be used in the assembly of the current file:
• The .copy and .include directives tell the assembler to begin reading source statements from another file.
When the assembler finishes reading the source statements in the copy/include file, it resumes reading
source statements from the current file. The statements read from a copied file are printed in the listing file;
the statements read from an included file are not printed in the listing file.
• The .def directive identifies a symbol that is defined in the current module and that can be used in another
module. The assembler includes the symbol in the symbol table.
• The .global directive declares a symbol external so that it is available to other modules at link time. (For more
information about global symbols, see Section 2.6.1). The .global directive does double duty, acting as a .def
for defined symbols and as a .ref for undefined symbols. The linker resolves an undefined global symbol
reference only if the symbol is used in the program. The .global directive declares a 16-bit symbol.
• The .mlib directive supplies the assembler with the name of an archive library that contains macro definitions.
When the assembler encounters a macro that is not defined in the current module, it searches for it in the
macro library specified with .mlib.
• The .ref directive identifies a symbol that is used in the current module but is defined in another module. The
assembler marks the symbol as an undefined external symbol and enters it in the object symbol table so the
linker can resolve its definition. The .ref directive forces the linker to resolve a symbol reference.
• The .symdepend directive creates an artificial reference from the section defining the source symbol name
to the destination symbol. The .symdepend directive prevents the linker from removing the section containing
the destination symbol if the source symbol section is included in the output module.
• The .weak directive identifies a symbol that is used in the current module but is defined in another module. It
is equivalent to the .ref directive, except that the reference has weak linkage. (EABI only)
5.7 Directives that Enable Conditional Assembly

Conditional assembly directives enable you to instruct the assembler to assemble certain sections of code
according to a true or false evaluation of an expression. Two sets of directives allow you to assemble conditional
blocks of code:
• The .if/.elseif/.else/.endif directives tell the assembler to conditionally assemble a block of code according to the evaluation of an
expression.
.if condition marks the beginning of a conditional block and assembles code if the .if condition is true.
[.elseif condition] marks a block of code to be assembled if the .if condition is false and the .elseif condition is true.
.else marks a block of code to be assembled if the .if condition is false and any .elseif conditions are false.
.endif marks the end of a conditional block and terminates the block.
• The .loop/.break/.endloop directives tell the assembler to repeatedly assemble a block of code according to the evaluation of an
expression.
.loop [count] marks the beginning of a repeatable block of code. The optional expression evaluates to the loop count.
.break [end tells the assembler to assemble repeatedly when the .break end condition is false and to go to the code
condition] immediately after .endloop when the expression is true or omitted.
.endloop marks the end of a repeatable block.
The assembler supports several relational operators that are useful for conditional expressions. For more information about relational
operators, see Section 4.9.2.
5.8 Directives that Define Union or Structure Types

These directives set up specialized types for later use with the .tag directive, allowing you to use symbolic
names to refer to portions of a complex object. The types created are analogous to the struct and union types of
the C language.
The .struct, .union, .cstruct, and .cunion directives group related data into an aggregate structure which is more
easily accessed. These directives do not allocate space for any object. Objects must be separately allocated,
and the .tag directive must be used to assign the type to the object.
The .cstruct and .cunion directives guarantee that the data structure will have the same alignment and padding
as if the structure were defined in analogous C code. This allows structures to be shared between C and
assembly code. See Chapter 13. For .struct and .union, element offset calculation is left up to the assembler, so
the layout may be different than .cstruct and .cunion.
5.9 Directives that Define Enumerated Types
These directives set up specialized types for later use in expressions allowing you to use symbolic names to
refer to compile-time constants. The types created are analogous to the enum type of the C language. This
allows enumerated types to be shared between C and assembly code. See Chapter 13.
See Section 13.2.10 for an example of using .enum.
5.10 Directives that Define Symbols at Assembly Time
Assembly-time symbol directives equate meaningful symbol names to constant values or strings.
• The .asg directive assigns a character string to a substitution symbol. The value is stored in the substitution
symbol table. When the assembler encounters a substitution symbol, it replaces the symbol with its character
string value. Substitution symbols created with .asg can be redefined.
.asg "10, 20, 30, 40", coefficients
; Assign string to substitution symbol.
.byte coefficients
; Place the symbol values 10, 20, 30, and 40
; into consecutive bytes in current section.
• The .define directive assigns a character string to a substitution symbol. The value is stored in the
substitution symbol table. When the assembler encounters a substitution symbol, it replaces the symbol
with its character string value. Substitution symbols created with .define cannot be redefined.
• The .eval directive evaluates a well-defined expression, translates the results into a character string, and
assigns the character string to a substitution symbol. This directive is most useful for manipulating counters:
.asg 1 , x ; x = 1
.loop ; Begin conditional loop.
.byte x*10h ; Store value into current section.
.break x = 4 ; Break loop if x = 4.
.eval x+1, x ; Increment x by 1.
.endloop ; End conditional loop.
• The .set directive sets a constant value to a symbol. The symbol is stored in the symbol table and cannot be
redefined; for example:
• The .unasg directive turns off substitution symbol assignment made with .asg.
• The .undefine directive turns off substitution symbol assignment made with .define.
• The .var directive allows you to use substitution symbols as local variables within a macro.
5.11 Miscellaneous Directives
These directives enable miscellaneous functions or features:
• The .asmfunc and .endasmfunc directives mark function boundaries. These directives are used with the
compiler --symdebug:dwarf (-g) option to generate debug information for assembly functions.
• The .cdecls directive enables programmers in mixed assembly and C/C++ environments to share C headers
containing declarations and prototypes between C and assembly code.
• The .end directive terminates assembly. If you use the .end directive, it should be the last source statement of
a program. This directive has the same effect as an end-of-file character.
• The .group, .gmember, and .endgroup directives define an ELF group section to be shared by several
sections. (EABI only)
• The .newblock directive resets local labels. Local labels are symbols of the form $n, where n is a decimal
digit, or of the form NAME?, where you specify NAME. They are defined when they appear in the label field.
Local labels are temporary labels that can be used as operands for jump instructions. The .newblock directive
limits the scope of local labels by resetting them after they are used. See Section 4.8.3 for information on
local labels.
• The .sblock directive designates sections for blocking.
These three directives enable you to define your own error and warning messages:
• The .emsg directive sends error messages to the standard output device. The .emsg directive generates
errors in the same manner as the assembler, incrementing the error count and preventing the assembler from
producing an object file.
• The .mmsg directive sends assembly-time messages to the standard output device. The .mmsg directive
functions in the same manner as the .emsg and .wmsg directives but does not set the error count or the
warning count. It does not affect the creation of the object file.
• The .wmsg directive sends warning messages to the standard output device. The .wmsg directive functions
in the same manner as the .emsg directive but increments the warning count rather than the error count. It
does not affect the creation of the object file.
For more information about using the error and warning directives in macros, see Section 6.7.
5.12 Directives Reference

The remainder of this chapter is a reference. Generally, the directives are organized alphabetically, one directive
per topic. Related directives (such as .if/.else/.endif), however, are presented together in one topic.
.align
Align SPC on the Next Boundary
Syntax .align [size in words]
Description The .align directive aligns the section program counter (SPC) on the next boundary,
depending on the size in words parameter. The size can be any power of 2 , although only
certain values are useful for alignment. An operand of 64 aligns the SPC on the next page
boundary, and this is the default if no size in words is given. The assembler assembles
words containing null values (0) up to the next size in words boundary:
1 aligns SPC to word boundary
2 aligns SPC to long word/even boundary
64 aligns SPC to page boundary
Using the .align directive has two effects:

• The assembler aligns the SPC on an x-word boundary within the current section.
• The assembler sets a flag that forces the linker to align the section so that individual
alignments remain intact when a section is loaded into memory.
Example This example shows several types of alignment, including .align 2, .align 4, and a
default .align.
1 000000 0004 .byte 4
2 .align 2
3 000002 0045 .string "Errorcnt"
000003 0072
000004 0072
000005 006F
000006 0072
000007 0063
000008 006E
000009 0074
4 .align
5 000040 0003 .field 3,3
6 000040 002B .field 5,4
7 .align 2
8 000042 0003 .field 3,3
9 .align 8
10 000048 0005 .field 5,4
11 .align
12 000080 0004 .byte 4
.asg/.define/.eval
Assign a Substitution Symbol
Syntax .asg " character string ", substitution symbol

.define " character string ", substitution symbol
.eval expression , substitution symbol
Description The .asg and .define directives assign character strings to substitution symbols.
Substitution symbols are stored in the substitution symbol table. The .asg directive can
be used in many of the same ways as the .set directive, but while .set assigns a constant
value (which cannot be redefined) to a symbol, .asg assigns a character string (which can
be redefined) to a substitution symbol.
• The assembler assigns the character string to the substitution symbol.
• The substitution symbol must be a valid symbol name. The substitution symbol is up to
128 characters long and must begin with a letter. Remaining characters of the symbol
can be a combination of alphanumeric characters, the underscore (_), and the dollar
sign ($).
The .define directive functions in the same manner as the .asg directive, except
that .define disallows creation of a substitution symbol that has the same name as
a register symbol or mnemonic. It does not create a new symbol name space in
the assembler, rather it uses the existing substitution symbol name space. The .define
directive is used to prevent corruption of the assembly environment when converting C/C+
+ headers. See Chapter 13 for more information about using C/C++ headers in assembly
source.
The .eval directive performs arithmetic on substitution symbols, which are stored in the
substitution symbol table. This directive evaluates the expression and assigns the string
value of the result to the substitution symbol. The .eval directive is especially useful as a
counter in .loop/.endloop blocks.
• The expression is a well-defined alphanumeric expression in which all symbols have
been previously defined in the current source module, so that the result is an absolute
expression.
• The substitution symbol must be a valid symbol name. The substitution symbol is up to
128 characters long and must begin with a letter. Remaining characters of the symbol
can be a combination of alphanumeric characters, the underscore (_), and the dollar
sign ($).
See the .unasg/.undefine topic for information on turning off a substitution symbol.
Example This example shows how .asg and .eval can be used.
1 .sslist
2 .asg XAR6, FP
3 00000000 0964 ADD ACC, #100
4 00000001 7786 NOP *FP++
# NOP *XAR6++
5 00000002 7786 NOP *XAR6++
6
7 .asg 0, x
8 .loop 5
9 .eval x+1, x
10 .word x
11 .endloop
1 .eval x+1, x
# .eval 0+1, x
1 00000003 0001 .word x
# .word 1
1 .eval x+1, x
# .eval 1+1, x
1 00000004 0002 .word x
# .word 2
1 .eval x+1, x
# .eval 2+1, x
1 00000005 0003 .word x
# .word 3
1 .eval x+1, x
# .eval 3+1, x
1 00000006 0004 .word x
# .word 4
1 .eval x+1, x
# .eval 4+1, x
1 00000007 0005 .word x
# .word 5
.asmfunc/.endasmfunc
Mark Function Boundaries
Syntax symbol .asmfunc [stack_usage( num )]

.endasmfunc
Description The .asmfunc and .endasmfunc directives mark function boundaries. These directives
are used with the compiler -g option (--symdebug:dwarf) to allow assembly code sections
to be debugged in the same manner as C/C++ functions.
You should not use the same directives generated by the compiler (see Appendix A) to
accomplish assembly debugging; those directives should be used only by the compiler to
generate symbolic debugging information for C/C++ source files.
The symbol is a label that must appear in the label field.
The .asmfunc directive has an optional parameter, stack_usage, which indicates that the
function may use up to num bytes.
Consecutive ranges of assembly code that are not enclosed within a pair of .asmfunc
and .endasmfunc directives are given a default name in the following format:
$ filename : beginning source line : ending source line $
Example In this example the assembly source generates debug information for the userfunc
section.
1 00000000 .sect ".text"
2 .global userfunc
3 .global _printf
4
5 userfunc: .asmfunc
6 00000000 FE02 ADDB SP,#2
00000002 0000
8 00000003 7640! LCR #_printf
00000004 0000
9 00000005 9A00 MOVB AL,#0
10 00000006 FE82 SUBB SP,#2
11 00000007 0006 LRETR
12 .endasmfunc
13
14 00000000 .sect ".econst"
15 00000000 0048 SL1: .string "Hello World!",10,0
00000001 0065
00000002 006C
00000003 006C
00000004 006F
00000005 0020
00000006 0057
00000007 006F
00000008 0072
00000009 006C
0000000a 0064
0000000b 0021
0000000c 000A
0000000d 0000
.bits
Initialize Bits
Syntax .bits value[, size in bits]
Description The .bits directive places a value into consecutive bits of the current section.
The .bits directive is similar to the .field directive (see .field topic ). However, the .bits
directive does not force the value to be aligned to a field boundary. If the .bits directive is
followed by a different space-creating directive, the SPC is aligned to an appropriate value
for the directive that follows.
This directive has two operands:
• The value is a required parameter; it is an expression that is evaluated and placed in
the current section at the current location. The value must be absolute.
• The size in bits is an optional parameter; it specifies a number from 1 to 32, which
is the number of bits in the value. The default size is 16 bits. If you specify a value
that cannot fit in size in bits, the assembler truncates the value and issues a warning
message. For example, .bits 3,1 causes the assembler to truncate the value 3 to 1; the
assembler also prints the message:
*** WARNING! line 21: W0001: Field value truncated to 1
.bits 3, 1
.bss
Reserve Space in the .bss Section
Syntax .bss symbol , size in words[, blocking flag[, alignment] ]
Description The .bss directive reserves space for variables in the .bss section. This directive is
usually used to allocate space in RAM.
This directive is similar to the .usect directive (see .usect topic); both simply reserve space
for data and that space has no contents. However, .usect defines additional sections that
can be placed anywhere in memory, independently of the .bss section.
Note
This directive is supported only in EABI mode.
• The symbol is a required parameter. It defines a symbol that points to the first location
reserved by the directive. The symbol name must correspond to the variable that you
are reserving space for.
• The size in words is a required parameter; it must be an absolute constant expression.
The assembler allocates size words in the .bss section. There is no default size.
• The blocking flag is an optional parameter. If you specify a value greater than 0 for this
parameter, the assembler allocates size in words contiguously. This means that the
allocated space does not cross a page boundary unless its size is greater than a page,
in which case the object starts on a page boundary.
• The alignment is an optional parameter that ensures that the space allocated to the
symbol occurs on the specified boundary. The boundary must be set to a power of 2
between 20 and 215, inclusive. If the SPC is already aligned at the specified boundary,
it is not incremented.
For more information about sections, see Chapter 2.
.byte/.ubyte/.char/.uchar
Initialize Byte
Syntax .byte value1[, ... , valuen ]

.ubyte value1[, ... , valuen ]
.char value1[, ... , valuen ]
.uchar value1[, ... , valuen ]
Description The .byte, .ubyte, .char, and .uchar directives place one or more values into consecutive
words of the current section. Each byte is placed in a word by itself; the eight MSBs are
filled with 0s. A value can be one of the following:
• An expression that the assembler evaluates and treats as an 8-bit signed number
• A character string enclosed in double quotes. Each character in a string represents a
separate value, and values are stored in consecutive bytes. The entire string must be
enclosed in quotes.
Values are not packed or sign-extended; each byte occupies the eight least significant bits
of a full 16-bit word. The assembler truncates values greater than eight bits.
If you use a label, it points to the location of the first byte that is initialized.
When you use these directives in a .struct/.endstruct sequence, they define a member's
size; they do not initialize memory. For more information, see the .struct/.endstruct/.tag
topic.
Example In this example, 8-bit values (10, -1, abc, and a) are placed into consecutive words in
memory. The label STRX has the value 100h, which is the location of the first initialized
word.
1 000000 .space 100h * 16
2 000100 000A STRX .byte 10, -1, "abc", 'a'
000101 00FF
000102 0061
000103 0062
000104 0063
000105 0061
3 000106 000A .char 10, -1, "abc", 'a'
000107 00FF
000108 0061
000109 0062
00010a 0063
00010b 0061
.cdecls
Share C Headers Between C and Assembly Code
Syntax Single Line:

.cdecls [options ,] " filename "[, " filename2 "[,...]]
Syntax Multiple Lines:

.cdecls [options]
%{
/*---------------------------------------------------------------------------------*/
/* C/C++ code - Typically a list of #includes and a few defines */
/*---------------------------------------------------------------------------------*/
%}
Description The .cdecls directive allows programmers in mixed assembly and C/C++ environments to
share C headers containing declarations and prototypes between the C and assembly
code. Any legal C/C++ can be used in a .cdecls block and the C/C++ declarations
cause suitable assembly to be generated automatically, allowing you to reference the
C/C++ constructs in assembly code; such as calling functions, allocating space, and
accessing structure members; using the equivalent assembly mechanisms. While function
and variable definitions are ignored, most common C/C++ elements are converted to
assembly, for instance: enumerations, (non-function-like) macros, function and variable
prototypes, structures, and unions.
The .cdecls options control whether the code is treated as C or C++ code; and how
the .cdecls block and converted code are presented. Options must be separated by
commas; they can appear in any order:
C Treat the code in the .cdecls block as C source code (default).
CPP Treat the code in the .cdecls block as C++ source code. This is the opposite
of the C option.
NOLIST Do not include the converted assembly code in any listing file generated for
the containing assembly file (default).
LIST Include the converted assembly code in any listing file generated for the
containing assembly file. This is the opposite of the NOLIST option.
NOWARN Do not emit warnings on STDERR about C/C++ constructs that cannot be
converted while parsing the .cdecls source block (default).
WARN Generate warnings on STDERR about C/C++ constructs that cannot be
converted while parsing the .cdecls source block. This is the opposite of the
NOWARN option.
In the single-line format, the options are followed by one or more filenames to include.
The filenames and options are separated by commas. Each file listed acts as if #include
"filename" was specified in the multiple-line format.
In the multiple-line format, the line following .cdecls must contain the opening .cdecls
block indicator %{. Everything after the %{, up to the closing block indicator %}, is treated
as C/C++ source and processed. Ordinary assembler processing then resumes on the
line following the closing %}.
The text within %{ and %} is passed to the C/C++ compiler to be converted into assembly
language. Much of C language syntax, including function and variable definitions as
well as function-like macros, is not supported and is ignored during the conversion.
However, all of what traditionally appears in C header files is supported, including function
and variable prototypes; structure and union declarations; non-function-like macros;
enumerations; and #defines.
The resulting assembly language is included in the assembly file at the point of the .cdecls
directive. If the LIST option is used, the converted assembly statements are printed in the
listing file.
The assembly resulting from the .cdecls directive is treated similarly to a .include file.
Therefore the .cdecls directive can be nested within a file being copied or included.
The assembler limits nesting to ten levels; the host operating system may set additional
restrictions. The assembler precedes the line numbers of copied files with a letter code
to identify the level of copying. An A indicates the first copied file, B indicates a second
copied file, etc.
The .cdecls directive can appear anywhere in an assembly source file, and can occur
multiple times within a file. However, the C/C++ environment created by one .cdecls is not
inherited by a later .cdecls; the C/C++ environment starts new for each .cdecls.
See Chapter 13 for more information on setting up and using the .cdecls directive with C
header files.
Example In this example, the .cdecls directive is used call the C header.h file.
C header file:
#define WANT_ID 10
#define NAME "John\n"
extern int a_variable;
extern float cvt_integer(int src);
struct myCstruct { int member_a; float member_b; };
enum status_enum { OK = 1, FAILED = 256, RUNNING = 0 };
Source file:
.cdecls C,LIST,"myheader.h"
size: .int $sizeof(myCstruct)
aoffset: .int myCstruct.member_a
boffset: .int myCstruct.member_b
okvalue: .int status_enum.OK
failval: .int status_enum.FAILED
.if $defined(WANT_ID)
id .cstring NAME
.endif
Listing File:
1 .cdecls C,LIST,"myheader.h"
A 1 ; ------------------------------------------
A 2 ; Assembly Generated from C/C++ Source Code
A 3 ; ------------------------------------------
A 4
A 5 ; =========== MACRO DEFINITIONS ===========
A 6 .define "1",_OPTIMIZE_FOR_SPACE
A 7 .define "1",__ASM_HEADER__
A 8 .define "1",__edg_front_end__
A 9 .define "5001000",__COMPILER_VERSION__
A 10 .define "0",__TI_STRICT_ANSI_MODE__
A 11 .define """14:53:42""",__TIME__
A 12 .define """I""",__TI_COMPILER_VERSION_QUAL__
A 13 .define "unsigned long",__SIZE_T_TYPE__
A 14 .define "long",__PTRDIFF_T_TYPE__
A 15 .define "1",__TMS320C2000__
A 16 .define "1",_TMS320C28X
A 17 .define "1",_TMS320C2000
A 18 .define "1",__TMS320C28X__
A 19 .define "1",__STDC__
A 20 .define "1",__signed_chars__
A 21 .define "0",__GNUC_MINOR__
A 22 .define "1",_TMS320C28XX
A 23 .define "5001000",__TI_COMPILER_VERSION__
A 24 .define "1",__TMS320C28XX__
A 25 .define "1",__little_endian__
A 26 .define "199409L",__STDC_VERSION__
A 27 .define """EDG gcc 3.0 mode""",__VERSION__
A 28 .define """John\n""",NAME
A 29 .define "unsigned int",__WCHAR_T_TYPE__
A 30 .define "1",__TI_RUNTIME_RTS__
A 31 .define "3",__GNUC__
A 32 .define "10",WANT_ID
A 33 .define """Sep 7 2007""",__DATE__
A 34 .define "7250",__TI_COMPILER_VERSION_QUAL_ID__
A 35
A 36 ; =========== TYPE DEFINITIONS ===========
A 37 status_enum .enum
A 38 0001 OK .emember 1
A 39 0100 FAILED .emember 256
A 40 0000 RUNNING .emember 0
A 41 .endenum
A 42
A 43 myCstruct .struct 0,2 ; struct size=(4 bytes|64
bits), alignment=2
A 44 0000 member_a .field 16 ; int member_a - offset 0
bytes, size (1 bytes|16 bits)
A 45 0001 .field 16 ; padding
A 46 0002 member_b .field 32 ; float member_b-offset 2
bytes, size (2 bytes|32 bits)
A 47 0004 .endstruct ; final size=(4 bytes|64 bits)
A 48
A 49 ; =========== EXTERNAL FUNCTIONS ===========
A 50 .global _cvt_integer
A 51
A 52 ; =========== EXTERNAL VARIABLES ===========
A 53 .global _a_variable
2 00000000 0004 size: .int $sizeof(myCstruct)
3 00000001 0000 aoffset: .int myCstruct.member_a
4 00000002 0002 boffset: .int myCstruct.member_b
5 00000003 0001 okvalue: .int status_enum.OK
6 00000004 0100 failval: .int status_enum.FAILED
7 .if $defined(WANT_ID)
8 00000005 004A id .cstring NAME
00000006 006F
00000007 0068
00000008 006E
00000009 000A
0000000a 0000
9 .endif
.clink
Conditionally Leave Section Out of Object Module Output
Syntax .clink[" section name "]
Description The .clink directive enables conditional linking by telling the linker to leave a section out
of the final object module output of the linker if there are no references found to any
symbol in that section. The .clink directive can be applied to initialized sections.
Note
The .clink directive is supported only for the COFF ABI. It is ignored when used
in EABI mode.
The .clink directive applies to the current initialized section. It tells the linker to leave the
section out of the final object module output of the linker if there are no references found
in a linked section to any symbol defined in the specified section.
The .clink directive is useful only with the COFF object file format. Under the COFF ABI
model, the linker assumes that all sections are ineligible for removal via conditional linking
by default. If you want to make a section eligible for removal, you must apply a .clink
directive to it. In contrast, under the ELF EABI model, the linker assumes that all sections
are eligible for removal via conditional linking. Therefore, the .clink directive has no effect
under EABI.
A section in which the entry point of a C program is defined cannot be marked as a
conditionally linked section.
Example In this example, the Vars and Counts sections are set for conditional linking.
1 000000 .sect "Vars"
2 ; Vars section is conditionally linked
3 .clink
4
5 000000 001A X: .long 01Ah
000001 0000
6 000002 001A Y: .word 01Ah
7 000003 001A Z: .word 01Ah
8 ; Counts section is conditionally linked
9 .clink
10
11 000004 001A XCount: .word 01Ah
12 000005 001A YCount: .word 01Ah
13 000006 001A ZCount: .word 01Ah
14 ; By default, .text in unconditionally linked
15 000000 .text
16
17 000000 97C6 MOV *XAR6, AH
18 ; These references to symbol X cause the Vars
19 ; section to be linked into the COFF output
20 000001 8500+ MOV ACC, @X
21 000002 3100 MOV P, #0
22 000003 0FAB CMPL ACC, P
.common
Create a Common Symbol
Syntax .common symbol , size in bytes[, alignment]

.common symbol , structure tag[, alignment]
Description The .common directive creates a common symbol in a common block, rather than placing
the variable in a memory section.
Note
This directive is supported only when using EABI mode.
The benefit of common symbols is that generated code can remove unused variables that
would otherwise increase the size of the .bss section. (Uninitialized variables of a size
larger than 32 bytes are separately optimized through placement in separate subsections
that can be omitted from a link.)
• The symbol is a required parameter. It defines a name for the symbol created by this
directive. The symbol name must correspond to the variable that you are reserving
space for.
• The size in bytes is a required parameter; it must be an absolute expression. The
assembler allocates size bytes in the section used for common symbols. There is no
default size.
• A structure tag can be used in place of a size to specify a structure created with
the .struct directive. Either a size or a structure tag is required for this argument.
• The alignment is an optional parameter that ensures that the space allocated to the
symbol occurs on the specified boundary. The boundary must be set to a power of 2
between 20 and 215, inclusive. If the SPC is already aligned at the specified boundary,
it is not incremented.
Common symbols are symbols that are placed in the symbol table of an ELF object file.
They represent an uninitialized variable. Common symbols do not reference a section.
(In contrast, initialized variables need to reference a section that contains the initialized
data.) The value of a common symbol is its required alignment; it has no address and
stores no address. While symbols for an uninitialized common block can appear in
executable object files, common symbols may only appear in relocatable object files.
Common symbols are preferred over weak symbols. See the section on the "Symbol
Table" in the System V ABI specification for more about common symbols.
When object files containing common symbols are linked, space is reserved in an
uninitialized section (.common) for each common symbol. A symbol is created in place
of the common symbol to refer to its reserved location.
.copy/.include
Copy Source File
Syntax .copy " filename "

.include " filename "
Description The .copy and .include directives tell the assembler to read source statements from
a different file. The statements that are assembled from a copy file are printed in the
assembly listing. The statements that are assembled from an included file are not printed
in the assembly listing, regardless of the number of .list/.nolist directives assembled.
When a .copy or .include directive is assembled, the assembler:
1. Stops assembling statements in the current source file
2. Assembles the statements in the copied/included file
3. Resumes assembling statements in the main source file, starting with the statement
that follows the .copy or .include directive
The filename is a required parameter that names a source file. It is enclosed in double
quotes and must follow operating system conventions.
You can specify a full pathname (for example, /320tools/file1.asm). If you do not specify a
full pathname, the assembler searches for the file in:
1. The directory that contains the current source file
2. Any directories named with the --include_path assembler option
3. Any directories specified by the C2000_A_DIR environment variable
4. Any directories specified by the C2000_C_DIR environment variable
For more information about the --include_path option and C2000_A_DIR, see Section
4.5. For more information about C2000_C_DIR, see the TMS320C28x Optimizing C/C++
The .copy and .include directives can be nested within a file being copied or included.
The assembler limits nesting to 32 levels; the host operating system may set additional
restrictions. The assembler precedes the line numbers of copied files with a letter code to
identify the level of copying. A indicates the first copied file, B indicates a second copied
file, etc.
Example 1 In this example, the .copy directive is used to read and assemble source statements from
other files; then, the assembler resumes assembling into the current file.
The original file, copy.asm, contains a .copy statement copying the file byte.asm. When
copy.asm assembles, the assembler copies byte.asm into its place in the listing (note
listing below). The copy file byte.asm contains a .copy statement for a second file,
word.asm.
When it encounters the .copy statement for word.asm, the assembler switches to
word.asm to continue copying and assembling. Then the assembler returns to its place
in byte.asm to continue copying and assembling. After completing assembly of byte.asm,
the assembler returns to copy.asm to assemble its remaining statement.
copy.asm byte.asm word.asm
(source file) (first copy file) (second copy file)
.space 29 ** In byte.asm ** In word.asm
.copy "byte.asm" .byte 32,1+ 'A' .word 0ABCDh, 56q
** Back in original file .copy "word.asm"
.string "done" ** Back in byte.asm
.byte 67h + 3q
Listing file:
1 000000 .space 29
2 .copy "byte.asm"
1 ** In byte.asm
2 000002 0005 byte 5
3 .copy "word.asm"
1 ** In word.asm
2 000003 ABCD .word 0ABCDh
4 * Back in byte.asm
5 000004 0006 .byte 6
3
4 **Back in original file
5 000005 646F .string "done"
000006 6E65
Example 2 In this example, the .include directive is used to read and assemble source statements
from other files; then, the assembler resumes assembling into the current file. The
mechanism is similar to the .copy directive, except that statements are not printed in the
listing file.
include.asm byte2.asm word2.asm
(source file) (first copy file) (second copy file)
.space 29 ** In byte2.asm ** In word2.asm
.include "byte2.asm" .byte 32,1+ 'A' .word 0ABCDh, 56q
** Back in original file .include "word2.asm"
.string "done" ** Back in byte2.asm
.byte 67h + 3q
Listing file:
1 000000 .space 29
2 .include "byte2.asm"
3
4 ** Back in original file
5 000007 0064 .string "done"
000008 006F
000009 006E
00000a 0065
.cstruct/.cunion/.endstruct/.endunion/.tag
Declare C Structure Type
Syntax [stag] .cstruct|.cunion [expr]

[mem0] element [expr0]
. . .
. . .
[memn] .tag stag [exprn]
[memN] element [exprN]
[size] .endstruct|.endunion
label .tag stag
Description The .cstruct and .cunion directives have been added to support ease of sharing
of common data structures between assembly and C code. The .cstruct and .cunion
directives can be used exactly like the existing .struct and .union directives except that
they are guaranteed to perform data layout matching the layout used by the C compiler for
C struct and union data types.
In particular, the .cstruct and .cunion directives force the same alignment and padding as
used by the C compiler when such types are nested within compound data structures.
The .endstruct directive terminates the structure definition. The .endunion directive
terminates the union definition.
The .tag directive gives structure characteristics to a label, simplifying the symbolic
representation and providing the ability to define structures that contain other structures.
The .tag directive does not allocate memory. The structure tag (stag) of a .tag directive
must have been previously defined.
Following are descriptions of the parameters used with the .struct, .endstruct, and .tag
directives:
• The stag is the structure's tag. Its value is associated with the beginning of the
structure. If no stag is present, the assembler puts the structure members in the global
symbol table with the value of their absolute offset from the top of the structure. The
stag is optional for .struct, but is required for .tag.
• The element is one of the following
descriptors: .byte, .char, .int, .long, .word, .string, .pstring, .float, and .field. All of these
except .tag are typical directives that initialize memory. Following a .struct directive,
these directives describe the structure element's size. They do not allocate memory.
A .tag directive is a special case because stag must be used (as in the definition of
stag).
• The expr is an optional expression indicating the beginning offset of the structure. The
default starting point for a structure is 0.
• The exprn/N is an optional expression for the number of elements described. This
value defaults to 1. A .string element is considered to be one byte in size, and a .field
element is one bit.
• The memn/N is an optional label for a member of the structure. This label is absolute
and equates to the present offset from the beginning of the structure. A label for a
structure member cannot be declared global.
• The size is an optional label for the total size of the structure.
Example This example illustrates a structure in C that will be accessed in assembly code.
;typedef struct MYSTR1
;{ long l0; /* offset 0 */
; short s0; /* offset 2 */
;} MYSTR1; /* size 4, alignment 2 */
;typedef struct MYSTR2
;{ MYSTR1 m1; /* offset 0 */
; short s1; /* offset 4 */
;} MYSTR2; /* size 6, alignment 2 */
;
; The structure will get the following offsets once the C compiler lays out the
structure
; elements according to C standard rules:
;
; offsetof(MYSTR1, l0) = 0
; offsetof(MYSTR1, s0) = 2
; sizeof(MYSTR1) = 4
;
; offsetof(MYSTR2, m1) = 0
; offsetof(MYSTR2, s1) = 4
; sizeof(MYSTR2) = 6
;
; Attempts to replicate this structure in assembly using .struct/.union
directives will not
; create the correct offsets because the assembler tries to use the most
compact arrangement:
MYSTR1.struct
l0.long ; bytes 0 and 1
s0.short ; byte 2
M1_LEN .endstruct ; size 4, alignment 2
MYSTR2.struct
m1.tag MYSTR1 ; bytes 0-3
s1.short ; byte 4
M2_LEN .endstruct ; size 6, alignment 2
.sect "data1"
.word MYSTR1.l0
.word MYSTR1.s0
.word M1_LEN
.sect "data2"
.word MYSTR2.m1
.word MYSTR2.s1
.word M2_LEN
; The .cstruct/.cunion directives calculate offsets the same as the C compiler.
The resulting
; assembly structure can be used to access elements of the C structure. Compare
differences
; in the offsets of those structures defined via .struct above and the offsets
for C code.
CMYSTR1 .cstruct
l0 .long
s0 .short
MC1_LEN .endstruct
CMYSTR2 .cstruct
m1 .tag CMYSTR1
s1 .short
MC2_LEN .endstruct
.sect "data3"
.word CMYSTR1.l0, MYSTR1.l0
.word CMYSTR1.s0, MYSTR1.s0
.word MC1_LEN, M1_LEN
.sect "data4"
.word CMYSTR2.m1, MYSTR2.m1
.word CMYSTR2.s1, MYSTR2.s1
.word MC2_LEN, M2_LEN
.data
Assemble Into the .data Section
Syntax .data
Description The .data directive sets .data as the current section; the lines that follow will be
assembled into the .data section. The .data section is normally used to contain tables
of data or preinitialized variables.
Example In this example, code is assembled into the .data and .text sections.
1 *******************************************
2 ** Reserve space in .data. **
3 *******************************************
4 000000 .data
5 000000 .space 0CCh
6 *******************************************
7 ** Assemble into .text. **
8 *******************************************
9 000000 .text
10 0000 INDEX .set 0
11 000000 9A00 MOV AL,#INDEX
12 *******************************************
13 ** Assemble into .data. **
14 *******************************************
15 00000c Table: .data
16 00000d FFFF .word -1 ; Assemble 16-bit constant
into .data.
17 00000e 00FF .byte 0FFh ; Assemble 8-bit constant
into .data.
18 *******************************************
19 ** Assemble into .text. **
20 *******************************************
21 000001 .text
22 000001 08A9" ADD AL,Table
000002 000C
23 *******************************************
24 ** Resume assembling into the .data **
25 ** section at address 0Fh. **
26 *******************************************
27 00000f .data
.drlist/.drnolist
Control Listing of Directives
Syntax .drlist
.drnolist
Description Two directives enable you to control the printing of assembler directives to the listing file:
The .drlist directive enables the printing of all directives to the listing file.
The .drnolist directive suppresses the printing of the following directives to the listing file.
The .drnolist directive has no affect within macros.
• .asg • .fcnolist • .ssnolist
• .break • .mlist • .var
• .emsg • .mmsg • .wmsg
• .eval • .mnolist
• .fclist • .sslist
By default, the assembler acts as if the .drlist directive had been specified.
Example This example shows how .drnolist inhibits the listing of the specified directives.
Source file:
.asg 0, x
.loop 2
.eval x+1, x
.endloop
.drnolist
.asg 1, x
.loop 3
.eval x+1, x
.endloop
Listing file:
1 .asg 0, x
2 .loop 2
3 .eval x+1, x
4 .endloop
1 .eval 0+1, x
1 .eval 1+1, x
5
6 .drnolist
7
9 .loop 3
10 .eval x+1, x
11 .endloop
.elfsym
ELF Symbol Information
Syntax .elfsym name , SYM_SIZE( size )

.elfsym name , SYM_PRESERVE(1)
.elfsym name , SYM_UPDATE(1)
Description The .elfsym directive provides additional information for symbols in the ELF format. This
directive is designed to convey different types of information, so the type(value) syntax is
used for each type.
Note
This directive is supported for EABI mode only.
SYM_SIZE indicates the allocation size (in bytes) of the symbol indicated by name.
The SYM_PRESERVE and SYM_UPDATE types indicate how a symbol should be
handled during a warm start. These types are supported only if the executable is compiled
for Live Firmware Update (LFU). See the .preserve topic for examples that use these
types.
Example This example shows the use of the ELF symbol information directive.
.sect ".examp"
.align 4
.elfsym ex_sym, SYM_SIZE(4)
ex_sym:
.word 0
.emsg/.mmsg/.wmsg
Define Messages
Syntax .emsg string

.mmsg string
.wmsg string
Description These directives allow you to define your own error and warning messages. When
you use these directives, the assembler tracks the number of errors and warnings it
encounters and prints these numbers on the last line of the listing file.
The .emsg directive sends an error message to the standard output device in the same
manner as the assembler. It increments the error count and prevents the assembler from
producing an object file.
The .mmsg directive sends an assembly-time message to the standard output device in
the same manner as the .emsg and .wmsg directives. It does not, however, set the error
or warning counts, and it does not prevent the assembler from producing an object file.
The .wmsg directive sends a warning message to the standard output device in the
same manner as the .emsg directive. It increments the warning count rather than the error
count, however. It does not prevent the assembler from producing an object file.
Example This example sends the message ERROR -- MISSING PARAMETER to the standard
output device.
Source file:
.global PARAM
MSG_EX .macro parm1
.if $symlen(parm1) = 0
.emsg "ERROR -- MISSING PARAMETER"
.else
ADD AL, @parm1
.endif
.endm
MSG_EX PARAM
MSG_EX
Listing file:
1 .global PARAM
2 MSG_EX .macro parm1
3 .if $symlen(parm1) = 0
4 .emsg "ERROR -- MISSING PARAMETER"
5 .else
6 ADD AL, @parm1
7 .endif
8 .endm
9
10 000000 MSG_EX PARAM
1 .else
1 000000 9400! ADD AL, @PARAM
1 .endif
11
12 000001 MSG_EX
***** USER ERROR ***** - : ERROR -- MISSING PARAMETER
1 .else
1 ADD AL, @parm1
1 .endif
1 Error, No Warnings
In addition, the following messages are sent to standard output by the assembler:
*** ERROR! line 12: ***** USER ERROR ***** - : ERROR -- MISSING PARAMETER
.emsg "ERROR -- MISSING PARAMETER" ]]
1 Assembly Error, No Assembly Warnings
Errors in source - Assembler Aborted
.end
End Assembly
Syntax .end
Description The .end directive is optional and terminates assembly. The assembler ignores any
source statements that follow a .end directive. If you use the .end directive, it must be
the last source statement of a program.
This directive has the same effect as an end-of-file character. You can use .end when you
are debugging and you want to stop assembling at a specific point in your code.
Note
Ending a Macro
Do not use the .end directive to terminate a macro; use the .endm macro
directive instead.
Example This example shows how the .end directive terminates assembly. Any source statements
that follow the .end directive are ignored by the assembler.
Source file:
START: .space 300
TEMP .set 15
LOC1 .usect ".ebss", 48h
ABS ACC
ADD ACC, #TEMP
MOV @LOC1, ACC
.end
.byte 4
.word CCCh
Listing file:
1 000000 START: .space 300
2 000F TEMP .set 15
3 000000 LOC1 .usect ".ebss", 48h
4 000013 FF56 ABS ACC
5 000014 090F ADD ACC, #TEMP
6 000015 9600- MOV @LOC1, ACC
7 .end
.fclist/.fcnolist
Control Listing of False Conditional Blocks
Syntax .fclist
.fcnolist
Description Two directives enable you to control the listing of false conditional blocks:
The .fclist directive allows the listing of false conditional blocks (conditional blocks that do
not produce code).
The .fcnolist directive suppresses the listing of false conditional blocks until a .fclist
directive is encountered. With .fcnolist, only code in conditional blocks that are actually
assembled appears in the listing. The .if, .elseif, .else, and .endif directives do not appear.
By default, all conditional blocks are listed; the assembler acts as if the .fclist directive had
been used.
Example This example shows the assembly language and listing files for code with and without the
conditional blocks listed.
Source file:
AAA .set 1
BBB .set 0
.fclist
.if AAA
ADD ACC, #1024
.else
ADD ACC, #1024*4
.endif
.fcnolist
.if AAA
ADD ACC, #1024
.else
ADD ACC, #1024*10
.endif
Listing file:
1 0001 AAA .set 1
2 0000 BBB .set 0
3 .fclist
4
5 .if AAA
6 000000 FF10 ADD ACC, #1024
000001 0400
7 .else
8 ADD ACC, #1024*4
9 .endif
10
11 .fcnolist
12
14 000002 FF10 ADD ACC, #1024
000003 0400
.field
Initialize Field
Syntax .field value[, size in bits]
Description The .field directive initializes a multiple-bit field within a single word (16 bits) of memory.
This directive has two operands:
• The value is a required parameter; it is an expression that is evaluated and placed in
the field. The value must be absolute.
• The size in bits is an optional value from 1 to 32, which is the number of bits in the
field. The default size is 16 bits. If you specify a size of 16 or more bits, the field starts
on a word boundary. If you specify a value that cannot fit in size in bits, the assembler
truncates the value and issues a warning message. For example, .field 3,1 causes the
assembler to truncate the value 3 to 1 and print this message:
*** WARNING! line 21: W0001: Field value truncated to 1
.field 3, 1
Successive .field directives pack values into the specified number of bits starting at the
current word. Fields are packed starting at the least significant part of the word, moving
toward the most significant part as more fields are added. If the assembler encounters
a field size that does not fit into the current word, it writes out the word, increments the
SPC, and begins packing fields into the next word. You can use the .align directive with an
operand of 1 to force the next .field directive to begin packing into a new word.
The .field directive is similar to the .bits directive (see the .bits topic). However, the .bits
directive does not force alignment to a field boundary and does not automatically
increment the SPC when a word boundary is reached.
Use the .align directive to force the next .field directive to begin packing a new word.
If you use a label, it points to the word that contains the specified field.
When you use .field in a .struct/.endstruct sequence, .field defines a member's size; it
does not initialize memory. For more information, see the .struct/.endstruct/.tag topic.
Example This example shows how fields are packed into a word. The SPC does not change until a
word is filled and the next word is begun.
1 ************************************
2 ** Initialize a 14-bit field. **
3 ************************************
4 000000 0ABC .field 0ABCh, 14
5
6 ************************************************
7 ** Initialize a 5-bit field in a new word. **
8 ************************************************
9 000001 000A L_F: .field 0Ah, 5
10
11 ************************************************
12 ** Initialize a 4-bit field in the same word. **
13 ************************************************
14 000001 018A X: .field 0Ch, 4
15 ************************************************
16 ** Relocatable field in the next 2 words. **
17 ************************************************
18 000002 0001' .field X
19 ************************************
20 ** Initialize a 32-bit field **
21 ************************************
22 000003 4321 .field 04321h, 32
000004 0000
Figure 5-5 shows how the directives in this example affect memory.
Word Code
15 13 0
(a) 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 .field 0ABCh, 14
14-bit field
(b) 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 .field 00Ah, 5
1 0 1 0 1 0
5-bit field
(c) 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 .field 000Ch, 4
4-bit field
(d) 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 .field x
2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
(e) 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 .field 04321, 32
5 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
Figure 5-5. The .field Directive
.float/.xfloat/.xldouble
Initialize Single- and Double-Precision Floating-Point Values
Syntax .float value[, ... , valuen]

.xfloat value[, ... , valuen]
.xldouble value[, ... , valuen]
Description The .float and .xfloat directives place the IEEE single-precision floating-point
representation of a single floating-point constant into a word in the current section. The
value must be an absolute constant expression with an arithmetic type or a symbol
equated to an absolute constant expression with an arithmetic type. Each constant is
converted to a floating-point value in IEEE single-precision 32-bit format.
The .float directive aligns the floating-point constants on the long-word boundary, while
the .xfloat directive does not.
The 32-bit value is stored exponent byte first, least significant word of fraction second,
and most significant word of fraction third, in the format shown in Figure 5-6.
The .xldouble directive places the IEEE double-precision floating-point representation of
a double floating-point constant into two words in the current section. The value must
be an absolute constant expression with an arithmetic type or a symbol equated to an
absolute constant expression with an arithmetic type. Each constant is converted to a
floating-point double value in IEEE double-precision 64-bit format. The 64-bit value is
stored exponent byte first, least significant word of fraction second, and most significant
word of fraction third.
S E E E E E E E E MMMMMMMMMMMMM MMMMMMMMMM
31 23 0
value = (-1)S x (1.0 + mantissa) x (2)exponent-127
Legend: S = sign (1 bit)

E = exponent (8-bit biased)
M = mantissa (23-bit fraction)
Figure 5-6. Single-Precision Floating-Point Format
When you use .float in a .struct/.endstruct sequence, .float defines a member's size; it
does not initialize memory. For more information, see the .struct/.endstruct/.tag topic.
Example Following are examples of the .float and .xfloat directives:

1 00000000 5951 .float -1.0e25
00000001 E904
2 00000002 0010 .byte 0x10
3 00000003 0000 .xfloat 123.0 ; not on long-word boundary
00000004 42F6
4 00000006 0000 .float 3 ; aligns on long-word boundary
00000007 4040
.global/.def/.ref
Identify Global Symbols
Syntax .global symbol1[, ... , symboln]

.def symbol1[, ... , symboln]
.ref symbol1[, ... , symboln]
Description Three directives identify global symbols that are defined externally or can be referenced
externally:
The .def directive identifies a symbol that is defined in the current module and can be
accessed by other files. The assembler places this symbol in the symbol table.
The .ref directive identifies a symbol that is used in the current module but is defined in
another module. The linker resolves this symbol's definition at link time.
The .global directive acts as a .ref or a .def, as needed.
A global symbol is defined in the same manner as any other symbol; that is, it appears as
a label or is defined by the .set, .equ, .bss or .usect directive. If a global symbol is defined
more than once, the linker issues a multiple-definition error. (The assembler can provide
a similar multiple-definition error for local symbols.) The .ref directive always creates a
symbol table entry for a symbol, whether the module uses the symbol or not; .global,
however, creates an entry only if the module actually uses the symbol.
A symbol can be declared global for either of two reasons:
• If the symbol is not defined in the current module (which includes macro, copy,
and include files), the .global or .ref directive tells the assembler that the symbol is
defined in an external module. This prevents the assembler from issuing an unresolved
reference error. At link time, the linker looks for the symbol's definition in other
modules.
• If the symbol is defined in the current module, the .global or .def directive declares that
the symbol and its definition can be used externally by other modules. These types of
references are resolved at link time.
Example This example shows four files. The file1.lst and file2.lst refer to each other for all symbols
used; file3.lst and file4.lst are similarly related.
The file1.lst and file3.lst files are equivalent. Both files define the symbol INIT and make
it available to other modules; both files use the external symbols X, Y, and Z. Also, file1.lst
uses the .global directive to identify these global symbols; file3.lst uses .ref and .def to
identify the symbols.
The file2.lst and file4.lst files are equivalent. Both files define the symbols X, Y, and
Z and make them available to other modules; both files use the external symbol INIT.
Also, file2.lst uses the .global directive to identify these global symbols; file4.lst uses .ref
and .def to identify the symbols.
file1.lst
1 ; Global symbol defined in this file
2 .global INIT
3 ; Global symbols defined in file2.lst
4 .global X, Y, Z
5 000000 INIT:
6 000000 0956 ADD ACC, #56h
7
8 000001 0000! .word X
9 ; .
10 ; .
11 ; .
12 .end
file2.lst
1 ; Global symbols defined in this file
2 .global X, Y, Z
3 ; Global symbol defined in file1.lst
4 .global INIT
5 0001 X: .set 1
6 0002 Y: .set 2
7 0003 Z: .set 3
8 000000 0000! .word INIT
9 ; .
10 ; .
11 ; .
12 .end
file3.lst
1 ; Global symbol defined in this file
2 .def INIT
3 ; Global symbols defined in file4.lst
4 .ref X, Y, Z
5 000000 INIT:
6 000000 0956 ADD ACC, #56h
7
8 000001 0000! .word X
9 ; .
10 ; .
11 ; .
12 .end
file4.lst
1 ; Global symbols defined in this file
2 .def X, Y, Z
3 ; Global symbol defined in file3.lst
4 .ref INIT
5 0001 X: .set 1
6 0002 Y: .set 2
7 0003 Z: .set 3
8 000000 0000! .word INIT
9 ; .
10 ; .
11 ; .
12 .end
.group/.gmember/.endgroup
Define Common Data Section
Syntax .group group_section_name group_type

.gmember section_name
.endgroup
Description Three directives instruct the assembler to make certain sections members of an ELF
group section (see the ELF specification for more information on group sections).
Note
These directives are supported for EABI mode only.
The .group directive begins the group declaration. The group_section_name designates
the name of the group section. The group_type designates the type of the group. The
following types are supported:
0x0 Regular ELF group
0x1 COMDAT ELF group
Duplicate COMDAT (common data) groups are allowed in multiple modules; the linker
keeps only one. Creating such duplicate groups is useful for late instantiation of C++
templates and for providing debugging information.
The .gmember directive designates section_name as a member of the group.
The .endgroup directive ends the group declaration.
.if/.elseif/.else/.endif
Assemble Conditional Blocks
Syntax .if condition

[.elseif condition]
[.else]
.endif
Description The .if directive marks the beginning of a conditional block. The condition is required.
• If the expression evaluates to true (nonzero), the assembler assembles the code that
follows the expression (up to a .elseif, .else, or .endif).
• If the expression evaluates to false (0), the assembler assembles code that follows
a .elseif (if present), .else (if present), or .endif (if no .elseif or .else is present).
The .elseif directive identifies a block of code to be assembled when the .if expression
is false (0) and the .elseif expression is true (nonzero). When the .elseif expression is
false, the assembler continues to the next .elseif (if present), .else (if present), or .endif (if
no .elseif or .else is present). The .elseif is optional in a conditional block, and more than
one .elseif can be used. If an expression is false and there is no .elseif, the assembler
continues with the code that follows a .else (if present) or a .endif.
The .else directive identifies code the assembler assembles when the .if expression and
all .elseif expressions are false (0). The .else directive is optional; if an expression is
false and there is no .else statement, the assembler continues with the code that follows
the .endif. The .elseif and .else directives can be used in the same conditional block.
The .endif directive terminates a conditional block.
See Section 4.9.2 for information about relational operators.
Example This example shows conditional assembly:

1 0001 SYM1 .set 1
2 0002 SYM2 .set 2
3 0003 SYM3 .set 3
4 0004 SYM4 .set 4
5
6 If_4: .if SYM4 = SYM2 * SYM2
7 000000 0004 .byte SYM4 ; Equal values
8 .else
9 .byte SYM2 * SYM2 ; Unequal values
10 .endif
11
12 If_5: .if SYM1 <= 10
13 000001 000A .byte 10 ; Less than / equal
14 .else
15 .byte SYM1 ; Greater than
16 .endif
17
18 If_6: .if SYM3 * SYM2 != SYM4 + SYM2
19 .byte SYM3 * SYM2 ; Unequal value
20 .else
21 000002 0008 .byte SYM4 + SYM4 ; Equal values
22 .endif
23
24 If_7: .if SYM1 = 2
25 .byte SYM1
26 .elseif SYM2 + SYM3 = 5
27 000003 0005 .byte SYM2 + SYM3
28 .endif
.int/.unint/.word/.uword
Initialize 16-Bit Integers
Syntax .int value1[, ... , valuen ]

.uint value1[, ... , valuen ]
.word value1[, ... , valuen ]
.uword value1[, ... , valuen ]
Description The .int, .unint, .word, and .uword directives place one or more values into consecutive
words in the current section. Each value is placed in a 16-bit word by itself and is aligned
on a word boundary. A value can be either:
• An expression that the assembler evaluates and treats as a 16-bit signed or unsigned
number
separate value and is stored alone in the least significant eight bits of a 16-bit field,
which is padded with 0s.
A value can be either an absolute or a relocatable expression. If an expression is
relocatable, the assembler generates a relocation entry that refers to the appropriate
symbol; the linker can then correctly patch (relocate) the reference. This allows you to
initialize memory with pointers to variables or labels.
If you use a label with these directives, it points to the first word that is initialized.
When you use these directives in a .struct/.endstruct sequence, they define a member's
size; they do not initialize memory. See the .struct/.endstruct/.tag topic.
Example 1 This example uses the .int directive to initialize words.

1 000000 .space 73h
2 000000 PAGE .usect ".ebss", 128
3 000080 SUMPTR .usect ".ebss", 3
4 000008 FF20 INST: MOV ACC, #056h
000009 0056
5 00000a 000A .int 10, SYMPTR, -1, 35 + 'a', INST
00000b 0080-
00000c FFFF
00000d 0084
00000e 0008'
Example 2 In this example, the .word directive is used to initialize words. The symbol WORDX points
to the first word that is reserved.
1 000000 0C80 WORDX: .word 3200, 1 + 'AB', -0AFh, 'X'
000001 4242
000002 FF51
000003 0058
.label
Create a Load-Time Address Label
Syntax .label symbol
Description The .label directive defines a special symbol that refers to the load-time address rather
than the run-time address within the current section. Most sections created by the
assembler have relocatable addresses. The assembler assembles each section as if it
started at 0, and the linker relocates it to the address at which it loads and runs.
For some applications, it is desirable to have a section load at one address and run at
a different address. For example, you may want to load a block of performance-critical
code into slower memory to save space and then move the code to high-speed memory
to run it. Such a section is assigned two addresses at link time: a load address and a run
address. All labels defined in the section are relocated to refer to the run-time address so
that references to the section (such as branches) are correct when the code runs. See
Section 3.5 for more information about run-time relocation.
The .label directive creates a special label that refers to the load-time address. This
function is useful primarily to designate where the section was loaded for purposes of the
code that relocates the section.
Example This example shows the use of a load-time address label.

sect ".examp"
.label examp_load ; load address of section
start: ; run address of section
<code>
finish: ; run address of section end
.label examp_end ; load address of section end
See Section 8.5.6 for more information about assigning run-time and load-time addresses
in the linker.
.length/.width
Set Listing Page Size
Syntax .length [page length]

.width [page width]
Description Two directives allow you to control the size of the output listing file.
The .length directive sets the page length of the output listing file. It affects the current
and following pages. You can reset the page length with another .length directive.
• Default length: 60 lines. If you do not use the .length directive or if you use the .length
directive without specifying the page length, the output listing length defaults to 60
lines.
• Minimum length: 1 line
• Maximum length: 32 767 lines
The .width directive sets the page width of the output listing file. It affects the next line
assembled and the lines following. You can reset the page width with another .width
directive.
• Default width: 132 characters. If you do not use the .width directive or if you use
the .width directive without specifying a page width, the output listing width defaults to
132 characters.
• Minimum width: 80 characters
• Maximum width: 200 characters
The width refers to a full line in a listing file; the line counter value, SPC value, and object
code are counted as part of the width of a line. Comments and other portions of a source
statement that extend beyond the page width are truncated in the listing.
The assembler does not list the .width and .length directives.
Example The following example shows how to change the page length and width.
********************************************
** Page length = 65 lines **
** Page width = 85 characters **
********************************************
.length 65
.width 85
********************************************
** Page length = 55 lines **
** Page width = 100 characters **
********************************************
.length 55
.width 100
.list/.nolist
Start/Stop Source Listing
Syntax .list
.nolist
Description Two directives enable you to control the printing of the source listing:
The .list directive allows the printing of the source listing.
The .nolist directive suppresses the source listing output until a .list directive is
encountered. The .nolist directive can be used to reduce assembly time and the source
listing size. It can be used in macro definitions to suppress the listing of the macro
expansion.
The assembler does not print the .list or .nolist directives or the source statements that
appear after a .nolist directive. However, it continues to increment the line counter. You
can nest the .list/.nolist directives; each .nolist needs a matching .list to restore the listing.
By default, the source listing is printed to the listing file; the assembler acts as if the .list
directive had been used. However, if you do not request a listing file when you invoke the
assembler by including the --asm_listing option on the command line (see Section 4.3),
the assembler ignores the .list directive.
Example This example shows how the .copy directive inserts source statements from another file.
The first time .copy is encountered, the assembler lists the copied source lines in the
listing file. The second time .copy is encountered, the assembler does not list the copied
source lines, because a .nolist directive was assembled. The .nolist, the second .copy,
and the .list directives do not appear in the listing file. Also the line counter is incremented,
even when source statements are not listed.
Source file:
copy.asm copy2.asm
(source file) (copy file)
.copy "copy2.asm" ** In copy2.asm
** Back in original file .word 32, 1 + 'A'
NOP
.nolist
.copy "copy2.asm"
.list
** Back in original file
.string "done"
Listing file:
1 .copy "copy2.asm"
1 *In copy2.asm (copy file)
2 000000 0020 .word 32, 1 + 'A'
000001 0042
2 * Back in original file
3 000002 7700 NOP
7 * Back in original file
8 000005 0044 .string "Done"
000006 006F
000007 006E
000008 0065
.long/.ulong/.xlong
Initialize 32-Bit Integer
Syntax .long value1[, ... , valuen]

.ulong value1[, ... , valuen]
.xlong value1[, ... , valuen]
Description The .long, .ulong, and .xlong directives place one or more 32-bit values into consecutive
words in the current section. The most significant word is stored first. The .long directive
aligns the result on the long-word boundary, while .xlong does not.
A value can be either an absolute or a relocatable expression. If an expression is
relocatable, the assembler generates a relocation entry that refers to the appropriate
symbol; the linker can then correctly patch (relocate) the reference. This allows you to
initialize memory with pointers to variables or labels.
If you use a label with these directives, it points to the first word that is initialized.
When you use .long in a .struct/.endstruct sequence, .long defines a member's size; it
does not initialize memory. See the .struct/.endstruct/.tag topic.
Example This example shows how the .long and .xlong directives initialize double words.
1 000000 ABCD DAT1: .long 0ABCDh, 'A' + 100h, 'g', 'o'
000001 0000
000002 0141
000003 0000
000004 0067
000005 0000
000006 006F
000007 0000
2 000008 0000' .xlong DAT1, 0AABBCCDDh
000009 0000
00000a CCDD
00000b AABB
3 00000c DAT2:
.loop/.endloop/.break
Assemble Code Block Repeatedly
Syntax .loop [count]

.break [end-condition]
.endloop
Description Three directives allow you to repeatedly assemble a block of code:

The .loop directive begins a repeatable block of code. The optional count operand, if
used, must be a well-defined integer expression. The count indicates the number of loops
to be performed (the loop count). If count is omitted, it defaults to 1024. The loop will be
repeated count number of times, unless terminated early by a .break directive.
The optional .break directive terminates a .loop early. You may use .loop without
using .break. The .break directive terminates a .loop only if the end-condition expression
is true (evaluates to nonzero). If the optional end-condition operand is omitted, it defaults
to true. If end-condition is true, the assembler stops repeating the .loop body immediately;
any remaining statements after .break and before .endloop are not assembled. The
assembler resumes assembling with the statement after the .endloop directive. If end-
condition is false (evaluates to 0), the loop continues.
The .endloop directive marks the end of a repeatable block of code. When the loop
terminates, whether by a .break directive with a true end-condition or by performing
the loop count number of iterations, the assembler stops repeating the loop body and
resumes assembling with the statement after the .endloop directive.
Example This example illustrates how these directives can be used with the .eval directive. The
code in the first six lines expands to the code immediately following those six lines.
1 .eval 0,x
2 COEF .loop
3 .word x*100
4 .eval x+1, x
5 .break x = 6
6 .endloop
1 000000 0000 .word 0*100
1 .eval 0+1, x
1 .break 1 = 6
1 000001 0064 .word 1*100
1 .eval 1+1, x
1 .break 2 = 6
1 000002 00C8 .word 2*100
1 .eval 2+1, x
1 .break 3 = 6
1 000003 012C .word 3*100
1 .eval 3+1, x
1 .break 4 = 6
1 000004 0190 .word 4*100
1 .eval 4+1, x
1 .break 5 = 6
1 000005 01F4 .word 5*100
1 .eval 5+1, x
1 .break 6 = 6
.macro/.endm
Define Macro
Syntax macname .macro [parameter1[, ... , parametern]]

model statements or macro directives
.endm
Description The .macro and .endm directives are used to define macros.
You can define a macro anywhere in your program, but you must define the macro
before you can use it. Macros can be defined at the beginning of a source file, in
an .include/.copy file, or in a macro library.
macname names the macro. You must place the name in the source statement's
label field.
.macro identifies the source statement as the first line of a macro definition.
You must place .macro in the opcode field.
[parameters] are optional substitution symbols that appear as operands for
the .macro directive.
model statements are instructions or assembler directives that are executed each time
the macro is called.
macro directives are used to control macro expansion.
.endm marks the end of the macro definition.
Macros are explained in further detail in Chapter 6.
.mlib
Define Macro Library
Syntax .mlib " filename "
Description The .mlib directive provides the assembler with the filename of a macro library. A macro
library is a collection of files that contain macro definitions. The macro definition files are
bound into a single file (called a library or archive) by the archiver.
Each file in a macro library contains one macro definition that corresponds to the name
of the file. The filename of a macro library member must be the same as the macro
name, and its extension must be .asm. The filename must follow host operating system
conventions; it can be enclosed in double quotes. You can specify a full pathname (for
example, c:\320tools\macs.lib). If you do not specify a full pathname, the assembler
searches for the file in the following locations in the order given:
1. The directory that contains the current source file
2. Any directories named with the --include_path assembler option
3. Any directories specified by the C2000_A_DIR environment variable
4. Any directories specified by the C2000_C_DIR environment variable
See Section 4.5 for more information about the --include_path option.
A .mlib directive causes the assembler to open the specified library and create a table of
the library's contents. The assembler stores names of library members in the opcode table
as library entries. This redefines any existing opcodes or macros with the same name. If
one of these macros is called, the assembler extracts the library entry and loads it into the
macro table. The assembler expands the library entry as with other macros, but it does
not place the source code in the listing. Only macros from the library are extracted, and
they are extracted only once. See Chapter 6 for details.
Example The code creates a macro library that defines two macros, inc1.asm and dec1.asm. The
file inc1.asm contains the definition of inc1 and dec1.asm contains the definition of dec1.
Macro for incrementing: inc1.asm Macro for decrementing: dec1.asm
inc1 .macro A dec1 .macro A
ADD A, #1 SUB A, #1
.endm .endm
Use the archiver with a command line like the following to create a macro library:
ar2000 -a mac inc1.asm dec1.asm
Use .mlib to reference the macro library. Define inc1.asm and dec1.asm as macros:
1 .mlib "mac.lib"
2
3 * Macro call
4 000000 inc1 AL
1 000000 9C01 ADD AL,#1
5
6 * Macro call
7 000001 dec1 AR1
1 000001 08A9 SUB AR1,#1
000002 FFFF
.mlist/.mnolist
Start/Stop Macro Expansion Listing
Syntax .mlist
.mnolist
Description Two directives enable you to control the listing of macro and repeatable block expansions
in the listing file:
The .mlist directive allows macro and .loop/.endloop block expansions in the listing file.
The .mnolist directive suppresses macro and .loop/.endloop block expansions in the
listing file.
By default, the assembler behaves as if the .mlist directive had been specified.
See Chapter 6 for more information on macros and macro libraries. See
the .loop/.break/.endloop topic for information on conditional blocks.
Example This example defines a macro named STR_3. The first time the macro is called, the
macro expansion is listed (by default). The second time the macro is called, the macro
expansion is not listed, because a .mnolist directive was assembled. The third time the
macro is called, the macro expansion is again listed because a .mlist directive was
assembled.
1 STR_3 .macro P1, P2, P3

2 .string ":p1:", ":p2:", ":p3:"
3 .endm
4
5 000000 STR_3 "as", "I", "am"
1 000000 003A .string ":p1:", ":p2:", ":p3:"
000001 0070
000002 0031
000003 003A
000004 003A
000005 0070
000006 0032
000007 003A
000008 003A
000009 0070
00000a 0033
00000b 003A
6 00000c 003A .string ":p1:", ":p2:", ":p3:"
00000d 0070
00000e 0031
00000f 003A
000010 003A
000011 0070
000012 0032
000013 003A
000014 003A
000015 0070
000016 0033
000017 003A
7
8 .mnolist
9 000018 STR_3 "as", "I", "am"
10 .mlist
11 000024 STR_3 "as", "I", "am"
1 000024 003A .string ":p1:", ":p2:", ":p3:"
000025 0070
000026 0031
000027 003A
000028 003A
000029 0070
00002a 0032
00002b 003A
00002c 003A
00002d 0070
00002e 0033
00002f 003A
12 000030 003A .string ":p1:", ":p2:", ":p3:"
000031 0070
000032 0031
000033 003A
000034 003A
000035 0070
000036 0032
000037 003A
000038 003A
000039 0070
00003a 0033
00003b 003A
13
.newblock
Terminate Local Symbol Block
Syntax .newblock
Description The .newblock directive undefines any local labels currently defined. Local labels, by
nature, are temporary; the .newblock directive resets them and terminates their scope.
A local label is a label in the form $n, where n is a single decimal digit, or name?, where
name is a legal symbol name. Unlike other labels, local labels are intended to be used
locally, and cannot be used in expressions. They can be used only as operands in 8-bit
jump instructions. Local labels are not included in the symbol table.
After a local label has been defined and (perhaps) used, you should use the .newblock
directive to reset it. The .text, .data, and .sect directives also reset local labels. Local
labels that are defined within an include file are not valid outside of the include file.
See Section 4.8.3 for more information on the use of local labels.
Example This example shows how the local label $1 is declared, reset, and then declared again.
1 .ref ADDRA, ADDRB, ADDRC
2 0076 B .set 76h
3
4 00000000 F800! MOV DP, #ADDRA
5
6 00000001 8500! LABEL1: MOV ACC, @ADDRA
7 00000002 1976 SUB ACC, #B
8 00000003 6403 B $1, LT
9 00000004 9600! MOV @ADDRB, ACC
10 00000005 6F02 B $2, UNC
11
12 00000006 8500! $1 MOV ACC, @ADDRA
13 00000007 8100! $2 ADD ACC, @ADDRC
14 .newblock ; Undefine $1 to use again.
15
16 00000008 6402 B $1, LT
17 00000009 9600! MOV @ADDRC, ACC
18 0000000a 7700 $1 NOP
.option
Select Listing Options
Syntax .option option1[, option2 ,. . .]
Description The .option directive selects options for the assembler output listing. The options must
be separated by commas; each option selects a listing feature. Options are not case
sensitive. These are valid options:
A turns on listing of all directives, data, subsequent expansions, macros, and blocks.
B limits the listing of .byte and .char directives to one line.
D turns off the listing of certain directives (same effect as .drnolist).
L limits the listing of .long directives to one line.
M turns off macro expansions in the listing.
N turns off listing (performs .nolist).
O turns on listing (performs .list).
R resets any B, L, M, T, and W (turns off the limits of B, L, M, T, and W).
T limits the listing of .string directives to one line.
W limits the listing of .word and .int directives to one line.
X produces a cross-reference symbol listing. You can also obtain this listing by invoking the
assembler with the --asm_listing_cross_reference option (see Section 4.3).
Example This example shows how to limit the listings of the .byte, long, .word, and .string directives
to one line each.
1 *****************************************************
2 ** Limit listing of specified directive to 1 line. **
3 *****************************************************
4 .option B, W, L, T
5 000000 00BD .byte -'C', 0B0h, 5
6 000004 CCDD .long 0AABBCCDDh, 536 + 'A'
7 000008 15AA .word 5546, 78h
8 00000a 0045 .string "Extended Registers"
9 *****************************************************
10 ** Reset the listing options. **
11 *****************************************************
12 .option R
13 00001c 00BD .byte -'C', 0B0h, 5
00001d 00B0
00001e 0005
14 000020 CCDD .long 0AABBCCDDh, 536 + 'A'
000021 AABB
000022 0259
000023 0000
15 000024 15AA .word 5546, 78h
000025 0078
16 000026 0045 .string "Extended Registers"
000027 0078
000028 0074
000029 0065
00002a 006E
00002b 0064
00002c 0065
00002d 0064
00002e 0020
00002f 0052
000030 0065
000031 0067
000032 0069
000033 0073
000034 0074
000035 0065
000036 0072
000037 0073
.page
Eject Page in Listing
Syntax .page
Description The .page directive produces a page eject in the listing file. The .page directive is not
printed in the source listing, but the assembler increments the line counter when it
encounters the .page directive. Using the .page directive to divide the source listing into
logical divisions improves program readability.
Example This example shows how the .page directive causes the assembler to begin a new page
of the source listing.
Source file:
Source file (generic)
.title "**** Page Directive Example ****"
; .
; .
; .
.page
Listing file:
TMS320C000 COFF Assembler Version x.xx Day Time Year
Copyright (c) 1996-2011 Texas Instruments Incorporated
**** Page Directive Example **** PAGE 1
2 ; .
3 ; .
4 ; .
**** Page Directive Example **** PAGE 2
No Errors, No Warnings
.preserve
Cause symbol address to be preserved during warm start
Syntax .preserve symbol
Description The .preserve directive causes a symbol's address and value to be preserved during a
warm start. This directive must be used in the asm header block.
The executable must be in ELF format and compiled for Live Firmware Update
(LFU), which provides a "warm start" capability. For information about using LFU, see
the TMS320C28x Optimizing C/C++ Compiler User's Guide (SPRU514) and the Live
Firmware Update Reference Design with C2000 MCUs (TIDUEY4) design guide.
Global and static variables may be preserved, updated, or allowed to move handled in the
following ways during a warm start:
• Preserve: The values stored for such symbols are retained from before the warm start.
The addresses of such symbols are unchanged from the addresses in the reference
ELF image.
• Update (Reinitialize): The values stored for these symbols are re-initialized during a
warm start. The addresses of such symbols may change compared to the addresses in
the reference ELF image.
• No special handling: The values of these symbols are not retained or re-initialized.
These symbols may be allocated at any memory address during a warm start.
Preserve a Symbol Follow these conventions to specify the "preserve" behavior:
• Create a .global specification for the symbol.
• Create a section for each preserved symbol as a subsection of .TI.bound, If
the .TI.bound sections are contiguous in memory, the linker can coalesce them into a
single output section, which reduces the number of CINIT records required to initialize
them.
• Use an .elfsym directive to specify the SYM_PRESERVE attribute to indicate this
behavior.
• Use an .sblock directive to indicate that the .TI.bound: subsection created for this
symbol should be blocked.
The following example preserves the address of var0 when a warm start occurs:
.preserve var0 ; In asm header block

…
.global ||var0||
.sect ".TI.bound:var0", RW
.elfsym ||var0||, SYM_PRESERVE(1)
…
.sblock ".TI.bound:var0"
Update (Reinitialize) No special directive is required to specify the "update" behavior for a symbol. The
a Symbol following conventions are required to specify a symbol should be updated,
• Create a .global specification for the symbol.
• Create a section for the symbol as a subsection of .TI.update. This section defaults to
copy compression (that is, no decompression is required during a warm start), which
reduces the LFU image switchover time.
• Use an .elfsym directive to specify the SYM_UPDATE attribute to indicate this
behavior.
The following example causes the var1 symbol to be re-initialized (updated) when a
warm start occurs:
.global ||var1||
.sect “.TI.update:var1”, RW
.elfsym ||var0||, SYM_UPDATE(1)
Symbol Not This behavior occurs only if the --lfu_default=none compiler option is used and a
Preserved or global or static variable is not placed in a special output section. Create such symbols
Reinitialized using the .global directive. For example:
.global ||var2||
.retain / .retainrefs
Conditionally Retain Sections In Object Module Output
Syntax .retain[" section name "]

.retainrefs[" section name "]
Description The .retain directive indicates that the current or specified section is not eligible for
removal via conditional linking. You can also override conditional linking for a given
section with the --retain linker option. You can disable conditional linking entirely with
the --unused_section_elimination=off linker option.
The .retainrefs directive indicates that any sections that refer to the current or specified
section are not eligible for removal via conditional linking. For example, applications may
use an .intvecs section to set up interrupt vectors. The .intvecs section is eligible for
removal during conditional linking by default. You can force the .intvecs section and any
sections that reference it to be retained by applying the .retain and .retainrefs directives to
the .intvecs section.
Note
The .retain and .retainrefs directives are supported only for EABI. They are
ignored when used with the COFF ABI.
The section name identifies the section. If the directive is used without a section name,
it applies to the current initialized section. If the directive is applied to an uninitialized
section, the section name is required. The section name must be enclosed in double
quotes. A section name can contain a subsection name in the form section name :
subsection name.
The linker assumes that all sections by default are eligible for removal via conditional
linking. (However, the linker does automatically retain the .reset section.) The .retain
directive is useful for overriding this default conditional linking behavior for sections that
you want to keep included in the link, even if the section is not referenced by any other
section in the link. For example, you could apply a .retain directive to an interrupt function
that you have written in assembly language, but which is not referenced from any normal
entry point in the application.
Under the COFF ABI model, the linker assumes that all sections are not eligible for
removal via conditional linking by default. So under the COFF ABI mode, the .retain
directive does not have any real effect on the section.
.sblock
Specify Blocking for a Section
Syntax .sblock["]section name["][,["]section name["],...
Description The .sblock directive designates sections for blocking. Blocking is an address alignment
mechanism similar to page alignment, but weaker. A blocked section does not cross a
page boundary (64 words) if it is smaller than a page, and it starts on a page boundary if it
is larger than a page. The section names may optionally be enclosed in quotation marks.
Example This example designates the .text and .data sections for blocking.
1 ****************************************
2 ** Specify blocking for the .text **
3 ** and .data sections. **
4 ****************************************
5 .sblock .text, .data
.sect
Assemble Into Named Section
Syntax .sect " section name "

.sect " section name " [,{RO|RW}] [,{ALLOC|NOALLOC}]
Description The .sect directive defines a named section that can be used like the default .text
and .data sections. The .sect directive sets section name to be the current section; the
lines that follow are assembled into the section name section.
The section name identifies the section. The section name must be enclosed in double
quotes. A section name can contain a subsection name in the form section name :
subsection name. See Chapter 2 for more information about sections.
If you are using EABI, the sections can be marked read-only (RO) or read-write (RW).
Also, the sections can be marked for allocation (ALLOC) or no allocation (NOALLOC).
These attributes can be specified in any order, but only one attribute from each set can
be selected. RO conflicts with RW, and ALLOC conflicts with NOALLOC. If conflicting
attributes are specified the assembler generates an error, for example:
"t.asm", ERROR! at line 1:[E0000] Attribute RO cannot be combined with attr RW
.sect "illegal_sect",RO,RW
Example This example defines two special-purpose sections, Sym_Defs and Vars, and assembles
code into them.
1 ** Begin assembling into .text section. **
2 000000 .text
3 000000 FF20 MOV ACC, #78h ; Assembled into .text
000001 0078
4 000002 0936 ADD ACC, #36h ; Assembled into .text
5
6 ** Begin assembling into Sym_Defs section. **
7 000000 .sect "Sym_Defs"
8 000000 CCCD .float 0. ; Assembled into Sym_Defs
000001 3D4C
9 000002 00AA X: .word 0AAh ; Assembled into Sym_Defs
10 000003 FF10 ADD ACC, #X ; Assembled into Sym_Defs
000004 0002+
11
12 ** Begin assembling into Vars section. **
13 000000 .sect "Vars"
14 0010 WORD_LEN .set 16
15 0020 DWORD_LEN .set WORD_LEN * 2
16 0008 BYTE_LEN .set WORD_LEN / 2
17 0053 STR .set 53h
18
19 ** Resume assembling into .text section. **
20 000003 .text
21 000003 0942 ADD ACC, #42h ; Assembled into .text
22 000004 0003 .byte 3, 4 ; Assembled into .text
000005 0004
23
24 ** Resume assembling into Vars section. **
25 000000 .sect "Vars"
26 000000 000D .field 13, WORD_LEN
27 000001 000A .field 0Ah, BYTE_LEN
28 000002 0008 .field 10q, DWORD_LEN
000003 0000
29
.set
Define Assembly-Time Constant
Syntax symbol .set value
Description The .set directive equates a constant value to a .set symbol. The symbol can then be
used in place of a value in assembly source. This allows you to equate meaningful names
with constants and other values.
• The symbol is a label that must appear in the label field.
• The value must be a well-defined expression, that is, all symbols in the expression
must be previously defined in the current source module.
Undefined external symbols and symbols that are defined later in the module cannot be
used in the expression. If the expression is relocatable, the symbol to which it is assigned
is also relocatable.
The value of the expression appears in the object field of the listing. This value is not part
of the actual object code and is not written to the output file.
Symbols defined with .set can be made externally visible with the .def or .global directive
(see the .global/.def/.ref topic). In this way, you can define global absolute constants.
Example This example shows how symbols can be assigned with .set .
1 **********************************************
2 ** Equate symbol AUX_R1 to register AR1 **
3 ** and use it instead of the register. **
4 **********************************************
5 0001 AUX_R1 .set AR1
6 000000 28C1 MOV *AUX_R1, #56h
000001 0056
7
8 **********************************************
9 ** Set symbol index to an integer expr. **
10 ** and use it as an immediate operand. **
11 **********************************************
12 0035 INDEX .set 100/2 +3
13 000002 0935 ADD ACC, #INDEX
14
15 **********************************************
16 ** Set symbol SYMTAB to a relocatable expr. **
17 ** and use it as a relocatable operand. **
18 **********************************************
19 000003 000A LABEL .word 10
20 0004' SYMTAB .set LABEL + 1
21
22 **********************************************
23 ** Set symbol NSYMS equal to the symbol **
24 ** INDEX and use it as you would INDEX. **
25 **********************************************
26 0035 NSYMS .set INDEX
27 000004 0035 .word NSYMS
.space/.bes
Reserve Space
Syntax [label] .space size in bits

[label] .bes size in bits
Description The .space and .bes directives reserve the number of bits given by size in bits in the
current section and fill them with 0s. The section program counter is incremented to point
to the word following the reserved space.
When you use a label with the .space directive, it points to the first word reserved. When
you use a label with the .bes directive, it points to the last reserved.
Example This example shows how memory is reserved with the .space and .bes directives .
1 *********************************************
3 *********************************************
4 000000 .text
5 *********************************************
6 ** Reserve 0F0 bits (15 words in the **
7 ** .text section. **
8 *********************************************
9 000000 .space 0F0h
10 00000f 0100 .word 100h, 200h
000010 0200
11 *********************************************
12 ** Begin assembling into .data section. **
13 *********************************************
14 000000 .data
15 000000 0049 .string "In .data"
000001 006E
000002 0020
000003 002E
000004 0064
000005 0061
000006 0074
000007 0061
16 *********************************************
17 ** Reserve 100 bits in the .data section; **
18 ** RES_1 points to the first word that **
19 ** contains reserved bits. **
20 *********************************************
21 000008 RES_1: .space 100
22 00000f 000F .word 15
23 *********************************************
24 ** Reserve 20 bits in the .data section; **
25 ** RES_2 points to the last word that **
26 ** contains reserved bits. **
27 *********************************************
28 000011 RES_2: .bes 20
29 000012 0036 .word 36h
30 000013 0011" .word RES_
.sslist/.ssnolist
Control Listing of Substitution Symbols
Syntax .sslist
.ssnolist
Description Two directives allow you to control substitution symbol expansion in the listing file:
The .sslist directive allows substitution symbol expansion in the listing file. The expanded
line appears below the actual source line.
The .ssnolist directive suppresses substitution symbol expansion in the listing file.
By default, all substitution symbol expansion in the listing file is suppressed; the
assembler acts as if the .ssnolist directive had been used.
Lines with the pound (#) character denote expanded substitution symbols.
Example This example shows code that, by default, suppresses the listing of substitution symbol
expansion, and it shows the .sslist directive assembled, instructing the assembler to list
substitution symbol code expansion.
1 00000000 ADDRX .usect ".ebss", 1
2 00000001 ADDRY .usect ".ebss", 1
3 00000002 ADDRA .usect ".ebss", 1
4 00000003 ADDRB .usect ".ebss", 1
5
6 ADD2 .macro parm1, parm2
7 MOV ACC, @parm1
8 ADD ACC, @parm2
9 MOV @parm2, ACC
10 .endm
11
12 00000000 ADD2 ADDRX, ADDRY
1 00000000 8500- MOV ACC, @ADDRX
1 00000001 8101- ADD ACC, @ADDRY
1 00000002 9601- MOV @ADDRY, ACC
13
14 .sslist
15 00000003 ADD2 ADDRA, ADDRB
1 00000003 8502- MOV ACC, @parm1
# MOV ACC, @ADDRA
1 00000004 8103- ADD ACC, @parm2
# ADD ACC, @ADDRB
1 00000005 9603- MOV @parm2, AC
.string/.cstring/.pstring
Initialize Text
Syntax .string {expr1 | " string1 "} [, ... , {exprn | " stringn "} ]
.cstring {expr1 | " string1 "} [, ... , {exprn | " stringn "} ]
.pstring {expr1 | " string1 "} [, ... , {exprn | " stringn "} ]
Description The .string , .cstring, and .pstring directives place 8-bit characters from a character
string into the current section. With the .string directive, each 8-bit character has its own
16-bit word, but with the .pstring directive, the data is packed so that each word contains
two 8-bit bytes. The expr or string can be one of the following:
• An expression that the assembler evaluates and treats as an 16-bit signed number.
separate byte. The entire string must be enclosed in quotes.
The .cstring directive adds a NUL character needed by C; the .string directive does not
add a NUL character. In addition, .cstring interprets C escapes (\\ \a \b \f \n \r \t \v
\<octal>).
With .pstring, values are packed into words starting with the most significant byte of the
word. Any unused space is padded with null bytes.
The assembler truncates any values that are greater than eight bits. Operands must fit on
a single source statement line.
If you use a label, it points to the location of the first word that is initialized.
When you use .string , .cstring, and .pstring in a .struct/.endstruct sequence, the directive
only defines a member's size; it does not initialize memory. For more information, see
the .struct/.endstruct/.tag topic.
Example In this example, 8-bit values are placed into consecutive words in the current section.
1 000000 0041 Str_Ptr: .string "ABCD"
000001 0042
000002 0043
000003 0044
2
3 000004 0041 .string 41h, 42h, 43h, 44h
000005 0042
000006 0043
000007 0044
4
5 000008 4175 .pstring "Austin", "Houston"
000009 7374
00000a 696E
00000b 486F
00000c 7573
00000d 746F
00000e 6E00
6
7 00000f 0030 .string 36 + 12
.struct/.endstruct/.tag
Declare Structure Type
Syntax [stag] .struct [expr]

. . .
. . .
. . .
[memn] .tag stag [exprn]
. . .
. . .
. . .
[memN] element [exprN]
[size] .endstruct
label .tag stag
Description The .struct directive assigns symbolic offsets to the elements of a data structure
definition. This allows you to group similar data elements together and let the assembler
calculate the element offset. This is similar to a C structure or a Pascal record. The .struct
directive does not allocate memory; it merely creates a symbolic template that can be
used repeatedly.
The .endstruct directive terminates the structure definition.
The .tag directive gives structure characteristics to a label, simplifying the symbolic
representation and providing the ability to define structures that contain other structures.
The .tag directive does not allocate memory. The structure tag (stag) of a .tag directive
must have been previously defined.
directives:
• The stag is the structure's tag. Its value is associated with the beginning of the
structure. If no stag is present, the assembler puts the structure members in the global
symbol table with the value of their absolute offset from the top of the structure. The
stag is optional for .struct, but is required for .tag.
• The expr is an optional expression indicating the beginning offset of the structure. The
default starting point for a structure is 0.
• The memn/N is an optional label for a member of the structure. This label is absolute
and equates to the present offset from the beginning of the structure. A label for a
structure member cannot be declared global.
descriptors: .byte, .char, .int, .long, .word, .string, .pstring, .float, .field, and .tag. All of
these except .tag are typical directives that initialize memory. Following a .struct
directive, these directives describe the structure element's size. They do not allocate
memory. The .tag directive is a special case because stag must be used (as in the
definition of stag).
element is one bit.
• The size is an optional label for the total size of the structure.
Note
Directives that Can Appear in a .struct/.endstruct Sequence
The only directives that can appear in a .struct/.endstruct sequence are
element descriptors, conditional assembly directives, and the .align directive,
which aligns the member offsets on word boundaries. Empty structures are
illegal.
The following examples show various uses of the .struct, .tag, and .endstruct directives.
Example 1
REAL_REC .struct ; stag
NOM .int ; member1 = 0
DEN .int ; member2 = 1
REAL_LEN .endstruct ; real_len = 4
ADD ACC, @(REAL + REAL_REC.DEN) ;access structure element
REAL .usect ".ebss", REAL_LEN ; allocate mem rec
Example 2
CPLX_REC .struct
REALI .tag REAL_REC ; stag
IMAGI .tag REAL_REC ; member1 = 0
CPLX_LEN .endstruct ; rec_len = 4
COMPLEX .tag CPLX_REC ; assign structure attrib
ADD ACC, COMPLEX.REALI ; access structure
ADD ACC, COMPLEX.IMAGI
COMPLEX .usect ".ebss", CPLX_LEN ; allocate space
Example 3
.struct ; no stag puts mems into
X .int ; global symbol table
Y .int ;create 3 dim templates
Z .int
.endstruct
Example 4
BIT_REC .struct ; stag
STREAM .string 64
BIT7 .field 7 ; bits1 = 64
X_INT .int ; x_int = 67
BIT_LEN .endstruct ; length = 68
BITS .tag BIT_REC
ADD AC, @BITS.BIT7 ; move into acc
AND ACC, #007Fh ; mask off garbage bits
BITS .usect ".ebss", BIT_REC
.symdepend
Create an Artificial Reference from a Section to a Symbol
Syntax .symdepend dst symbol name[, src symbol name]
Description The .symdepend directive creates an artificial reference from the section defining src
symbol name to the symbol dst symbol name. This prevents the linker from removing the
section containing dst symbol name if the section defining src symbol name is included
in the output module. If src symbol name is not specified, a reference from the current
section is created.
A global symbol is defined in the same manner as any other symbol; that is, it appears as
a label or is defined by the .set, .equ, .bss or .usect directive. If a global symbol is defined
more than once, the linker issues a multiple-definition error. (The assembler can provide a
similar multiple-definition error for local symbols.)
The .symdepend directive creates a symbol table entry only if the module actually uses
the symbol. The .weak directive, in contrast, always creates a symbol table entry for a
symbol, whether the module uses the symbol or not (see .weak topic).
If the symbol is defined in the current module, use the .symdepend directive to declare
that the symbol and its definition can be used externally by other modules. These types of
references are resolved at link time.
.tab
Define Tab Size
Syntax .tab size
Description The .tab directive defines the tab size. Tabs encountered in the source input are
translated to size character spaces in the listing. The default tab size is eight spaces.
Example In this example, each of the lines of code following a .tab statement consists of a single
tab character followed by an NOP instruction.
Source file:
; default tab size
NOP
NOP
NOP
.tab 4
NOP
NOP
NOP
.tab 16
NOP
NOP
NOP
Listing file:
1 ; default tab size
2 000000 7700 NOP
3 000001 7700 NOP
4 000002 7700 NOP
5
7 000003 7700 NOP
8 000004 7700 NOP
9 000005 7700 NOP
10
12 000006 7700 NOP
13 000007 7700 NOP
14 000008 7700 NOP
.text
Assemble Into the .text Section
Syntax .text
Description The .text sets .text as the current section. Lines that follow this directive will be
assembled into the .text section, which usually contains executable code. The section
program counter is set to 0 if nothing has yet been assembled into the .text section. If
code has already been assembled into the .text section, the section program counter is
restored to its previous value in the section.
The .text section is the default section. Therefore, at the beginning of an assembly, the
assembler assembles code into the .text section unless you use a .data or .sect directive
to specify a different section.
Example This example assembles code into the .text and .data sections. The .data section contains
integer constants and the .text section contains character strings.
1 ******************************************
2 ** Begin assembling into .data section. **
3 ******************************************
4 000000 .data
5 000000 000A .byte 0Ah, 0Bh
000001 000B
6
7 ******************************************
9 ******************************************
10 000000 .text
11 000000 0041 START: .string "A", "B", "C"
000001 0042
000002 0043
12 000003 0058 END: .string "X", "Y", "Z"
000004 0059
000005 005A
13
14 000006 8100' ADD ACC, @START
15 000007 8103' ADD ACC, @END
16
17 ******************************************
18 ** Resume assembling into .data section.**
19 ******************************************
20 000002 .data
21 000002 000C .byte 0Ch, 0Dh
000003 000D
22 ******************************************
23 ** Resume assembling into .text section.**
24 ******************************************
25 000008 .text
26 000008 0051 .string "Quit"
000009 0075
00000a 0069
00000b 0074
.title
Define Page Title
Syntax .title " string "
Description The .title directive supplies a title that is printed in the heading on each listing page. The
source statement itself is not printed, but the line counter is incremented.
The string is a quote-enclosed title of up to 64 characters. If you supply more than 64
characters, the assembler truncates the string and issues a warning:
*** WARNING! line x: W0001: String is too long - will be truncated
The assembler prints the title on the page that follows the directive and on subsequent
pages until another .title directive is processed. If you want a title on the first page, the first
source statement must contain a .title directive.
Example In this example, one title is printed on the first page and a different title is printed on
succeeding pages.
Source file:
.title "**** Fast Fourier Transforms ****"
; .
; .
; .
.title "**** Floating-Point Routines ****"
.page
Listing file:
**** Fast Fourier Transforms **** PAGE 1
2 ; .
3 ; .
4 ; .
**** Floating-Point Routines **** PAGE 2
No Errors, No Warnings
.unasg/.undefine
Turn Off Substitution Symbol
Syntax .unasg symbol

.undefine symbol
Description The .unasg and .undefine directives remove the definition of a substitution symbol
created using .asg or .define. The named symbol will removed from the substitution
symbol table from the point of the .undefine or .unasg to the end of the assembly file.
See Section 4.8.8 for more information on substitution symbols.
These directives can be used to remove from the assembly environment any C/C++
macros that may cause a problem. See Chapter 13 for more information about using
C/C++ headers in assembly source.
.union/.endunion/ .tag
Declare Union Type
Syntax [utag] .union [expr]

[mem0 ] element [expr0]
[mem1 ] element [expr1]
. . .
. . .
. . .
[memn ] .tag utag [exprn ]
. . .
. . .
. . .
[memN ] element [exprN]
[size] .endunion
label .tag utag
Description The .union directive assigns symbolic offsets to the elements of alternate data structure
definitions to be allocated in the same memory space. This enables you to define several
alternate structures and then let the assembler calculate the element offset. This is similar
to a C union. The .union directive does not allocate any memory; it merely creates a
symbolic template that can be used repeatedly.
A .struct definition can contain a .union definition, and .structs and .unions can be nested.
The .endunion directive terminates the union definition.
The .tag directive gives structure or union characteristics to a label, simplifying the
symbolic representation and providing the ability to define structures or unions that
contain other structures or unions. The .tag directive does not allocate memory. The
structure or union tag of a .tag directive must have been previously defined.
directives:
• The utag is the union's tag. is the union's tag. Its value is associated with the beginning
of the union. If no utag is present, the assembler puts the union members in the global
symbol table with the value of their absolute offset from the top of the union. In this
case, each member must have a unique name.
• The expr is an optional expression indicating the beginning offset of the union. Unions
default to start at 0. This parameter can only be used with a top-level union. It cannot
be used when defining a nested union.
• The memn/N is an optional label for a member of the union. This label is absolute
and equates to the present offset from the beginning of the union. A label for a union
member cannot be declared global.
descriptors: .byte, .char, .int, .long, .word, .xldouble, .half, .short, .string, .float,
and .field. An element can also be a complete declaration of a nested structure or
union, or a structure or union declared by its tag. Following a .union directive, these
directives describe the element's size. They do not allocate memory.
element is one bit.
• The size is an optional label for the total size of the union.
Note
Directives that Can Appear in a .union/.endunion Sequence
The only directives that can appear in a .union/.endunion sequence are
element descriptors, structure and union tags, and conditional assembly
directives. Empty structures are illegal.
These examples show unions with and without tags.
Example 1
1
2 .global employid
3 xample .union ; utag
4 0000 ival .int ; member1 = int
5 0000 fval .float ; member2 = float
6 0000 sval .string ; member3 = string
7 0002 real_len .endunion
8
9 00000000 employid .usect ".ebss", real_len ; allocate memory
10
11 employid .tag xample ; name an instance
12
13 00000000 08A1- ADD AR1, #employid.ival
00000001 0000
Example 2
1
2 .union ; utag
3 0000 x .long ; member 1= long
4 0000 y .float ; member 2 = float
5 0000 z .int ; member 3 = int
6 0002 size_u .endunion ; size_u = 2
.usect
Reserve Uninitialized Space
Syntax symbol .usect " section name ", size in words[, blocking flag[, alignment] ]
Description The .usect directive reserves space for variables in an uninitialized, named section. This
directive is similar to the .bss directive (see .bss topic); both simply reserve space for data
and that space has no contents. However, .usect defines additional sections that can be
placed anywhere in memory, independently of the .bss section.
• The symbol points to the first location reserved by this invocation of the .usect
directive. The symbol corresponds to the name of the variable for which you are
reserving space.
• The section name must be enclosed in double quotes. This parameter names the
uninitialized section. A section name can contain a subsection name in the form
section name : subsection name.
• The size in words is an expression that defines the number of words that are reserved
in section name.
• The blocking flag is an optional parameter. If you specify a value greater than 0 for this
parameter, the assembler allocates size in words contiguously. This means that the
allocated space does not cross a page boundary (64 words) unless its size is greater
than a page, in which case the allocated space starts on a page boundary. By default,
the compiler causes this flag to be set to 0 so that DP load optimization is used.
The compiler provides the "blocked" and "noblocked" variable attributes for controlling
blocking on a per-variable basis. For examples of DP load optimization, see the Tools
Insider blog in TI's E2E community.
• The alignment is an optional parameter . It causes the assembler to allocate the
specified size in words on long word boundaries. The resulting alignment will be on a
boundary that is 2 to the power of the specified alignment parameter. For example, an
alignment parameter of 5 gives an alignment of 2**5, which is 32 words.
Initialized sections directives (.text, .data, and .sect) tell the assembler to pause
assembling into the current section and begin assembling into another section. A .usect
or .bss directive encountered in the current section is simply assembled, and assembly
continues in the current section.
Variables that can be located contiguously in memory can be defined in the same
specified section; to do so, repeat the .usect directive with the same section name and
the subsequent symbol (variable name).
Example This example uses the .usect directive to define two uninitialized, named sections, var1
and var2. The symbol ptr points to the first word reserved in the var1 section. The symbol
array points to the first word in a block of 100 words reserved in var1, and dflag points
to the first word in a block of 50 words in var1. The symbol vec points to the first word
reserved in the var2 section.
Figure 5-7 shows how this example reserves space in two uninitialized sections, var1 and
var2.
1 *******************************************
2 ** Assemble into .text section. **
3 *******************************************
4 000000 .text
5 000000 9A03 MOV AL, #03h
6
7 *******************************************
8 ** Reserve 1 word in var1. **
9 *******************************************
10 000000 ptr .usect "var1", 1
11
12 *******************************************
13 ** Reserve 100 words in var1. **
14 *******************************************
15 000001 array .usect "var1", 100
16
17 000001 9C03 ADD AL, #03h ; Still in .text
18
19 *******************************************
21 *******************************************
22 000065 dflag .usect "var1", 50
23
24 000002 08A9 ADD AL, #dflag ; Still in .text
000003 0065-
25
26 *******************************************
28 *******************************************
29 000000 vec .usect "var2", 100
30
31 000004 08A9 ADD AL, #vec ; Still in .text
000005 0000-
32
33 *******************************************
34 ** Declare an external .usect symbol **
35 *******************************************
36 .global array
Section var1 Section var2

ptr 2 bytes ptr
array
100 words
100 words
100 words reserved

in var2
dflag
50 words
152 words reserved

in var1
Figure 5-7. The .usect Directive
.var
Use Substitution Symbols as Local Variables
Syntax .var sym1 [, sym2 , ... , symn ]
Description The .var directive allows you to use substitution symbols as local variables within a
macro. With this directive, you can define up to 32 local macro substitution symbols
(including parameters) per macro.
The .var directive creates temporary substitution symbols with the initial value of the null
string. These symbols are not passed in as parameters, and they are lost after expansion.
See Section 4.8.8 for more information on substitution symbols .See Chapter 6 for
information on macros.
.weak
Identify a Symbol to be Treated as a Weak Symbol
Syntax .weak symbol name
Description The .weak directive identifies a symbol that is used in the current module but is defined
in another module. The linker resolves this symbol's definition at link time. Instead of
including a weak symbol in the output file's symbol table by default (as it would for a
global symbol), the linker only includes a weak symbol in the output of a "final" link if the
symbol is required to resolve an otherwise unresolved reference. See Section 2.6.3 for
details about how weak symbols are handled by the linker.
Note
The .weak directive is supported for EABI mode only.
The .weak directive is equivalent to the .ref directive, except that the reference has weak
linkage.
The .weak directive always creates a symbol table entry for a symbol, whether the module
uses the symbol or not. The .symdepend directive, in contrast, creates an symbol table
entry only if the module actually uses the symbol (see .symdepend topic).
If a symbol is not defined in the current module (which includes macro, copy, and include
files), use the .weak directive to tell the assembler that the symbol is defined in an
external module. This prevents the assembler from issuing an unresolved reference error.
At link time, the linker looks for the symbol's definition in other modules.
For example, use the .weak and .set directives in combination as shown in the following
example, which defines a weak absolute symbol "ext_addr_sym":
.weak ext_addr_sym
ext_addr_sym .set 0x12345678
If you assemble such assembly source and include the resulting object file in the link, the
"ext_addr_sym" in this example is available as a weak absolute symbol in a final link. It is
a candidate for removal if the symbol is not referenced elsewhere in the application.
www.ti.com Macro Language Description
Chapter 6
Macro Language Description
The TMS320C28x assembler supports a macro language that enables you to create your own instructions. This
is especially useful when a program executes a particular task several times. The macro language lets you:
• Define your own macros and redefine existing macros
• Simplify long or complicated assembly code
• Access macro libraries created with the archiver
• Define conditional and repeatable blocks within a macro
• Manipulate strings within a macro
• Control expansion listing
6.1 Using Macros............................................................................................................................................................ 156

6.2 Defining Macros........................................................................................................................................................157
6.3 Macro Parameters/Substitution Symbols.............................................................................................................. 158
6.4 Macro Libraries.........................................................................................................................................................163
6.5 Using Conditional Assembly in Macros................................................................................................................. 163
6.6 Using Labels in Macros........................................................................................................................................... 165
6.7 Producing Messages in Macros..............................................................................................................................166
6.8 Using Directives to Format the Output Listing......................................................................................................166
6.9 Using Recursive and Nested Macros..................................................................................................................... 168
6.10 Macro Directives Summary................................................................................................................................... 169
Macro Language Description www.ti.com
6.1 Using Macros

Programs often contain routines that are executed several times. Instead of repeating the source statements for
a routine, you can define the routine as a macro, then call the macro in the places where you would normally
repeat the routine. This simplifies and shortens your source program.
If you want to call a macro several times but with different data each time, you can assign parameters within a
macro. This enables you to pass different information to the macro each time you call it. The macro language
supports a special symbol called a substitution symbol, which is used for macro parameters. See Section 6.3 for
more information.
Using a macro is a 3-step process.
1. Define the macro. You must define macros before you can use them in your program. There are two
methods for defining macros:
a. Macros can be defined at the beginning of a source file or in a copy/include file. See Section 6.2,
Defining Macros, for more information.
b. Macros can also be defined in a macro library. A macro library is a collection of files in archive format
created by the archiver. Each member of the archive file (macro library) may contain one macro
definition corresponding to the member name. You can access a macro library by using the .mlib
directive. For more information, see Section 6.4.
2. Call the macro. After you have defined a macro, call it by using the macro name as a mnemonic in the
source program. This is referred to as a macro call.
3. Expand the macro. The assembler expands your macros when the source program calls them. During
expansion, the assembler passes arguments by variable to the macro parameters, replaces the macro call
statement with the macro definition, then assembles the source code. By default, the macro expansions
are printed in the listing file. You can turn off expansion listing by using the .mnolist directive. For more
information, see Section 6.8.
When the assembler encounters a macro definition, it places the macro name in the opcode table. This redefines
any previously defined macro, library entry, directive, or instruction mnemonic that has the same name as the
macro. This allows you to expand the functions of directives and instructions, as well as to add new instructions.
6.2 Defining Macros

You can define a macro anywhere in your program, but you must define the macro before you can use it. Macros
can be defined at the beginning of a source file or in a .copy/.include file (see Copy Source File); they can also
be defined in a macro library. For more information about macro libraries, see Section 6.4.
Macro definitions can be nested, and they can call other macros, but all elements of the macro must be defined
in the same file. Nested macros are discussed in Section 6.9.
A macro definition is a series of source statements in the following format:
macname .macro [parameter1] [, ... , parametern ]
model statements or macro directives
[.mexit]
.endm
macname names the macro. You must place the name in the source statement's label field. Only the first 128 characters
of a macro name are significant. The assembler places the macro name in the internal opcode table, replacing
any instruction or previous macro definition with the same name.
.macro is the directive that identifies the source statement as the first line of a macro definition. You must place .macro
in the opcode field.
parameter 1, are optional substitution symbols that appear as operands for the .macro directive. Parameters are discussed in
parameter n Section 6.3.
model statements are instructions or assembler directives that are executed each time the macro is called.
macro directives are used to control macro expansion.
.mexit is a directive that functions as a goto .endm. The .mexit directive is useful when error testing confirms that
macro expansion fails and completing the rest of the macro is unnecessary.
.endm is the directive that terminates the macro definition.
If you want to include comments with your macro definition but do not want those comments to appear in
the macro expansion, use an exclamation point to precede your comments. If you do want your comments to
appear in the macro expansion, use an asterisk or semicolon. See Section 6.7 for more information about macro
comments.
The following example shows the definition, call, and expansion of a macro.
6.3 Macro Parameters/Substitution Symbols

If you want to call a macro several times with different data each time, you can assign parameters within the
macro. The macro language supports a special symbol, called a substitution symbol, which is used for macro
parameters.
Macro parameters are substitution symbols that represent a character string. These symbols can also be used
outside of macros to equate a character string to a symbol name (see Section 4.8.8).
Valid substitution symbols can be up to 128 characters long and must begin with a letter. The remainder of the
symbol can be a combination of alphanumeric characters, underscores, and dollar signs.
Substitution symbols used as macro parameters are local to the macro they are defined in. You can define up to
32 local substitution symbols (including substitution symbols defined with the .var directive) per macro. For more
information about the .var directive, see Section 6.3.6.
During macro expansion, the assembler passes arguments by variable to the macro parameters. The
character-string equivalent of each argument is assigned to the corresponding parameter. Parameters without
corresponding arguments are set to the null string. If the number of arguments exceeds the number of
parameters, the last parameter is assigned the character-string equivalent of all remaining arguments.
If you pass a list of arguments to one parameter or if you pass a comma or semicolon to a parameter, you must
surround these terms with quotation marks.
At assembly time, the assembler replaces the macro parameter/substitution symbol with its corresponding
character string, then translates the source code into object code.
The following example shows the expansion of a macro with varying numbers of arguments.
Calling a Macro With Varying Numbers of Arguments
Macro definition:
Parms.macro a,b,c
; a = :a:
; b = :b:
; c = :c:
.endm
Calling the macro:

Parms 100,label Parms 100,label,x,y
; a = 100 ; a = 100
; b = label ; b = label
; c = "" ; c = x,y
Parms 100, , x Parms "100,200,300",x,y
; a = 100 ; a = 100,200,300
; b = "" ; b = x
; c = x ; c = y
Parms """string""",x,y
; a = "string"
; b = x
; c = y
6.3.1 Directives That Define Substitution Symbols

You can manipulate substitution symbols with the .asg and .eval directives.
• The .asg directive assigns a character string to a substitution symbol.
For the .asg directive, the quotation marks are optional. If there are no quotation marks, the assembler reads
characters up to the first comma and removes leading and trailing blanks. In either case, a character string is
read and assigned to the substitution symbol. The syntax of the .asg directive is:
.asg["]character string["], substitution symbol
The .asg Directive shows character strings being assigned to substitution symbols.
The .asg Directive
.asg "A4", RETVAL ; return value
• The .eval directive performs arithmetic on numeric substitution symbols.

The .eval directive evaluates the expression and assigns the string value of the result to the substitution
symbol. If the expression is not well defined, the assembler generates an error and assigns the null string to
the symbol. The syntax of the .eval directive is:
.eval well-defined expression , substitution symbol
The .eval Directive shows arithmetic being performed on substitution symbols.

The .eval Directive
.asg 1,counter
.loop 100
.word counter
.eval counter + 1,counter
.endloop
In The .eval Directive, the .asg directive could be replaced with the .eval directive (.eval 1, counter) without
changing the output. In simple cases like this, you can use .eval and .asg interchangeably. However, you must
use .eval if you want to calculate a value from an expression. While .asg only assigns a character string to
a substitution symbol, .eval evaluates an expression and then assigns the character string equivalent to a
substitution symbol.
See Assign a Substitution Symbol for more information about the .asg and .eval assembler directives.
6.3.2 Built-In Substitution Symbol Functions

The following built-in substitution symbol functions enable you to make decisions on the basis of the string value
of substitution symbols. These functions always return a value, and they can be used in expressions. Built-in
substitution symbol functions are especially useful in conditional assembly expressions. Parameters of these
functions are substitution symbols or character-string constants.
In the function definitions shown in Table 6-1, a and b are parameters that represent substitution symbols or
character-string constants. The term string refers to the string value of the parameter. The symbol ch represents
a character constant.
Table 6-1. Substitution Symbol Functions and Return Values
Function Return Value
$symlen (a) Length of string a
$symcmp (a,b) < 0 if a < b; 0 if a = b; > 0 if a > b
$firstch (a,ch) Index of the first occurrence of character constant ch in string a
$lastch (a,ch) Index of the last occurrence of character constant ch in string a
$isdefed (a) 1 if string a is defined in the symbol table
0 if string a is not defined in the symbol table
$ismember (a,b) Top member of list b is assigned to string a
0 if b is a null string
$iscons (a) 1 if string a is a binary constant
2 if string a is an octal constant
3 if string a is a hexadecimal constant
4 if string a is a character constant
5 if string a is a decimal constant
$isname (a) 1 if string a is a valid symbol name
0 if string a is not a valid symbol name
$isreg (a) (1) 1 if string a is a valid predefined register name
0 if string a is not a valid predefined register name
(1) For more information about predefined register names, see Section 4.8.6.
The following example shows built-in substitution symbol functions.

Using Built-In Substitution Symbol Functions
1 global x, label
2 .asg label, ADDR ; ADDR = label
3 .if ($symcmp(ADDR,"label") = 0) ; evaluates to true
4 000000 8000! SUB ACC, @ADDR
5 .endif
6 .asg "x, y, z", list ; list = x, y, z
7 .if ($ismember(ADDR, list)) ; ADDR = x list = y,z
8 000001 8000! SUB ACC, @ADDR
9 .endif
6.3.3 Recursive Substitution Symbols

When the assembler encounters a substitution symbol, it attempts to substitute the corresponding character
string. If that string is also a substitution symbol, the assembler performs substitution again. The assembler
continues doing this until it encounters a token that is not a substitution symbol or until it encounters a
substitution symbol that it has already encountered during this evaluation.
In the following example, the x is substituted for z; z is substituted for y; and y is substituted for x. The assembler
recognizes this as infinite recursion and ceases substitution.
Recursive Substitution
1 .global x
2 .asg "x", z ; declare z and assign z = "x"
3 .asg "z", y ; declare y and assign y = "z"
4 .asg "y", x ; declare x and assign x = "y"
5 000000 FF10 ADD ACC, x
000001 0000!
6
6.3.4 Forced Substitution

In some cases, substitution symbols are not recognizable to the assembler. The forced substitution operator,
which is a set of colons surrounding the symbol, enables you to force the substitution of a symbol's character
string. Simply enclose a symbol with colons to force the substitution. Do not include any spaces between the
colons and the symbol. The syntax for the forced substitution operator is:
:symbol:
The assembler expands substitution symbols surrounded by colons before expanding other substitution
symbols.
You can use the forced substitution operator only inside macros, and you cannot nest a forced substitution
operator within another forced substitution operator.
Using the Forced Substitution Operator shows how the forced substitution operator is used.
Using the Forced Substitution Operator
force .macro x
.loop 8
PORT:x: .set x*4
.eval x+1, x
.endloop
.endm
.global portbase
force
PORT0 .set 0
PORT1 .set 4
.
.
.
PORT7 .set 28
6.3.5 Accessing Individual Characters of Subscripted Substitution Symbols

In a macro, you can access individual characters (substrings) of a substitution symbol by using subscripts with
the forced substitution operator (colons around symbol and subscripts). You can access substrings in two ways:
• :symbol (well-defined expression):
This method of subscripting evaluates to a character string with one character.
• :symbol (well-defined expression 1, well-defined expression 2):
In this method, expression1 represents the substring's starting position, and expression2 represents the
substring's length. You can specify exactly where to begin subscripting and the exact length of the resulting
character string. The index of substring characters begins with 1, not 0.
The following examples show substitution symbol functions with subscripts. In the first example, subscripted
substitution symbols redefine the STW instruction so that it handles immediates. In the second example, the
subscripted substitution symbol is used to find a substring strg1 beginning at position start in the string strg2.
The position of the substring strg1 is assigned to the substitution symbol pos.
Using Subscripted Substitution Symbols to Redefine an Instruction
ADDX .macro ABC
.var TMP
.asg :ABC(1): , TMP
.if $symcmp(TMP, "#") = 0
ADD ACC, ABC
.else
.emsg "Bad Macro Parameter"
.endif
.endm
ADDX #100 ;macro call
Using Subscripted Substitution Symbols to Find Substrings

substr .macro start,strg1,strg2,pos
.var len1,len2,i,tmp
.if $symlen(start) = 0
.eval 1,start
.endif
.eval 0,pos
.eval start,i
.eval $symlen(strg1),len1
.eval $symlen(strg2),len2
.loop
.break i = (len2 - len1 + 1)
.asg ":strg2(i,len1):",tmp
.if $symcmp(strg1,tmp) = 0
.eval i,pos
.break
.else
.eval i + 1,i
.endif
.endloop
.endm
.asg 0,pos
.asg "ar1 ar2 ar3 ar4",regs
substr 1,"ar2",regs,pos
.word pos
6.3.6 Substitution Symbols as Local Variables in Macros

If you want to use substitution symbols as local variables within a macro, you can use the .var directive to define
up to 32 local macro substitution symbols (including parameters) per macro. The .var directive creates temporary
substitution symbols with the initial value of the null string. These symbols are not passed in as parameters, and
they are lost after expansion.
.var sym1 [,sym2 , ... ,symn ]
The .var directive is used in the examples in Section 6.3.5.
6.4 Macro Libraries

One way to define macros is by creating a macro library. A macro library is a collection of files that contain macro
definitions. You must use the archiver to collect these files, or members, into a single file (called an archive).
Each member of a macro library contains one macro definition. The files in a macro library must be unassembled
source files. The macro name and the member name must be the same, and the macro filename's extension
must be .asm. For example:
Macro Name Filename in Macro Library
simple simple.asm
add3 add3.asm
You can access the macro library by using the .mlib assembler directive (described in Define Macro Library). The
syntax is:
.mlib filename
When the assembler encounters the .mlib directive, it opens the library named by filename and creates a table
of the library's contents. The assembler enters the names of the individual members within the library into the
opcode tables as library entries; this redefines any existing opcodes or macros that have the same name. If one
of these macros is called, the assembler extracts the entry from the library and loads it into the macro table.
The assembler expands the library entry the same way it expands other macros. See Section 6.1 for how the
assembler expands macros. You can control the listing of library entry expansions with the .mlist directive. For
information about the .mlist directive, see Section 6.8 and Start/Stop Macro Expansion Listing. Only macros that
are actually called from the library are extracted, and they are extracted only once.
You can use the archiver to create a macro library by including the desired files in an archive. A macro
library is no different from any other archive, except that the assembler expects the macro library to contain
macro definitions. The assembler expects only macro definitions in a macro library; putting object code or
miscellaneous source files into the library may produce undesirable results. For information about creating a
macro library archive, see Section 7.1.
6.5 Using Conditional Assembly in Macros
The conditional assembly directives are .if/.elseif/.else/.endif and .loop/ .break/.endloop. They can be nested
within each other up to 32 levels deep. The format of a conditional block is:
.if well-defined expression
[.elseif well-defined expression]
[.else]
.endif
The .elseif and .else directives are optional in conditional assembly. The .elseif directive can be used more than
once within a conditional assembly code block. When .elseif and .else are omitted and when the .if expression is
false (0), the assembler continues to the code following the .endif directive. See Assemble Conditional Blocks for
more information on the .if/ .elseif/.else/.endif directives.
The .loop/.break/.endloop directives enable you to assemble a code block repeatedly. The format of a
repeatable block is:
.loop [well-defined expression]
[.break [well-defined expression]]
.endloop
The .loop directive's optional well-defined expression evaluates to the loop count (the number of loops to be
performed). If the expression is omitted, the loop count defaults to 1024 unless the assembler encounters
a .break directive with an expression that is true (nonzero). See Assemble Conditional Blocks Repeatedly for
more information on the .loop/.break/.endloop directives.
The .break directive and its expression are optional in repetitive assembly. If the expression evaluates to
false, the loop continues. The assembler breaks the loop when the .break expression evaluates to true or
when the .break expression is omitted. When the loop is broken, the assembler continues with the code after
the .endloop directive. For more information, see Section 5.7.
The .loop/.break/.endloop Directives, Nested Conditional Assembly Directives, and Built-In Substitution Symbol
Functions in a Conditional Assembly Code Block show the .loop/.break/ .endloop directives, properly nested
conditional assembly directives, and built-in substitution symbol functions used in a conditional assembly code
block.
The .loop/.break/.endloop Directives
.asg 1,x
.loop
.break (x == 10) ; if x == 10, quit loop/break with expression
.eval x+1,x
.endloop
Nested Conditional Assembly Directives

.asg 1,x
.loop
.if (x == 10) ; if x == 10, quit loop
.break (x == 10) ; force break
.endif
.eval x+1,x
.endloop
Built-In Substitution Symbol Functions in a Conditional Assembly Code Block

MACK3 .macrosrc1, src2, sum, k
; sum = sum + k * (src1 * src2)
.if k = 0
MOV T,#src1
MPY ACC,T,#src2
MOV DP,#sum
ADD @sum,AL
.else
MOV T,#src1
MPY ACC,T,#k
MOV T,AL
MPY ACC,T,#src2
MOV DP,#sum
ADD @sum,AL
.endif
.endm
.global A0, A1, A2
MACK3 A0,A1,A2,0
MACK3 A0,A1,A2,100
6.6 Using Labels in Macros

All labels in an assembly language program must be unique. This includes labels in macros. If a macro is
expanded more than once, its labels are defined more than once. Defining a label more than once is illegal. The
macro language provides a method of defining labels in macros so that the labels are unique. Simply follow each
label with a question mark, and the assembler replaces the question mark with a period followed by a unique
number. When the macro is expanded, you do not see the unique number in the listing file. Your label appears
with the question mark as it did in the macro definition. You cannot declare this label as global. See Section 4.8.3
for more about labels.
The syntax for a unique label is:
label ?
Unique Labels in a Macro shows unique label generation in a macro. The maximum label length is shortened to
allow for the unique suffix. For example, if the macro is expanded fewer than 10 times, the maximum label length
is 126 characters. If the macro is expanded from 10 to 99 times, the maximum label length is 125. The label
with its unique suffix is shown in the cross-listing file. To obtain a cross-listing file, invoke the assembler with the
--cross_reference option (see Section 4.3).
Unique Labels in a Macro
1
2 min .macro x, y, z
3
4 MOV z, y
5 CMP x, y
6 B l?,GT
7 MOV z, x
8 l?
9 .endm
10
11 00000000 min AH, AL, PH
1
1 00000000 2FA9 MOV PH, AL
1 00000001 55A9 CMP AH, AL
1 00000002 6202 B l?,GT
1 00000003 2FA8 MOV PH, AH
1 l?
12
LABEL VALUE DEFN REF
.TMS320C2800 000001 0
.TMS320C2800_FPU32 000000 0
__TI_ASSEMBLER_VERSION_QUAL_ID__ 001c52 0
__TI_ASSEMBLER_VERSION_QUAL__ 000049 0
__TI_ASSEMBLER_VERSION__ 4c4f28 0
l$1$ 000004' 12 11
6.7 Producing Messages in Macros

The macro language supports three directives that enable you to define your own assembly-time error and
warning messages. These directives are especially useful when you want to create messages specific to your
needs. The last line of the listing file shows the error and warning counts. These counts alert you to problems in
your code and are especially useful during debugging.
.emsg sends error messages to the listing file. The .emsg directive generates errors in the same manner as the assembler,
incrementing the error count and preventing the assembler from producing an object file.
.mmsg sends assembly-time messages to the listing file. The .mmsg directive functions in the same manner as the .emsg directive
but does not set the error count or prevent the creation of an object file.
.wmsg sends warning messages to the listing file. The .wmsg directive functions in the same manner as the .emsg directive, but it
increments the warning count and does not prevent the generation of an object file.
Macro comments are comments that appear in the definition of the macro but do not show up in the expansion
of the macro. An exclamation point in column 1 identifies a macro comment. If you want your comments to
appear in the macro expansion, precede your comment with an asterisk or semicolon.
Producing Messages in a Macro shows user messages in macros and macro comments that do not appear
in the macro expansion. For more information about the .emsg, .mmsg, and .wmsg assembler directives, see
Define Messages.
Producing Messages in a Macro
1 testparam .macro x, y
2 !
3 ! This macro checks for the correct number of parameters.
4 ! It generates an error message if x and y are not present.
5 !
6 ! The first line tests for proper input.
7 !
8 .if ($symlen(x) == 0)
9 .emsg "ERROR --missing parameter in call to TEST"
10 .mexit
11 .else
12 MOV ACC, #2
13 MOV AL, #1
14 ADD ACC, @AL
15 .endif
16 .endm
17
18 000000 testparam 1, 2
1 .if ($symlen(x) == 0)
1 .emsg "ERROR --missing parameter in call to TEST"
1 .mexit
1 .else
1 000000 FF20 MOV ACC, #2
000001 0002
1 000002 9A01 MOV AL, #1
1 000003 A0A9 ADD ACC, @AL
1 .endif
6.8 Using Directives to Format the Output Listing

Macros, substitution symbols, and conditional assembly directives may hide information. You may need to see
this hidden information, so the macro language supports an expanded listing capability.
By default, the assembler shows macro expansions and false conditional blocks in the list output file. You may
want to turn this listing off or on within your listing file. Four sets of directives enable you to control the listing of
this information:
• Macro and loop expansion listing
.mlist expands macros and .loop/.endloop blocks. The .mlist directive prints all code encountered in those blocks.
.mnolist suppresses the listing of macro expansions and .loop/ .endloop blocks.
For macro and loop expansion listing, .mlist is the default.

• False conditional block listing
.fclist causes the assembler to include in the listing file all conditional blocks that do not generate code (false conditional
blocks). Conditional blocks appear in the listing exactly as they appear in the source code.
.fcnolist suppresses the listing of false conditional blocks. Only the code in conditional blocks that actually assemble
appears in the listing. The .if, .elseif, .else, and .endif directives do not appear in the listing.
For false conditional block listing, .fclist is the default.
• Substitution symbol expansion listing
.sslist expands substitution symbols in the listing. This is useful for debugging the expansion of substitution symbols. The
expanded line appears below the actual source line.
.ssnolist turns off substitution symbol expansion in the listing.
For substitution symbol expansion listing, .ssnolist is the default.
• Directive listing
.drlist causes the assembler to print to the listing file all directive lines.
.drnolist suppresses the printing of certain directives in the listing file. These directives
are .asg, .eval, .var, .sslist, .mlist, .fclist, .ssnolist, .mnolist, .fcnolist, .emsg, .wmsg, .mmsg, .length, .width,
and .break.
For directive listing, .drlist is the default.
6.9 Using Recursive and Nested Macros

The macro language supports recursive and nested macro calls. This means that you can call other macros in a
macro definition. You can nest macros up to 32 levels deep. When you use recursive macros, you call a macro
from its own definition (the macro calls itself).
When you create recursive or nested macros, you should pay close attention to the arguments that you pass
to macro parameters because the assembler uses dynamic scoping for parameters. This means that the called
macro uses the environment of the macro from which it was called.
Using Nested Macros shows nested macros. The y in the in_block macro hides the y in the out_block macro.
The x and z from the out_block macro, however, are accessible to the in_block macro.
Using Nested Macros
in_block .macro y,a
. ; visible parameters are y,a and x,z from the calling macro
.endm
out_block .macrox,y,z
. ; visible parameters are x,y,z
.
in_block x,y ; macro call with x and y as arguments
.
.
.endm
out_block ; macro call
Using Recursive Macros shows recursive and fact macros. The fact macro produces assembly code necessary
to calculate the factorial of n, where n is an immediate value. The result is placed in the A register. The fact
macro accomplishes this by calling fact1, which calls itself recursively.
Using Recursive Macros
1 .fcnolist
2
3 fact .macro N, LOC
4
5 .if N < 2
6 MOV @LOC, #1
7 .else
8 MOV @LOC, #N
9
10
11 .eval N-1, N
12 fact1
13
14 .endif
15 .endm
16
17 fact1 .macro
18 .if N > 1
19 MOV @T, @LOC
20 MPYB @P, @T, #N
21 MOV @LOC, @P
22 MOV ACC, @LOC
23 .eval N - 1, N
24 fact1
25
26 .endif
27 .endm
6.10 Macro Directives Summary

The directives listed in Table 6-2 through Table 6-6 can be used with macros. The .macro, .mexit, .endm and .var
directives are valid only with macros; the remaining directives are general assembly language directives.
Table 6-2. Creating Macros
See
Mnemonic and Syntax Description Macro Use Directive
.endm End macro definition Section 6.2 .endm
macname .macro [parameter1 ][,... , parametern] Define macro by macname Section 6.2 .macro
.mexit Go to .endm Section 6.2 Section 6.2
.mlib filename Identify library containing macro definitions Section 6.4 .mlib
Table 6-3. Manipulating Substitution Symbols

See
.asg ["]character string["], substitution symbol Assign character string to substitution symbol Section 6.3.1 .asg
.eval well-defined expression, substitution symbol Perform arithmetic on numeric substitution symbols Section 6.3.1 .eval
.var sym1 [, sym2 , ..., symn ] Define local macro symbols Section 6.3.6 .var
Table 6-4. Conditional Assembly

See
.break [well-defined expression] Optional repeatable block assembly Section 6.5 .break
.endif End conditional assembly Section 6.5 .endif
.endloop End repeatable block assembly Section 6.5 .endloop
.else Optional conditional assembly block Section 6.5 .else
.elseif well-defined expression Optional conditional assembly block Section 6.5 .elseif
.if well-defined expression Begin conditional assembly Section 6.5 .if
.loop [well-defined expression] Begin repeatable block assembly Section 6.5 .loop
Table 6-5. Producing Assembly-Time Messages

See
.emsg Send error message to standard output Section 6.7 .emsg
.mmsg Send assembly-time message to standard output Section 6.7 .mmsg
.wmsg Send warning message to standard output Section 6.7 .wmsg
Table 6-6. Formatting the Listing

See
.fclist Allow false conditional code block listing (default) Section 6.8 .fclist
.fcnolist Suppress false conditional code block listing Section 6.8 .fcnolist
.mlist Allow macro listings (default) Section 6.8 .mlist
.mnolist Suppress macro listings Section 6.8 .mnolist
.sslist Allow expanded substitution symbol listing Section 6.8 .sslist
.ssnolist Suppress expanded substitution symbol listing (default) Section 6.8 .ssnolist
www.ti.com Archiver Description
Chapter 7
Archiver Description
The TMS320C28x archiver lets you combine several individual files into a single archive file. For example, you
can collect several macros into a macro library. The assembler searches the library and uses the members
that are called as macros by the source file. You can use the archiver to collect a group of object files into an
object library. The linker includes in the library the members that resolve external references during the link. The
archiver allows you to modify a library by deleting, replacing, extracting, or adding members.
7.1 Archiver Overview.................................................................................................................................................... 172

7.2 The Archiver's Role in the Software Development Flow...................................................................................... 172
7.3 Invoking the Archiver...............................................................................................................................................173
7.4 Archiver Examples................................................................................................................................................... 173
7.5 Library Information Archiver Description.............................................................................................................. 175
Archiver Description www.ti.com
7.1 Archiver Overview

You can build libraries from any type of files. Both the assembler and the linker accept archive libraries as input;
the assembler can use libraries that contain individual source files, and the linker can use libraries that contain
individual object files.
One of the most useful applications of the archiver is building libraries of object modules. For example, you can
write several arithmetic routines, assemble them, and use the archiver to collect the object files into a single,
logical group. You can then specify the object library as linker input. The linker searches the library and includes
members that resolve external references.
You can also use the archiver to build macro libraries. You can create several source files, each of which
contains a single macro, and use the archiver to collect these macros into a single, functional group. You can
use the .mlib directive during assembly to specify that macro library to be searched for the macros that you call.
Chapter 6 discusses macros and macro libraries in detail, while this chapter explains how to use the archiver to
build libraries.
7.2 The Archiver's Role in the Software Development Flow
Figure 7-1 shows the archiver's role in the software development process. The shaded portion highlights the
most common archiver development path. Both the assembler and the linker accept libraries as input.
C
source
files
Macro C2xx
source C/C++
compiler assembler
files source
Archiver
source assistant
Macro Assembler
library Assembler
source
Archiver files process
Debugging
tools
object support
Post-link
optimizer
Executable
object file
Hex-conversion
utility

Absolute lister
Figure 7-1. The Archiver in the TMS320C28x Software Development Flow
7.3 Invoking the Archiver

To invoke the archiver, enter:
ar2000[-]command [options] libname [filename1 ... filenamen ]
ar2000 is the command that invokes the archiver.

[-]command tells the archiver how to manipulate the existing library members and any specified. A command can be preceded
by an optional hyphen. You must use one of the following commands when you invoke the archiver, but you can use
only one command per invocation. The archiver commands are as follows:
@ uses the contents of the specified file instead of command line entries. You can use this command to avoid
limitations on command line length imposed by the host operating system. Use a ; at the beginning of a line
in the command file to include comments. (See Archiver Command File for an example using an archiver
command file.)
a adds the specified files to the library. This command does not replace an existing member that has the same
name as an added file; it simply appends new members to the end of the archive.
d deletes the specified members from the library.
r replaces the specified members in the library. If you do not specify filenames, the archiver replaces the library
members with files of the same name in the current directory. If the specified file is not found in the library, the
archiver adds it instead of replacing it.
t prints a table of contents of the library. If you specify filenames, only those files are listed. If you do not specify
any filenames, the archiver lists all the members in the specified library.
x extracts the specified files. If you do not specify member names, the archiver extracts all library members.
When the archiver extracts a member, it simply copies the member into the current directory; it does not
remove it from the library.
options In addition to one of the commands, you can specify options. To use options, combine them with a command; for
example, to use the a command and the s option, enter -as or as. The hyphen is optional for archiver options only.
These are the archiver options:
-h provide command-line help
-q (quiet) suppresses the banner and status messages.
-s prints a list of the global symbols that are defined in the library. (This option is valid only with the a, r, and d
commands.)
-u replaces library members only if the replacement has a more recent modification date. You must use the r
command with the -u option to specify which members to replace.
-v (verbose) provides a file-by-file description of the creation of a new library from an old library and its members.
libname names the archive library to be built or modified. If you do not specify an extension for libname, the archiver uses the
default extension .lib.
filenames names individual files to be manipulated. These files can be existing library members or new files to be added to the
library. When you enter a filename, you must enter a complete filename including extension, if applicable.
Note
Naming Library Members
It is possible (but not desirable) for a library to contain several members with the same name. If you
attempt to delete, replace, or extract a member whose name is the same as another library member,
the archiver deletes, replaces, or extracts the first library member with that name.
7.4 Archiver Examples

The following are examples of typical archiver operations:
• If you want to create a library called function.lib that contains the files sine.obj, cos.obj, and flt.obj, enter:
ar2000 -a function sine.obj cos.obj flt.obj
The archiver responds as follows:

==> new archive 'function.lib'
==> building new archive 'function.lib'
• You can print a table of contents of function.lib with the -t command, enter:
ar2000 -t function

SIZE DATE FILE NAME
-------- ------------------------ -----------------
4260 Thu Mar 28 15:38:18 2019 sine.obj
4260 Thu Mar 28 15:38:18 2019 cos.obj
4260 Thu Mar 28 15:38:18 2019 flt.obj
• If you want to add new members to the library, enter:

ar2000 -as function atan.obj

==> symbol defined: '_sin'
==> symbol defined: '_cos'
==> symbol defined: '_tan'
==> symbol defined: '_atan
==> building archive 'function.lib'
Because this example does not specify an extension for the libname, the archiver adds the files to the library
called function.lib. If function.lib does not exist, the archiver creates it. (The -s option tells the archiver to list
the global symbols that are defined in the library.)
• If you want to modify a library member, you can extract it, edit it, and replace it. In this example, assume there
is a library named macros.lib that contains the members push.asm, pop.asm, and swap.asm.
ar2000 -x macros push.asm
The archiver makes a copy of push.asm and places it in the current directory; it does not remove push.asm
from the library. Now you can edit the extracted file. To replace the copy of push.asm in the library with the
edited copy, enter:
ar2000 -r macros push.asm
• If you want to use a command file, specify the command filename after the -@ command. For example:
ar2000 [email protected]

==> building archive 'modules.lib'
Archiver Command File is the modules.cmd command file. The r command specifies that the filenames given
in the command file replace files of the same name in the modules.lib library. The -u option specifies that
these files are replaced only when the current file has a more recent revision date than the file that is in the
library.
Archiver Command File
; Command file to replace members of the
; modules library with updated files
; Use r command and u option:
ru
; Specify library name:
modules.lib
; List filenames to be replaced if updated:
align.asm
bss.asm
data.asm
text.asm
sect.asm
clink.asm
copy.asm
double.asm
drnolist.asm
emsg.asm
end.asm
7.5 Library Information Archiver Description

Section 7.1 through Section 7.4 explain how to use the archiver to create libraries of object files for use in the
linker of one or more applications. You can have multiple versions of the same object file libraries, each built
with different sets of build options. For example, you might have different versions of your object file library
for big and little endian, for different architecture revisions, or for different ABIs depending on the typical build
environments of client applications. However, if you have several versions of a library, it can be cumbersome to
keep track of which version of the library needs to be linked in for a particular application.
When several versions of a single library are available, the library information archiver can be used to create an
index library of all of the object file library versions. This index library is used in the linker in place of a particular
version of your object file library. The linker looks at the build options of the application being linked, and uses
the specified index library to determine which version of your object file library to include in the linker. If one or
more compatible libraries were found in the index library, the most suitable compatible library is linked in for your
application.
7.5.1 Invoking the Library Information Archiver
To invoke the library information archiver, enter:
libinfo2000 [options] --output=libname libname1 [libname2 ... libnamen ]
libinfo2000 is the command that invokes the library information archiver.
options changes the default behavior of the library information archiver. These options are:
--output libname specifies the name of the index library to create or update. This option is required.
--update updates any existing information in the index library specified with the --output option
instead of creating a new index.
libnames names individual object file libraries to be manipulated. When you enter a libname, you must enter a complete
filename including extension, if applicable.
7.5.2 Library Information Archiver Example

Consider these object file libraries that all have the same members, but are built with different build options:
Object File Library Name Build Options
mylib_2800_ml.lib (default)
mylib_2800_fpu32.lib --float_support=fpu32
Using the library information archiver, you can create an index library called mylib.lib from the above libraries:
libinfo2000 --output mylib.lib mylib_2800.lib mylib_2800_fpu32.lib mylib_2800_ml.lib
You can now specify mylib.lib as a library for the linker of an application. The linker uses the index library
to choose the appropriate version of the library to use. If the --issue_remarks option is specified before the
--run_linker option, the linker reports which library was chosen.
• Example 1:
cl2000 --issue_remarks main.c -z -l lnk.cmd ./mylib.lib
<Linking>
remark: linking in "mylib_2800.lib" in place of "mylib.lib"
• Example 2 (with FPU32 support):

cl2000 --float_support=fpu32 --issue_remarks main.c -z -l lnk.cmd ./mylib.lib
<Linking>
remark: linking in "mylib_2800_fpu32.lib" in place of "mylib.lib"
7.5.3 Listing the Contents of an Index Library

The archiver’s -t option can be used on an index library to list the archives indexed by an index library:
The indexed object file libraries have an additional .libinfo extension in the archiver listing. The __TI_$$LIBINFO
member is a special member that designates mylib.lib as an index library, rather than a regular library.
If the archiver’s -d command is used on an index library to delete a .libinfo member, the linker will no longer
choose the corresponding library when the index library is specified.
Using any other archiver option with an index library, or using -d to remove the __TI_$$LIBINFO member, results
in undefined behavior, and is not supported.
7.5.4 Requirements
You must follow these requirements to use library index files:
• At least one application object file must appear on the linker command line before the index library.
• Each object file library specified as input to the library information archiver must only contain object file
members that are built with the same build options.
• The linker expects the index library and all of the libraries it indexes to be in a single directory.
www.ti.com Linker Description
Chapter 8
Linker Description
The TMS320C28x linker creates executable modules by combining object modules. This chapter describes the
linker options, directives, and statements used to create executable modules. Object libraries, command files,
and other key concepts are discussed as well.
The concept of sections is basic to linker operation; Chapter 2 includes a detailed discussion of sections.
8.1 Linker Overview........................................................................................................................................................178

8.2 The Linker's Role in the Software Development Flow.......................................................................................... 178
8.3 Invoking the Linker...................................................................................................................................................179
8.4 Linker Options.......................................................................................................................................................... 180
8.5 Linker Command Files............................................................................................................................................. 200
8.6 Linker Symbols.........................................................................................................................................................242
8.7 Default Placement Algorithm...................................................................................................................................244
8.8 Using Linker-Generated Copy Tables.....................................................................................................................245
8.9 Linker-Generated CRC Tables and CRC Over Memory Ranges...........................................................................257
8.10 Partial (Incremental) Linking................................................................................................................................. 267
8.11 Linking C/C++ Code................................................................................................................................................267
8.12 Linker Example....................................................................................................................................................... 269
Linker Description www.ti.com
8.1 Linker Overview

The TMS320C28x linker allows you to allocate output sections efficiently in the memory map. As the linker
combines object files, it performs the following tasks:
• Allocates sections into the target system's configured memory
• Relocates symbols and sections to assign them to final addresses
• Resolves undefined external references between input files
The linker command language controls memory configuration, output section definition, and address binding.
The language supports expression assignment and evaluation. You configure system memory by defining and
creating a memory model that you design. Two powerful directives, MEMORY and SECTIONS, allow you to:
• Allocate sections into specific areas of memory
• Combine object file sections
• Define or redefine global symbols at link time
8.2 The Linker's Role in the Software Development Flow
Figure 8-1 illustrates the linker's role in the software development process. The linker accepts several types
of files as input, including object files, command files, libraries, and partially linked files. The linker creates
an executable object module that can be downloaded to one of several development tools or executed by a
TMS320C28x device.
C
source
files
Macro C2xx
source C/C++
compiler assembler
files source
Archiver
source assistant
Macro Assembler
library Assembler
source
Debugging
tools
object support
Post-link
optimizer
Executable
object file
Hex-conversion
utility

Absolute lister
Figure 8-1. The Linker in the TMS320C28x Software Development Flow
8.3 Invoking the Linker

The general syntax for invoking the linker is:
cl2000 --run_linker [options] filename1 .... filenamen
cl2000 --run_linker is the command that invokes the linker. The --run_linker option's short form is -z.
options can appear anywhere on the command line or in a linker command file. (Options are discussed in
Section 8.4.)
filename 1, filename n can be object files, linker command files, or archive libraries. The default extensions for input files
are .c.obj (for C source files) and .cpp.obj (for C++ source files). Any other extension must be explicitly
specified. The linker can determine whether the input file is an object or ASCII file that contains linker
commands. The default output filename is a.out, unless you use the --output_file option to name the
output file.
Note
The default file extensions for object files created by the compiler have been changed. Object files
generated from C source files have the .c.obj extension. Object files generated from C++ source
files have the .cpp.obj extension. Object files generated from assembly source files still have the .obj
extension.
There are two methods for invoking the linker:

• Specify options and filenames on the command line. This example links two files, file1.c.obj and file2.c.obj,
and creates an output module named link.out.
cl2000 --run_linker file1.c.obj file2.c.obj --output_file=link.out
• Put filenames and options in a linker command file. Filenames that are specified inside a linker command file
must begin with a letter. For example, assume the file linker.cmd contains the following lines:
--output_file=link.out file1.c.obj file2.c.obj
Now you can invoke the linker from the command line; specify the command filename as an input file:
cl2000 --run_linker linker.cmd
When you use a command file, you can also specify other options and files on the command line. For
example, you could enter:
cl2000 --run_linker --map_file=link.map linker.cmd file3.c.obj
The linker reads and processes a command file as soon as it encounters the filename on the command line,
so it links the files in this order: file1.c.obj, file2.c.obj, and file3.c.obj. This example creates an output file
called link.out and a map file called link.map.
For information on invoking the linker for C/C++ files, see Section 8.11.
8.4 Linker Options

Linker options control linking operations. They can be placed on the command line or in a command file. Linker
options must be preceded by a hyphen (-). Options can be separated from arguments (if they have them) by an
optional space.
Table 8-1. Basic Options Summary
Option Alias Description Section
--run_linker -z Enables linking Section 8.3
--output_file -o Names the executable output module. The default filename is a.out. Section 8.4.24
--map_file -m Produces a map or listing of the input and output sections, including holes, and Section 8.4.19
places the listing in filename
--stack_size -stack Sets C system stack size to size words and defines a global symbol that Section 8.4.30
specifies the stack size. Default = 1K words
--heap_size -heap Sets heap size (for the dynamic memory allocation in C) to size words and Section 8.4.15
defines a global symbol that specifies the heap size. Default = 1K words
Table 8-2. File Search Path Options Summary

--library -l Names an archive library or link command filename as linker input Section 8.4.17
--disable_auto_rts Disables the automatic selection of a run-time-support library Section 8.4.8
--priority -priority Satisfies unresolved references by the first library that contains a definition for Section 8.4.17.3
that symbol
--reread_libs -x Forces rereading of libraries, which resolves back references Section 8.4.17.3
--search_path -i Alters library-search algorithms to look in a directory named with pathname Section 8.4.17.1
before looking in the default location. This option must appear before the
--library option.
Table 8-3. Command File Preprocessing Options Summary

--define Predefines name as a preprocessor macro. Section 8.4.11
--undefine Removes the preprocessor macro name. Section 8.4.11
--disable_pp Disables preprocessing for command files Section 8.4.11
Table 8-4. Diagnostic Options Summary

--diag_error Categorizes the diagnostic identified by num as an error Section 8.4.7
--diag_remark Categorizes the diagnostic identified by num as a remark Section 8.4.7
--diag_suppress Suppresses the diagnostic identified by num Section 8.4.7
--diag_warning Categorizes the diagnostic identified by num as a warning Section 8.4.7
--display_error_number Displays a diagnostic's identifiers along with its text Section 8.4.7
--emit_references:file[=file] Emits a file containing section information. The information includes section Section 8.4.7
size, symbols defined, and references to symbols.
--emit_warnings_as_errors -pdew Treats warnings as errors Section 8.4.7
--issue_remarks Issues remarks (nonserious warnings) Section 8.4.7
--no_demangle Disables demangling of symbol names in diagnostics Section 8.4.21
--no_warnings Suppresses warning diagnostics (errors are still issued) Section 8.4.7
--set_error_limit Sets the error limit to num. The linker abandons linking after this number of Section 8.4.7
errors. (The default is 100.)
--verbose_diagnostics Provides verbose diagnostics that display the original source with line-wrap Section 8.4.7
--warn_sections -w Displays a message when an undefined output section is created Section 8.4.34
Table 8-5. Linker Output Options Summary

--absolute_exe -a Produces an absolute, executable module. This is the default; if neither -- Section 8.4.3.1
absolute_exe nor --relocatable is specified, the linker acts as if --absolute_exe
were specified.
--ecc={ on | off } Enable linker-generated Error Correcting Codes (ECC). The default is off. Section 8.4.12
Section 8.5.10
--ecc:data_error Inject the specified errors into the output file for testing Section 8.4.12
Section 8.5.10
--ecc:ecc_error Inject the specified errors into the Error Correcting Code (ECC) for testing Section 8.4.12
Section 8.5.10
--mapfile_contents Controls the information that appears in the map file. Section 8.4.20
--relocatable -r Produces a nonexecutable, relocatable output module Section 8.4.3.2
--run_abs -abs Produces an absolute listing file Section 8.4.28
--xml_link_info Generates a well-formed XML file containing detailed information about the Section 8.4.35
result of a link
Table 8-6. Symbol Management Options Summary

--entry_point -e Defines a global symbol that specifies the primary entry point for the output Section 8.4.13
module
--globalize Changes the symbol linkage to global for symbols that match pattern Section 8.4.18
--hide Hides global symbols that match pattern Section 8.4.16
--localize Changes the symbol linkage to local for symbols that match pattern Section 8.4.18
--make_global -g Makes symbol global (overrides -h) Section 8.4.18.1
--make_static -h Makes all global symbols static Section 8.4.18.1
--no_sym_merge -b Disables merge of symbolic debugging information in COFF object files Section 8.4.22
--no_symtable -s Strips symbol table information and line number entries from the output module Section 8.4.23
--retain Retains a list of sections that otherwise would be discarded. (EABI only) Section 8.4.27
--scan_libraries -scanlibs Scans all libraries for duplicate symbol definitions Section 8.4.29
--symbol_map Maps symbol references to a symbol definition of a different name Section 8.4.32
--undef_sym -u Places an unresolved external symbol into the output module's symbol table Section 8.4.33
--unhide Reveals (un-hides) global symbols that match pattern Section 8.4.16
Table 8-7. Run-Time Environment Options Summary

--arg_size --args Allocates memory to be used by the loader to pass arguments Section 8.4.4
--fill_value -f Sets default fill values for holes within output sections; fill_value is a 32-bit Section 8.4.14
constant
--ram_model -cr Initializes variables at load time Section 8.4.26
--rom_model -c Autoinitializes variables at run time Section 8.4.26
Table 8-8. Link-Time Optimization Options Summary

--cinit_compression Specifies the type of compression to apply to the C auto initialization data. Section 8.4.5
[=compression_kind] The default compression_kind if this option is used with no kind specified
is lzss for Lempel-Ziv-Storer-Szymanski compression. Alternately, specify
--cinit_compression=rle to use Run Length Encoded compression, which
generally provides less efficient compression. (EABI only)
--compress_dwarf Aggressively reduces the size of DWARF information from input object files. Section 8.4.6
(EABI only)
--copy_compression Compresses data copied by linker copy tables (EABI only) Section 8.4.5
[=compression_kind]
--unused_section_elimination Eliminates sections that are not needed in the executable module; on by Section 8.4.10
default. (EABI only)
Table 8-8. Link-Time Optimization Options Summary (continued)

--keep_asm Retain any post-link files (.pl) and .absolute listing files (.abs) generated by Note (1)
the −plink option. This allows you to view any changes the post-link optimizer
makes. (Requires use of -plink)
--no_postlink_across_calls -nf Disable post-link optimizations across functions. (Requires use of -plink) Note (1)
--plink_advice_only Annotates assembly code with comments if changes cannot be made safely Note (1)
due to pipeline considerations, such as when float support or VCU support is
enabled. (Requires use of -plink)
--postlink_exclude -ex Exclude files from post-link pass. (Requires use of -plink) Note (1)
--postlink_opt -plink Post-link optimizations. (Only after --run_linker or -z) Note (1)
(1) For more information, refer to the Post-Link Optimizer chapter in the TMS320C28x Optimizing C /C++ Compiler v6.0 User's Guide.
Table 8-9. Miscellaneous Options Summary

--disable_clink -j Disables conditional linking of COFF object modules. (COFF only) Section 8.4.9
--linker_help -help Displays information about syntax and available options –
--preferred_order Prioritizes placement of functions Section 8.4.25
--strict_compatibility Performs more conservative and rigorous compatibility checking of input object Section 8.4.31
files
--zero_init Controls preinitialization of uninitialized variables. Default is on.Always off if Section 8.4.36
--ram_model is used. (EABI only)
8.4.1 Wildcards in File, Section, and Symbol Patterns

The linker allows file, section, and symbol names to be specified using the asterisk (*) and question mark (?)
wildcards. Using * matches any number of characters and using ? matches a single character. Using wildcards
can make it easier to handle related objects, provided they follow a suitable naming convention. For example:
mp3*.obj /* matches anything .obj that begins with mp3 */
task?.o* /* matches task1.obj, task2.c.obj, taskX.o55, etc. */
SECTIONS
{
.fast_code: { *.obj(*fast*) } > FAST_MEM
.vectors : { vectors.c.obj(.vector:part1:*) > 0xFFFFFF00
.str_code : { rts*.lib<str*.c.obj>(.text) } > S1ROM
}
8.4.2 Specifying C/C++ Symbols with Linker Options

For COFF ABI, the compiler prepends an underscore _ to the beginning of all C/C++ identifiers. That is, for
a function named foo2(), foo2() is prefixed with _ and _foo2 becomes the link-time symbol. For example, the
--localize and --globalize options accept link-time symbols. Thus, you specify --localize='_foo2' to localize the C
function _foo2().
For EABI, the link-time symbol is the same as the C/C++ identifier name. The compiler does not prepend an
underscore to the beginning of C/C++ identifiers.
For more information on referencing symbol names, see the "Object File Symbol Naming Conventions
(Linknames)" section in the TMS320C28x Optimizing C/C++ Compiler User's Guide.
For information specifically about C++ symbol naming, see Section 13.3.1 in this document and the "C++ Name
Demangler" chapter in the TMS320C28x Optimizing C/C++ Compiler User's Guide.
See Section 8.6.1 for information about referring to linker symbols in C/C++ code.
8.4.3 Relocation Capabilities (--absolute_exe and --relocatable Options)
The linker performs relocation, which is the process of adjusting all references to a symbol when the symbol's
address changes (Section 2.7).
The linker supports two options (--absolute_exe and --relocatable) that allow you to produce an absolute or a
relocatable output module. The linker also supports a third option (-ar) that allows you to produce an executable,
relocatable output module.
When the linker encounters a file that contains no relocation or symbol table information, it issues a warning
message (but continues executing). Relinking an absolute file can be successful only if each input file contains
no information that needs to be relocated (that is, each file has no unresolved references and is bound to the
same virtual address that it was bound to when the linker created it).
8.4.3.1 Producing an Absolute Output Module (--absolute_exe option)
If you use --absolute_exe without the --relocatable option, the linker produces an absolute, executable output
module. Absolute files contain no relocation information. Executable files contain the following:
• Special symbols defined by the linker (see Section 8.5.11.4)
• An header that describes information such as the program entry point (optional in COFF)
• No unresolved references
The following example links file1.c.obj and file2.c.obj and creates an absolute output module called a.out:
cl2000 --run_linker --absolute_exe file1.c.obj file2.c.obj
Note
The --absolute_exe and --relocatable Options
If you do not use the --absolute_exe or the --relocatable option, the linker acts as if you specified
--absolute_exe.
8.4.3.2 Producing a Relocatable Output Module (--relocatable option)

When you use the --relocatable option, the linker retains relocation entries in the output module. If the output
module is relocated (at load time) or relinked (by another linker execution), use --relocatable to retain the
relocation entries.
The linker produces a file that is not executable when you use the --relocatable option without the --absolute_exe
option. A file that is not executable does not contain special linker symbols or an optional header. The file can
contain unresolved references, but these references do not prevent creation of an output module.
This example links file1.c.obj and file2.c.obj and creates a relocatable output module called a.out:
cl2000 --run_linker --relocatable file1.c.obj file2.c.obj
The output file a.out can be relinked with other object files or relocated at load time. (Linking a file that will be
relinked with other files is called partial linking. For more information, see Section 8.10.)
8.4.3.3 Producing an Executable, Relocatable Output Module (-ar Option)
If you invoke the linker with both the --absolute_exe and --relocatable options, the linker produces an executable,
relocatable object module. The output file contains the special linker symbols, an optional header, and all
resolved symbol references; however, the relocation information is retained.
This example links file1.c.obj and file2.c.obj to create an executable, relocatable output module called xr.out:
cl2000 --run_linker -ar file1.c.obj file2.c.obj --output_file=xr.out
8.4.4 Allocate Memory for Use by the Loader to Pass Arguments (--arg_size Option)
The --arg_size option instructs the linker to allocate memory to be used by the loader to pass arguments from
the command line of the loader to the program. The syntax of the --arg_size option is:
--arg_size= size
The size is the number of bytes to be allocated in target memory for command-line arguments.
By default, the linker creates the __c_args__ symbol and sets it to -1. When you specify --arg_size=size, the
following occur:
• The linker creates an uninitialized section named .args of size bytes.
• The __c_args__ symbol contains the address of the .args section.
The loader and the target boot code use the .args section and the __c_args__ symbol to determine whether and
how to pass arguments from the host to the target program. See the TMS320C28x Optimizing C/C++ Compiler
User's Guide for information about the loader.
8.4.5 Compression (--cinit_compression and --copy_compression Option)
By default, the linker does not compress copy table (Section 3.3.3 and Section 8.8) source data sections. The
--cinit_compression and --copy_compression options specify compression through the linker. These options are
supported only when you use EABI by specifying the --abi=eabi option. They are not supported for COFF object
modules.
The --cinit_compression option specifies the compression type the linker applies to the C autoinitialization copy
table source data sections. The default is lzss.
Overlays can be managed by using linker-generated copy tables. To save ROM space the linker can
compress the data copied by the copy tables. The compressed data is decompressed during copy. The
--copy_compression option controls the compression of the copy data tables.
The syntax for the options are:
--cinit_compression[=compression_kind]
--copy_compression[=compression_kind]
The compression_kind can be one of the following types:
• off. Don't compress the data.
• rle. Compress data using Run Length Encoding .
• lzss. Compress data using Lempel-Ziv-Storer-Szymanski compression (the default if no compression_kind is
specified).
See Section 8.8.5 for more information about compression.
8.4.6 Compress DWARF Information (--compress_dwarf Option)
The --compress_dwarf option aggressively reduces the size of DWARF information by eliminating duplicate
information from input object files.
For COFF files, this is the default behavior, and can be disabled for COFF with the legacy --no_sym_merge
option.
With EABI, the default is to use DWARF 4, which merges types efficiently. Such merging can be made slightly
more efficient using the --compress_dwarf option. (See the ELF specification for information on COMDAT groups
and type merging.)
8.4.7 Control Linker Diagnostics
The linker honors certain C/C++ compiler options to control linker-generated diagnostics. The diagnostic options
must be specified before the --run_linker option.
--diag_error=num Categorize the diagnostic identified by num as an error. To find the numeric identifier of a diagnostic
message, use the --display_error_number option first in a separate link. Then use --diag_error=num to
recategorize the diagnostic as an error. You can only alter the severity of discretionary diagnostics.
--diag_remark=num Categorize the diagnostic identified by num as a remark. To find the numeric identifier of a diagnostic
message, use the --display_error_number option first in a separate link. Then use --diag_remark=num
to recategorize the diagnostic as a remark. You can only alter the severity of discretionary diagnostics.
--diag_suppress=num Suppress the diagnostic identified by num. To find the numeric identifier of a diagnostic message, use
the --display_error_number option first in a separate link. Then use --diag_suppress=num to suppress
the diagnostic. You can only suppress discretionary diagnostics.
--diag_warning=num Categorize the diagnostic identified by num as a warning. To find the numeric identifier of a diagnostic
message, use the --display_error_number option first in a separate link. Then use --diag_warning=num
to recategorize the diagnostic as a warning. You can only alter the severity of discretionary diagnostics.
--display_error_number Display a diagnostic's numeric identifier along with its text. Use this option in determining which
arguments you need to supply to the diagnostic suppression options (--diag_suppress, --diag_error,
--diag_remark, and --diag_warning). This option also indicates whether a diagnostic is discretionary. A
discretionary diagnostic is one whose severity can be overridden. A discretionary diagnostic includes
the suffix -D; otherwise, no suffix is present. See the TMS320C28x Optimizing C/C++ Compiler User's
Guide for more information on understanding diagnostic messages.
--emit_references:file [=filename] Emits a file containing section information. The information includes section size, symbols defined, and
references to symbols. This information allows you to determine why each section is included in the
linked application. The output file is a simple ASCII text file. The filename is used as the base name of
a file created. For example, --emit_references:file=myfile generates a file named myfile.txt in the current
directory.
--emit_warnings_as_ Treat all warnings as errors. This option cannot be used with the --no_warnings option. The
errors --diag_remark option takes precedence over this option. This option takes precedence over the --
diag_warning option.
--issue_remarks Issue remarks (nonserious warnings), which are suppressed by default.
--no_warnings Suppress warning diagnostics (errors are still issued).
--set_error_limit=num Set the error limit to num, which can be any decimal value. The linker abandons linking after this
number of errors. (The default is 100.)
--verbose_diagnostics Provide verbose diagnostics that display the original source with line-wrap and indicate the position of
the error in the source line
8.4.8 Automatic Library Selection (--disable_auto_rts Option)

The --disable_auto_rts option disables the automatic selection of a run-time-support (RTS) library. See the
TMS320C28x Optimizing C/C++ Compiler User's Guide for details on the automatic selection process.
8.4.9 Disable Conditional Linking (--disable_clink Option)
Note
This option is supported for COFF mode only.
The --disable_clink option disables removal of unreferenced sections in COFF object modules. Only sections
marked as candidates for removal with the .clink assembler directive are affected by conditional linking. See
Conditionally Leave Section Out of Object Module Output for details on setting up conditional linking using
the .clink directive.
The --disable_clink option is not used with EABI.
8.4.10 Do Not Remove Unused Sections (--unused_section_elimination Option)
Note
This option applies when using EABI mode only. It is ignored when using COFF mode.
To minimize the footprint, the ELF linker does not include sections that are not needed to resolve any references
in the final executable. Use --unused_section_elimination=off to disable this optimization. The linker default
behavior is equivalent to --unused_section_elimination=on.
8.4.11 Linker Command File Preprocessing (--disable_pp, --define and --undefine Options)
The linker preprocesses linker command files using a standard C preprocessor. Therefore, the command files
can contain well-known preprocessing directives such as #define, #include, and #if / #endif.
Three linker options control the preprocessor:
--disable_pp Disables preprocessing for command files

--define=name[=val] Predefines name as a preprocessor macro
--undefine=name Removes the macro name
The compiler has --define and --undefine options with the same meanings. However, the linker options are
distinct; only --define and --undefine options specified after --run_linker are passed to the linker. For example:
cl2000 --define=FOO=1 main.c --run_linker --define=BAR=2 lnk.cmd
The linker sees only the --define for BAR; the compiler only sees the --define for FOO.
When one command file #includes another, preprocessing context is carried from parent to child in the usual way
(that is, macros defined in the parent are visible in the child). However, when a command file is invoked other
than through #include, either on the command line or by the typical way of being named in another command
file, preprocessing context is not carried into the nested file. The exception to this is --define and --undefine
options, which apply globally from the point they are encountered. For example:
--define GLOBAL
#define LOCAL
#include "incfile.cmd" /* sees GLOBAL and LOCAL */
nestfile.cmd /* only sees GLOBAL */
Two cautions apply to the use of --define and --undefine in command files. First, they have global effect as
mentioned above. Second, since they are not actually preprocessing directives themselves, they are subject to
macro substitution, probably with unintended consequences. This effect can be defeated by quoting the symbol
name. For example:
--define MYSYM=123
--undefine MYSYM /* expands to --undefine 123 (!) */
--undefine "MYSYM" /* ahh, that's better */
The linker uses the same search paths to find #include files as it does to find libraries. That is, #include files are
searched in the following places:
1. If the #include file name is in quotes (rather than <brackets>), in the directory of the current file
2. In the list of directories specified with --Iibrary options or environment variables (see Section 8.4.17)
There are two exceptions: relative pathnames (such as "../name") always search the current directory; and
absolute pathnames (such as "/usr/tools/name") bypass search paths entirely.
The linker provides the built-in macro definitions listed in Table 8-10. The availability of these macros within
the linker is determined by the command-line options used, not the build attributes of the files being linked. If
these macros are not set as expected, confirm that your project's command line uses the correct compiler option
settings.
Table 8-10. Predefined C28x Macro Names
Macro Name Description
__DATE__ Expands to the compilation date in the form mmm dd yyyy
__FILE__ Expands to the current source filename
__TI_COMPILER_VERSION__ Defined to a 7-9 digit integer, depending on if X has 1, 2, or 3 digits. The number does not
contain a decimal. For example, version 3.2.1 is represented as 3002001. The leading zeros
are dropped to prevent the number being interpreted as an octal.
__TI_EABI__ Defined to 1 if EABI is enabled; otherwise, it is undefined.
__TIME__ Expands to the compilation time in the form "hh:mm:ss"
__TMS320C2000__ Defined for all C2000 processors
__TMS320C28XX__ Defined if target is C28x
__TMS320C28XX_CLA__ Defined to 1 if and --cla_support is used; otherwise it is undefined.
__TMS320C28XX_CLA0__ Defined to 1 if --cla_support=cla0 is used; otherwise it is undefined.
Table 8-10. Predefined C28x Macro Names (continued)

Macro Name Description
__TMS320C28XX_FPU32__ Defined to 1 if --float_support=fpu32 is used; otherwise it is undefined.
__TMS320C28XX_FPU64__ Defined to 1 if --float_support=fpu64 is used; otherwise it is undefined.
__TMS320C28XX_IDIV__ Defined to 1 if --idiv_support=idiv0 is used; otherwise it is undefined.
__TMS320C28XX_TMU__ Defined to 1 if --tmu_support is used with any setting; otherwise it is undefined.
__TMS320C28XX_TMU0__ Defined to 1 if --tmu_support is used with any setting; otherwise it is undefined.
__TMS320C28XX_TMU1__ Defined to 1 if --tmu_support=tmu1 is used; otherwise it is undefined.
__TMS320C28XX_VCU0__ Defined to 1 if --vcu_support=vcu0 is used; otherwise it is undefined.
__TMS320C28XX_VCU2__ Defined to 1 if --vcu_support=vcu2 is used; otherwise it is undefined.
__TMS320C28XX_VCRC__ Defined to 1 if --vcu_support=vcrc is used; otherwise it is undefined.
8.4.12 Error Correcting Code Testing (--ecc Options)

Error Correcting Codes (ECC) can be generated and placed in separate sections through the linker command
file.
To enable ECC support, include --ecc=on as a linker option on the command line. By default ECC generation
is off, even if the ECC directive and ECC specifiers are used in the linker command file. This allows you to fully
configure ECC in the linker command file while still being able to quickly turn the code generation on and off via
the command line. See Section 8.5.10 for details on linker command file syntax to configure ECC support.
ECC uses extra bits to allow errors to be detected and/or corrected by a device. The ECC support provided by
the linker is compatible with the ECC support in TI Flash memory on various TI devices. TI Flash memory uses
a modified Hamming(72,64) code, which uses 8 parity bits for every 64 bits. Check the documentation for your
Flash memory to see if ECC is supported. (ECC for read-write memory is handled completely in hardware at run
time.)
After enabling ECC with the --ecc=on option, you can use the following command-line options to test ECC by
injecting bit errors into the linked executable. These options let you specify an address where an error should
appear and a bitmask of bits in the code/data at that address to flip. You can specify the address of the error
absolutely or as an offset from a symbol. When a data error is injected, the ECC parity bits for the data are
calculated as if the error were not present. This simulates bit errors that might actually occur and tests ECC's
ability to correct different levels of errors.
The --ecc:data_error option injects errors into the load image at the specified location. The syntax is:
--ecc:data_error=(symbol+offset|address)[,page],bitmask
The address is the location of the minimum addressable unit where the error is to be injected. A symbol+offset
can be used to specify the location of the error to be injected with a signed offset from that symbol. The page
number is needed to make the location non-ambiguous if the address occurs on multiple memory pages. The
bitmask is a mask of the bits to flip; its width should be the width of an addressable unit.
For example, the following command line flips the least-significant bit in the byte at the address 0x100, making it
inconsistent with the ECC parity bits for that byte:
cl2000 test.c --ecc:data_error=0x100,0x01 -z -o test.out
The following command flips two bits in the third byte of the code for main():
cl2000 test.c --ecc:data_error=main+2,0x42 -z -o test.out
The --ecc:ecc_error option injects errors into the ECC parity bits that correspond to the specified location. Note
that the ecc_error option can therefore only specify locations inside ECC input ranges, whereas the data_error
option can also specify errors in the ECC output memory ranges. The syntax is:
--ecc:ecc_error=(symbol+offset|address)[,page],bitmask
The parameters for this option are the same as for --ecc:data_error, except that the bitmask must be exactly 8
bits. Mirrored copies of the affected ECC byte will also contain the same injected error.
An error injected into an ECC byte with --ecc:ecc_error may cause errors to be detected at run time in any of the
8 data bytes covered by that ECC byte.
For example, the following command flips every bit in the ECC byte that contains the parity information for the
byte at 0x200:
cl2000 test.c --ecc:ecc_error=0x200,0xff -z -o test.out
The linker disallows injecting errors into memory ranges that are neither an ECC range nor the input range for an
ECC range. The compiler can only inject errors into initialized sections.
8.4.13 Define an Entry Point (--entry_point Option)
The memory address at which a program begins executing is called the entry point. When a loader loads a
program into target memory, the program counter (PC) must be initialized to the entry point; the PC then points
to the beginning of the program.
The linker can assign one of four values to the entry point. These values are listed below in the order in which
the linker tries to use them. If you use one of the first three values, it must be an external symbol in the symbol
table.
• The value specified by the --entry_point option. The syntax is:
--entry_point= global_symbol
where global_symbol defines the entry point and must be defined as an external symbol of the input files.
The external symbol name of C or C++ objects may be different than the name as declared in the source
language; refer to the TMS320C28x Optimizing C/C++ Compiler User's Guide.
• The value of symbol _c_int00 (if present). The _c_int00 symbol must be the entry point if you are linking code
produced by the C compiler.
• The value of symbol _main (if present)
• 0 (default value)
This example links file1.c.obj and file2.c.obj. The symbol begin is the entry point; begin must be defined as
external in file1 or file2.
cl2000 --run_linker --entry_point=begin file1.c.obj file2.c.obj
8.4.14 Set Default Fill Value (--fill_value Option)
The --fill_value option fills the holes formed within output sections. The syntax for the option is:
--fill_value= value
The argument value is a 32-bit constant (up to eight hexadecimal digits). If you do not use --fill_value, the linker
uses 0 as the default fill value.
This example fills holes with the hexadecimal value ABCDABCD:
cl2000 --run_linker --fill_value=0xABCDABCD file1.c.obj file2.c.obj
8.4.15 Define Heap Size (--heap_size Option)

The C/C++ compiler uses an uninitialized section called .esysmem for the C run-time memory pool used by
malloc(). You can set the size of this memory pool at link time by using the --heap_size option. The syntax for the
--heap_size option is:
--heap_size= size
The size must be a constant. This example defines a 4K word heap:
cl2000 --run_linker --heap_size=0x1000 /* defines a 4k heap (.esysmem section)*/
The linker creates the .esysmem section only if there is a .esysmem section in an input file.
The linker also creates a global symbol, __SYSMEM_SIZE (for COFF) or __TI_SYSMEM_SIZE (for EABI), and
assigns it a value equal to the size of the heap. The default size is 1K words. See Section 8.6.1 for information
about referring to linker symbols in C/C++ code. For more about C/C++ linking, see Section 8.11.
8.4.16 Hiding Symbols
Symbol hiding prevents the symbol from being listed in the output file's symbol table. While localization is used
to prevent name space clashes in a link unit (see Section 8.4.18), symbol hiding is used to obscure symbols
which should not be visible outside a link unit. Such symbol’s names appear only as empty strings or “no name”
in object file readers. The linker supports symbol hiding through the --hide and --unhide options.
The syntax for these options are:
--hide=' pattern '
--unhide=' pattern '
The pattern is a "glob" (a string with optional ? or * wildcards). Use ? to match a single character. Use * to match
zero or more characters.
The --hide option hides global symbols with a linkname matching the pattern. It hides symbols matching the
pattern by changing the name to an empty string. A global symbol that is hidden is also localized.
The --unhide option reveals (un-hides) global symbols that match the pattern that are hidden by the --hide
option. The --unhide option excludes symbols that match pattern from symbol hiding provided the pattern defined
by --unhide is more restrictive than the pattern defined by --hide.
These options have the following properties:
• The --hide and --unhide options can be specified more than once on the command line.
• The order of --hide and --unhide has no significance.
• A symbol is matched by only one pattern defined by either --hide or --unhide.
• A symbol is matched by the most restrictive pattern. Pattern A is considered more restrictive than Pattern B, if
Pattern A matches a narrower set than Pattern B.
• It is an error if a symbol matches patterns from --hide and --unhide and one does not supersede the other.
Pattern A supersedes pattern B if A can match everything B can and more. If Pattern A supersedes Pattern
B, then Pattern B is said to more restrictive than Pattern A.
• These options affect final and partial linking.
In map files these symbols are listed under the Hidden Symbols heading.
8.4.17 Alter the Library Search Algorithm (--library, --search_path, and C2000_C_DIR )
Usually, when you want to specify a file as linker input, you simply enter the filename; the linker looks for the file
in the current directory. For example, suppose the current directory contains the library object.lib. If this library
defines symbols that are referenced in the file file1.c.obj, this is how you link the files:
cl2000 --run_linker file1.c.obj object.lib
To use a file that is not in the current directory, use the --library linker option. The --library option's short form is -l.
The syntax for this option is:
--library=[pathname] filename
The filename is the name of an archive, object file, or linker command file. You can specify up to 128 search
paths.
The --library option is not required when one or more members of an object library are specified for input to an
output section. For more information about allocating archive members, see Section 8.5.5.5.
You can adjust the linker's directory search algorithm using the --search_path linker option or the C2000_C_DIR
environment variable. The linker searches for object libraries and command files in this order:
1. Search directories named with the --search_path linker option. The --search_path option must appear before
the --Iibrary option on the command line or in a command file.
2. Search directories named with C2000_C_DIR.
3. If C2000_C_DIR is not set, search directories named with the C2000_A_DIR environment variable.
4. Search the current directory.
8.4.17.1 Name an Alternate Library Directory (--search_path Option)
The --search_path option names an alternate directory that contains input files. The --search_path option's short
form is - I . The syntax for this option is:
--search_path= pathname
The pathname names a directory that contains input files.
When the linker searches for files named with the --library option, it searches through directories named with --
search_path first. Each --search_path option specifies only one directory, but you can use several --search_path
options per invocation. If you use the --search_path option to name an alternate directory, it must precede any
--library option on the command line or in a command file.
For example, assume that there are two archive libraries called r.lib and lib2.lib that reside in ld and ld2
directories. The table below shows the directories that r.lib and lib2.lib reside in, how to set environment variable,
and how to use both libraries during a link. Select the row for your operating system:
UNIX (Bourne shell) cl2000 --run_linker f1.c.obj f2.c.obj --search_path=/ld
--search_path=/ld2 --library=r.lib --library=lib2.lib
Windows cl2000 --run_linker f1.c.obj f2.c.obj --search_path=\ld
--search_path=\ld2 --library=r.lib --library=lib2.lib
8.4.17.2 Name an Alternate Library Directory ( C2000_C_DIR Environment Variable)

An environment variable is a system symbol that you define and assign a string to. The linker uses an
environment variable named C2000_C_DIR to name alternate directories that contain object libraries. The
command syntaxes for assigning the environment variable are:
UNIX (Bourne shell) C2000_C_DIR=" pathname1 ; pathname2 ; . . . "; export C2000_C_DIR
Windows set C2000_C_DIR= pathname1 ; pathname2 ; . . .
The pathnames are directories that contain input files. Use the --library linker option on the command line or in
a command file to tell the linker which library or linker command file to search for. The pathnames must follow
these constraints:
• Pathnames must be separated with a semicolon.
• Spaces or tabs at the beginning or end of a path are ignored. For example the space before and after the
semicolon in the following is ignored:
set C2000_C_DIR= c:\path\one\to\tools ; c:\path\two\to\tools
• Spaces and tabs are allowed within paths to accommodate Windows directories that contain spaces. For
example, the pathnames in the following are valid:
set C2000_C_DIR=c:\first path\to\tools;d:\second path\to\tools
In the example below, assume that two archive libraries called r.lib and lib2.lib reside in ld and ld2 directories.
The table below shows how to set the environment variable, and how to use both libraries during a link. Select
the row for your operating system:
Operating System Invocation Command
UNIX (Bourne shell) C2000_C_DIR="/ld ;/ld2"; export C2000_C_DIR;
cl2000 --run_linker f1.c.obj f2.c.obj --library=r.lib --library=lib2.lib
Windows C2000_C_DIR=\ld;\ld2
cl2000 --run linker f1.c.obj f2.c.obj --library=r.lib --library=lib2.lib
The environment variable remains set until you reboot the system or reset the variable by entering:
UNIX (Bourne shell) unset C2000_C_DIR
Windows set C2000_C_DIR=
The assembler uses an environment variable named C2000_A_DIR to name alternate directories that contain
copy/include files or macro libraries. If C2000_C_DIR is not set, the linker searches for object libraries in
the directories named with C2000_A_DIR. For information about C2000_A_DIR, see Section 4.5.2. For more
information about object libraries, see Section 8.6.3.
8.4.17.3 Exhaustively Read and Search Libraries (--reread_libs and --priority Options)
There are two ways to exhaustively search for unresolved symbols:
• Reread libraries if you cannot resolve a symbol reference (--reread_libs).
• Search libraries in the order that they are specified (--priority).
The linker normally reads input files, including archive libraries, only once when they are encountered on the
command line or in the command file. When an archive is read, any members that resolve references to
undefined symbols are included in the link. If an input file later references a symbol defined in a previously read
archive library, the reference is not resolved.
With the --reread_libs option, you can force the linker to reread all libraries. The linker rereads libraries until
no more references can be resolved. Linking using --reread_libs may be slower, so you should use it only as
needed. For example, if a.lib contains a reference to a symbol defined in b.lib, and b.lib contains a reference to a
symbol defined in a.lib, you can resolve the mutual dependencies by listing one of the libraries twice, as in:
cl2000 --run_linker --library=a.lib --library=b.lib --library=a.lib
or you can force the linker to do it for you:

cl2000 --run_linker --reread_libs --library=a.lib --library=b.lib
The --priority option provides an alternate search mechanism for libraries. Using --priority causes each
unresolved reference to be satisfied by the first library that contains a definition for that symbol. For example:
objfile references A
lib1 defines B
lib2 defines A, B; obj defining A references B
% cl2000 --run_linker objfile lib1 lib2
Under the existing model, objfile resolves its reference to A in lib2, pulling in a reference to B, which resolves to
the B in lib2.
Under --priority, objfile resolves its reference to A in lib2, pulling in a reference to B, but now B is resolved by
searching the libraries in order and resolves B to the first definition it finds, namely the one in lib1.
The --priority option is useful for libraries that provide overriding definitions for related sets of functions in other
libraries without having to provide a complete version of the whole library.
For example, suppose you want to override versions of malloc and free defined in the rts2800_ml.lib without
providing a full replacement for rts2800_ml.lib. Using --priority and linking your new library before rts2800_ml.lib
guarantees that all references to malloc and free resolve to the new library.
The --priority option is intended to support linking programs with SYS/BIOS where situations like the one
illustrated above occur.
8.4.18 Change Symbol Localization
Symbol localization changes symbol linkage from global to local (static). This is used to obscure global symbols
that should not be widely visible, but must be global because they are accessed by several modules in the
library. The linker supports symbol localization through the --localize and --globalize linker options.
The syntax for these options are:
--localize=' pattern '
--globalize=' pattern '
The pattern is a "glob" (a string with optional ? or * wildcards). Use ? to match a single character. Use * to match
zero or more characters.
The --localize option changes the symbol linkage to local for symbols matching the pattern.
The --globalize option changes the symbol linkage to global for symbols matching the pattern. The --globalize
option only affects symbols that are localized by the --localize option. The --globalize option excludes symbols
that match the pattern from symbol localization, provided the pattern defined by --globalize is more restrictive
than the pattern defined by --localize.
See Section 8.4.2 for information about using C/C++ identifiers in linker options such as --localize and
--globalize.
These options have the following properties:
• The --localize and --globalize options can be specified more than once on the command line.
• The order of --localize and --globalize options has no significance.
• A symbol is matched by only one pattern defined by either --localize or --globalize.
• A symbol is matched by the most restrictive pattern. Pattern A is considered more restrictive than Pattern B, if
Pattern A matches a narrower set than Pattern B.
• It is an error if a symbol matches patterns from --localize and --globalize and if one does not supersede other.
Pattern A supersedes pattern B if A can match everything B can, and some more. If Pattern A supersedes
Pattern B, then Pattern B is said to more restrictive than Pattern A.
• These options affect final and partial linking.
In map files these symbols are listed under the Localized Symbols heading.
8.4.18.1 Make All Global Symbols Static (--make_static Option)
The --make_static option makes all global symbols static. Static symbols are not visible to externally linked
modules. By making global symbols static, global symbols are essentially hidden. This allows external symbols
with the same name (in different files) to be treated as unique.
The --make_static option effectively nullifies all .global assembler directives. All symbols become local to the
module in which they are defined, so no external references are possible. For example, assume file1.c.obj and
file2.c.obj both define global symbols called EXT. By using the --make_static option, you can link these files
without conflict. The symbol EXT defined in file1.c.obj is treated separately from the symbol EXT defined in
file2.c.obj.
cl2000 --run_linker --make_static file1.c.obj file2.c.obj
The --make_static option makes all global symbols static. If you have a symbol that you want to remain global
and you use the --make_static option, you can use the --make_global option to declare that symbol to be global.
The --make_global option overrides the effect of the --make_static option for the symbol that you specify. The
syntax for the --make_global option is:
--make_global= global_symbol
8.4.19 Create a Map File (--map_file Option)
The syntax for the --map_file option is:
--map_file= filename
The linker map describes:
• Memory configuration
• Input and output section allocation
• Linker-generated copy tables
• The addresses of external symbols after they have been relocated
• Hidden and localized symbols
The map file contains the name of the output module and the entry point; it can also contain up to three tables:
• A table shows the new memory configuration if the MEMORY directive specifies any non-default
configuration. The table has the following columns, which are generated from the MEMORY directive in
the linker command file. For information about the MEMORY directive, see Section 8.5.4.
– Name. This is the name of the memory range specified with the MEMORY directive.
– Origin. This specifies the starting address of a memory range.
– Length. This specifies the length of a memory range.
– Unused. This specifies the total amount of unused (available) memory in that memory area.
– Attributes. This specifies one to four attributes associated with the named range:
R specifies that the memory can be read.
W specifies that the memory can be written to.
X specifies that the memory can contain executable code.
I specifies that the memory can be initialized.
• A table showing the linked addresses of each output section and the input sections that make up the output
sections (section placement map). This table has the following columns; this information is generated on the
basis of the information in the SECTIONS directive in the linker command file:
– Output section. This is the name of the output section specified with the SECTIONS directive.
– Origin. The first origin listed for each output section is the starting address of that output section. The
indented origin value is the starting address of that portion of the output section.
– Length. The first length listed for each output section is the length of that output section. The indented
length value is the length of that portion of the output section.
– Attributes/input sections. This lists the input file or value associated with an output section. If the input
section could not be allocated, the map file will indicate this with "FAILED TO ALLOCATE".
For more information about the SECTIONS directive, see Section 8.5.5.
• A table showing each external symbol and its address sorted by symbol name.
• A table showing each external symbol and its address sorted by symbol address.
The following example links file1.c.obj and file2.c.obj and creates a map file called map.out:
cl2000 --run_linker file1.c.obj file2.c.obj --map_file=map.out
Output Map File, demo.map shows an example of a map file.

8.4.20 Managing Map File Contents (--mapfile_contents Option)
The --mapfile_contents option assists with managing the content of linker-generated map files. The syntax for
the --mapfile_contents option is:
--mapfile_contents= filter[, filter]
When the --map_file option is specified, the linker produces a map file containing information about memory
usage, placement information about sections that were created during a link, details about linker-generated copy
tables, and symbol values.
The --mapfile_contents option provides a mechanism for you to control what information is included in or
excluded from a map file. When you specify --mapfile_contents=help from the command line, a help screen
listing available filter options is displayed. The following filter options are available:
Attribute Description Default State
crctables CRC tables On
copytables Copy tables On
entry Entry point On
load_addr Display load addresses Off
memory Memory ranges On
modules Module view On
sections Sections On
Attribute Description Default State

sym_defs Defined symbols per file Off
sym_dp Symbols sorted by data page On
sym_name Symbols sorted by name On
sym_runaddr Symbols sorted by run address On
all Enables all attributes
none Disables all attributes
The --mapfile_contents option controls display filter settings by specifying a comma-delimited list of display
attributes. When prefixed with the word no, an attribute is disabled instead of enabled. For example:
--mapfile_contents=copytables,noentry
--mapfile_contents=all,nocopytables
--mapfile_contents=none,entry
By default, those sections that are currently included in the map file when the --map_file option is specified
are included. The filters specified in the --mapfile_contents options are processed in the order that they appear
in the command line. In the third example above, the first filter, none, clears all map file content. The second
filter, entry, then enables information about entry points to be included in the generated map file. That is, when
--mapfile_contents=none,entry is specified, the map file contains only information about entry points.
The load_addr and sym_defs attributes are both disabled by default.
If you turn on the load_addr filter, the map file includes the load address of symbols that are included in the
symbol list in addition to the run address (if the load address is different from the run address).
You can use the sym_defs filter to include information sorted on a file by file basis. You may find it useful
to replace the sym_name, sym_dp, and sym_runaddr sections of the map file with the sym_defs section by
specifying the following --mapfile_contents option:
--mapfile_contents=nosym_name,nosym_dp,nosym_runaddr,sym_defs
By default, information about global symbols defined in an application are included in tables sorted by name,
data page, and run address. If you use the --mapfile_contents=sym_defs option, static variables are also listed.
8.4.21 Disable Name Demangling (--no_demangle)
By default, the linker uses demangled symbol names in diagnostics. For example:
undefined symbol first referenced in file
ANewClass::getValue() test.cpp.obj
The --no_demangle option instead shows the linkname for symbols in diagnostics. For example:
undefined symbol first referenced in file
_ZN9ANewClass8getValueEv test.cpp.obj
For information on referencing symbol names, see the "Object File Symbol Naming Conventions (Linknames)"
section in the TMS320C28x Optimizing C/C++ Compiler User's Guide.
For information specifically about C++ symbol naming, see the "C++ Name Demangler" chapter in the
8.4.22 Disable Merging of Symbolic Debugging Information (--no_sym_merge Option)

By default, the linker eliminates duplicate entries of symbolic debugging information. Such duplicate information
is commonly generated when a C program is compiled for debugging. For example:
-[ header.h ]-
typedef struct
{
<define some structure members>
} XYZ;
-[ f1.c ]-
#include "header.h"
...
-[ f2.c ]-
#include "header.h"
...
When these files are compiled for debugging, both f1.c.obj and f2.c.obj have symbolic debugging entries to
describe type XYZ. For the final output file, only one set of these entries is necessary. The linker eliminates the
duplicate entries automatically.
Use the COFF only --no_sym_merge option if you want the linker to keep such duplicate entries in COFF object
files. Using the --no_sym_merge option has the effect of the linker running faster and using less host memory
during linking, but the resulting executable file may be very large due to duplicated debug information.
8.4.23 Strip Symbolic Information (--no_symtable Option)
The --no_symtable option creates a smaller output module by omitting symbol table information and line number
entries. The --no_sym_table option is useful for production applications when you do not want to disclose
symbolic information to the consumer.
This example links file1.c.obj and file2.c.obj and creates an output module, stripped of line numbers and symbol
table information, named nosym.out:
cl2000 --run_linker --output_file=nosym.out --no_symtable file1.c.obj file2.c.obj
Using the --no_symtable option limits later use of a symbolic debugger.
Note
Stripping Symbolic Information
The --no_symtable option is deprecated. To remove symbol table information, use the strip2000 utility
as described in Section 11.4.
8.4.24 Name an Output Module (--output_file Option)

The linker creates an output module when no errors are encountered. If you do not specify a filename for the
output module, the linker gives it the default name a.out. If you want to write the output module to a different file,
use the --output_file option. The syntax for the --output_file option is:
--output_file= filename
The filename is the new output module name.
This example links file1.c.obj and file2.c.obj and creates an output module named run.out:
cl2000 --run_linker --output_file=run.out file1.c.obj file2.c.obj
8.4.25 Prioritizing Function Placement (--preferred_order Option)

The compiler prioritizes the placement of a function relative to others based on the order in which --
preferred_order options are encountered during the linker invocation. The syntax is:
--preferred_order= function specification
Refer to the TMS320C28x Optimizing C/C++ Compiler User's Guide for details on the program cache layout tool,
which is impacted by --preferred_option.
8.4.26 C Language Options (--ram_model and --rom_model Options)
The --ram_model and --rom_model options cause the linker to use linking conventions that are required by the C
compiler. Both options inform the linker that the program is a C program and requires a boot routine.
• The --ram_model option tells the linker to initialize variables at load time.
• The --rom_model option tells the linker to autoinitialize variables at run time.
If you use a linker command line that does not compile any C/C++ files, you must use either the --rom_model or
--ram_model option. If your command line fails to include one of these options when it is required, you will see
"warning: no suitable entry-point found; setting to 0".
If you use a single command line to both compile and link, the --rom_model option is the default. If used, the
--rom_model or --ram_model option must follow the --run_linker option.
For more information, see Section 8.11, Section 3.3.2.1, and Section 3.3.2.2.
8.4.27 Retain Discarded Sections (--retain Option)
Note
The --retain option is used only with EABI mode. It is ignored when linking in COFF mode.
When --unused_section_elimination is on, the ELF linker does not include a section in the final link if it is not
needed in the executable to resolve references. The --retain option tells the linker to retain a list of sections that
would otherwise not be retained. This option accepts the wildcards '*' and '?'. When wildcards are used, the
argument should be in quotes. The syntax for this option is:
--retain=sym_or_scn_spec
The --retain option take one of the following forms:
• --retain= symbol_spec
Specifying the symbol format retains sections that define symbol_spec. For example, this code retains
sections that define symbols that start with init:
--retain='init*'
You cannot specify --retain='*'.

• --retain= file_spec(scn_spec[, scn_spec, ...]
Specifying the file format retains sections that match one or more scn_spec from files matching the file_spec.
For example, this code retains .intvec sections from all input files:
--retain='*(.int*)'
You can specify --retain='*(*)' to retain all sections from all input files. However, this does not prevent sections
from library members from being optimized out.
• --retain= ar_spec<mem_spec, [mem_spec, ...>(scn_spec[, scn_spec, ...]
Specifying the archive format retains sections matching one or more scn_spec from members matching one
or more mem_spec from archive files matching ar_spec. For example, this code retains the .text sections
from printf.c.obj in the rts2800_ml_eabi.lib library:
--retain=rts2800_ml_eabi.lib<printf.c.obj>(.text)
If the library is specified with the --library option (--library=rts2800_ml_eabi.lib) the library search path is used
to search for the library. You cannot specify '*<*>(*)'.
8.4.28 Create an Absolute Listing File (--run_abs Option)
The --run_abs option produces an output file for each file linked. These files are named with the input filenames
and an extension of .abs. Header files, however, do not generate a corresponding .abs file.
8.4.29 Scan All Libraries for Duplicate Symbol Definitions (--scan_libraries)
The --scan_libraries option scans all libraries during a link looking for duplicate symbol definitions to those
symbols that are actually included in the link. The scan does not consider absolute symbols or symbols defined
in COMDAT sections. The --scan_libraries option helps determine those symbols that were actually chosen by
the linker over other existing definitions of the same symbol in a library.
The library scanning feature can be used to check against unintended resolution of a symbol reference to a
definition when multiple definitions are available in the libraries.
8.4.30 Define Stack Size (--stack_size Option)
The TMS320C28x C/C++ compiler uses an uninitialized section, .stack, to allocate space for the run-time stack.
You can set the size of this section in words at link time with the --stack_size option. The syntax for the
--stack_size option is:
--stack_size= size
The size must be a constant and is in words. This example defines a 4K word stack:
cl2000 --run_linker --stack_size=0x1000 /* defines a 4K heap (.stack section)*/
If you specified a different stack size in an input section, the input section stack size is ignored. Any symbols
defined in the input section remain valid; only the stack size is different.
When the linker defines the .stack section, it also defines a global symbol, __STACK_SIZE (for COFF) or
__TI_STACK_SIZE (for EABI) , and assigns it a value equal to the size of the section. The default software stack
size is 1K words. See Section 8.6.1 for information about referring to linker symbols in C/C++ code.
8.4.31 Enforce Strict Compatibility (--strict_compatibility Option)
The linker performs more conservative and rigorous compatibility checking of input object files when you specify
the --strict_compatibility option. Using this option guards against additional potential compatibility issues, but
may signal false compatibility errors when linking in object files built with an older toolset, or with object files built
with another compiler vendor's toolset. To avoid issues with legacy libraries, the --strict_compatibility option is
turned off by default.
8.4.32 Mapping of Symbols (--symbol_map Option)
Symbol mapping allows a symbol reference to be resolved by a symbol with a different name, which allows
functions to be overridden with alternate definitions. This can be used to patch in alternate implementations to
provide patches (bug fixes) or alternate functionality. The syntax for the --symbol_map option is:
--symbol_map= refname=defname
For example, the following code makes the linker resolve any references to foo by the definition foo_patch:
--symbol_map='foo=foo_patch'
The --symbol_map option is supported even if --opt_level=4 was used when compiling.
8.4.33 Introduce an Unresolved Symbol (--undef_sym Option)
The --undef_sym option introduces the linkname for an unresolved symbol into the linker's symbol table. This
forces the linker to search a library and include the member that defines the symbol. The linker must encounter
the --undef_sym option before it links in the member that defines the symbol. The syntax for the --undef_sym
option is:
--undef_sym= symbol
For example, suppose a library named rts2800_ml.lib contains a member that defines the symbol symtab; none
of the object files being linked reference symtab. However, suppose you plan to relink the output module and
you want to include the library member that defines symtab in this link. Using the --undef_sym option as shown
below forces the linker to search rts2800_ml.lib for the member that defines symtab and to link in the member.
cl2000 --run_linker --undef_sym=symtab file1.c.obj file2.c.obj rts2800_ml.lib
If you do not use --undef_sym, this member is not included, because there is no explicit reference to it in
file1.c.obj or file2.c.obj.
8.4.34 Display a Message When an Undefined Output Section Is Created (--warn_sections)
In a linker command file, you can set up a SECTIONS directive that describes how input sections are
combined into output sections. However, if the linker encounters one or more input sections that do not have a
corresponding output section defined in the SECTIONS directive, the linker combines input sections that have
the same name into an output section with that name. By default, the linker does not display a message to tell
you that this occurred.
Use the --warn_sections option to cause the linker to display a message when it creates a new output section.
For more information about the SECTIONS directive, see Section 8.5.5. For more information about the default
actions of the linker, see Section 8.7.
8.4.35 Generate XML Link Information File (--xml_link_info Option)
The linker supports the generation of an XML link information file through the --xml_link_info=file option. This
option causes the linker to generate a well-formed XML file containing detailed information about the result of
a link. The information included in this file includes all of the information that is currently produced in a linker
generated map file. See Appendix B for specifics on the contents of the generated XML file.
8.4.36 Zero Initialization (--zero_init Option)
The C and C++ standards require that global and static variables that are not explicitly initialized must be set to
0 before program execution. The C/C++ compiler supports preinitialization of uninitialized variables by default. To
turn this off, specify the linker option --zero_init=off. COFF ABI does not support zero initialization.
The syntax for the --zero_init option is:
--zero_init[={on|off}]
Zero initialization takes place only if the --rom_model linker option, which causes autoinitialization to occur, is
used. If you use the --ram_model option for linking, the linker does not generate initialization records, and the
loader must handle both data and zero initialization.
Note
Disabling Zero Initialization Not Recommended: In general, disabling zero initialization is not
recommended. If you turn off zero initialization, automatic initialization of uninitialized global and static
objects to zero will not occur. You are then expected to initialize these variables to zero in some other
manner.
8.5 Linker Command Files

Linker command files allow you to put linker options and directives in a file; this is useful when you invoke the
linker often with the same options and directives. Linker command files are also useful because they allow you
to use the MEMORY and SECTIONS directives to customize your application. You must use these directives in a
command file; you cannot use them on the command line.
Linker command files are ASCII files that contain one or more of the following:
• Input filenames, which specify object files, archive libraries, or other command files. (If a command file calls
another command file as input, this statement must be the last statement in the calling command file. The
linker does not return from called command files.)
• Linker options, which can be used in the command file in the same manner that they are used on the
command line
• The MEMORY and SECTIONS linker directives. The MEMORY directive defines the target memory
configuration (see Section 8.5.4). The SECTIONS directive controls how sections are built and allocated
(see Section 8.5.5.)
• Assignment statements, which define and assign values to global symbols
To invoke the linker with a command file, enter the cl2000 --run_linker command and follow it with the name of
the command file:
cl2000 --run_linker command_filename
The linker processes input files in the order that it encounters them. If the linker recognizes a file as an object
file, it links the file. Otherwise, it assumes that a file is a command file and begins reading and processing
commands from it. Command filenames are case sensitive, regardless of the system used.
Linker Command File shows a sample linker command file called link.cmd.
Linker Command File
a.c.obj /* First input filename */
b.c.obj /* Second input filename */
--output_file=prog.out /* Option to specify output file */
--map_file=prog.map /* Option to specify map file */
The sample file in Linker Command File contains only filenames and options. (You can place comments in a
command file by delimiting them with /* and */.) To invoke the linker with this command file, enter:
cl2000 --run_linker link.cmd
You can place other parameters on the command line when you use a command file:
cl2000 --run_linker --relocatable link.cmd x.c.obj y.c.obj
The linker processes the command file as soon as it encounters the filename, so a.c.obj and b.c.obj are linked
into the output module before x.c.obj and y.c.obj.
You can specify multiple command files. If, for example, you have a file called names.lst that contains filenames
and another file called dir.cmd that contains linker directives, you could enter:
cl2000 --run_linker names.lst dir.cmd
One command file can call another command file; this type of nesting is limited to 16 levels. If a command file
calls another command file as input, this statement must be the last statement in the calling command file.
Blanks and blank lines are insignificant in a command file except as delimiters. This also applies to the format
of linker directives in a command file. Command File With Linker Directives shows a sample command file that
contains linker directives.
Command File With Linker Directives

a.obj b.obj c.obj /* Input filenames */
--output_file=prog.out /* Options */
--map_file=prog.map
MEMORY /* MEMORY directive */
{
FAST_MEM: origin = 0x0100 length = 0x0100
SLOW_MEM: origin = 0x7000 length = 0x1000
}
SECTIONS /* SECTIONS directive */
{
.text: > SLOW_MEM
.data: > SLOW_MEM
.ebss: > FAST_MEM
}
For more information, see Section 8.5.4 for the MEMORY directive, and Section 8.5.5 for the SECTIONS
directive.
8.5.1 Reserved Names in Linker Command Files
The following names (in both uppercase and lowercase) are reserved as keywords for linker directives. Do not
use them as symbol or section names in a command file.
ADDRESS_MASK END LEN o SECTIONS
ALGORITHM f LENGTH ORG SIZE
ALIGN FILL LOAD ORIGIN START
ATTR GROUP LOAD_END PAGE TABLE
BLOCK HAMMING_MASK LOAD_SIZE PALIGN TYPE
COMPRESSION HIGH LOAD_START PARITY_MASK UNION
COPY INPUT_PAGE MEMORY RUN UNORDERED
CRC_TABLE INPUT_RANGE MIRRORING RUN_END VFILL
DSECT l (lowercase L) NOINIT RUN_SIZE
ECC LAST NOLOAD RUN_START
In addition, any section names used by the TI tools are reserved from being used as the prefix for other names,
unless the section will be a subsection of the section name used by the TI tools. For example, section names
may not begin with .debug.
8.5.2 Constants in Linker Command Files
You can specify constants with either of two syntax schemes: the scheme used for specifying decimal, octal, or
hexadecimal constants (but not binary constants) used in the assembler (see Section 4.7) or the scheme used
for integer constants in C syntax.
Examples:
Format Decimal Octal Hexadecimal
Assembler format 32 40q 020h
C format 32 040 0x20
8.5.3 Accessing Files and Libraries from a Linker Command File

Many applications use custom linker command files (or LCFs) to control the placement of code and data in target
memory. For example, you may want to place a specific data object from a specific file into a specific location
in target memory. This is simple to do using the available LCF syntax to reference the desired object file or
library. However, a problem that many developers run into when they try to do this is a linker generated "file not
found" error when accessing an object file or library from inside the LCF that has been specified earlier in the
command-line invocation of the linker. Most often, this error occurs because the syntax used to access the file on
the linker command-line does not match the syntax that is used to access the same file in the LCF.
Consider a simple example. Imagine that you have an application that requires a table of constants called
"app_coeffs" to be defined in a memory area called "DDR". Assume also that the "app_coeffs" data object
is defined in a .data section that resides in an object file, app_coeffs.c.obj. The app_coeffs.c.obj file is then
included in the object file library app_data.lib. In your LCF, you can control the placement of the "app_coeffs"
data object as follows:
SECTIONS
{
...
.coeffs: { app_data.lib<app_coeffs.c.obj>(.data) } > DDR
...
}
Now assume that the app_data.lib object library resides in a sub-directory called "lib" relative to where you
are building the application. In order to gain access to app_data.lib from the build command-line, you can use
a combination of the –i and –l options to set up a directory search path which the linker can use to find the
app_data.lib library:
%> cl2000 <compile options/files> -z -i ./lib -l app_data.lib mylnk.cmd <link options/files>
The –i option adds the lib sub-directory to the directory search path and the –l option instructs the linker to
look through the directories in the directory search path to find the app_data.lib library. However, if you do
not update the reference to app_data.lib in mylnk.cmd, the linker will fail to find the app_data.lib library and
generate a "file not found" error. The reason is that when the linker encounters the reference to app_data.lib
inside the SECTIONS directive, there is no –l option preceding the reference. Therefore, the linker tries to open
app_data.lib in the current working directory.
In essence, the linker has a few different ways of opening files:
• If there is a path specified, the linker will look for the file in the specified location. For an absolute path, the
linker will try to open the file in the specified directory. For a relative path, the linker will follow the specified
path starting from the current working directory and try to open the file at that location.
• If there is no path specified, the linker will try to open the file in the current working directory.
• If a –l option precedes the file reference, then the linker will try to find and open the referenced file in one of
the directories in the directory search path. The directory search path is set up via –i options and environment
variables (like C_DIR and ).
As long as a file is referenced in a consistent manner on the command line and throughout any applicable LCFs,
the linker will be able to find and open your object files and libraries.
Returning to the earlier example, you can insert a –l option in front of the reference to app_data.lib in mylnk.cmd
to ensure that the linker will find and open the app_data.lib library when the application is built:
SECTIONS
{
...
.coeffs: { -l app_data.lib<app_coeffs.c.obj>(.data) } > DDR
...
}
Another benefit to using the –l option when referencing a file from within an LCF is that if the location of the
referenced file changes, you can modify the directory search path to incorporate the new location of the file
(using –i option on the command line, for example) without having to modify the LCF.
8.5.4 The MEMORY Directive

The linker determines where output sections are allocated into memory; it must have a model of target memory
to accomplish this. The MEMORY directive allows you to specify a model of target memory so that you can
define the types of memory your system contains and the address ranges they occupy. The linker maintains the
model as it allocates output sections and uses it to determine which memory locations can be used for object
code.
The memory configurations of TMS320C28x systems differ from application to application. The MEMORY
directive allows you to specify a variety of configurations. After you use MEMORY to define a memory model,
you can use the SECTIONS directive to allocate output sections into defined memory.
For more information, see Section 2.5.
8.5.4.1 Default Memory Model
If you do not use the MEMORY directive, the linker uses a default memory model that is based on the
TMS320C28x architecture. For more information about the default memory model, see Section 8.7.
8.5.4.2 MEMORY Directive Syntax
The MEMORY directive identifies ranges of memory that are physically present in the target system and can be
used by a program. Each range has several characteristics:
• Page
• Name
• Starting address
• Length
• Optional set of attributes
• Optional fill specification
The MEMORY directive also allows you to use the GROUP keyword to create logical groups of memory ranges
for use with Cyclic Redundancy Checks (CRC). See Section 8.9.2 for how to compute CRCs over memory
ranges using the GROUP syntax.
TMS320C28x devices have separate memory spaces (pages) that occupy the same address ranges (overlay).
In the default memory map, one space is dedicated to the program area, while a second is dedicated to the data
area. (For detailed information about overlaying pages, see Section 8.5.5.2.7.)
In the linker command file, you configure the address spaces separately by using the MEMORY directive's
PAGE option. The linker treats each page as a separate memory space. The TMS320C28x supports up to 255
address spaces, but the number of address spaces available depends on the customized configuration of your
device (see the TMS320C2xx User's Guide for more information.)
When you use the MEMORY directive, be sure to identify all memory ranges that are available for the program
to access at run time. Memory defined by the MEMORY directive is configured; any memory that you do not
explicitly account for with MEMORY is unconfigured. The linker does not place any part of a program into
unconfigured memory. You can represent nonexistent memory spaces by simply not including an address range
in a MEMORY directive statement.
The MEMORY directive is specified in a command file by the word MEMORY (uppercase), followed by a list
of memory range specifications enclosed in braces. The MEMORY directive in The MEMORY Directive defines
a system that has 4K words of slow external memory at address 0x0000 0C00 in program memory, 32 words
of fast external memory at address 0x0000 0060 in data memory, and 512 words of slow external memory at
address 0x0000 0200 in data memory. It also demonstrates the use of memory range expressions as well as
start/end/size address operators (see Origin and Length as Expressions).
The MEMORY Directive

/****************************************************************************/
/* Sample command file with MEMORY directive */
/****************************************************************************/
file1.c.obj file2.c.obj /* Input files */
#define BUFFER 0
MEMORY
{
PAGE 0: PROG: origin = 0x00000C00, length = 0x00001000 + BUFFER
PAGE 1: SCRATCH: origin = 0x00000060, length = 0x00000020
RAM1: origin = end(SCRATCH,1) + 0x00000180, length = 0x00000200
}
The general syntax for the MEMORY directive is:

MEMORY
{
[PAGE 0:] name 1 [( attr )] : origin = expr , length = expr [, fill = constant] [ LAST( sym )]
[PAGE 1:] name 2 [( attr )] : origin = expr , length = expr [, fill = constant] [ LAST( sym )]
.
.
[PAGE n :] name n [( attr )] : origin = expr , length = expr [, fill = constant] [ LAST( sym )]
}
PAGE identifies a memory space. You can specify up to 32 767 pages. Usually, PAGE 0 specifies program memory, and
PAGE 1 specifies data memory. Each PAGE represents a completely independent address space. Configured memory
on PAGE 0 can overlap configured memory on PAGE 1 and so on. If you do not specify PAGE for a memory space, the
linker defaults to PAGE 0. If you do not specify PAGE in your allocation (see Section 8.5.5), the linker allocates initialized
sections to PAGE 0 and uninitialized sections to PAGE 1.
name names a memory range. A memory name can be one to 64 characters; valid characters include A-Z, a-z, $, ., and _. The
names have no special significance to the linker; they simply identify memory ranges. Memory range names are internal
to the linker and are not retained in the output file or in the symbol table. All memory ranges must have unique names
and must not overlap.
attr specifies one to four attributes associated with the named range. Attributes are optional; when used, they must be
enclosed in parentheses. Attributes restrict the allocation of output sections into certain memory ranges. If you do not use
any attributes, you can allocate any output section into any range with no restrictions. Any memory for which no attributes
are specified (including all memory in the default model) has all four attributes. Valid attributes are:
R specifies that the memory can be read.
W specifies that the memory can be written to.
X specifies that the memory can contain executable code.
I specifies that the memory can be initialized.
origin specifies the starting address of a memory range; enter as origin, org, or o. The value, specified in bytes, is a 32-bit
integer constant expression, which can be decimal, octal, or hexadecimal.
length specifies the length of a memory range; enter as length, len, or l. The value, specified in bytes, is a 22-bit integer constant
expression, which can be decimal, octal, or hexadecimal.
fill specifies a fill character for the memory range; enter as fill or f. Fills are optional. The value is an integer constant and
can be decimal, octal, or hexadecimal. The fill value is used to fill areas of the memory range that are not allocated to a
section. (See Section 8.5.10.3 for virtual filling of memory ranges when using Error Correcting Code (ECC).)
LAST optionally specifies a symbol that can be used at run-time to find the address of the last allocated byte in the memory
range. See Section 8.5.11.8.
Note
Filling Memory Ranges: If you specify fill values for large memory ranges, your output file will be
very large because filling a memory range (even with 0s) causes raw data to be generated for all
unallocated blocks of memory in the range.
The following example specifies a memory range with the R and W attributes and a fill constant of 0FFFFFFFFh:
MEMORY
{
RFILE (RW) : o = 0x00000020, l = 0x00001000, f = 0xFFFFFFFF
}
You normally use the MEMORY directive in conjunction with the SECTIONS directive to control placement of
output sections. For more information about the SECTIONS directive, see Section 8.5.5.
Figure 8-2 illustrates the memory map shown in The MEMORY Directive
Page 0 Page 1
0x0000 0000 0x0000 0000
0x0000 0060
SCRATCH
0x0000 007F
0x0000 0080
0x0000 0200
RAM1
0x0000 03FF
0x0000 0400
0x0000 0C00
PROG
0x0000 1BFF
0x0000 1C00
0x0000 FFFF 0x0000 FFFF
Figure 8-2. Memory Map Defined in The MEMORY Directive
8.5.4.3 Expressions and Address Operators

Memory range origin and length can use expressions of integer constants with the following operators:
Binary operators: * / % + - << >> == = < <= > >= & | && ||
Unary operators: - ~ !
Expressions are evaluated using standard C operator precedence rules.

No checking is done for overflow or underflow, however, expressions are evaluated using a larger integer type.
Preprocess directive #define constants can be used in place of integer constants. Global symbols cannot be
used in Memory Directive expressions.
Three address operators reference memory range properties from prior memory range entries:
START(MR[,PAGE]) Returns start address for previously defined memory range MR.
SIZE(MR[,PAGE]) Returns size of previously defined memory range MR.
END(MR[,PAGE]) Returns end address for previously defined memory range MR.
Note
If no PAGE information is input then PAGE=0.
Origin and Length as Expressions

/************************************************************************************/
/* Sample command file with MEMORY directive */
/************************************************************************************/
#define ORIGIN 0x00000000
#define BUFFER 0x00000200
#define CACHE 0x0001000
MEMORY
{
PAGE 1: FAST_MEM (RX): origin = ORIGIN + CACHE length = 0x00001000 + BUFFER
PAGE 0: SLOW_MEM (RW): origin = end(FAST_MEM) length = 0x00001800 - size(FAST_MEM)
PAGE 0: EXT_MEM (RX): origin = 0x03000000 length = size(FAST_MEM) - CACHE
8.5.5 The SECTIONS Directive

After you use MEMORY to specify the target system's memory model, you can use SECTIONS to allocate
output sections into specific named memory ranges or into memory that has specific attributes. For example, you
could allocate the .text and .data sections into the area named RAM1 and allocate the .ebss section into the area
named PROG.
The SECTIONS directive controls your sections in the following ways:
• Describes how input sections are combined into output sections
• Defines output sections in the executable program
• Allows you to control where output sections are placed in memory in relation to each other and to the entire
memory space (Note that the memory placement order is not simply the sequence in which sections occur in
the SECTIONS directive.)
• Permits renaming of output sections
For more information, see Section 2.5 , Section 2.7, and Section 2.4.6. Subsections allow you to manipulate
sections with greater precision.
If you do not specify a SECTIONS directive, the linker uses a default algorithm for combining and allocating the
sections. Section 8.7 describes this algorithm in detail.
8.5.5.1 SECTIONS Directive Syntax
The SECTIONS directive is specified in a command file by the word SECTIONS (uppercase), followed by a list
of output section specifications enclosed in braces.
The general syntax for the SECTIONS directive is:
SECTIONS
{
name : [property [, property] [, property] . . . ]
}
Each section specification, beginning with name, defines an output section. (An output section is a section in the
output file.) Section names can refer to sections, subsections, or archive library members. (See Section 8.5.5.4
for information on multi-level subsections.) After the section name is a list of properties that define the section's
contents and how the section is allocated. The properties can be separated by optional commas. Possible
properties for a section are as follows:
• Load allocation defines where in memory the section is to be loaded. See Section 3.5 , Section 3.1.1, and Section 8.5.6.
Syntax: load = allocation or

> allocation
• Run allocation defines where in memory the section is to be run.
Syntax: run = allocation or

run > allocation
• Input sections defines the input sections (object files) that constitute the output section. See Section 8.5.5.3.
Syntax: { input_sections }
• Section type defines flags for special section types. See Section 8.5.9.
Syntax: type = COPY or

type = DSECT or
type = NOLOAD
• Fill value defines the value used to fill uninitialized holes. See Section 8.5.12.
Syntax: fill = value
The SECTIONS Directive shows a SECTIONS directive in a sample linker command file. (This example uses
COFF section names.)
The SECTIONS Directive
/**************************************************/
/* Sample command file with SECTIONS directive */
/**************************************************/
SECTIONS
{
.text: load = PROG, PAGE = 0,
run = 0x0200, PAGE = 1
.econst: load = RAM1
.ebss: load = RAM1
.scratch: load = 0x0060, PAGE = 1
{
t1.c.obj(.scratch1)
t2.c.obj(.scratch2)
endscratch = .;
}
.data:alpha: align = 16
.data:beta: align = 16
}
Figure 8-3 shows the output sections defined by the SECTIONS directive in The SECTIONS Directive
(.vectors, .text, .econst, .ebss, .data:alpha, and .data:beta) and shows how these sections are allocated in
memory using the MEMORY directive given in The MEMORY Directive.
Figure 8-3. Section Placement Defined by The SECTIONS Directive
8.5.5.2 Section Allocation and Placement

The linker assigns each output section two locations in target memory: the location where the section will be
loaded and the location where it will be run. Usually, these are the same, and you can think of each section as
having only a single address. The process of locating the output section in the target's memory and assigning
its address(es) is called placement. For more information about using separate load and run placement, see
Section 8.5.6.
If you do not tell the linker how a section is to be allocated, it uses a default algorithm to place the section.
Generally, the linker puts sections wherever they fit into configured memory. You can override this default
placement for a section by defining it within a SECTIONS directive and providing instructions on how to allocate
it.
You control placement by specifying one or more allocation parameters. Each parameter consists of a keyword,
an optional equal sign or greater-than sign, and a value optionally enclosed in parentheses. If load and run
placement are separate, all parameters following the keyword LOAD apply to load placement, and those
following the keyword RUN apply to run placement. The allocation parameters are:
Binding allocates a section at a specific address.
.text: load = 0x1000
Named memory allocates the section into a range defined in the MEMORY directive with the specified name (like SLOW_MEM) or
attributes.
.text: load > SLOW_MEM
Alignment uses the align or palign keyword to specify the section must start on an address boundary.
.text: align = 0x100
Blocking uses the block keyword to specify the section must fit between two address aligned to the blocking factor. If a section is
too large, it starts on an address boundary.
.text: block(0x100)
Page specifies the memory page to be used (see Section 8.5.8). If PAGE is not specified, the linker allocates initialized
sections to PAGE 0 (program memory) and uninitialized sections to PAGE 1 (data memory).
.text: load = SLOW_MEM PAGE 1
For the load (usually the only) allocation, use a greater-than sign and omit the load keyword:
.text: > SLOW_MEM
.text: {...} > SLOW_MEM
.text: > 0x4000
If more than one parameter is used, you can string them together as follows:
.text: > SLOW_MEM align 16 PAGE 2
Or if you prefer, use parentheses for readability:

.text: load = (SLOW_MEM align(16)) page 2
You can also use an input section specification to identify the sections from input files that are combined to form
an output section. See Section 8.5.5.3.
8.5.5.2.1 Example: Placing Functions in RAM

The --ramfunc compiler option and ramfunc function attribute allow the compiler to specify that a function is to be
placed in and executed from RAM. Most newer TI linker command files support the ramfunc option and function
attribute by placing such functions in the .TI.ramfunc section. If you see a linker error related to this section,
you should add the .TI.ramfunc section to your SECTIONS directive as follows. In these examples, RAM and
FLASH are names of MEMORY regions for RAM and Flash memory; the names may be different in your linker
command file.
For RAM-based devices:
.TI.ramfunc : {} > RAM
For Flash-based devices:

.TI.ramfunc : {} load=FLASH, run=RAM, table(BINIT)
8.5.5.2.2 Binding
You can set the starting address for an output section by following the section name with an address:
.text: 0x00001000
This example specifies that the .text section must begin at location 0x1000. The binding address must be a
22-bit constant.
Output sections can be bound anywhere in configured memory (assuming there is enough space), but they
cannot overlap. If there is not enough space to bind a section to a specified address, the linker issues an error
message.
Note
Binding is Incompatible With Alignment and Named Memory: You cannot bind a section to an
address if you use alignment or named memory. If you try to do this, the linker issues an error
message.
8.5.5.2.3 Named Memory

You can allocate a section into a memory range that is defined by the MEMORY directive (see Section 8.5.4).
This example names ranges and links sections into them:
MEMORY
{
SLOW_MEM (RIX) : origin = 0x00000000, length = 0x00001000
FAST_MEM (RWIX) : origin = 0x03000000, length = 0x00000300
}
SECTIONS
{
.text : > SLOW_MEM
.data : > FAST_MEM ALIGN(128)
.ebss : > FAST_MEM
}
In this example, the linker places .text into the area called SLOW_MEM. The .data and .ebss output sections are
allocated into FAST_MEM. You can align a section within a named memory range; the .data section is aligned
on a 128-byte boundary within the FAST_MEM range.
Similarly, you can link a section into an area of memory that has particular attributes. To do this, specify a set of
attributes (enclosed in parentheses) instead of a memory name. Using the same MEMORY directive declaration,
you can specify:
SECTIONS
{
.text: > (X) /* .text --> executable memory */
.data: > (RI) /* .data --> read or init memory */
.ebss: > (RW) /* .ebss --> read or write memory */
}
In this example, the .text output section can be linked into either the SLOW_MEM or FAST_MEM area because
both areas have the X attribute. The .data section can also go into either SLOW_MEM or FAST_MEM because
both areas have the R and I attributes. The .ebss output section, however, must go into the FAST_MEM area
because only FAST_MEM is declared with the W attribute.
You cannot control where in a named memory range a section is allocated, although the linker uses lower
memory addresses first and avoids fragmentation when possible. In the preceding examples, assuming no
conflicting assignments exist, the .text section starts at address 0. If a section must start on a specific address,
use binding instead of named memory.
8.5.5.2.4 Controlling Placement Using The HIGH Location Specifier
The linker allocates output sections from low to high addresses within a designated memory range by default.
Alternatively, you can cause the linker to allocate a section from high to low addresses within a memory range
by using the HIGH location specifier in the SECTION directive declaration. You might use the HIGH location
specifier in order to keep RTS code separate from application code, so that small changes in the application do
not cause large changes to the memory map.
For example, given this MEMORY directive:
MEMORY
{
RAM : origin = 0x0200, length = 0x0800
FLASH : origin = 0x1100, length = 0xEEE0
VECTORS : origin = 0xFFE0, length = 0x001E
RESET : origin = 0xFFFE, length = 0x0002
}
and an accompanying SECTIONS directive:

SECTIONS
{
.ebss : {} > RAM
.esysmem : {} > RAM
.stack : {} > RAM (HIGH)
}
The HIGH specifier used on the .stack section placement causes the linker to attempt to allocate .stack into the
higher addresses within the RAM memory range. The .ebss and .esysmem sections are allocated into the lower
addresses within RAM. Example 8-1 illustrates a portion of a map file that shows where the given sections are
allocated within RAM for a typical program.
Example 8-1. Linker Placement With the HIGH Specifier
.ebss 0 00000200 00000270 UNINITIALIZED

00000200 0000011a rtsxxx.lib : defs.c.obj (.ebss)
0000031a 00000088 : trgdrv.c.obj (.ebss)
000003a2 00000078 : lowlev.c.obj (.ebss)
0000041a 00000046 : exit.c.obj (.ebss)
00000460 00000008 : memory.c.obj (.ebss)
00000468 00000004 : _lock.c.obj (.ebss)
0000046c 00000002 : fopen.c.obj (.ebss)
0000046e 00000002 hello.c.obj (.ebss)
.esysmem 0 00000470 00000120 UNINITIALIZED
00000470 00000004 rtsxxx .lib : memory.c.obj (.esysmem)
.stack 0 000008c0 00000140 UNINITIALIZED
000008c0 00000002 rtsxxx .lib : boot.c.obj (.stack)
As shown in Example 8-1 , the .ebss and .esysmem sections are allocated at the lower addresses of RAM
(0x0200 - 0x0590) and the .stack section is allocated at address 0x08c0, even though lower addresses are
available.
Without using the HIGH specifier, the linker allocation would result in the code shown in Example 8-2
The HIGH specifier is ignored if it is used with specific address binding or automatic section splitting (>>
operator).
Example 8-2. Linker Placement Without HIGH Specifier
.ebss 0 00000200 00000270 UNINITIALIZED

00000200 0000011a rtsxxx.lib : defs.c.obj (.ebss)
0000031a 00000088 : trgdrv.c.obj (.ebss)
000003a2 00000078 : lowlev.c.obj (.ebss)
0000041a 00000046 : exit.c.obj (.ebss)
00000460 00000008 : memory.c.obj (.ebss)
00000468 00000004 : _lock.c.obj (.ebss)
0000046c 00000002 : fopen.c.obj (.ebss)
0000046e 00000002 hello.c.obj (.ebss)
.stack 0 00000470 00000140 UNINITIALIZED
00000470 00000002 rtsxxx.lib : boot.c.obj (.stack)
.esysmem 0 000005b0 00000120 UNINITIALIZED
000005b0 00000004 rtsxxx.lib : memory.c.obj (.esysmem)
8.5.5.2.5 Alignment and Blocking

You can tell the linker to place an output section at an address that falls on an n-byte boundary, where n is
a power of 2, by using the align keyword. For example, the following code allocates .text so that it falls on a
32-byte boundary:
.text: load = align(32)
Blocking is a weaker form of alignment that allocates a section anywhere within a block of size n. The specified
block size must be a power of 2. For example, the following code allocates .ebss so that the entire section is
contained in a single 128-byte page or begins on that boundary:
ebss: load = block(0x0080)
You can use alignment or blocking alone or in conjunction with a memory area, but alignment and blocking
cannot be used together.
8.5.5.2.6 Alignment With Padding

As with align, you can tell the linker to place an output section at an address that falls on an n-byte boundary,
where n is a power of 2, by using the palign keyword. In addition, palign ensures that the size of the section is a
multiple of its placement alignment restrictions, padding the section size up to such a boundary, as needed.
For example, the following code lines allocate .text on a 2-byte boundary within the PMEM area. The .text
section size is guaranteed to be a multiple of 2 bytes. Both statements are equivalent:
.text: palign(2) {} > PMEM
.text: palign = 2 {} > PMEM
If the linker adds padding to an initialized output section then the padding space is also initialized. By default,
padding space is filled with a value of 0 (zero). However, if a fill value is specified for the output section then any
padding for the section is also filled with that fill value. For example, consider the following section specification:
.mytext: palign(8), fill = 0xffff {} > PMEM
In this example, the length of the .mytext section is 3 16-bit bytes before the palign operator is applied. The
contents of .mytext are as follows:
addr content
---- -------
0001 0x1234
0002 0x1234
0003 0x1234
After the palign operator is applied, the length of .mytext is 8 bytes, and its contents are as follows:
addr content
---- -------
0001 0x1234
0002 0x1234
0003 0x1234
0004 0xffff
0005 0xffff
0006 0xffff
0007 0xffff
The size of .mytext has been bumped to a multiple of 8 bytes and the padding created by the linker has been
filled with 0xff.
The fill value specified in the linker command file is interpreted as a 16-bit constant. If you specify this code:
.mytext: palign(8), fill = 0xff {} > PMEM
The fill value assumed by the linker is 0x00ff, and .mytext will then have the following contents:
addr content
---- -------
0001 0x1234
0002 0x1234
0003 0x1234
0004 0x00ff
0005 0x00ff
0006 0x00ff
0007 0x00ff
If the palign operator is applied to an uninitialized section, then the size of the section is bumped to the
appropriate boundary, as needed, but any padding created is not initialized.
The palign operator can also take a parameter of power2. This parameter tells the linker to add padding to
increase the section's size to the next power of two boundary. In addition, the section is aligned on that power of
2 as well. For example, consider the following section specification:
.mytext: palign(power2) {} > PMEM
Assume that the size of the .mytext section is 120 bytes and PMEM starts at address 0x10020. After applying
the palign(power2) operator, the .mytext output section will have the following properties:
name addr size align
------- ---------- ----- -----
.mytext 0x00010080 0x80 128
8.5.5.2.7 Using the Page Method

Using the page method of specifying an address, you can allocate a section into an address space that is named
in the MEMORY directive. For example:
MEMORY
{
PAGE 0 : PROG : origin = 0x00000800, length = 0x00240
PAGE 1 : DATA : origin = 0x00000A00, length = 0x02200
PAGE 1 : OVR_MEM : origin = 0x00002D00, length = 0x01000
PAGE 2 : DATA : origin = 0x00000A00, length = 0x02200
PAGE 2 : OVR_MEM : origin = 0x00002D00, length = 0x01000
}
SECTIONS
{
.text: PAGE = 0
.data: PAGE = 2
.cinit: PAGE = 0
.ebss: PAGE = 1
}
In this example, the .text and .cinit sections are allocated to PAGE 0. They are placed anywhere within the
bounds of PAGE 0. The .data section is allocated anywhere within the bounds of PAGE 2. The .ebss or .bss
section is allocated anywhere within the bounds of PAGE 1.
You can use the page method in conjunction with any of the other methods to restrict an allocation to a specific
address space. For example:
.text: load = OVR_MEM PAGE 1
In this example, the .text section is allocated to the named memory range OVR_MEM. There are two named
memory ranges called OVR_MEM, however, so you must specify which one is to be used. By adding PAGE 1,
you specify the use of the OVR_MEM memory range in address space PAGE 1 rather than in address space
PAGE 2. If no PAGE is specified for a section, the linker allocates initialized sections to PAGE 0 and uninitialized
sections to PAGE 1.
8.5.5.3 Specifying Input Sections
An input section specification identifies the sections from input files that are combined to form an output section.
In general, the linker combines input sections by concatenating them in the order in which they are specified.
However, if alignment or blocking is specified for an input section, all of the input sections within the output
section are ordered as follows:
• All aligned sections, from largest to smallest
• All blocked sections, from largest to smallest
• All other sections, from largest to smallest
The size of an output section is the sum of the sizes of the input sections that it comprises.
Example 8-3 shows the most common type of section specification; note that no input sections are listed.
Example 8-3. The Most Common Method of Specifying Section Contents
SECTIONS
{
.text:
.data:
.ebss:
}
In Example 8-3, the linker takes all the .text sections from the input files and combines them into the .text output
section. The linker concatenates the .text input sections in the order that it encounters them in the input files. The
linker performs similar operations with the .data and .ebss or .bss sections. You can use this type of specification
for any output section.
You can explicitly specify the input sections that form an output section. Each input section is identified by its
filename and section name. If the filename is hyphenated (or contains special characters), enclose it within
quotes:
SECTIONS
{
.text : /* Build .text output section */
{
f1.c.obj(.text) /* Link .text section from f1.c.obj */
f2.c.obj(sec1) /* Link sec1 section from f2.c.obj */
"f3-new.c.obj" /* Link ALL sections from f3-new.c.obj */
f4.c.obj(.text,sec2) /* Link .text and sec2 from f4.c.obj */
}
}
It is not necessary for input sections to have the same name as each other or as the output section they
become part of. If a file is listed with no sections, all of its sections are included in the output section. If
any additional input sections have the same name as an output section but are not explicitly specified by the
SECTIONS directive, they are automatically linked in at the end of the output section. For example, if the linker
found more .text sections in the preceding example and these .text sections were not specified anywhere in the
SECTIONS directive, the linker would concatenate these extra sections after f4.c.obj(sec2).
The specifications in Example 8-3 are actually a shorthand method for the following:
SECTIONS
{
.text: { *(.text) }
.data: { *(.data) }
.ebss: { *(.ebss) }
}
The specification *(.text) means the unallocated .text sections from all input files. This format is useful if:
• You want the output section to contain all input sections that have a specified name, but the output section
name is different from the input sections' name.
• You want the linker to allocate the input sections before it processes additional input sections or commands
within the braces.
The following example illustrates the two purposes above:

SECTIONS
{
.text : {
abc.c.obj(xqt)
*(.text)
}
.data : {
*(.data)
fil.c.obj(table)
}
}
In this example, the .text output section contains a named section xqt from file abc.c.obj, which is followed by
all the .text input sections. The .data section contains all the .data input sections, followed by a named section
table from the file fil.c.obj. This method includes all the unallocated sections. For example, if one of the .text input
sections was already included in another output section when the linker encountered *(.text), the linker could not
include that first .text input section in the second output section.
Each input section acts as a prefix and gathers longer-named sections. For example, the pattern *(.data)
matches .dataspecial. This mechanism enables the use of subsections, which are described in the following
section.
8.5.5.4 Using Multi-Level Subsections
Subsections can be identified with the base section name and one or more subsection names separated by
colons. For example, A:B and A:B:C name subsections of the base section A. In certain places in a linker
command file specifying a base name, such as A, selects the section A as well as any subsections of A, such as
A:B or A:C:D.
A name such as A:B can specify a (sub)section of that name as well as any (multi-level) subsections beginning
with that name, such as A:B:C, A:B:OTHER, etc. All subsections of A:B are also subsections of A. A and A:B
are supersections of A:B:C. Among a group of supersections of a subsection, the nearest supersection is the
supersection with the longest name. Thus, among {A, A:B} the nearest supersection of A:B:C:D is A:B. With
multiple levels of subsections, the constraints are the following:
1. When specifying input sections within a file (or library unit) the section name selects an input section of the
same name and any subsections of that name.
2. Input sections that are not explicitly allocated are allocated in an existing output section of the same name
or in the nearest existing supersection of such an output section. An exception to this rule is that during a
partial link (specified by the --relocatable linker option) a subsection is allocated only to an existing output
section of the same name.
3. If no such output section described in 2) is defined, the input section is put in a newly created output
section with the same name as the base name of the input section
Consider linking input sections with the following names:
europe:north:norway europe:central:france europe:south:spain
europe:north:sweden europe:central:germany europe:south:italy
europe:north:finland europe:central:denmark europe:south:malta
europe:north:iceland
This SECTIONS specification allocates the input sections as indicated in the comments:
SECTIONS {
nordic: {*(europe:north)
*(europe:central:denmark)} /* the nordic countries */
central: {*(europe:central)} /* france, germany */
therest: {*(europe)} /* spain, italy, malta */
}
This SECTIONS specification allocates the input sections as indicated in the comments:
SECTIONS {
islands: {*(europe:south:malta)
*(europe:north:iceland)} /* malta, iceland */
europe:north:finland : {} /* finland */
europe:north : {} /* norway, sweden */
europe:central : {} /* germany, denmark */
europe:central:france: {} /* france */
/* (italy, spain) go into a linker-generated output section "europe" */
}
Note
Upward Compatibility of Multi-Level Subsections
Existing linker commands that use the existing single-level subsection features and which do not
contain section names containing multiple colon characters continue to behave as before. However, if
section names in a linker command file or in the input sections supplied to the linker contain multiple
colon characters, some change in behavior could be possible. You should carefully consider the
impact of the rules for multiple levels to see if it affects a particular system link.
8.5.5.5 Specifying Library or Archive Members as Input to Output Sections

You can specify one or more members of an object library or archive for input to an output section. Consider this
SECTIONS directive:
Example 8-4. Archive Members to Output Sections
SECTIONS
{
boot>BOOT1
{
-l rtsXX.lib<boot.c.obj> (.text)
-l rtsXX.lib<exit.c.obj strcpy.c.obj> (.text)
}
.rts>BOOT2
{
-l rtsXX.lib (.text)
}
.text>RAM
{
* (.text)
}
}
In Example 8-4, the .text sections of boot.c.obj, exit.c.obj, and strcpy.c.obj are extracted from the run-time-
support library and placed in the .boot output section. The remainder of the run-time-support library object that is
referenced is allocated to the .rts output section. Finally, the remainder of all other .text sections are to be placed
in section .text.
An archive member or a list of members is specified by surrounding the member name(s) with angle brackets <
and > after the library name. Any object files separated by commas or spaces from the specified archive file are
legal within the angle brackets.
The --library option (which normally implies a library path search be made for the named file following the option)
listed before each library in Example 8-4 is optional when listing specific archive members inside < >. Using < >
implies that you are referring to a library.
To collect a set of the input sections from a library in one place, use the --library option within the SECTIONS
directive. For example, the following collects all the .text sections from rts2800_ml.lib into the .rtstest section:
SECTIONS
{
.rtstest { -l rts2800_ml.lib(.text) } > RAM
}
Note
SECTIONS Directive Effect on --priority: Specifying a library in a SECTIONS directive causes that
library to be entered in the list of libraries that the linker searches to resolve references. If you use the
--priority option, the first library specified in the command file will be searched first.
8.5.5.6 Allocation Using Multiple Memory Ranges

The linker allows you to specify an explicit list of memory ranges into which an output section can be allocated.
Consider the following example:
MEMORY
{
P_MEM1 : origin = 0x02000, length = 0x01000
}
SECTIONS
{
.text : { } > P_MEM1 | P_MEM2 | P_MEM4
}
The | operator is used to specify the multiple memory ranges. The .text output section is allocated as a whole
into the first memory range in which it fits. The memory ranges are accessed in the order specified. In this
example, the linker first tries to allocate the section in P_MEM1. If that attempt fails, the linker tries to place the
section into P_MEM2, and so on. If the output section is not successfully allocated in any of the named memory
ranges, the linker issues an error message.
With this type of SECTIONS directive specification, the linker can seamlessly handle an output section that
grows beyond the available space of the memory range in which it is originally allocated. Instead of modifying
the linker command file, you can let the linker move the section into one of the other areas.
8.5.5.7 Automatic Splitting of Output Sections Among Non-Contiguous Memory Ranges
The linker can split output sections among multiple memory ranges for efficient allocation. Use the >> operator to
indicate that an output section can be split, if necessary, into the specified memory ranges:
MEMORY
{
}
SECTIONS
{
.text: { *(.text) } >> P_MEM1 | P_MEM2 | P_MEM3 | P_MEM4
}
In this example, the >> operator indicates that the .text output section can be split among any of the listed
memory areas. If the .text section grows beyond the available memory in P_MEM1, it is split on an input section
boundary, and the remainder of the output section is allocated to P_MEM2 | P_MEM3 | P_MEM4.
The | operator is used to specify the list of multiple memory ranges.

You can also use the >> operator to indicate that an output section can be split within a single memory range.
This functionality is useful when several output sections must be allocated into the same memory range, but the
restrictions of one output section cause the memory range to be partitioned. Consider the following example:
MEMORY
{
RAM : origin = 0x1000, length = 0x8000
}
SECTIONS
{
.special: { f1.c.obj(.text) } load = 0x4000
.text: { *(.text) } >> RAM
}
The .special output section is allocated near the middle of the RAM memory range. This leaves two unused
areas in RAM: from 0x1000 to 0x4000, and from the end of f1.c.obj(.text) to 0x8000. The specification for
the .text section allows the linker to split the .text section around the .special section and use the available space
in RAM on either side of .special.
The >> operator can also be used to split an output section among all memory ranges that match a specified
attribute combination. For example:
MEMORY
{
P_MEM1 (RWX) : origin = 0x1000, length = 0x2000
P_MEM2 (RWI) : origin = 0x4000, length = 0x1000
}
SECTIONS
{
.text: { *(.text) } >> (RW)
}
The linker attempts to allocate all or part of the output section into any memory range whose attributes match the
attributes specified in the SECTIONS directive.
This SECTIONS directive has the same effect as:
SECTIONS
{
.text: { *(.text) } >> P_MEM1 | P_MEM2}
}
Certain sections should not be split:

• Certain sections created by the compiler, including
– The .cinit section, which contains the autoinitialization table for C/C++ programs
– The .pinit section, which contains the list of global constructors for C++ programs
• An output section with an input section specification that includes an expression to be evaluated. The
expression may define a symbol that is used in the program to manage the output section at run time.
• An output section that has a START(), END(), OR SIZE() operator applied to it. These operators provide
information about a section's load or run address, and size. Splitting the section may compromise the integrity
of the operation.
• The run allocation of a UNION. (Splitting the load allocation of a UNION is allowed.)
If you use the >> operator on any of these sections, the linker issues a warning and ignores the operator.
8.5.6 Placing a Section at Different Load and Run Addresses
At times, you may want to load code into one area of memory and run it in another. For example, you may have
performance-critical code in slow external memory. The code must be loaded into slow external memory, but it
would run faster in fast external memory.
The linker provides a simple way to accomplish this. You can use the SECTIONS directive to direct the linker to
allocate a section twice: once to set its load address and again to set its run address. For example:
.fir: load = SLOW_MEM, run = FAST_MEM
Use the load keyword for the load address and the run keyword for the run address.
See Section 3.5 for an overview on run-time relocation.
The application must copy the section from its load address to its run address; this does not happen
automatically when you specify a separate run address. (The TABLE operator instructs the linker to produce
a copy table; see Section 8.8.4.1.)
8.5.6.1 Specifying Load and Run Addresses
The load address determines where a loader places the raw data for the section. Any references to the section
(such as labels in it) refer to its run address. See Section 3.1.1 for an overview of load and run addresses.
If you provide only one allocation (either load or run) for a section, the section is allocated only once and loads
and runs at the same address. If you provide both allocations, the section is allocated as if it were two sections
of the same size. This means that both allocations occupy space in the memory map and cannot overlay each
other or other sections. (The UNION directive provides a way to overlay sections; see Section 8.5.7.2.)
If either the load or run address has additional parameters, such as alignment or blocking, list them after the
appropriate keyword. Everything related to allocation after the keyword load affects the load address until the
keyword run is seen, after which, everything affects the run address. The load and run allocations are completely
independent, so any qualification of one (such as alignment) has no effect on the other. You can also specify run
first, then load. Use parentheses to improve readability.
The examples that follow specify load and run addresses.
In this example, align applies only to load:
.data: load = SLOW_MEM, align = 32, run = FAST_MEM
The following example uses parentheses, but has effects that are identical to the previous example:
.data: load = (SLOW_MEM align 32), run = FAST_MEM
The following example aligns FAST_MEM to 32 bits for run allocations and aligns all load allocations to 16 bits:
.data: run = FAST_MEM, align 32, load = align 16
For more information on run-time relocation see Section 3.5.
Uninitialized sections (such as .ebss or .bss) are not loaded, so their only significant address is the run address.
The linker allocates uninitialized sections only once: if you specify both run and load addresses, the linker warns
you and ignores the load address. Otherwise, if you specify only one address, the linker treats it as a run
address, regardless of whether you call it load or run.
This example specifies load and run addresses for an uninitialized section:
.ebss: load = 0x1000, run = FAST_MEM
A warning is issued, load is ignored, and space is allocated in FAST_MEM. All of the following examples have
the same effect. The .ebss section is allocated in FAST_MEM.
.ebss: load = FAST_MEM
.ebss: run = FAST_MEM
.ebss: > FAST_MEM
8.5.6.2 Referring to the Load Address by Using the .label Directive

Normally, any reference to a symbol refers to its run-time address. However, it may be necessary at run time to
refer to a load-time address. Specifically, the code that copies a section from its load address to its run address
must have access to the load address. The .label directive defines a special symbol that refers to the section's
load address. Thus, whereas normal symbols are relocated with respect to the run address, .label symbols are
relocated with respect to the load address. See Create a Load-Time Address Label for more information on
the .label directive.
Moving a Function from Slow to Fast Memory at Run Time and Linker Command File for show the use of
the .label directive to copy a section from its load address in SLOW_MEM to its run address in FAST_MEM.
Figure 8-4 illustrates the run-time execution of Moving a Function from Slow to Fast Memory at Run Time.
If you use the table operator, the .label directive is not needed. See Section 8.8.4.1.
Moving a Function from Slow to Fast Memory at Run Time
;---------------------------------------------------------
; define a section to be copied from SLOW_MEM to FAST_MEM
;---------------------------------------------------------
.sect ".fir"
.label fir_src ; load address of section
fir: ; run address of section
<code here> ; code for the section
.label fir_end ; load address of section end
;---------------------------------------------------------
; copy .fir section from SLOW_MEM to FAST_MEM
;---------------------------------------------------------
.text
MOV XAR6, fir_src
MOV XAR7, #fir
RPT #(fir_end - fir_src - 1)
k PWRITE *XAR7, *XAR6++
;---------------------------------------------------------
; jump to section, now in FAST_MEM
;---------------------------------------------------------
B fir
Linker Command File for Moving a Function from Slow to Fast Memory at Run Time
/*******************************************************************/
/* PARTIAL LINKER COMMAND FILE FOR FIR EXAMPLE */
/*******************************************************************/
MEMORY
{
PAGE 0 : FAST_MEM : origin = 0x00000800, length = 0x00002400
PAGE 0 : PROG : origin = 0x00002C00, length = 0x0000D200
PAGE 1 : SLOW_MEM : origin = 0x00000800, length = 0x0000F800
}
SECTIONS
{
.text: load = PROG PAGE 0
.fir: load = SLOW_MEM PAGE 1, run = FAST_MEM PAGE 0
}
Program memory Data memory
0x0000 0800 0x0000 0800

FAST_MEM SLOW_MEM
.fir (relocated .fir

to run here) (loads here)
0x0000 2C00
PROG
.text
0x0000 FE00
Figure 8-4. Run-Time Execution of Moving a Function from Slow to Fast Memory at Run Time
8.5.7 Using GROUP and UNION Statements
Two SECTIONS statements allow you to organize or conserve memory: GROUP and UNION. Grouping sections
causes the linker to allocate them contiguously in memory. Unioning sections causes the linker to allocate them
to the same run address.
8.5.7.1 Grouping Output Sections Together
The SECTIONS directive's GROUP option forces several output sections to be allocated contiguously and in the
order listed, unless the UNORDERED operator is used. For example, assume that a section named term_rec
contains a termination record for a table in the .data section. You can force the linker to allocate .data and
term_rec together:
Allocate Sections Together
SECTIONS
{
.text /* Normal output section */
.ebss /* Normal output section */
GROUP 0x00001000 : /* Specify a group of sections */
{
.data /* First section in the group */
term_rec /* Allocated immediately after .data */
}
}
You can use binding, alignment, or named memory to allocate a GROUP in the same manner as a single output
section. In the preceding example, the GROUP is bound to address 0x1000. This means that .data is allocated
at 0x1000, and term_rec follows it in memory.
Note
You Cannot Specify Addresses for Sections Within a GROUP: When you use the GROUP option,
binding, alignment, or allocation into named memory can be specified for the group only. You cannot
use binding, named memory, or alignment for sections within a group.
The MEMORY directive also allows you to use the GROUP keyword to create logical groups of memory ranges
for use with Cyclic Redundancy Checks (CRC). See Section 8.9.2 for how to compute CRCs over memory
ranges using the GROUP syntax.
8.5.7.2 Overlaying Sections With the UNION Statement

For some applications, you may want to allocate more than one section that occupies the same address during
run time. For example, you may have several routines you want in fast external memory at different stages
of execution. Or you may want several data objects that are not active at the same time to share a block of
memory. The UNION statement within the SECTIONS directive provides a way to allocate several sections at
the same run-time address.
In The UNION Statement, which uses COFF section names, the .ebss sections from file1.c.obj and file2.c.obj
are allocated at the same address in FAST_MEM. In the memory map, the union occupies as much space as its
largest component. The components of a union remain independent sections; they are simply allocated together
as a unit.
The UNION Statement
SECTIONS
{
.text: load = SLOW_MEM
UNION: run = FAST_MEM
{
.ebss:part1: { file1.c.obj(.ebss) }
.ebss:part2: { file2.c.obj(.ebss) }
}
.ebss:part3: run = FAST_MEM { globals.c.obj(.ebss) }
}
Allocation of a section as part of a union affects only its run address. Under no circumstances can sections
be overlaid for loading. If an initialized section is a union member (an initialized section, such as .text, has
raw data), its load allocation must be separately specified. See Separate Load Addresses for UNION Sections.
(There is an exception to this rule when combining an initialized section with uninitialized sections; see Section
8.5.7.3.)
Separate Load Addresses for UNION Sections
UNION run = FAST_MEM
{
.text:part1: load = SLOW_MEM, { file1.c.obj(.text) }
.text:part2: load = SLOW_MEM, { file2.c.obj(.text) }
}
Figure 8-5. Memory Allocation Shown in The UNION Statement and Separate Load Addresses for UNION
Sections
Since the .text sections contain raw data, they cannot load as a union, although they can be run as a union.
Therefore, each requires its own load address. If you fail to provide a load allocation for an initialized section
within a UNION, the linker issues a warning and allocates load space anywhere it can in configured memory.
Uninitialized sections are not loaded and do not require load addresses.
The UNION statement applies only to allocation of run addresses, so it is meaningless to specify a load address
for the union itself. For purposes of allocation, the union is treated as an uninitialized section: any one allocation
specified is considered a run address, and if both run and load addresses are specified, the linker issues a
warning and ignores the load address.
Note
UNION and Overlay Page Are Not the Same
The UNION capability and the overlay page capability (see Section 8.5.8) may sound similar because
they both deal with overlays. They are, in fact, quite different. UNION allows multiple sections to be
overlaid within the same memory space. Overlay pages, on the other hand, define multiple memory
spaces. It is possible to use the page facility to approximate the function of UNION, but this is
cumbersome.
8.5.7.3 Using Memory for Multiple Purposes

One way to reduce an application's memory requirement is to use the same range of memory for multiple
purposes. You can first use a range of memory for system initialization and startup. Once that phase is complete,
the same memory can be repurposed as a collection of uninitialized data variables or a heap. To implement
this scheme, use the following variation of the UNION statement to allow one section to be initialized and the
remaining sections to be uninitialized.
Generally, an initialized section (one with raw data, such as .text) in a union must have its load allocation
specified separately. However, one and only one initialized section in a union can be allocated at the union's run
address. By listing it in the UNION statement with no load allocation at all, it will use the union's run address as
its own load address.
For example:
UNION run = FAST_MEM
{ .cinit .bss }
In this example, the .cinit section is an initialized section. It will be loaded into FAST_MEM at the run address of
the union. In contrast, .bss is an uninitialized section. Its run address will also be that of the union.
8.5.7.4 Nesting UNIONs and GROUPs
The linker allows arbitrary nesting of GROUP and UNION statements with the SECTIONS directive. By nesting
GROUP and UNION statements, you can express hierarchical overlays and groupings of sections. Nesting
GROUP and UNION Statements shows how two overlays can be grouped together.
Nesting GROUP and UNION Statements
SECTIONS
{
GROUP 0x1000 : run = FAST_MEM
{
UNION:
{
mysect1: load = SLOW_MEM
}
UNION:
{
}
}
}
For this example, the linker performs the following allocations:

• The four sections (mysect1, mysect2, mysect3, mysect4) are assigned unique, non-overlapping load
addresses. The name you defined with the .label directive is used in the SLOW_MEM memory region. This
assignment is determined by the particular load allocations given for each section.
• Sections mysect1 and mysect2 are assigned the same run address in FAST_MEM.
• Sections mysect3 and mysect4 are assigned the same run address in FAST_MEM.
• The run addresses of mysect1/mysect2 and mysect3/mysect4 are allocated contiguously, as directed by the
GROUP statement (subject to alignment and blocking restrictions).
To refer to groups and unions, linker diagnostic messages use the notation:
GROUP_n UNION_n
where n is a sequential number (beginning at 1) that represents the lexical ordering of the group or union in the
linker control file without regard to nesting. Groups and unions each have their own counter.
8.5.7.5 Checking the Consistency of Allocators

The linker checks the consistency of load and run allocations specified for unions, groups, and sections. The
following rules are used:
• Run allocations are only allowed for top-level sections, groups, or unions (sections, groups, or unions that are
not nested under any other groups or unions). The linker uses the run address of the top-level structure to
compute the run addresses of the components within groups and unions.
• The linker does not accept a load allocation for UNIONs.
• The linker does not accept a load allocation for uninitialized sections.
• In most cases, you must provide a load allocation for an initialized section. However, the linker does not
accept a load allocation for an initialized section that is located within a group that already defines a load
allocator.
• As a shortcut, you can specify a load allocation for an entire group, to determine the load allocations for every
initialized section or subgroup nested within the group. However, a load allocation is accepted for an entire
group only if all of the following conditions are true:
– The group is initialized (that is, it has at least one initialized member).
– The group is not nested inside another group that has a load allocator.
– The group does not contain a union containing initialized sections.
• If the group contains a union with initialized sections, it is necessary to specify the load allocation for each
initialized section nested within the group. Consider the following example:
SECTIONS
{
GROUP: load = SLOW_MEM, run = SLOW_MEM
{
.text1:
UNION:
{
.text2:
.text3:
}
}
}
The load allocator given for the group does not uniquely specify the load allocation for the elements within
the union: .text2 and .text3. In this case, the linker issues a diagnostic message to request that these load
allocations be specified explicitly.
8.5.7.6 Naming UNIONs and GROUPs
You can give a name to a UNION or GROUP by entering the name in parentheses after the declaration. For
example:
GROUP(BSS_SYSMEM_STACK_GROUP)
{
.ebss :{}
.esysmem :{}
.stack :{}
} load=D_MEM, run=D_MEM
The name you defined is used in diagnostics for easy identification of the problem LCF area. For example:
warning: LOAD placement ignored for "BSS_SYSMEM_STACK_GROUP": object is uninitialized
UNION(TEXT_CINIT_UNION)
{
.econst :{}load=D_MEM, table(table1)
.pinit :{}load=D_MEM, table(table1)
}run=P_MEM
warning:table(table1) operator ignored: table(table1) has already been applied to a section
in the "UNION(TEXT_CINIT_UNION)" in which ".pinit" is a descendant
8.5.8 Overlaying Pages

Some devices use a memory configuration in which all or part of the memory space is overlaid by shadow
memory. This allows the system to map different banks of physical memory into and out of a single address
range in response to hardware selection signals. In other words, multiple banks of physical memory overlay each
other at one address range. You may want the linker to load various output sections into each of these banks or
into banks that are not mapped at load time.
The linker supports this feature by providing overlay pages. Each page represents an address range that must
be configured separately with the MEMORY directive. You then use the SECTIONS directive to specify the
sections to be mapped into various pages.
Note
Overlay Section and Overlay Page Are Not the Same: The UNION capability and the overlay page
capability (see Section 8.5.7.2) sound similar because they both deal with overlays. They are, in fact,
quite different. UNION allows multiple sections to be overlaid within the same memory space. Overlay
pages, on the other hand, define multiple memory spaces. It is possible to use the page facility to
approximate the function of UNION, but it is cumbersome.
8.5.8.1 Using the MEMORY Directive to Define Overlay Pages

To the linker, each overlay page represents a completely separate memory space comprising the full range of
addressable locations. In this way, you can link two or more sections at the same (or overlapping) addresses if
they are on different pages.
Pages are numbered sequentially, beginning with 0. If you do not use the PAGE option, the linker allocates
initialized sections into PAGE 0 (program memory) and uninitialized sections into PAGE 1 (data memory).
8.5.8.2 Example of Overlay Pages
Assume that your system can select between two banks of physical memory for data memory space: address
range A00h to FFFFh for PAGE 1 and 0A00h to 2BFFh for PAGE 2. Although only one bank can be selected at a
time, you can initialize each bank with different data. Example 8-5 shows how you use the MEMORY directive to
obtain this configuration:
Example 8-5. MEMORY Directive With Overlay Pages
MEMORY
{
PAGE 0 : RAM :origin = 0x0800, length = 0x0240
: PROG :origin = 0x2C00, length = 0xD200
PAGE 1 : OVR_MEM :origin = 0x0A00, length = 0x2200
: DATA :origin = 0x2C00, length = 0xD400
PAGE 2 : OVR_MEM :origin = 0x0A00, length = 0x2200
}
Example 8-5 defines three separate address spaces.

• PAGE 0 defines an area of RAM program memory space and the rest of program memory space.
• PAGE 1 defines the first overlay memory area and the rest of data memory space.
• PAGE 2 defines another area of overlay memory for data space.
Both OVR_MEM ranges cover the same address range. This is possible because each range is on a different
page and therefore represents a different memory space.
8.5.8.3 Using Overlay Pages With the SECTIONS Directive

Assume that you are using the MEMORY directive as shown in Example 8-5. Further assume that your code
consists of the standard sections, as well as four modules of code that you want to load in data memory
space and run in RAM program memory. Example 8-6 shows how to use the SECTIONS directive overlays to
accomplish these objectives.
Example 8-6. SECTIONS Directive Definition for Overlays
SECTIONS
{
UNION : run = RAM
{
S1 : load = OVR_MEM PAGE 1
{
s1_load = 0x00000A00h;
s1_start = .;
f1.c.obj (.text)
f2.c.obj (.text)
s1_length = . - s1_start;
}
S2 : load = OVR_MEM PAGE 2
{
s2_load = 0x00000A00h;
s2_start = .;
f3.c.obj (.text)
f4.c.obj (.text)
s2_length = . - s2_start;
}
}
.text: load = PROG PAGE 0
.data: load = PROG PAGE 0
.ebss: load = DATA PAGE 1
}
The four modules are f1, f2, f3, and f4. Modules f1 and f2 are combined into output section S1, and f3 and f4 are
combined into output section S2. The PAGE specifications for S1 and S2 tell the linker to link these sections into
the corresponding pages. As a result, they are both linked to load address A00h, but in different memory spaces.
When the program is loaded, a loader can configure hardware so that each section is loaded into the appropriate
memory bank.
8.5.8.4 Memory Allocation for Overlaid Pages

Figure 8-6 shows overlay pages defined by the MEMORY directive in Example 8-5 and the SECTIONS directive
in Example 8-6.
Figure 8-6. Overlay Pages Defined in Example 8-5 and Example 8-6
8.5.9 Special Section Types (DSECT, COPY, NOLOAD, and NOINIT)

You can assign the following special types to output sections: DSECT, COPY, NOLOAD, and NOINIT. The
NOINIT type is supported for EABI only. These types affect the way that the program is treated when it is linked
and loaded. You can assign a type to a section by placing the type after the section definition. For example:
SECTIONS
{
sec1: load = 0x00002000, type = DSECT {f1.c.obj}
sec2: load = 0x00004000, type = COPY {f2.c.obj}
sec3: load = 0x00006000, type = NOLOAD {f3.c.obj}
sec4: load = 0x00008000, type = NOINIT {f4.c.obj}
}
• The DSECT type creates a dummy section with the following characteristics:
– It is not included in the output section memory allocation. It takes up no memory and is not included in the
memory map listing.
– It can overlay other output sections, other DSECTs, and unconfigured memory.
– Global symbols defined in a dummy section are relocated normally. They appear in the output module's
symbol table with the same value they would have if the DSECT had actually been loaded. These symbols
can be referenced by other input sections.
– Undefined external symbols found in a DSECT cause specified archive libraries to be searched.
– The section's contents, relocation information, and line number information are not placed in the output
module.
In the preceding example, none of the sections from f1.c.obj are allocated, but all the symbols are relocated
as though the sections were linked at address 0x2000. The other sections can refer to any of the global
symbols in sec1.
• A COPY section is similar to a DSECT section, except that its contents and associated information are written
to the output module. The .cinit section that contains initialization tables for the TMS320C28x C/C++ compiler
has this attribute under the run-time initialization model.
• A NOLOAD section differs from a normal output section in one respect: the section's contents, relocation
information, and line number information are not placed in the output module. The linker allocates space for
the section, and it appears in the memory map listing.
• A NOINIT section is not C auto-initialized by the linker. It is your responsibility to initialize this section as
needed. (EABI only)
8.5.10 Configuring Error Correcting Code (ECC) with the Linker
Error Correcting Codes (ECC) can be generated and placed in separate sections through the linker command
file. ECC uses extra bits to allow errors to be detected and/or corrected by a device. To enable ECC generation,
you must include --ecc=on as a linker option on the command line. By default ECC generation is off, even if the
ECC directive and ECC specifiers are used in the linker command file. This allows you to fully configure ECC in
the linker command file while still being able to quickly turn the code generation on and off via the command line.
The ECC support provided by the linker is compatible with the ECC support in TI Flash memory on various TI
devices. TI Flash memory uses a modified Hamming(72,64) code, which uses 8 parity bits for every 64 bits.
Check the documentation for your Flash memory to see if ECC is supported. (ECC for read-write memory is
handled completely in hardware at run time.)
You can control the details of ECC generation using the ECC specifier in the memory map (Section 8.5.10.1)
and the ECC directive (Section 8.5.10.2).
See Section 8.4.12 for command-line options that introduce bit errors into code that has a corresponding ECC
section or into the ECC parity bits themselves. Use these options to test ECC error handling code.
ECC can be generated during linking. The ECC data is included in the resulting object file, alongside code
and data, as a data section located at the appropriate address. No extra ECC generation step is required after
compilation, and the ECC can be uploaded to the device along with everything else.
8.5.10.1 Using the ECC Specifier in the Memory Map
To generate ECC, add a separate memory range to your memory map to hold ECC data and to indicate which
memory range contains the Flash data that corresponds to this ECC data. If you have multiple memory ranges
for Flash data, you should add a separate ECC memory range for each Flash data range.
The definition of an ECC memory range can also provide parameters for how to generate the ECC data.
The memory map for a device supporting Flash ECC may look something like this:
MEMORY {
VECTORS : origin=0x00000000 length=0x000020
FLASH0 : origin=0x00000020 length=0x17FFE0
FLASH1 : origin=0x00180000 length=0x180000
STACKS : origin=0x08000000 length=0x000500
RAM : origin=0x08000500 length=0x03FB00
ECC_VEC : origin=0xf0400000 length=0x000004 ECC={ input_range=VECTORS }
ECC_FLA0 : origin=0xf0400004 length=0x02FFFC ECC={ input_range=FLASH0 }
ECC_FLA1 : origin=0xf0430000 length=0x030000 ECC={ input_range=FLASH1 }
}
The specification syntax for ECC memory ranges is as follows:

MEMORY {
<memory specifier1> : <memory attributes> [ vfill=<fill value> ]
<memory specifier2> : <memory attributes> ECC = {
input_range = <memory specifier1>
[ input_page = <integer> ]
[ algorithm = <algorithm name> ]
[ fill = [ true, false ] ]
}
}
The "ECC" specifier attached to the ECC memory ranges indicates the data memory range that the ECC range
covers. The ECC specifier supports the following parameters:
input_range = <range> The data memory range covered by this ECC data range. Required.
input_page = <page number> The page number of the input range. Required only if the input range's name is ambiguous.
algorithm = <ECC alg name> The name of an ECC algorithm defined later in the command file using the ECC directive. Optional
if only one algorithm is defined. (See Section 8.5.10.2.)
fill = true | false Whether to generate ECC data for holes in the initialized data of the input range. The default is
"true". Using fill=false produces behavior similar to the nowECC tool. The input range can be filled
normally or using a virtual fill (see Section 8.5.10.3).
8.5.10.2 Using the ECC Directive

In addition to specifying ECC memory ranges in the memory map, the linker command file must specify
parameters for the algorithm that generates ECC data. You might need multiple ECC algorithm specifications if
you have multiple Flash devices.
Each TI device supporting Flash ECC has exactly one set of valid values for these parameters. The linker
command files provided with Code Composer Studio include the ECC parameters necessary for ECC support on
the Flash memory accessible by the device. Documentation is provided here for completeness.
You specify algorithm parameters with the top-level ECC directive in the linker command file. The specification
syntax is as follows:
ECC {
<algorithm name> : parity_mask = <8-bit integer>
mirroring = [ F021, F035 ]
address_mask = <32-bit mask>
}
For example:
MEMORY {
FLASH0 : origin=0x00000020 length=0x17FFE0
ECC_FLA0 : origin=0xf0400004 length=0x02FFFC ECC={ input_range=FLASH0 algorithm=F021 }
}
ECC { F021 : parity_mask = 0xfc
mirroring = F021 }
This ECC directive accepts the following attributes:

algorithm_name Specify the name you would like to use for referencing the algorithm.
address_mask = <32-bit mask> This mask determines which bits of the address of each 64-bit piece of memory are used in the
calculation of the ECC byte for that memory. Default is 0xffffffff, so that all bits of the address
are used. (Note that the ECC algorithm itself ignores the lowest bits, which are always zero for a
correctly-aligned input block.)
parity_mask = <8-bit mask> This mask determines which ECC bits encode even parity and which bits encode odd parity.
Default is 0, meaning that all bits encode even parity.
mirroring = F021 | F035 This setting determines the order of the ECC bytes and their duplication pattern for redundancy.
Default is F021.
8.5.10.3 Using the VFILL Specifier in the Memory Map

Normally, specifying a fill value for a MEMORY range creates initialized data sections to cover any previously
uninitialized areas of memory. To generate ECC data for an entire memory range, the linker either needs to have
initialized data in the entire range, or needs to know what value uninitialized memory areas will have at run time.
In cases where you want to generate ECC for an entire memory range, but do not want to initialize the entire
range by specifying a fill value, you can use the "vfill" specifier instead of a "fill" specifier to virtually fill the range:
MEMORY {
FLASH : origin=0x0000 length=0x4000 vfill=0xffffffff
}
The vfill specifier is functionally equivalent to omitting a fill specifier, except that it allows ECC data to be
generated for areas of the input memory range that remain uninitialized. This has the benefit of reducing the size
of the resulting object file.
The vfill specifier has no effect other than in ECC data generation. It cannot be specified along with a fill
specifier, since that would introduce ambiguity.
If fill is specified in the ECC specifier, but vfill is not specified, vfill defaults to 0xff.
8.5.11 Assigning Symbols at Link Time
Linker assignment statements allow you to define external (global) symbols and assign values to them at link
time. You can use this feature to initialize a variable or pointer to an allocation-dependent value. See Section
8.6.1 for information about referring to linker symbols in C/C++ code.
8.5.11.1 Syntax of Assignment Statements
The syntax of assignment statements in the linker is similar to that of assignment statements in the C language:
symbol = expression; assigns the value of expression to symbol
symbol += expression; adds the value of expression to symbol
symbol -= expression; subtracts the value of expression from symbol
symbol *= expression; multiplies symbol by expression
symbol /= expression; divides symbol by expression
The symbol should be defined externally. If it is not, the linker defines a new symbol and enters it into the symbol
table. The expression must follow the rules defined in Section 8.5.11.3. Assignment statements must terminate
with a semicolon.
The linker processes assignment statements after it allocates all the output sections. Therefore, if an expression
contains a symbol, the address used for that symbol reflects the symbol's address in the executable output file.
For example, suppose a program reads data from one of two tables identified by two external symbols, Table1
and Table2. The program uses the symbol cur_tab as the address of the current table. The cur_tab symbol
must point to either Table1 or Table2. You could accomplish this in the assembly code, but you would need to
reassemble the program to change tables. Instead, you can use a linker assignment statement to assign cur_tab
at link time:
prog.c.obj /* Input file */
cur_tab = Table1; /* Assign cur_tab to one of the tables */
8.5.11.2 Assigning the SPC to a Symbol

A special symbol, denoted by a dot (.), represents the current value of the section program counter (SPC) during
allocation. The SPC keeps track of the current location within a section. The linker's . symbol is analogous to the
assembler's $ symbol. The . symbol can be used only in assignment statements within a SECTIONS directive
because . is meaningful only during allocation and SECTIONS controls the allocation process. (See Section
8.5.5.)
The . symbol refers to the current run address, not the current load address, of the section.
For example, suppose a program needs to know the address of the beginning of the .data section. By using
the .global directive (see Identify Global Symbols), you can create an external undefined variable called Dstart in
the program. Then, assign the value of . to Dstart:
SECTIONS
{
.text: {}
.data: {Dstart = .;}
.ebss: {}
}
This defines Dstart to be the first linked address of the .data section. (Dstart is assigned before .data is
allocated.) The linker relocates all references to Dstart.
A special type of assignment assigns a value to the . symbol. This adjusts the SPC within an output section and
creates a hole between two input sections. Any value assigned to . to create a hole is relative to the beginning of
the section, not to the address actually represented by the . symbol. Holes and assignments to . are described in
Section 8.5.12.
8.5.11.3 Assignment Expressions
These rules apply to linker expressions:
• Expressions can contain global symbols, constants, and the C language operators listed in Table 8-11.
• All numbers are treated as long (32-bit) integers.
• Constants are identified by the linker in the same way as by the assembler. That is, numbers are recognized
as decimal unless they have a suffix (H or h for hexadecimal and Q or q for octal). C language prefixes
are also recognized (0 for octal and 0x for hex). Hexadecimal constants must begin with a digit. No binary
constants are allowed.
• Symbols within an expression have only the value of the symbol's address. No type-checking is performed.
• Linker expressions can be absolute or relocatable. If an expression contains any relocatable symbols (and 0
or more constants or absolute symbols), it is relocatable. Otherwise, the expression is absolute. If a symbol
is assigned the value of a relocatable expression, it is relocatable; if it is assigned the value of an absolute
expression, it is absolute.
The linker supports the C language operators listed in Table 8-11 in order of precedence. Operators in the
same group have the same precedence. Besides the operators listed in Table 8-11, the linker also has an align
operator that allows a symbol to be aligned on an n-byte boundary within an output section (n is a power of 2).
For example, the following expression aligns the SPC within the current section on the next 16-byte boundary.
Because the align operator is a function of the current SPC, it can be used only in the same context as . —that
is, within a SECTIONS directive.
. = align(16);
Table 8-11. Groups of Operators Used in Expressions (Precedence)

Group 1 (Highest Precedence) Group 6
! Logical NOT
~ Bitwise NOT & Bitwise AND
- Negation
Group 2 Group 7
* Multiplication
/ Division | Bitwise OR
% Modulus
Group 3 Group 8
+ Addition
&& Logical AND
- Subtraction
Group 4 Group 9
>> Arithmetic right shift
|| Logical OR
<< Arithmetic left shift
Group 5 Group 10 (Lowest Precedence)
== Equal to
= Assignment
!= Not equal to
+= A+=B is equivalent to A=A+B
> Greater than
-= A-=B is equivalent to A=A-B
< Less than
*= A*=B is equivalent to A=A*B
<= Less than or equal to
/= A/=B is equivalent to A=A/B
>= Greater than or equal to
8.5.11.4 Symbols Automatically Defined by the Linker

For the COFF ABI, the linker automatically defines symbols for those sections used in your assembly source.
A program can use these symbols at run time to determine where a section is linked. Since these symbols are
external, they appear in the linker map. You must have used the corresponding section in a source module for
the symbol to be created. Values are assigned to these symbols as follows:
.text is assigned the first address of the .text output section.
(It marks the beginning of executable code.)
etext is assigned the first address following the .text output section.
(It marks the end of executable code.)
.data is assigned the first address of the .data output section.
(It marks the beginning of initialized data tables.)
edata is assigned the first address following the .data output section.
(It marks the end of initialized data tables.)
.ebss is assigned the first address of the .ebss output section.
(It marks the beginning of uninitialized data.)
end is assigned the first address following the .ebss output section.
(It marks the end of uninitialized data.)
The linker automatically defines the following symbols for C/C++ support when the --ram_model or --rom_model
option is used.
__TI_STACK_SIZE is assigned the size of the .stack section. (EABI)
__TI_STACK_END is assigned the end of the .stack section. (EABI)
__TI_SYSMEM_SIZE is assigned the size of the .sysmem section. (EABI)
__STACK_SIZE is assigned the size of the .stack section. (COFF)
__STACK_END is assigned the end of the .stack section. (COFF)
__SYSMEM_SIZE is assigned the size of the .esysmem section. (COFF)
These linker-defined symbols can be accessed in any assembly language module if they are declared with
a .global directive (see Identify Global Symbols).
8.5.11.5 Assigning Exact Start, End, and Size Values of a Section to a Symbol
The code generation tools currently support the ability to load program code in one area of (slow) memory and
run it in another (faster) area. This is done by specifying separate load and run addresses for an output section
or group in the linker command file. Then execute a sequence of instructions (the copying code in Moving a
Function from Slow to Fast Memory at Run Time) that moves the program code from its load area to its run area
before it is needed.
There are several responsibilities that a programmer must take on when setting up a system with this feature.
One of these responsibilities is to determine the size and run-time address of the program code to be moved.
The current mechanisms to do this involve use of the .label directives in the copying code. A simple example is
illustrated in Moving a Function from Slow to Fast Memory at Run Time.
This method of specifying the size and load address of the program code has limitations. While it works fine
for an individual input section that is contained entirely within one source file, this method becomes more
complicated if the program code is spread over several source files or if the programmer wants to copy an entire
output section from load space to run space.
8.5.11.6 Why the Dot Operator Does Not Always Work
The dot operator (.) is used to define symbols at link-time with a particular address inside of an output section. It
is interpreted like a PC. Whatever the current offset within the current section is, that is the value associated with
the dot. Consider an output section specification within a SECTIONS directive:
outsect:
{
s1.c.obj(.text)
end_of_s1 = .;
start_of_s2 = .;
s2.c.obj(.text)
end_of_s2 = .;
}
This statement creates three symbols:

• end_of_s1—the end address of .text in s1.c.obj
• start_of_s2—the start address of .text in s2.c.obj
• end_of_s2—the end address of .text in s2.c.obj
Suppose there is padding between s1.c.obj and s2.c.obj created as a result of alignment. Then start_of_s2 is not
really the start address of the .text section in s2.c.obj, but it is the address before the padding needed to align
the .text section in s2.c.obj. This is due to the linker's interpretation of the dot operator as the current PC. It is
also true because the dot operator is evaluated independently of the input sections around it.
Another potential problem in the above example is that end_of_s2 may not account for any padding that was
required at the end of the output section. You cannot reliably use end_of_s2 as the end address of the output
section. One way to get around this problem is to create a dummy section immediately after the output section in
question. For example:
GROUP
{
outsect:
{
start_of_outsect = .;
...
}
dummy: { size_of_outsect = . - start_of_outsect; }
}
8.5.11.7 Address and Dimension Operators

Six operators allow you to define symbols for load-time and run-time addresses and sizes:
LOAD_START( sym ) Defines sym with the load-time start address of related allocation unit
START( sym )
LOAD_END( sym ) Defines sym with the load-time end address of related allocation unit
END( sym )
LOAD_SIZE( sym ) Defines sym with the load-time size of related allocation unit
SIZE( sym )
RUN_START( sym ) Defines sym with the run-time start address of related allocation unit
RUN_END( sym ) Defines sym with the run-time end address of related allocation unit
RUN_SIZE( sym ) Defines sym with the run-time size of related allocation unit
LAST( sym ) Defines sym with the run-time address of the last allocated byte in the related memory range.
Note
Linker Command File Operator Equivalencies --
LOAD_START() and START() are equivalent, as are LOAD_END()/END() and LOAD_SIZE()/SIZE().
The LOAD names are recommended for clarity.
These address and dimension operators can be associated with several different kinds of allocation units,
including input items, output sections, GROUPs, and UNIONs. The following sections provide some examples of
how the operators can be used in each case.
These symbols defined by the linker can be accessed at runtime using the _symval operator, which is essentially
a cast operation. For example, suppose your linker command file contains the following:
.text: RUN_START(text_run_start), RUN_SIZE(text_run_size) { *(.text) }
Your C program can access these symbols as follows:

extern char text_run_start, text_run_size;
printf(".text load start is %lx\n", _symval(&text_run_start));
printf(".text load size is %lx\n", _symval(&text_run_size));
See Section 8.6.1 for more information about referring to linker symbols in C/C++ code.
8.5.11.7.1 Input Items

Consider an output section specification within a SECTIONS directive:
outsect:
{
s1.c.obj(.text)
end_of_s1 = .;
start_of_s2 = .;
s2.c.obj(.text)
end_of_s2 = .;
}
This can be rewritten using the START and END operators as follows:
outsect:
{
s1.c.obj(.text) { END(end_of_s1) }
s2.c.obj(.text) { START(start_of_s2), END(end_of_s2) }
}
The values of end_of_s1 and end_of_s2 will be the same as if you had used the dot operator in the original
example, but start_of_s2 would be defined after any necessary padding that needs to be added between the
two .text sections. Remember that the dot operator would cause start_of_s2 to be defined before any necessary
padding is inserted between the two input sections.
The syntax for using these operators in association with input sections calls for braces { } to enclose the operator
list. The operators in the list are applied to the input item that occurs immediately before the list.
8.5.11.7.2 Output Section
The START, END, and SIZE operators can also be associated with an output section. Here is an example:
outsect: START(start_of_outsect), SIZE(size_of_outsect)
{
<list of input items>
}
In this case, the SIZE operator defines size_of_outsect to incorporate any padding that is required in the output
section to conform to any alignment requirements that are imposed.
The syntax for specifying the operators with an output section does not require braces to enclose the operator
list. The operator list is simply included as part of the allocation specification for an output section.
8.5.11.7.3 GROUPs
Here is another use of the START and SIZE operators in the context of a GROUP specification:
GROUP
{
outsect1: { ... }
outsect2: { ... }
} load = ROM, run = RAM, START(group_start), SIZE(group_size);
This can be useful if the whole GROUP is to be loaded in one location and run in another. The copying code
can use group_start and group_size as parameters for where to copy from and how much is to be copied. This
makes the use of .label in the source code unnecessary.
8.5.11.7.4 UNIONs
The RUN_SIZE and LOAD_SIZE operators provide a mechanism to distinguish between the size of a UNION's
load space and the size of the space where its constituents are going to be copied before they are run. Here is
an example:
UNION: run = RAM, LOAD_START(union_load_addr),
LOAD_SIZE(union_ld_sz), RUN_SIZE(union_run_sz)
{
.text1: load = ROM, SIZE(text1_size) { f1.c.obj(.text) }
.text2: load = ROM, SIZE(text2_size) { f2.c.obj(.text) }
}
Here union_ld_sz is going to be equal to the sum of the sizes of all output sections placed in the union. The
union_run_sz value is equivalent to the largest output section in the union. Both of these symbols incorporate
any padding due to blocking or alignment requirements.
8.5.11.8 LAST Operator
The LAST operator is similar to the START and END operators that were described previously. However, LAST
applies to a memory range rather than to a section. You can use it in a MEMORY directive to define a symbol
that can be used at run-time to learn how much memory was allocated when linking the program. See Section
8.5.4.2 for syntax details.
For example, a memory range might be defined as follows:
D_MEM : org = 0x20000020 len = 0x20000000 LAST(dmem_end)
Your C program can then access this symbol at runtime using the _symval operator. For example:
extern char dmem_end;
printf("End of D_MEM memory is %lx\n", _symval(&dmem_end));
See Section 8.6.1 for more information about referring to linker symbols in C/C++ code.
8.5.12 Creating and Filling Holes
The linker provides you with the ability to create areas within output sections that have nothing linked into them.
These areas are called holes. In special cases, uninitialized sections can also be treated as holes. This section
describes how the linker handles holes and how you can fill holes (and uninitialized sections) with values.
8.5.12.1 Initialized and Uninitialized Sections
There are two rules to remember about the contents of output sections. An output section contains either:
• Raw data for the entire section
• No raw data
A section that has raw data is referred to as initialized. This means that the object file contains the actual
memory image contents of the section. When the section is loaded, this image is loaded into memory at
the section's specified starting address. The .text and .data sections always have raw data if anything was
assembled into them. Named sections defined with the .sect assembler directive also have raw data.
By default, the .ebss or .bss section and sections defined with the .usect directive (see Reserve Uninitialized
Space) have no raw data (they are uninitialized). They occupy space in the memory map but have no actual
contents. Uninitialized sections typically reserve space in fast external memory for variables. In the object file,
an uninitialized section has a normal section header and can have symbols defined in it; no memory image,
however, is stored in the section.
8.5.12.2 Creating Holes

You can create a hole in an initialized output section. A hole is created when you force the linker to leave extra
space between input sections within an output section. When such a hole is created, the linker must supply raw
data for the hole.
Holes can be created only within output sections. Space can exist between output sections, but such space is
not a hole. To fill the space between output sections, see Section 8.5.4.2.
To create a hole in an output section, you must use a special type of linker assignment statement within an
output section definition. The assignment statement modifies the SPC (denoted by .) by adding to it, assigning
a greater value to it, or aligning it on an address boundary. The operators, expressions, and syntaxes of
assignment statements are described in Section 8.5.11.
The following example uses assignment statements to create holes in output sections:
SECTIONS
{
outsect:
{
file1.c.obj(.text)
. += 0x0100 /* Create a hole with size 0x0100 */
file2.c.obj(.text)
. = align(16); /* Create a hole to align the SPC */
file3.c.obj(.text)
}
}
The output section outsect is built as follows:

1. The .text section from file1.c.obj is linked in.
2. The linker creates a 256-byte hole.
3. The .text section from file2.c.obj is linked in after the hole.
4. The linker creates another hole by aligning the SPC on a 16-byte boundary.
5. Finally, the .text section from file3.c.obj is linked in.
All values assigned to the . symbol within a section refer to the relative address within the section. The linker
handles assignments to the . symbol as if the section started at address 0 (even if you have specified a
binding address). Consider the statement . = align(16) in the example. This statement effectively aligns the
file3.c.obj .text section to start on a 16-byte boundary within outsect. If outsect is ultimately allocated to start on
an address that is not aligned, the file3.c.obj .text section will not be aligned either.
The . symbol refers to the current run address, not the current load address, of the section.
Expressions that decrement the . symbol are illegal. For example, it is invalid to use the -= operator in an
assignment to the . symbol. The most common operators used in assignments to the . symbol are += and align.
If an output section contains all input sections of a certain type (such as .text), you can use the following
statements to create a hole at the beginning or end of the output section.
.text: { .+= 0x0100; } /* Hole at the beginning */
.data: { *(.data)
. += 0x0100; } /* Hole at the end */
Another way to create a hole in an output section is to combine an uninitialized section with an initialized section
to form a single output section. In this case, the linker treats the uninitialized section as a hole and supplies data
for it. The following example illustrates this method:
SECTIONS
{
outsect:
{
file1.c.obj(.text)
file1.c.obj(.ebss) /* This becomes a hole */
}
}
Because the .text section has raw data, all of outsect must also contain raw data. Therefore, the
uninitialized .ebss section becomes a hole.
Uninitialized sections become holes only when they are combined with initialized sections. If several uninitialized
sections are linked together, the resulting output section is also uninitialized.
8.5.12.3 Filling Holes
When a hole exists in an initialized output section, the linker must supply raw data to fill it. The linker fills holes
with a 32-bit fill value that is replicated through memory until it fills the hole. The linker determines the fill value
as follows:
1. If the hole is formed by combining an uninitialized section with an initialized section, you can specify a
fill value for the uninitialized section. Follow the section name with an = sign and a 32-bit constant. For
example:
SECTIONS
{ outsect:
{
file1.c.obj(.text)
file2.c.obj(.ebss)= 0xFF00 /* Fill this hole with 0xFF00 */
}
}
2. You can also specify a fill value for all the holes in an output section by supplying the fill value after the
section definition:
SECTIONS
{ outsect:fill = 0xFF00 /* Fills holes with 0xFF00 */
{
. += 0x0010; /* This creates a hole */
file1.c.obj(.text)
file1.c.obj(.ebss) /* This creates another hole */
}
}
3. If you do not specify an initialization value for a hole, the linker fills the hole with the value specified with
the --fill_value option (see Section 8.4.14). For example, suppose the command file link.cmd contains the
following SECTIONS directive:
SECTIONS { .text: { .= 0x0100; } /* Create a 100 word hole */ }
Now invoke the linker with the --fill_value option:

cl2000 --run_linker --fill_value=0xFFFF link.cmd
This fills the hole with 0xFFFF.

4. If you do not invoke the linker with the --fill_value option or otherwise specify a fill value, the linker fills holes
with 0s.
Whenever a hole is created and filled in an initialized output section, the hole is identified in the link map along
with the value the linker uses to fill it.
8.5.12.4 Explicit Initialization of Uninitialized Sections

You can force the linker to initialize an uninitialized section by specifying an explicit fill value for it in the
SECTIONS directive. This causes the entire section to have raw data (the fill value). For example:
SECTIONS
{
.ebss: fill = 0x1234 /* Fills .ebss with 0x1234 */
}
Note
Filling Sections
Because filling a section (even with 0s) causes raw data to be generated for the entire section in the
output file, your output file will be very large if you specify fill values for large sections or holes.
8.6 Linker Symbols

This section provides information about using and resolving linker symbols.
8.6.1 Using Linker Symbols in C/C++ Applications
Linker symbols have a name and a value. The value is a 32-bit unsigned integer, even if it represents a pointer
value on a target that has pointers smaller than 32 bits.
The most common kind of symbol is generated by the compiler for each function and variable. The value
represents the target address where that function or variable is located. When you refer to the symbol by name
in the linker command file or in an assembly file, you get that 32-bit integer value.
However, in C and C++ names mean something different. If you have a variable named x that contains the value
Y, and you use the name "x" in your C program, you are actually referring to the contents of variable x. If "x"
is used on the right-hand side of an expression, the compiler fetches the value Y. To realize this variable, the
compiler generates a linker symbol named x with the value &x. Even though the C/C++ variable and the linker
symbol have the same name, they don't represent the same thing. In C, x is a variable name with the address &x
and content Y. For linker symbols, x is an address, and that address contains the value Y.
Because of this difference, there are some tricks to referring to linker symbols in C code. The basic technique is
to cause the compiler to create a "fake" C variable or function and take its address. The details differ depending
on the type of linker symbol.
Linker symbols that represent a function address: In C code, declare the function as an extern function.
Then, refer to the value of the linker symbol using the same name. This works because function pointers "decay"
to their address value when used without adornment. For example:
extern void _c_int00(void);
printf("_c_int00 %lx\n", (unsigned long)&_c_int00);
Suppose your linker command file defines the following linker symbol:
func_sym=printf+100;
Your C application can refer to this symbol as follows:

extern void func_sym(void);
printf("func_sym %lx\n", _symval(&func_sym)); /* these two are equivalent */
printf("func_sym %lx\n", (unsigned long)&func_sym);
Linker symbols that represent a data address: In C code, declare the variable as an extern variable. Then,
refer to the value of the linker symbol using the & operator. Because the variable is at a valid data address, we
know that a data pointer can represent the value.
Suppose your linker command file defines the following linker symbols:
data_sym=.data+100;
xyz=12345
Your C application can refer to these symbols as follows:

extern char data_sym;
extern int xyz;
printf("data_sym %lx\n", _symval(&data_sym)); /* these two are equivalent */
printf("data_sym %p\n", &data_sym);
myvar = &xyz;
Linker symbols for an arbitrary address: In C code, declare this as an extern symbol. The type does not
matter. If you are using GCC extensions, declare it as "extern void". If you are not using GCC extensions,
declare it as "extern char". Then, refer to the value of the linker symbol mySymbol as _symval(&mySymbol) .
You must use the _symval operator, which is equivalent to a cast, because the 32-bit value of the linker
symbol could be wider than a data pointer. The compiler treats _symval(&mySymbol) in a special way that
can represent all 32 bits, even when pointers are 16 bits. Targets that have 32-bit pointers can usually use
&mySymbol instead of the _symval operator. However, the portable way to access such linker symbols across TI
targets is to use _symval(&mySymbol) .
Suppose your linker command file defines the following linker symbol:
abs_sym=0x12345678;
Your C application can refer to this symbol as follows:
extern char abs_sym;

printf("abs_sym %lx\n", _symval(&abs_sym));
8.6.2 Declaring Weak Symbols
Note
Weak symbols are supported only in EABI mode.
In a linker command file, an assignment expression outside a MEMORY or SECTIONS directive can be used to
define a linker-defined symbol. To define a weak symbol in a linker command file, use the "weak" operator in an
assignment expression to designate that the symbol as eligible for removal from the output file's symbol table if it
is not referenced. For example, you can define "ext_addr_sym" as follows:
weak(ext_addr_sym) = 0x12345678;
When the linker command file is used to perform the final link, then "ext_addr_sym" is presented to the linker as
a weak absolute symbol; it will not be included in the resulting output file if the symbol is not referenced.
See Section 2.6.3 for details about how weak symbols are handled by the linker.
8.6.3 Resolving Symbols with Object Libraries
An object library is a partitioned archive file that contains object files as members. Usually, a group of related
modules are grouped together into a library. When you specify an object library as linker input, the linker includes
any members of the library that define existing unresolved symbol references. You can use the archiver to build
and maintain libraries. Section 7.1 contains more information about the archiver.
Using object libraries can reduce link time and the size of the executable module. Normally, if an object file that
contains a function is specified at link time, the file is linked whether the function is used or not; however, if that
same function is placed in an archive library, the file is included only if the function is referenced.
The order in which libraries are specified is important, because the linker includes only those members that
resolve symbols that are undefined at the time the library is searched. The same library can be specified as
often as necessary; it is searched each time it is included. Alternatively, you can use the --reread_libs option to
reread libraries until no more references can be resolved (see Section 8.4.17.3). A library has a table that lists all
external symbols defined in the library; the linker searches through the table until it determines that it cannot use
the library to resolve any more references.
The following examples link several files and libraries, using these assumptions:
• Input files f1.c.obj and f2.c.obj both reference an external function named clrscr.
• Input file f1.c.obj references the symbol origin.
• Input file f2.c.obj references the symbol fillclr.
• Member 0 of library libc.lib contains a definition of origin.
• Member 3 of library liba.lib contains a definition of fillclr.
• Member 1 of both libraries defines clrscr.
If you enter:
cl2000 --run_linker f1.c.obj f2.c.obj liba.lib libc.lib
then:
• Member 1 of liba.lib satisfies the f1.c.obj and f2.c.obj references to clrscr because the library is searched and
the definition of clrscr is found.
• Member 0 of libc.lib satisfies the reference to origin.
• Member 3 of liba.lib satisfies the reference to fillclr.
If, however, you enter:
cl2000 --run_linker f1.c.obj f2.c.obj libc.lib liba.lib
then the references to clrscr are satisfied by member 1 of libc.lib.

If none of the linked files reference symbols defined in a library, you can use the --undef_sym option to force the
linker to include a library member. (See Section 8.4.33.) The next example creates an undefined symbol rout1 in
the linker's global symbol table:
cl2000 --run_linker --undef_sym=rout1 libc.lib
If any member of libc.lib defines rout1, the linker includes that member.
Library members are allocated according to the SECTIONS directive default allocation algorithm; see Section
8.5.5.
Section 8.4.17 describes methods for specifying directories that contain object libraries.
8.7 Default Placement Algorithm
The MEMORY and SECTIONS directives provide flexible methods for building, combining, and allocating
sections. However, any memory locations or sections you choose not to specify must still be handled by the
linker. The linker uses algorithms to build and allocate sections in coordination with any specifications you do
supply.
If you do not use the MEMORY and SECTIONS directives, the linker allocates output sections as though
the memory map and section definitions were as shown in Default Allocation for TMS320C28x Devices were
specified.
Default Allocation for TMS320C28x Devices
MEMORY
{
PAGE 0: PROG: origin = 0x000040 length = 0x3fffc0
PAGE 1: DATA: origin = 0x000000 length = 0x010000
PAGE 1: DATA1: origin = 0x010000 length = 0x3f0000
}
SECTIONS
{
.text: PAGE = 0
.data: PAGE = 0
.cinit: PAGE = 0 /* Used only for C programs */
.ebss: PAGE = 1
}
See Section 2.5.1 for information about default memory allocation.

All .text input sections are concatenated to form a .text output section in the executable output file, and all .data
input sections are combined to form a .data output section.
If you use a SECTIONS directive, the linker performs no part of this default allocation. Instead, allocation is
performed according to the rules specified by the SECTIONS directive and the general algorithm described next
in Section 8.7.1.
8.7.1 How the Allocation Algorithm Creates Output Sections
An output section can be formed in one of two ways:
Method 1 As the result of a SECTIONS directive definition
Method 2 By combining input sections with the same name into an output section that is not defined in a SECTIONS directive
If an output section is formed as a result of a SECTIONS directive, this definition completely determines the
section's contents. (See Section 8.5.5 for examples of how to define an output section's content.)
If an output section is formed by combining input sections not specified by a SECTIONS directive, the linker
combines all such input sections that have the same name into an output section with that name. For example,
suppose the files f1.c.obj and f2.c.obj both contain named sections called Vectors and that the SECTIONS
directive does not define an output section for them. The linker combines the two Vectors sections from the input
files into a single output section named Vectors, allocates it into memory, and includes it in the output file.
By default, the linker does not display a message when it creates an output section that is not defined in the
SECTIONS directive. You can use the --warn_sections linker option (see Section 8.4.34) to cause the linker to
display a message when it creates a new output section.
After the linker determines the composition of all output sections, it must allocate them into configured memory.
The MEMORY directive specifies which portions of memory are configured. If there is no MEMORY directive, the
linker uses the default configuration as shown in Default Allocation for TMS320C28x Devices. (See Section 8.5.4
for more information on configuring memory.)
8.7.2 Reducing Memory Fragmentation
The linker's allocation algorithm attempts to minimize memory fragmentation. This allows memory to be used
more efficiently and increases the probability that your program will fit into memory. The algorithm comprises
these steps:
1. Each output section for which you supply a specific binding address is placed in memory at that address.
2. Each output section that is included in a specific, named memory range or that has memory attribute
restrictions is allocated. Each output section is placed into the first available space within the named area,
considering alignment where necessary.
3. Any remaining sections are allocated in the order in which they are defined. Sections not defined in a
SECTIONS directive are allocated in the order in which they are encountered. Each output section is placed
into the first available memory space, considering alignment where necessary.
8.8 Using Linker-Generated Copy Tables
The linker supports extensions to the linker command file syntax that enable the following:
• Make it easier for you to copy objects from load-space to run-space at boot time
• Make it easier for you to manage memory overlays at run time
• Allow you to split GROUPs and output sections that have separate load and run addresses
For an introduction to copy tables and their use, see Section 3.3.3.
8.8.1 Using Copy Tables for Boot Loading

In some embedded applications, there is a need to copy or download code and/or data from one location to
another at boot time before the application actually begins its main execution thread. For example, an application
may have its code and/or data in FLASH memory and need to copy it into on-chip memory before the application
begins execution.
One way to develop such an application is to create a copy table in assembly code that contains three elements
for each block of code or data that needs to be moved from FLASH to on-chip memory at boot time:
• The load location (load page id and address)
• The run location (load page id and address)
• The size
The process you follow to develop such an application might look like this:
1. Build the application to produce a .map file that contains the load and run addresses of each section that has
a separate load and run placement.
2. Edit the copy table (used by the boot loader) to correct the load and run addresses as well as the size of
each block of code or data that needs to be moved at boot time.
3. Build the application again, incorporating the updated copy table.
4. Run the application.
This process puts a heavy burden on you to maintain the copy table (by hand, no less). Each time a piece
of code or data is added or removed from the application, you must repeat the process in order to keep the
contents of the copy table up to date.
8.8.2 Using Built-in Link Operators in Copy Tables
You can avoid some of this maintenance burden by using the LOAD_START(), RUN_START(), and SIZE()
operators that are already part of the linker command file syntax . For example, instead of building the
application to generate a .map file, the linker command file can be annotated:
SECTIONS
{
.flashcode: { app_tasks.c.obj(.text) }
load = FLASH, run = PMEM,
LOAD_START(_flash_code_ld_start),
RUN_START(_flash_code_rn_start),
SIZE(_flash_code_size)
...
}
In this example, the LOAD_START(), RUN_START(), and SIZE() operators instruct the linker to create three
symbols:
Symbol Description
_flash_code_ld_start Load address of .flashcode section
_flash_code_rn_start Run address of .flashcode section
_flash_code_size Size of .flashcode section
These symbols can then be referenced from the copy table. The actual data in the copy table will be updated
automatically each time the application is linked. This approach removes step 1 of the process described in
Section 8.8.1.
While maintenance of the copy table is reduced markedly, you must still carry the burden of keeping the copy
table contents in sync with the symbols that are defined in the linker command file. Ideally, the linker would
generate the boot copy table automatically. This would avoid having to build the application twice and free you
from having to explicitly manage the contents of the boot copy table.
For more information on the LOAD_START(), RUN_START(), and SIZE() operators, see Section 8.5.11.7.
8.8.3 Overlay Management Example

Consider an application that contains a memory overlay that must be managed at run time. The memory overlay
is defined using a UNION in the linker command file as illustrated in Using a UNION for Memory Overlay:
Using a UNION for Memory Overlay
SECTIONS
{
...
UNION
{
GROUP
{
.task1: { task1.c.obj(.text) }
} load = ROM, LOAD_START(_task12_load_start), SIZE(_task12_size)
GROUP
{
} load = ROM, LOAD_START(_task34_load_start), SIZE(_task_34_size)
} run = RAM, RUN_START(_task_run_start)
...
}
The application must manage the contents of the memory overlay at run time. That is, whenever any services
from .task1 or .task2 are needed, the application must first ensure that .task1 and .task2 are resident in the
memory overlay. Similarly for .task3 and .task4.
To affect a copy of .task1 and .task2 from ROM to RAM at run time, the application must first gain access to the
load address of the tasks (_task12_load_start), the run address (_task_run_start), and the size (_task12_size).
Then this information is used to perform the actual code copy.
8.8.4 Generating Copy Tables With the table() Operator
The linker supports extensions to the linker command file syntax that enable you to do the following:
• Identify any object components that may need to be copied from load space to run space at some point
during the run of an application
• Instruct the linker to automatically generate a copy table that contains (at least) the load address, run
address, and size of the component that needs to be copied
• Instruct the linker to generate a symbol specified by you that provides the address of a linker-generated copy
table. For instance, Using a UNION for Memory Overlay can be written as shown in Produce Address for
Linker Generated Copy Table:
Produce Address for Linker Generated Copy Table
SECTIONS
{
...
UNION
{
GROUP
{
} load = ROM, table(_task12_copy_table)
GROUP
{
} load = ROM, table(_task34_copy_table)
} run = RAM
...
}
Using the SECTIONS directive from Produce Address for Linker Generated Copy Table in the linker command
file, the linker generates two copy tables named: _task12_copy_table and _task34_copy_table. Each copy table
provides the load address, run address, and size of the GROUP that is associated with the copy table. This
information is accessible from application source code using the linker-generated symbols, _task12_copy_table
and _task34_copy_table, which provide the addresses of the two copy tables, respectively.
Using this method, you need not worry about the creation or maintenance of a copy table. You can reference the
address of any copy table generated by the linker in C/C++ or assembly source code, passing that value to a
general purpose copy routine, which will process the copy table and affect the actual copy.
8.8.4.1 The table() Operator
You can use the table() operator to instruct the linker to produce a copy table. A table() operator can be
applied to an output section, a GROUP, or a UNION member. The copy table generated for a particular table()
specification can be accessed through a symbol specified by you that is provided as an argument to the table()
operator. The linker creates a symbol with this name and assigns it the address of the copy table as the value of
the symbol. The copy table can then be accessed from the application using the linker-generated symbol.
Each table() specification you apply to members of a given UNION must contain a unique name. If a table()
operator is applied to a GROUP, then none of that GROUP's members may be marked with a table()
specification. The linker detects violations of these rules and reports them as warnings, ignoring each offending
use of the table() specification. The linker does not generate a copy table for erroneous table() operator
specifications.
Copy tables can be generated automatically; see Section 8.8.4. The table operator can be used with
compression; see Section 8.8.5.
8.8.4.2 Boot-Time Copy Tables
The linker supports a special copy table name, BINIT (or binit), that you can use to create a boot-time copy table.
This table is handled before the .cinit section is used to initialize variables at startup. For example, the linker
command file for the boot-loaded application described in Section 8.8.2 can be rewritten as follows:
SECTIONS
{
.flashcode: { app_tasks.c.obj(.text) }
load = FLASH, run = PMEM,
table(BINIT)
...
}
For this example, the linker creates a copy table that can be accessed through a special linker-generated
symbol, __binit__, which contains the list of all object components that need to be copied from their load location
to their run location at boot-time. If a linker command file does not contain any uses of table(BINIT), then the
__binit__ symbol is given a value of -1 to indicate that a boot-time copy table does not exist for a particular
application.
You can apply the table(BINIT) specification to an output section, GROUP, or UNION member. If used in the
context of a UNION, only one member of the UNION can be designated with table(BINIT). If applied to a
GROUP, then none of that GROUP's members may be marked with table(BINIT).The linker detects violations of
these rules and reports them as warnings, ignoring each offending use of the table(BINIT) specification.
8.8.4.3 Using the table() Operator to Manage Object Components
If you have several pieces of code that need to be managed together, then you can apply the same table()
operator to several different object components. In addition, if you want to manage a particular object component
in multiple ways, you can apply more than one table() operator to it. Consider the linker command file excerpt in
Linker Command File to Manage Object Components:
Linker Command File to Manage Object Components

SECTIONS
{
UNION
{
.first: { a1.c.obj(.text), b1.c.obj(.text), c1.c.obj(.text) }
load = EMEM, run = PMEM, table(BINIT), table(_first_ctbl)
.second: { a2.c.obj(.text), b2.c.obj(.text) }
load = EMEM, run = PMEM, table(_second_ctbl)
}
.extra: load = EMEM, run = PMEM, table(BINIT)
...
}
In this example, the output sections .first and .extra are copied from external memory (EMEM) into program
memory (PMEM) at boot time while processing the BINIT copy table. After the application has started executing
its main thread, it can then manage the contents of the overlay using the two overlay copy tables named:
_first_ctbl and _second_ctbl.
8.8.4.4 Linker-Generated Copy Table Sections and Symbols
The linker creates and allocates a separate input section for each copy table that it generates. Each copy table
symbol is defined with the address value of the input section that contains the corresponding copy table.
The linker generates a unique name for each overlay copy table input section. For example, table(_first_ctbl)
would place the copy table for the .first section into an input section called .ovly:_first_ctbl. The linker creates a
single input section, .binit, to contain the entire boot-time copy table.
Controlling the Placement of the Linker-Generated Copy Table Sections illustrates how you can control the
placement of the linker-generated copy table sections using the input section names in the linker command file.
Controlling the Placement of the Linker-Generated Copy Table Sections
SECTIONS
{
UNION
{
.first: { a1.c.obj(.text), b1.c.obj(.text), c1.c.obj(.text) }
load = EMEM, run = PMEM, table(BINIT), table(_first_ctbl)
.second: { a2.c.obj(.text), b2.c.obj(.text) }
load = EMEM, run = PMEM, table(_second_ctbl)
}
.extra: load = EMEM, run = PMEM, table(BINIT)
...
.ovly: { } > BMEM
.binit: { } > BMEM
}
For the linker command file in Controlling the Placement of the Linker-Generated Copy Table Sections, the
boot-time copy table is generated into a .binit input section, which is collected into the .binit output section, which
is mapped to an address in the BMEM memory area. The _first_ctbl is generated into the .ovly:_first_ctbl input
section and the _second_ctbl is generated into the .ovly:_second_ctbl input section. Since the base names of
these input sections match the name of the .ovly output section, the input sections are collected into the .ovly
output section, which is then mapped to an address in the BMEM memory area.
If you do not provide explicit placement instructions for the linker-generated copy table sections, they are
allocated according to the linker's default placement algorithm.
The linker does not allow other types of input sections to be combined with a copy table input section in the
same output section. The linker does not allow a copy table section that was created from a partial link session
to be used as input to a succeeding link session.
8.8.4.5 Splitting Object Components and Overlay Management

It is possible to split sections that have separate load and run placement instructions. The linker can access both
the load address and run address of every piece of a split object component. Using the table() operator, you
can tell the linker to generate this information into a copy table. The linker gives each piece of the split object
component a COPY_RECORD entry in the copy table object.
For example, consider an application which has seven tasks. Tasks 1 through 3 are overlaid with tasks 4 through
7 (using a UNION directive). The load placement of all of the tasks is split among four different memory areas
(LMEM1, LMEM2, LMEM3, and LMEM4). The overlay is defined as part of memory area PMEM. You must move
each set of tasks into the overlay at run time before any services from the set are used.
You can use table() operators in combination with splitting operators, >>, to create copy tables that have all the
information needed to move either group of tasks into the memory overlay as shown in Creating a Copy Table to
Access a Split Object Component.
Creating a Copy Table to Access a Split Object Component
SECTIONS
{
UNION
{
.task1to3: { *(.task1), *(.task2), *(.task3) }
load >> LMEM1 | LMEM2 | LMEM4, table(_task13_ctbl)
GROUP
{
.task4: { *(.task4) }
.task5: { *(.task5) }
.task6: { *(.task6) }
.task7: { *(.task7) }
} load >> LMEM1 | LMEM3 | LMEM4, table(_task47_ctbl)
} run = PMEM
...
.ovly: > LMEM4
}
Split Object Component Driver illustrates a possible driver for such an application.
Split Object Component Driver
#include <cpy_tbl.h>
extern COPY_TABLE task13_ctbl;
extern void task1(void);
...
main()
{
...
copy_in(&task13_ctbl);
task1();
task2();
task3();
...
task4();
task5();
task6();
task7();
...
}
The contents of the .task1to3 section are split in the section's load space and contiguous in its run space.
The linker-generated copy table, _task13_ctbl, contains a separate COPY_RECORD for each piece of the split
section .task1to3. When the address of _task13_ctbl is passed to copy_in(), each piece of .task1to3 is copied
from its load location into the run location.
The contents of the GROUP containing tasks 4 through 7 are also split in load space. The linker performs the
GROUP split by applying the split operator to each member of the GROUP in order. The copy table for the
GROUP then contains a COPY_RECORD entry for every piece of every member of the GROUP. These pieces
are copied into the memory overlay when the _task47_ctbl is processed by copy_in().
The split operator can be applied to an output section, GROUP, or the load placement of a UNION or UNION
member. The linker does not permit a split operator to be applied to the run placement of either a UNION or of
a UNION member. The linker detects such violations, emits a warning, and ignores the offending split operator
usage.
8.8.5 Compression
When automatically generating copy tables, the linker provides a way to compress the load-space data. This can
reduce the read-only memory foot print. This compressed data can be decompressed while copying the data
from load space to run space.
Copy table compression is supported only when you use EABI object modules by specifying the --abi=eabi
option. This feature is not supported for COFF object modules.
You can specify compression in two ways:
• The linker command line option --copy_compression=compression_kind can be used to apply the specified
compression to any output section that has a table() operator applied to it.
• The table() operator accepts an optional compression parameter. The syntax is: .
table( name , compression= compression_kind )
The compression_kind can be one of the following types:
– off. Don't compress the data.
– lzss. Compress data using Lempel-Ziv-Storer-Szymanski compression.
– rle. Compress data using Run Length Encoding.
A table() operator without the compression keyword uses the compression kind specified using the command
line option --copy_compression. If no compression_kind was specified with the command-line option, the default
is LZSS compression.
When you choose compression, it is not guaranteed that the linker will compress the load data. The linker
compresses load data only when such compression reduces the overall size of the load space. In some cases
even if the compression results in smaller load section size the linker does not compress the data if the
decompression routine offsets for the savings.
For example, assume RLE compression reduces the size of section1 by 30 bytes. Also assume the RLE
decompression routine takes up 40 bytes in load space. By choosing to compress section1 the load space is
increased by 10 bytes. Therefore, the linker will not compress section1. On the other hand, if there is another
section (say section2) that can benefit by more than 10 bytes from applying the same compression then both
sections can be compressed and the overall load space is reduced. In such cases the linker compresses both
the sections.
You cannot force the linker to compress the data when doing so does not result in savings.
You cannot compress the decompression routines or any member of a GROUP containing .cinit.
8.8.5.1 Compressed Copy Table Format
The copy table format is the same irrespective of the compression_kind. The size field of the copy record is
overloaded to support compression. Figure 8-7 illustrates the compressed copy table layout.
Rec size Rec cnt

Load address Run address Size (0 if load data is compressed)
Figure 8-7. Compressed Copy Table
In Figure 8-7, if the size in the copy record is non-zero it represents the size of the data to be copied, and also
means that the size of the load data is the same as the run data. When the size is 0, it means that the load data
is compressed.
8.8.5.2 Compressed Section Representation in the Object File
The linker creates a separate input section to hold the compressed data. Consider the following table() operation
in the linker command file.
SECTIONS
{
.task1: load = ROM, run = RAM, table(_task1_table)
}
The output object file has one output section named .task1 which has different load and run addresses. This is
possible because the load space and run space have identical data when the section is not compressed.
Alternatively, consider the following:
SECTIONS
{
.task1: load = ROM, run = RAM, table(_task1_table, compression=rle)
}
If the linker compresses the .task1 section then the load space data and the run space data are different. The
linker creates the following two sections:
• .task1 : This section is uninitialized. This output section represents the run space image of section task1.
• .task1.load : This section is initialized. This output section represents the load space image of the section
task1. This section usually is considerably smaller in size than .task1 output section.
The linker allocates load space for the .task1.load input section in the memory area that was specified for load
placement for the .task1 section. There is only a single load section to represent the load placement of .task1
- .task1.load. If the .task1 data had not been compressed, there would be two allocations for the .task1 input
section: one for its load placement and another for its run placement.
8.8.5.3 Compressed Data Layout
For C2000, the unit size is 16-bits, which is the size of an unsigned char type on C2000. For compressed data
sections on C2000, all data is stored in 16-bit units.
The compressed load data has the following layout:
16-bit index Compressed data
The first 16 bits of the load data are the handler index. This handler index is used to index into a handler table to
get the address of a handler function that knows how to decode the data that follows. The handler table is a list
of 32-bit function pointers as shown in Figure 8-8.
_TI_Handler_Table_Base:
32-bit handler address 1
32-bit handler address N

_TI_Handler_Table_Limit:
Figure 8-8. Handler Table
The linker creates a separate output section for the load and run space. For example, if .task1.load is
compressed using RLE, the handler index points to an entry in the handler table that has the address of the
run-time-support routine __TI_decompress_rle().
8.8.5.4 Run-Time Decompression

During run time you call the run-time-support routine copy_in() to copy the data from load space to run space.
The address of the copy table is passed to this routine. First the routine reads the record count. Then it repeats
the following steps for each record:
1. Read load address, run address and size from record.
2. If size is zero go to step 5.
3. Call memcpy passing the run address, load address and size.
4. Go to step 1 if there are more records to read.
5. Read the first 16 bits from the load address.
6. Read the handler address from (&__TI_Handler_Base)[index].
7. Call the handler and pass load address + 1 and run address.
8. Go to step 1 if there are more records to read.
The routines to handle the decompression of load data are provided in the run-time-support library.
8.8.5.5 Compression Algorithms
The following subsections provide information about decompression algorithms for the RLE and LZSS formats.
To see example decompression algorithms, refer to the following functions in the Run-Time Support library:
• RLE: The __TI_decompress_rle() function in the copy_decompress_rle.c file.
• LZSS: The __TI_decompress_lzss() function in the copy_decompress_lzss.c file.
Additional information about compression algorithms can be found in the C28x Embedded Application Binary
Interface Application Report (SPRAC71) EABI specification.
Run Length Encoding (RLE):
16-bit index Initialization data compressed using run length encoding
The data following the 16-bit index is compressed using run length encoded (RLE) format. C2000 uses a simple
run length encoding that can be decompressed using the following algorithm. See copy_decompress_rle.c for
details.
1. Read the first 16 bits, Delimiter (D).
2. Read the next 16 bits (B).
3. If B != D, copy B to the output buffer and go to step 2.
4. Read the next 16 bits (L).
a. If L == 0, then length is either a 32 bit value or we’ve reached the end of the data, read the next 16 bits
(L).
i. If L == 0, the end of the data is reached. Go to the "end of processing" step.
ii. If L !=0, then L is the most significant 16-bits of the 32-bit run length, L.hi. Read the next 16-bits,
which is L.lo. Concatenate L.hi with L.lo to form the 32-bit run length.
b. Else if L > 0 and L < 4, copy D to the output buffer L times. Go to step 2.
c. Else, length is 16-bit value (L).
5. Read the next 16 bits (C); C is the repeat character.
6. Write C to the output buffer L times; go to step 2.
7. End of processing.
The C2000 run-time support library has a routine __TI_decompress_rle() to decompress data compressed using
RLE. The first argument to this function is the address pointing to the 16 bits after the 16-bit index. The second
argument is the run address from the C auto initialization record.
Lempel-Ziv-Storer-Szymanski Compression (LZSS):

16-bit index Data compressed using LZSS
The data following the 8-bit index is compressed using LZSS compression. The C2000 run-time-support library
has the routine __TI_decompress_lzss() to decompress the data compressed using LZSS. The first argument
to this function is the address pointing to the 16 bits after the 16-bit Index, and the second argument is the run
address from the C auto initialization record.
The decompression algorithm for LZSS is as follows. See copy_decompress_lzss.c for details on the LZSS
algorithm.
1. Read 16 bits, which are the encoding flags (F) marking the start of the next LZSS encoded packet.
2. For each bit (B) in F, starting from the least significant to the most significant bit, do the following:
a. If (B & 0x1), read the next 16 bits and write it to the output buffer. Then advance to the next bit (B) in F
and repeat this step.
b. Else read the next 16-bits into temp (T), length (L) = (T & 0xf) + 2, and offset (O) = (T >> 4).
i. If L == 17, read the next 16-bits (L'); then L += L'.
ii. If O == LZSS end of data (LZSS_EOD), we've reached the end of the data, and the algorithm is
finished.
iii. At position (P) = output buffer - Offset (O) - 1, read L bytes from position P and write them to the
output buffer.
iv. Go to step 2a.
8.8.6 Copy Table Contents

To use a copy table generated by the linker, you must know the contents of the copy table. This information is
included in a run-time-support library header file, cpy_tbl.h, which contains a C source representation of the copy
table data structure that is generated by the linker. TMS320C28x cpy_tbl.h File shows the copy table header file.
TMS320C28x cpy_tbl.h File
/****************************************************************************/
/* cpy_tbl.h */
/* */
/* Specification of copy table data structures which can be automatically */
/* generated by the linker (using the table() operator in the LCF). */
/* */
/****************************************************************************/
/* Copy Record Data Structure */
/****************************************************************************/
typedef struct copy_record
{
unsigned int src_pgid;
unsigned int dst_pgid;
unsigned long src_addr;
unsigned long dst_addr;
unsigned long size;
} COPY_RECORD;
/****************************************************************************/
/* Copy Table Data Structure */
/****************************************************************************/
typedef struct copy_table
{
unsigned int rec_size;
unsigned int num_recs;
COPY_RECORD recs[1];
} COPY_TABLE;
/****************************************************************************/
/* Prototype for general purpose copy routine. */
/****************************************************************************/
extern void copy_in(COPY_TABLE *tp);
/****************************************************************************/
/* Prototypes for utilities used by copy_in() to move code/data between */
/* program and data memory (see cpy_utils.asm for source). */
/****************************************************************************/
extern void ddcopy(unsigned long src, unsigned long dst);
extern void dpcopy(unsigned long src, unsigned long dst);
extern void pdcopy(unsigned long src, unsigned long dst);
extern void ppcopy(unsigned long src, unsigned long dst);
For each object component that is marked for a copy, the linker creates a COPY_RECORD object for it. Each
COPY_RECORD contains at least the following information for the object component:
• The load page id
• The run page id
• The load address
• The run address
• The size
The linker collects all COPY_RECORDs that are associated with the same copy table into a COPY_TABLE
object. The COPY_TABLE object contains the size of a given COPY_RECORD, the number of
COPY_RECORDs in the table, and the array of COPY_RECORDs in the table. For instance, in the BINIT
example in Section 8.8.4.2, the .first and .extra output sections will each have their own COPY_RECORD entries
in the BINIT copy table. The BINIT copy table will then look like this:
COPY_TABLE __binit__ = { 12, 2,
{ <load page id of .first>,
<run page id of .first>,
<load address of .first>,
<run address of .first>,
<size of .first> },
{ <load page id of .extra>,
<run page id of .extra>,
<load address of .extra>,
<run address of .extra>,
<size of .extra> } };
8.8.7 General Purpose Copy Routine

The cpy_tbl.h file in TMS320C28x cpy_tbl.h File also contains a prototype for a general-purpose copy routine,
copy_in(), which is provided as part of the run-time-support library. The copy_in() routine takes a single
argument: the address of a linker-generated copy table. The routine then processes the copy table data object
and performs the copy of each object component specified in the copy table.
The copy_in() function definition is provided in the cpy_tbl.c run-time-support source file shown in Run-Time-
Support cpy_tbl.c File.
Run-Time-Support cpy_tbl.c File
/****************************************************************************/
/* cpy_tbl.c */
/* */
/* General purpose copy routine. Given the address of a linker-generated */
/* COPY_TABLE data structure, effect the copy of all object components */
/* that are designated for copy via the corresponding LCF table() operator. */
/****************************************************************************/
#include <string.h>
void copy_in(COPY_TABLE *tp)
{
unsigned int i;
for (i = 0; i < tp->num_recs; i++)
{
COPY_RECORD *crp = &tp->recs[i];
unsigned int cpy_type = 0;
unsigned int j;
if (crp->src_pgid) cpy_type += 2;
if (crp->dst_pgid) cpy_type += 1;
for (j = 0; j < crp->size; j++)
{
switch (cpy_type)
{
case 3: ddcopy(crp->src_addr + j, crp->dst_addr + j); break;
case 2: dpcopy(crp->src_addr + j, crp->dst_addr + j); break;
case 1: pdcopy(crp->src_addr + j, crp->dst_addr + j); break;
case 0: ppcopy(crp->src_addr + j, crp->dst_addr + j); break;
}
}
}
}
The load (or source) page id and the run (or destination) page id are used to choose which low-level copy
routine is called to move a word of data from the load location to the run location. A page id of 0 indicates that
the specified address is in program memory, and a page id of 1 indicates that the address is in data memory.
The hardware provides special instructions, PREAD and PWRITE, to move code/data into and out of program
memory.
8.9 Linker-Generated CRC Tables and CRC Over Memory Ranges

The linker supports extensions to the linker command file syntax to enable the verification of code or data by
means of Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC). The linker computes a CRC value for the specified region at link
time, and stores that value in target memory so that it is accessible at boot or run time. The application code can
then compute the CRC for that region and ensure that the value matches the linker-computed value.
In a linker command file, you can cause CRC values to be generated for the following:
• CRC for a section: Use the crc_table() operator within the SECTIONS directive. See Section 8.9.1.
• CRC for memory range: Use the crc() operator for a GROUP in a MEMORY directive. See Section 8.9.2.
The run-time-support library does not supply a routine to calculate CRC values at boot or run time, however
a limited reference implementation in C is provided in Appendix C.2. Examples that perform cyclic redundancy
checking using linker-generated CRC tables are provided in the Tools Insider blog in TI's E2E community.
8.9.1 Using the crc_table() Operator in the SECTIONS Directive
For any section that should be verified with a CRC, the linker command file must be modified to include the
crc_table() operator. The specification of a CRC algorithm is optional. The syntax is:
crc_table( user_specified_table_name[, algorithm= xxx])
The linker uses the CRC algorithm from any specification given in a crc_table() operator. If that specification is
omitted, the CRC32_PRIME algorithm is used. The linker includes CRC table information in the map file. This
includes the CRC value as well as the algorithm used for the calculation.
The CRC table generated for a particular crc_table() instance can be accessed through the table name provided
as an argument to the crc_table() operator. The linker creates a symbol with this name and assigns the address
of the CRC table as the value of the symbol. The CRC table can then be accessed from the application using the
linker-generated symbol.
The crc_table() operator can be applied to an output section, a GROUP, a GROUP member, a UNION, or a
UNION member. In a GROUP or UNION, the operator is applied to each member.
You can include calls in your application to a routine that will verify CRC values for relevant sections. You must
provide this routine. See below for more details on the data structures and suggested interface.
8.9.1.1 Restrictions when using the crc_table() Operator
It is important to note that the CRC generator used by the linker is parameterized as described in the crc_tbl.h
header file (see Example 8-11). Any CRC calculation routine employed outside of the linker must function in
the same way to ensure matching CRC values. The linker cannot detect a mismatch in the parameters. To
understand these parameters, see A Painless Guide to CRC Error Detection Algorithms by Ross Williams, which
is likely located at http://www.ross.net/crc/download/crc_v3.txt.
Only CRC algorithm names and identifiers in crc_tbl.h are supported. All other names and ID values are
reserved for future use. Systems may not include built-in hardware that computes these CRC algorithms.
Consult documentation for your hardware for details. These CRC algorithms are supported:
• CRC8_PRIME
• CRC16_ALT
• CRC16_802_15_4
• CRC_CCITT
• CRC24_FLEXRAY
• CRC32_PRIME
• CRC32_C
• CRC64_ISO
• C28_CHECKSUM_16 (This is not a CRC algorithm. Instead it is an algorithm that generates a checksum
identical to the one generated by Code Composer Studio’s checksum utility.)
If no algorithm is specified, the default algorithm is CRC32_PRIME.
The supported CRC algorithms are specified by published standards, including the Powerline Related Intelligent
Metering Evolution (PRIME) standard and IEEE 802.15.4. The Viterbi, Complex Math and CRC Unit (VCU)
module available on some C28x devices provides efficient instructions for CRC calculation using these
algorithms. You might want to take advantage of the VCU module to compute the CRC at run time. For details,
see the VCU module documentation in TMS320x28xx, 28xxx DSP Peripherals Reference Guide (SPRU566).
There are also restrictions which will be enforced by the linker:
• CRC can only be requested at final link time.
• CRC can only be applied to initialized sections.
• CRC can be requested for load addresses only.
• Certain restrictions also apply to CRC table names.
8.9.1.2 Examples
The crc_table() operator is similar in syntax to the table() operator used for copy tables. A few simple examples
of linker command files follow.
Example 8-7. Using crc_table() Operator to Compute the CRC Value for .text Data
SECTIONS
{
...
.section_to_be_verified: {a1.c.obj(.text)} crc_table(_my_crc_table_for_a1)
}
Example 8-7 defines a section named “.section_to_be_verified”, which contains the .text data from the a1.c.obj
file. The crc_table() operator requests that the linker compute the CRC value for the .text data and store that
value in a table named “my_crc_table_for_a1”. This table will contain all the information needed to invoke a user-
supplied CRC calculation routine, and verify that the CRC calculated at run time matches the linker-generated
CRC. The table can be accessed from application code using the symbol my_crc_table_for_a1, which should
be declared of type “extern CRC_TABLE”. This symbol will be defined by the linker. The application code might
resemble the following.
#include "crc_tbl.h"
extern CRC_TABLE my_crc_table_for_a1;
verify_a1_text_contents()
{
...
/* Verify CRC value for .text sections of a1.c.obj. */
if (my_check_CRC(&my_crc_table_for_a1)) puts("OK");
}
The my_check_CRC() routine is shown in detail in Appendix C.3 .

Example 8-8. Specifying an Algorithm in the crc_table() Operator
...
SECTIONS
{
...
.section_to_be_verified_2: {b1.c.obj(.text)} load=SLOW_MEM, run=FAST_MEM,
crc_table(_my_crc_table_for_b1, algorithm=CRC8_PRIME)
.TI.crctab: > CRCMEM
}
...
In Example 8-8, the CRC algorithm is specified in the crc_table() operator. The specified algorithm is used to
compute the CRC of the text data from b1.c.obj. The CRC tables generated by the linker are created in the
special section .TI.crctab, which can be placed in the same manner as other sections. In this case, the CRC
table _my_crc_table_for_b1 is created in section .TI.crctab:_my_crc_table_for_b1, and that section is placed in
the CRCMEM memory region.
Example 8-9. Using a Single Table for Multiple Sections
...
SECTIONS
{
.section_to_be_verified_1: {a1.c.obj(.text)}
crc_table(_my_crc_table_for_a1_and_c1)
.section_to_be_verified_3: {c1.c.obj(.text)}
crc_table(_my_crc_table_for_a1_and_c1, algorithm=CRC16_802_15_4)
}
...
In Example 8-9 the same identifier, _my_crc_table_for_a1_and_c1, is specified for both a1.c.obj and c1.c.obj.
The linker creates a single table that contains entries for both text sections. Multiple CRC algorithms can occur in
a single table. In this case, _my_crc_table_for_a1_and_c1 contains an entry for the text data from a1.c.obj using
the default CRC algorithm, and an entry for the text data from c1.c.obj using the CRC16_802_15_4 algorithm.
The order of the entries is unspecified.
Example 8-10. Applying the crc_table() Operator to a GROUP or UNION
...
SECTIONS
{
UNION
{
section1: {} crc_table(table1, algorithm=CRC16_ALT)
section2:
} crc_table(table2, algorithm=CRC32_PRIME)
}
When the crc_table() operator is applied to a GROUP or a UNION, the linker applies the table specification to
the members of the GROUP or UNION.
In Example 8-10 the linker creates two CRC tables, table1 and table2. table1 contains one entry for section1,
using algorithm CRC16_ALT. Because both sections are members of the UNION, table2 contains entries for
section1 and section2, using algorithm CRC32_PRIME. The order of the entries in table2 is unspecified.
8.9.1.3 Interface When Using the crc_table() Operator

The CRC generation function uses a mechanism similar to the copy table functionality. Using the syntax shown
above in the linker command file allows specification of code/data sections that have CRC values computed and
stored in the run time image. This section describes the table data structures created by the linker, and how to
access this information from application code.
The CRC tables contain entries as detailed in the run-time-support header file crc_tbl.h, as illustrated in Figure
8-9.
table_name rec_size=8
(such as linker−generated symbol num_recs=2

my_crc_table_for_a1)
recs
alg ID page ID address data size CRC value
alg ID page ID address data size CRC value
Figure 8-9. CRC_TABLE Conceptual Model
The crc_tbl.h header file is included in Example 8-11. This file specifies the C structures created by the
linker to manage CRC information. It also includes the specifications of the supported CRC algorithms. A full
discussion of CRC algorithms is beyond the scope of this document, and the interested reader should consult
the referenced document for a description of the fields shown in the table. The following fields are relevant to this
document.
• Name – text identifier of the algorithm, used by the programmer in the linker command file.
• ID – the numeric identifier of the algorithm, stored by the linker in the crc_alg_ID member of each table entry.
• Order – the number of bits used by the CRC calculation.
• Polynomial – used by the CRC computation engine.
• Initial Value – the initial value given to the CRC computation engine.
In the CRC_TABLE struct, the array recs[1] is dynamically sized by the linker to accommodate the number of
records contained in the table (num_recs). A user-supplied routine to verify CRC values should take a table
name and check the CRC values for all entries in the table. An outline of such a routine is shown in Appendix
C.3.
Example 8-11. The CRC Table Header, crc_tbl.h
/*****************************************************************************/
/* crc_tbl.h */
/* */
/* PRELIMINARY - SUBJECT TO CHANGE */
/* Specification of CRC table data structures which can be automatically */
/* generated by the linker (using the crc_table() operator in the linker */
/* command file). */
/*****************************************************************************/
/* The CRC generator used by the linker is based on concepts from the */
/* document: */
/* "A Painless Guide to CRC Error Detection Algorithms" */
/* */
/* Author : Ross Williams ([email protected].). */
/* Date : 3 June 1993. */
/* Status : Public domain (C code). */
/* */
/* Description : For more information on the Rocksoft^tm Model CRC */
/* Algorithm, see the document titled "A Painless Guide to CRC Error */
/* Detection Algorithms" by Ross Williams ([email protected].). */
/* This document is likely to be in "ftp.adelaide.edu.au/pub/rocksoft" or */
/* at http:www.ross.net/crc/download/crc_v3.txt. */
/* */
/* Note: Rocksoft is a trademark of Rocksoft Pty Ltd, Adelaide, Australia. */
/*****************************************************************************/
#include <stdint.h> /* For uintXX_t */
/*****************************************************************************/
/* CRC Algorithm Specifiers */
/* */
/* The following specifications, based on the above cited document, are used */
/* by the linker to generate CRC values. */
/* */
/* ID Name Order Polynomial Initial Ref Ref CRC XOR Zero */
/* Value In Out Value Pad */
/*-------------------------------------------------------------------------- */
/* 0, "CRC32_PRIME", 32, 0x04c11db7, 0x00000000, 0, 0, 0x00000000, 1 */
/* 1, "CRC16_802_15_4", 16, 0x00001021, 0x00000000, 0, 0, 0x00000000, 1 */
/* 2, "CRC16_ALT", 16, 0x00008005, 0x00000000, 0, 0, 0x00000000, 1 */
/* 3, "CRC8_PRIME", 8, 0x00000007, 0x00000000, 0, 0, 0x00000000, 1 */
/* */
/* Users should specify the name, such as CRC32_PRIME, in the linker command */
/* file. The resulting CRC_RECORD structure will contain the corresponding */
/* ID value in the crc_alg_ID field. */
/*****************************************************************************/
#define CRC32_PRIME 0 /* Poly = 0x04c11db7 */ /* DEFAULT ALGORITHM */
#define CRC16_802_15_4 1 /* Poly = 0x00001021 */
#define CRC16_ALT 2 /* Poly = 0x00008005 */
#define CRC8_PRIME 3 /* Poly = 0x00000007 */
/*********************************************************/
/* CRC Record Data Structure */
/* NOTE: The list of fields and the size of each field */
/* varies by target and memory model. */
/*********************************************************/
typedef struct crc_record
{
uint16_t crc_alg_ID; /* CRC algorithm ID */
uint16_t page_id; /* page number of data */
uint32_t addr; /* Starting address */
uint32_t size; /* size of data in 16-bit units */
uint32_t crc_value;
} CRC_RECORD;
/*********************************************************/
/* CRC Table Data Structure */
/*********************************************************/
typedef struct crc_table
{
uint16_t rec_size;
uint16_t num_recs;
CRC_RECORD recs[1];
} CRC_TABLE;
8.9.2 Using the crc() Operator in the MEMORY Directive

Along with generating CRC Tables, the linker can also generate CRCs over memory ranges as well. To do this,
instead of using the crc_table() operator in a SECTIONS directives, you use the crc() operator in a MEMORY
directive. Within the MEMORY directive, you specify a GROUP of memory regions to have a CRC value
computed. The memory ranges in the GROUP must be continuous.
The syntax is as follows:
MEMORY
{
GROUP(FLASH)
{
RANGE1 :...
RANGE2 :...
} crc(_table_name, algorithm=xxx)
}
This syntax causes the linker to compute a single CRC over both RANGE1 and RANGE2. The CRC is based
on the algorithm specified, taking into account all output sections that have been placed in those ranges. The
result is stored in a table in the format described in Section 8.9.2.6. This table is placed in an output section
called .TI.memcrc, which is accessible through the table name as a linker symbol.
The algorithm argument for crc() may be any algorithm listed in Section 8.9.1.1. The algorithm is required in the
current version, and linking will fail without it. In future releases, the algorithm specification will be optional, and
the default is specified If no algorithm is specified, the default algorithm will be chosen, which is CRC32_PRIME.
Specifying the GROUP name is optional. For example:
MEMORY
{
GROUP
{
RANGE1 :...
RANGE2 :...
} crc(_table_name, algorithm=CRC8_PRIME)
}
When GROUP is used inside a MEMORY block, the syntax options are limited to the functionality described
here and in the subsections that follow. The full functionality described in Section 8.5.7 for GROUP within the
SECTIONS directive is not available within the MEMORY directive.
8.9.2.1 Restrictions when Using the crc() Operator
The crc() operator can only be applied to a GROUP within a MEMORY directive. It cannot be applied to
individual memory ranges in a MEMORY directive or to groups in the SECTIONS directive.
Along with the restrictions described in Section 8.9.1.1, the following additional restrictions apply:
• Memory range groups cannot contain any gaps between the ranges.
• All of the memory ranges must be on the same page.
• Memory ranges that contain sections that would not otherwise be eligible for CRC table generation cannot
have a CRC computed. That is, memory ranges for which a CRC value is generated must correspond only to
load addresses of initialized sections.
• The .TI.memcrc section may not be placed in a range that itself is having a CRC value computed. This would
result in a circular reference; the CRC result would depend upon the result of the CRC. See Section 8.9.2.3
for ways to generate CRCs for most or all of Flash memory without violating this restriction.
8.9.2.2 Using the VFILL Specifier within a GROUP

In addition to specifying the origin and length of a memory range within a GROUP, you can also use the VFILL
specifier to as described in Section 8.5.10.3 to allow ECC data to be generated for areas of the input memory
range that remain uninitialized.
The load image will have gaps between output sections, and how these bits are set depends on your device.
Most devices count empty spaces as 1’s, but if your device counts empty space as 0’s, the result of the CRC will
be different. Thus, if the CRC result does not line up, make sure that you specify the empty space byte with the
VFILL parameter, as shown in the following example:
MEMORY
{
GROUP
{
FLASH : origin = 0x0000, length = 0x1000,
VFILL = 0x0 /* Fill gaps with zeroes */
} crc(_table_name, CRC8_PRIME)
}
If no VFILL parameter is specified, it defaults to 0x1, which fills everything with ones. Remember to update every
memory range that has a fill value other than 0x1 for CRCs.
8.9.2.3 Generate CRC for Most or All of Flash Memory
If you are trying to generate a CRC value for the entire FLASH memory, place the table in a separate memory
range, which .TI.memcrc will be placed in by default. For example:
MEMORY
{
/* Carve out a section of FLASH to store the CRC result */
CRC_PRELUDE : origin=0x0, length=0x10
GROUP
{
FLASH : origin=0x10, length=0xFFFF
} crc(_flash_crc, algorithm=CRC8_PRIME)
/* Other memory ranges... */
}
SECTION
{
.TI.memcrc > CRC_PRELUDE
}
In the above example, a small section of flash has been cut out of the whole, to allow the .TI.memcrc section to
reside there, while everything else that is eligible for CRC generation is placed in FLASH. This avoids placing the
CRC result in the CRC range.
In some cases, you may want to generate a CRC for all of Flash memory and read back the CRC result via the
linker-generated map file (see Section 8.4.19). However, there is no memory location to place the CRC result for
the memory range covering all of Flash memory. If you place it in Flash, then you violate the rule that the result
cannot be placed within the input range. Thus, if there’s no good place to put the CRC result, you can mark
the .TI.memcrc section as a COPY section like so:
.TI.memcrc : type=COPY
This prevents the CRC result for a memory range from being placed anywhere. Marking .TI.memcrc as a
DSECT section has the same result.
8.9.2.4 Computing CRCs for Both Memory Ranges and Sections

You can run a CRC on both memory ranges and output sections together. In the following example, a CRC
is computed over the memory range FLASH2, which is used only by the .text section. A CRC table is also
generated for only the .text output section, which does not include the rest of the memory range.
MEMORY
{
FLASH1 : origin = 0x0000, length = 0x1000
GROUP
{
FLASH2 : origin = 0x1000, length=0x1000
} crc(_memrange_flash_crc, algorithm=CRC8_PRIME)
}
SECTION
{
.TI.memcrc > CRC_PRELUDE
.text > FLASH2, crc_table(_crc_table, algorithm=CRC8_PRIME)
}
8.9.2.5 Example Specifying Memory Range CRCs

Here is a full linker command file that uses the crc() operator to generate a memory range CRC:
-c /* Use C linking conventions: auto-init vars at runtime */
-stack 0x8000 /* Stack size */
-heap 0x8000 /* Heap size */
--args 0x100
MEMORY
{
PAGE 0:
STACK (RW) : origin = 0x008000, length = 0x008000
SMALLROM (R) : origin = 0x000402, length = 0x0003FE
ROMCRC (R) : origin = 0x080000, length = 0x000100
GROUP(FLASH)
{
BIGROM (R) : origin = 0x080100, length = 0x01FF00, VFILL=0x0
} crc(_ext_memrange_crc, algorithm=CRC8_PRIME)
BIGRAM (RW) : origin = 0x100000, length = 0x200000
}
SECTIONS
{
.stack > STACK
.args > BIGRAM
.bss > BIGRAM
.ebss > BIGRAM
.cio > BIGRAM
.data > BIGRAM
.esysmem > BIGRAM

.sysmem > BIGRAM
.text > BIGROM

.const > BIGROM
.econst > BIGROM
.binit > BIGROM
.cinit > BIGROM
.pinit > BIGROM
.ovly > BIGROM
.TI.memcrc > ROMCRC
}
8.9.2.6 Interface When Using the crc() Operator

CRCs over memory ranges are stored in a table format similar to that shown in Section 8.9.1.3 for the CRCs
over sections. However, the table format is different than that of CRC tables.
The following figure shows the storage format for CRCs over memory ranges with example values:
Figure 8-10. CRC Storage Format for Memory Ranges
The table header stores the record count and size, as well as the algorithm type and the CRC result. Each table
entry encodes the start address and length of a memory range that was used to compute the CRC.
The following header file excerpt shows the C structures the linker creates to manage the CRC information:
typedef struct memrange_crc_record {
uint16_t page_id; /* page number of data */
uint16_t padding; /* pad for next 32-bit value */
uint32_t addr; /* starting address */
uint32_t size; /* size of data in 16-bit addressable units */
} MEMRANGE_CRC_RECORD;
typedef struct memrange_crc_table {

uint16_t rec_size; /* 16-bit addressable units */
uint16_t num_recs; /* how many records are in the table */
uint16_t crc_alg_ID; /* CRC algorithm ID */
uint16_t padding; /* pad for next 32-bit value */
uint32_t crc_value; /* result of crc */
MEMRANGE_CRC_RECORD recs[1];
} MEMRANGE_CRC_TABLE;
8.9.3 A Special Note Regarding 16-Bit char

C2000 is a 16-bit word addressable target, which means that its char data type is 16 bits. However, CRC
algorithms operate on 8-bit units, which we shall call "octets". When computing a CRC on a C2000 section, the
data cannot be fed to the CRC loop char-by-char, it must be fed octet-by-octet. The only algorithm that breaks
this convention is the C28_CHECKSUM_16 algorithm, which reads in 16-bit words to perform the checksum.
This is done to match CCS’s checksum utility.
The data needs to be fed to the CRC in the order it would if the C2000 were a 8-bit machine, so we need to
consider which of the two octets in the char to feed first. C2000 is a little-endian machine, but it does not make
sense to talk about the endianness of the bits in an indivisible unit such as char. By convention, we consider the
data in a char to be stored least-significant octet first, then most-significant octet.
Abstractly, the CRC algorithm computes the CRC bit-by-bit in the order the bits appear in the data. For a
machine with 8-bit chars, this order is considered to proceed from the MSB through the LSB of each byte starting
with byte 0. However, for C2000, the CRC starts with the MSB through LSB of the LEAST significant octet of
byte 0, then the MSB through LSB of the MOST significant octet of byte 0, and so on for the rest of the bytes.
Low Memory
Most significant byte Least significant byte
1 9 16 1 8
2 9 16 1 8
High Memory
Figure 8-11. CRC Data Flow Example
8.10 Partial (Incremental) Linking

An output file that has been linked can be linked again with additional modules. This is known as partial linking
or incremental linking. Partial linking allows you to partition large applications, link each part separately, and then
link all the parts together to create the final executable program. Follow these guidelines for producing a file that
you will relink:
• The intermediate files produced by the linker must have relocation information. Use the --relocatable option
when you link the file the first time. (See Section 8.4.3.2.)
• Intermediate files must have symbolic information. By default, the linker retains symbolic information in its
output. Do not use the --no_sym_table option if you plan to relink a file, because --no_sym_table strips
symbolic information from the output module. (See Section 8.4.23.)
• Intermediate link operations should be concerned only with the formation of output sections and not with
allocation. All allocation, binding, and MEMORY directives should be performed in the final link. Since the
ELF object file format is used with EABI, input sections are not combined into output sections during a partial
link unless a matching SECTIONS directive is specified in the link step command file.
• If the intermediate files have global symbols that have the same name as global symbols in other files and
you want them to be treated as static (visible only within the intermediate file), you must link the files with the
--make_static option (see Section 8.4.18.1).
• If you are linking C code, do not use --ram_model or --rom_model until the final linker. Every time you invoke
the linker with the --ram_model or --rom_model option, the linker attempts to create an entry point. (See
Section 8.4.26 , Section 3.3.2.1, and Section 3.3.2.2 .)
The following example shows how you can use partial linking:
Step 1: Link the file file1.com; use the --relocatable option to retain relocation information in the output file out1.out.
cl2000 --run_linker --relocatable --output_file=out1 file1.com
file1.com contains:
SECTIONS
{
ss1: {
f1.c.obj
f2.c.obj
...
fn.c.obj
}
}
Step 2: Link the file file2.com; use the --relocatable option to retain relocation information in the output file out2.out.
cl2000 --run_linker --relocatable --output_file=out2 file2.com
file2.com contains:
SECTIONS
{
ss2: {
g1.c.obj
g2.c.obj
...
gn.c.obj
}
}
Step 3: Link out1.out and out2.out.
cl2000 --run_linker --map_file=final.map --output_file=final.out out1.out out2.out
8.11 Linking C/C++ Code

The C/C++ compiler produces assembly language source code that can be assembled and linked. For example,
a C program consisting of modules prog1, prog2, etc., can be assembled and then linked to produce an
executable file called prog.out:
cl2000 --run_linker --rom_model --output_file prog.out prog1.c.obj prog2.c.obj ... rts2800_ml.lib
The --rom_model option tells the linker to use special conventions that are defined by the C/C++ environment.
The archive libraries shipped by TI contain C/C++ run-time-support functions.

C, C++, and mixed C and C++ programs can use the same run-time-support library. Run-time-support functions
and variables that can be called and referenced from both C and C++ will have the same linkage.
For more information about the TMS320C28x C/C++ language, including the run-time environment and run-time-
support functions, see the TMS320C28x Optimizing C/C++ Compiler User's Guide.
8.11.1 Run-Time Initialization
All C/C++ programs must be linked with code to initialize and execute the program, called a bootstrap routine,
also known as the boot.c.obj object module. The symbol _c_int00 is defined as the program entry point and is
the start of the C boot routine in boot.c.obj; referencing _c_int00 ensures that boot.c.obj is automatically linked
in from the run-time-support library. When a program begins running, it executes boot.c.obj first. The boot.c.obj
symbol contains code and data for initializing the run-time environment and performs the following tasks:
• Sets up the system stack and configuration registers
• Processes the run-time .cinit initialization table and autoinitializes global variables (when the linker is invoked
with the --rom_model option)
• Disables interrupts and calls _main
The run-time-support object libraries contain boot.c.obj. You can:
• Use the archiver to extract boot.c.obj from the library and then link the module in directly.
• Include the appropriate run-time-support library as an input file (the linker automatically extracts boot.c.obj
when you use the --ram_model or --rom_model option).
8.11.2 Object Libraries and Run-Time Support
The TMS320C28x Optimizing C/C++ Compiler User's Guide describes additional run-time-support functions
that are included in rts.src. If your program uses any of these functions, you must link the appropriate run-time-
support library with your object files.
You can also create your own object libraries and link them. The linker includes and links only those library
members that resolve undefined references.
8.11.3 Setting the Size of the Stack and Heap Sections
The C/C++ language uses two uninitialized sections called .esysmem and .stack for the memory pool used
by the malloc( ) functions and the run-time stacks, respectively. You can set the size of these by using the
--heap_size or --stack_size option and specifying the size of the section as a 4-byte constant immediately after
the option. If the options are not used, the default size of the heap is 1K words and the default size of the stack is
1K words.
See Section 8.4.15 for setting heap sizes and Section 8.4.30 for setting stack sizes.
Note
Linking the .stack Section: The .stack section must be linked into the low 64K of data memory
(PAGE 1) since the SP is a 16-bit register and cannot access memory locations beyond the first 64K.
8.11.4 Initializing and AutoInitialzing Variables at Run Time

Autoinitializing variables at run time is the default method of autoinitialization. To use this method, invoke the
linker with the --rom_model option. See Section 3.3.2.1 for details.
Initialization of variables at load time enhances performance by reducing boot time and by saving the memory
used by the initialization tables. To use this method, invoke the linker with the --ram_model option. See Section
3.3.2.2 for details.
See Section 3.3.2.3 for information about the steps that are performed when you invoke the linker with the
--ram_model or --rom_model option.
8.12 Linker Example

This example links three object files named demo.c.obj, ctrl.c.obj, and tables.c.obj and creates a program called
demo.out.
Assume that target memory has the following program memory configuration:
Address Range Contents
0x0080 to 0x7000 On-chip RAM_PG
0xC000 to 0xFF80 On-chip ROM

0x0080 to 0x0FFF RAM block ONCHIP
0x0060 to 0xFFFF Mapped external
addresses EXT
Memory Type Address Range Contents

Program 0x0f0000 to 0x3fffbf SLOW_MEM
0x3fffc0 to 0x3fffff Interrupt vector table
Data 0x000040 to 0x0001ff Stack

0x000200 to 0x0007ff FAST_MEM_1
0x3ed000 to 0x3effff FAST_MEM_2
The output sections are constructed in the following manner:

• Executable code, contained in the .text sections of demo.c.obj, fft.c.obj, and tables.c.obj, is linked into
program memory ROM.
• Variables, contained in the var_defs section of demo.c.obj, are linked into data memory in block
FAST_MEM_2.
• Tables of coefficients in the .data sections of demo.c.obj, tables.c.obj, and fft.c.obj are linked into
FAST_MEM_1. A hole is created with a length of 100 and a fill value of 0x07A1C.
• The xy section form demo.c.obj, which contains buffers and variables, is linked by default into page 1 of the
block STACK, since it is not explicitly linked.
Linker Command File, demo.cmd shows the linker command file for this example. Output Map File, demo.map
shows the map file.
Linker Command File, demo.cmd
/***************************************************************/
/*** Specify Linker Options ***/
/***************************************************************/
--output_file=demo.out /* Name the output file */
--map_file=demo.map /* Create an output map */
/***************************************************************/
/*** Specify the Input Files ***/
/***************************************************************/
demo.c.obj
fft.c.obj
tables.c.obj
/***************************************************************/
/*** Specify the Memory Configuration ***/
/***************************************************************/
MEMORY
{
PAGE 0: SLOW_MEM (R): origin=0x3f0000 length=0x00ffc0
VECTORS (R): origin=0x3fffc0 length=0x000040
PAGE 1: STACK (RW): origin=0x000040 length=0x0001c0
FAST_MEM_1 (RW): origin=0x000200 length=0x000600
FAST_MEM_2 (RW): origin=0x3ed000 length=0x003000
}
/***************************************************************/
/*** Specify the Output Sections ***/
/***************************************************************/
SECTIONS
{
vectors : { } > VECTORS page=0
.text : load = SLOW_MEM, page = 0 /* link in .text */
.data : fill = 07A1Ch, Load=FAST_MEM_1, page=1
{
tables.c.obj(.data) /* .data input */
fft.c.obj(.data) /* .data input */
. += 100h; /* create hole, fill with 0x07A1C */
}
var_defs : { } > FAST_MEM_2 page=1 /* defs in RAM */
.ebss : page=1, fill=0x0ffff /*.ebss fill and link*/
}
/***************************************************************/
/*** End of Command File ***/
/***************************************************************/
Invoke the linker by entering the following command:

cl2000 --run_linker demo.cmd
This creates the map file shown in Output Map File, demo.map and an output file called demo.out that can be
run on a TMS320C28x.
Output Map File, demo.map

OUTPUT FILE NAME: <demo.out>
ENTRY POINT SYMBOL: 0
MEMORY CONFIGURATION
name origin length attributes fill
-------- -------- --------- ---------- --------
PAGE 0: SLOW_MEM 003f0000 0000ffc0 R
VECTORS 003fffc0 00000040 R
PAGE 1: STACK 00000040 000001c0 RW
FAST_MEM_1 00000200 00000600 RW
FAST_MEM_2 003ed000 00003000 RW
SECTION ALLOCATION MAP
output attributes/
section page origin length input sections
-------- ---- ---------- ---------- ----------------
vectors 0 003fffc0 00000000 UNINITIALIZED
.text 0 003f0000 0000001a
003f0000 0000000e demo.c.obj (.text)
003f000e 00000000 tables.c.obj (.text)
003foooe 0000000c fft.c.obj (.text)
var_defs 1 003ed000 00000002
003ed000 00000002 demo.c.obj (var_defs)
.data 1 00000200 0000010c
00000200 00000004 tables.c.obj (.data)
00000204 00000000 fft.c.obj (.data)
00000204 00000100 --HOLE-- [fill = 7a1c]
00000304 00000008 demo.c.obj (.data)
.ebss 0 00000040 00000069
00000040 00000068 demo.c.obj (.ebss) [fill=ffff]
000000a8 00000000 fft.c.obj (.ebss)
000000a8 00000001 tables.c.obj (.ebss) [fill=ffff]
xy 1 000000a9 00000014 UNINITIALIZED
000000a9 00000014 demo.c.obj (xy)
GLOBAL SYMBOLS: SORTED ALPHABETICALLY BY Name
address name
-------- ----
00000040 .ebss
00000200 .data
003f0000 .text
00000040 ARRAY
000000a8 TEMP
00000040 ___ebss__
00000200 ___data__
0000030c ___edata__
000000a9 ___end__
003f001a ___etext__
003f0000 ___text__
003f000e _func1
003f0000 _main
0000030c edata
000000a9 end
003f001a etext
GLOBAL SYMBOLS: SORTED BY Symbol Address
address name
-------- ----
00000040 ARRAY
00000040 ___ebss__
00000040 .ebss
000000a8 TEMP
000000a9 ___end__
000000a9 end
00000200 ___data__
00000200 .data
0000030c edata
0000030c ___edata__
003f0000 _main
003f0000 .text
003f0000 ___text__
003f000e _func1
003f001a etext
003f001a ___etext__
[16 symbols]
www.ti.com Absolute Lister Description
Chapter 9
Absolute Lister Description
The TMS320C28x absolute lister is a debugging tool that accepts linked object files as input and creates .abs
files as output. These .abs files can be assembled to produce a listing that shows the absolute addresses of
object code. Manually, this could be a tedious process requiring many operations; however, the absolute lister
utility performs these operations automatically.
9.1 Producing an Absolute Listing................................................................................................................................274

9.2 Invoking the Absolute Lister................................................................................................................................... 275
9.3 Absolute Lister Example..........................................................................................................................................276
Absolute Lister Description www.ti.com
9.1 Producing an Absolute Listing

Figure 9-1 illustrates the steps required to produce an absolute listing.
Step 1: Assembler First, assemble a source file.

source file
Assembler
Object
file
Step 2: Link the resulting object file.
Linker
Linked object
file
Step 3: Invoke the absolute lister; use the linked
object file as input. This creates a file with
Absolute an .abs extension.
lister
.abs
file
Step 4: Finally, assemble the .abs file; you must
invoke the assembler with the compiler
Assembler --absolute_listing option.
This produces a listing file that contains

absolute addresses.
Absolute
listing
Figure 9-1. Absolute Lister Development Flow
9.2 Invoking the Absolute Lister

The syntax for invoking the absolute lister is:
abs2000 [-options] input file
abs2000 is the command that invokes the absolute lister.

options identifies the absolute lister options that you want to use. Options are not case sensitive and can appear anywhere on
the command line following the command. Precede each option with a hyphen (-). The absolute lister options are as
follows:
-e enables you to change the default naming conventions for filename extensions on assembly files, C source files,
and C header files. The valid options are:
• ea [.]asmext for assembly files (default is .asm)
• ec [.]cext for C source files (default is .c)
• eh [.]hext for C header files (default is .h)
• ep [.]pext for CPP source files (default is cpp)
The . in the extensions and the space between the option and the extension are optional.
-fs specifies a directory for the output files. For example, to place the .abs file generated by the absolute lister in
C:\ABSDIR use this command:
abs2000 -fs C:\ABSDIR filename.out
If the -fs option is not specified, the absolute lister generates the .abs files in the current directory.
-q (quiet) suppresses the banner and all progress information.
input file names the linked object file. If you do not supply an extension, the absolute lister assumes that the input file has the
default extension .out. If you do not supply an input filename when you invoke the absolute lister, the absolute lister
prompts you for one.
The absolute lister produces an output file for each file that was linked. These files are named with the input
filenames and an extension of .abs. Header files, however, do not generate a corresponding .abs file.
Assemble these files with the --absolute_listing assembler option as follows to create the absolute listing:
cl2000 --absolute_listing filename .abs
The -e options affect both the interpretation of filenames on the command line and the names of the output files.
They should always precede any filename on the command line.
The -e options are useful when the linked object file was created from C files compiled with the debugging
option (--symdebug:dwarf compiler option). When the debugging option is set, the resulting linked object file
contains the name of the source files used to build it. In this case, the absolute lister does not generate a
corresponding .abs file for the C header files. Also, the .abs file corresponding to a C source file uses the
assembly file generated from the C source file rather than the C source file itself.
For example, suppose the C source file hello.csr is compiled with the debugging option set; the debugging option
generates the assembly file hello.s. The hello.csr file includes hello.hsr. Assuming the executable file created is
called hello.out, the following command generates the proper .abs file:
abs2000 -ea s -ec csr -eh hsr hello.out
An .abs file is not created for hello.hsr (the header file), and hello.abs includes the assembly file hello.s, not the
C source file hello.csr.
9.3 Absolute Lister Example

This example uses three source files. The files module1.asm and module2.asm both include the file globals.def.
module1.asm
.text
array .usect ".ebss",100
dflag .usect ".ebss", 2
.copy globals.def
MOV ACC, #offset
MOV ACC, #dflag
module2.asm
offset .usect ".ebss", 2
.copy globals.def
MOV ACC, #offset
MOV ACC, #array
globals.def
.global dflag
.global array
.global offset
The following steps create absolute listings for the files module1.asm and module2.asm:
Step 1: First, assemble module1.asm and module2.asm:
cl2000 module1
cl2000 module2
This creates two object files called module1.obj and module2.obj.
Step 2: Next, link module1.obj and module2.obj using the following linker command file, called bttest.cmd:
--output_file=bttest.out
--map_file=bttest.map
module1.obj
module2.obj
MEMORY
{
PAGE 0: ROM: origin=2000h length=2000h
PAGE 1: RAM: origin=8000h length=8000h
}
SECTIONS
{
.data: >RAM
.text: >ROM
.ebss: >RAM
}
Invoke the linker:

cl2000 --run_linker bttest.cmd
This command creates an executable object file called bttest.out; use this file as input for the absolute lister.
Step 3: Now, invoke the absolute lister:

abs2000 bttest.out
This command creates two files called module1.abs and module2.abs:
module1.abs:
.nolist
array .setsym 000008000h
dflag .setsym 000008064h
offset .setsym 000008066h
.data .setsym 000008000h
edata .setsym 000008000h
.text .setsym 000002000h
etext .setsym 000002008h
.usect .setsym 000008000h
end .setsym 000008068h
.setsect ".text",000002000h
.setsect ".data",000008000h
.setsect ".ebss",00008000h
.list
.text
.copy "module1.asm"
module2.abs:
.nolist
array .setsym 000008000h
dflag .setsym 000008064h
offset .setsym 000008066h
.data .setsym 000008000h
edata .setsym 000008000h
.text .setsym 000002000h
etext .setsym 000002008h
.usect .setsym 000008000h
end .setsym 000008068h
.setsect ".text",000002004h
.setsect ".data",000008000h
.setsect ".ebss",00008066h
.list
.text
.copy "module2.asm"
These files contain the following information that the assembler needs for Step 4:
• They contain .setsym directives, which equate values to global symbols. Both files contain global equates for the symbol
dflag. The symbol dflag was defined in the file globals.def, which was included in module1.asm and module2.asm.
• They contain .setsect directives, which define the absolute addresses for sections.
• They contain .copy directives, which defines the assembly language source file to include.
The .setsym and .setsect directives are useful only for creating absolute listings, not normal assembly.
Step 4: Finally, assemble the .abs files created by the absolute lister (remember that you must use the --absolute_listing option
when you invoke the assembler):
cl2000 --absolute_listing module1.abs
cl2000 --absolute_listing module2.abs
This command sequence creates two listing files called module1.lst and module2.lst; no object code is produced. These
listing files are similar to normal listing files; however, the addresses shown are absolute addresses.
The absolute listing files created are module1.lst (see module1.lst ) and module2.lst (see module2.lst).
module1.lst
module1.abs PAGE 1
15 002000 .text
16 .copy "module1.asm"
1 002000 .text
2 008000 array .usect ".ebss",100
3 008064 dflag .usect ".ebss",2
4 .copy globals.def
1 .global dflag
2 .global array
3 .global offset
5 002000 FF20! MOV ACC,#offset
002001 8066
6 002002 FF20- MOV ACC,#dflag
002003 8064
module2.lst
module2.abs PAGE 1
15 002004 .text
16 .copy "module2.asm"
1 008066 offset .usect ".ebss",2
2 .copy globals.def
1 .global dflag
2 .global array
3 .global offset
3 002004 FF20- MOV ACC,#offset
002005 8066
4 002006 FF20! MOV ACC,#array
002007 8000
www.ti.com Cross-Reference Lister Description
Chapter 10
Cross-Reference Lister Description
The TMS320C28x cross-reference lister is a debugging tool. This utility accepts linked object files as input and
produces a cross-reference listing as output. This listing shows symbols, their definitions, and their references in
the linked source files.
10.1 Producing a Cross-Reference Listing.................................................................................................................. 280

10.2 Invoking the Cross-Reference Lister....................................................................................................................281
10.3 Cross-Reference Listing Example........................................................................................................................ 282
Cross-Reference Lister Description www.ti.com
10.1 Producing a Cross-Reference Listing

Figure 10-1 illustrates the steps required to produce a cross-reference listing.
Step 1: Assembler First, invoke the assembler with the compiler

source file --cross_reference option. This produces
a cross-reference table in the listing file and
adds to the object file cross-reference infor-
Assembler mation. By default, only global symbols are
cross-referenced. If you use the compiler
--output_all_syms option, local symbols are
cross-referenced as well.
Object
file
Step 2: Link the object file (.obj) to obtain an
executable object file (.out).
Linker
Linked object
file
Step 3: Invoke the cross-reference lister. The
following section provides the command
Cross-reference syntax for invoking the cross-reference lister
lister utility.
Cross-reference
listing
Figure 10-1. The Cross-Reference Lister Development Flow
www.ti.com Cross-Reference Lister Description
10.2 Invoking the Cross-Reference Lister

To use the cross-reference utility, the file must be assembled with the correct options and then linked into an
executable file. Assemble the assembly language files with the --cross_reference option. This option creates
a cross-reference listing and adds cross-reference information to the object file. By default, the assembler
cross-references only global symbols, but if the assembler is invoked with the --output_all_syms option, local
symbols are also added. Link the object files to obtain an executable file.
To invoke the cross-reference lister, enter the following:
xref2000 [options] [input filename [output filename]]
xref2000 is the command that invokes the cross-reference utility.
options identifies the cross-reference lister options you want to use. Options are not case sensitive and can appear anywhere
on the command line following the command.
-l (lowercase L) specifies the number of lines per page for the output file. The format of the -l option is -lnum,
where num is a decimal constant. For example, -l30 sets the number of lines per page in the output file to 30.
The space between the option and the decimal constant is optional. The default is 60 lines per page.
-q suppresses the banner and all progress information (run quiet).
input filename is a linked object file. If you omit the input filename, the utility prompts for a filename.
output filename is the name of the cross-reference listing file. If you omit the output filename, the default filename is the input
filename with an .xrf extension.
Cross-Reference Lister Description www.ti.com
10.3 Cross-Reference Listing Example

These terms defined appear in the cross-reference listing in Cross-Reference Listing:
Symbol Name of the symbol listed
Filename Name of the file where the symbol appears
RTYP The symbol's reference type in this file. The possible reference types are:
STAT The symbol is defined in this file and is not declared as global.
EDEF The symbol is defined in this file and is declared as global.
EREF The symbol is not defined in this file but is referenced as global.
UNDF The symbol is not defined in this file and is not declared as global.
AsmVal This hexadecimal number is the value assigned to the symbol at assembly time. A value may also be preceded by
a character that describes the symbol's attributes. Table 10-1 lists these characters and names.
LnkVal This hexadecimal number is the value assigned to the symbol after linking.
DefLn The statement number where the symbol is defined.
RefLn The line number where the symbol is referenced. If the line number is followed by an asterisk (*), then that
reference can modify the contents of the object. A blank in this column indicates that the symbol was never used.
Table 10-1. Symbol Attributes in Cross-Reference Listing

Character Meaning
' Symbol defined in a .text section
" Symbol defined in a .data section
+ Symbol defined in a .sect section
- Symbol defined in a .usect section
Cross-Reference Listing is an example of cross-reference listing.

Cross-Reference Listing
=============================================================================
Symbol: _SETUP
Filename RTYP AsmVal LnkVal DefLn RefLn RefLn RefLn
________ ____ ________ ________ ______ _______ _______ _______
demo.asm EDEF '00000018 00000018 18 13 20
=============================================================================
Symbol: _fill_tab
________ ____ ________ ________ ______ _______ _______ _______
ctrl.asm EDEF '00000000 00000040 10 5
=============================================================================
Symbol: _x42
________ ____ ________ ________ ______ _______ _______ _______
demo.asm EDEF '00000000 00000000 7 4 18
=============================================================================
Symbol: gvar
________ ____ ________ ________ ______ _______ _______ _______
tables.asm EDEF "00000000 08000000 11 10
=============================================================================
www.ti.com Object File Utilities
Chapter 11
Object File Utilities
This chapter describes how to invoke the following utilities:

• The object file display utility prints the contents of object files, executable files, and/or archive libraries in
both text and XML formats.
• The disassembler accepts object files and executable files as input and produces an assembly listing as
output. This listing shows assembly instructions, their opcodes, and the section program counter values.
• The name utility prints a list of names defined and referenced in an object file, executable files, and/or
archive libraries.
• The strip utility removes symbol table and debugging information from object and executable files.
11.1 Invoking the Object File Display Utility................................................................................................................ 284

11.2 Invoking the Disassembler.................................................................................................................................... 285
11.3 Invoking the Name Utility.......................................................................................................................................285
11.4 Invoking the Strip Utility.........................................................................................................................................286
Object File Utilities www.ti.com
11.1 Invoking the Object File Display Utility

The object file display utility, ofd2000, prints the contents of object files (.obj), executable files (.out), and/or
archive libraries (.lib) in both text and XML formats. Hidden symbols are listed as no name, while localized
symbols are listed like any other local symbol.
To invoke the object file display utility, enter the following:
ofd2000 [options] input filename [input filename]
ofd2000 is the command that invokes the object file display utility.
input filename names the object file (.obj), executable file (.out), or archive library (.lib) source file. The filename must contain an
extension.
options identify the object file display utility options that you want to use. Options are not case sensitive and can appear
anywhere on the command line following the command. Precede each option with a hyphen.
--call_graph Prints function stack usage and callee information in XML format. While
the XML output may be accessed by a developer, this option was primarily
designed to be used by tools such as Code Composer Studio to display an
application’s worst case stack usage.
--dwarf_display=attributes Controls the DWARF display filter settings by specifying a comma-delimited
list of attributes. When prefixed with no, an attribute is disabled instead of
enabled.
Examples: --dwarf_display=nodabbrev,nodline
--dwarf_display=all,nodabbrev
--dwarf_display=none,dinfo,types
The ordering of attributes is important (see --obj_display). The list of available
display attributes can be obtained by invoking ofd2000 --dwarf_display=help.
--dwarf Appends DWARF debug information to program output.
--help Displays help
--output=filename Sends program output to filename rather than to the screen.
--obj_display attributes Controls the object file display filter settings by specifying a comma-delimited
list of attributes. When prefixed with no, an attribute is disabled instead of
enabled.
Examples: --obj_display=rawdata,nostrings
--obj_display=all,norawdata
--obj_display=none,header
The ordering of attributes is important. For instance, in "--
obj_display=none,header", ofd2000 disables all output, then re-enables file
header information. If the attributes are specified in the reverse order,
(header,none), the file header is enabled, the all output is disabled, including
the file header. Thus, nothing is printed to the screen for the given files.
The list of available display attributes can be obtained by invoking ofd2000
--obj_display=help.
--verbose Prints verbose text output.
--xml Displays output in XML format.
--xml_indent=num Sets the number of spaces to indent nested XML tags.
If an archive file is given as input to the object file display utility, each object file member of the archive is
processed as if it was passed on the command line. The object file members are processed in the order in which
they appear in the archive file.
If the object file display utility is invoked without any options, it displays information about the contents of the
input files on the console screen.
www.ti.com Object File Utilities
Note
Object File Display Format: The object file display utility produces data in a text format by default.
This data is not intended to be used as input to programs for further processing of the information.
XML format should be used for mechanical processing.
11.2 Invoking the Disassembler

The disassembler, dis2000, examines the output of the assembler or linker. This utility accepts an object file or
executable file as input and writes the disassembled object code to standard output or a specified file.
To invoke the disassembler, enter the following:
dis2000 input filename[.] [output filename]
dis2000 is the command that invokes the disassembler.

input filename[.ext] For EABI, this is the name of the input file. If the optional extension is not specified, the file is searched for in this
order:
1. infile
2. infile.out, an executable file
3. infile.obj, an object file
For COFF, this is a COFF object file (.obj) or an executable file (.out).
output filename is the name of the optional output file to which the disassembly will be written. If an output filename is not specified,
the disassembly is written to standard output.
11.3 Invoking the Name Utility

The name utility, nm2000, prints the list of names defined and referenced in an object file, executable file, or
archive library. It also prints the symbol value and an indication of the kind of symbol. Hidden symbols are listed
as "" . To invoke the name utility, enter the following:
nm2000 [-options] [input filenames]
nm2000 is the command that invokes the name utility.

input filename is an object file (.obj), executable file (.out), or archive library (.lib).
options identifies the name utility options you want to use. Options are not case sensitive and can appear anywhere on
the command line following the invocation. Precede each option with a hyphen (-). The name utility options are as
follows:
--all (-a) prints all symbols.
-c also prints C_NULL symbols for a COFF object module.
-d also prints debug symbols for a COFF object module.
--prep_fname (-f) prepends file name to each symbol.
--global (-g) prints only global symbols.
--help (-h) shows the current help screen.
--format:long (-l) produces a detailed listing of the symbol information.
--sort:value (-n) sorts symbols numerically rather than alphabetically.
--output (-o) file outputs to the given file.
--sort:none (-p) causes the name utility to not sort any symbols.
--quiet (-q) (quiet mode) suppresses the banner and all progress information.
--sort:reverse (-r) sorts symbols in reverse order.
--dynamic (-s) lists symbols in the dynamic symbol table for an ELF object module.
-t also prints tag information symbols for a COFF object module.
--undefined (-u) only prints undefined symbols.
Object File Utilities www.ti.com
11.4 Invoking the Strip Utility

The strip utility, strip2000, removes symbol table and debugging information from object and executable files. To
invoke the strip utility, enter the following:
strip2000 [-p] input filename [input filename]
strip2000 is the command that invokes the strip utility.

input filename is an object file (.obj) or an executable file (.out).
options identifies the strip utility options you want to use. Options are not case sensitive and can appear anywhere on the
command line following the invocation. Precede each option with a hyphen (-). The strip utility option is as follows:
--help (-h) displays help information.
--outfile (-o) filename writes the stripped output to filename.
--postlink (-p) removes all information not required for execution. This option causes more
information to be removed than the default behavior, but the object file is left
in a state that cannot be linked. This option should be used only with static
executable files.
--rom Strip readonly sections and segments.
When the strip utility is invoked without the -o option, the input object files are replaced with the stripped version.
www.ti.com Hex Conversion Utility Description
Chapter 12
Hex Conversion Utility Description
The TMS320C28x assembler and linker create object files which are in binary formats that encourage modular
programming and provide powerful and flexible methods for managing code segments and target system
memory.
Most EPROM programmers do not accept object files as input. The hex conversion utility converts an object file
into one of several standard ASCII hexadecimal formats, suitable for loading into an EPROM programmer. The
utility is also useful in other applications requiring hexadecimal conversion of an object file (for example, when
using debuggers and loaders).
The hex conversion utility can produce these output file formats:
• ASCII-Hex, supporting 16-bit addresses (see Section 12.15.1)
• Binary file in 8-bit format (see Section 12.3.2)
• Extended Tektronix (Tektronix) (see Section 12.15.4)
• Intel MCS-86 (Intel) (see Section 12.15.2)
• Motorola Exorciser (Motorola-S), supporting 16-bit addresses (see Section 12.15.3)
• Texas Instruments SDSMAC (TI-Tagged), supporting 16-bit addresses (see Section 12.15.5)
• Texas Instruments TI-TXT format, supporting 16-bit addresses (see Section 12.15.6)
• C arrays
12.1 The Hex Conversion Utility's Role in the Software Development Flow.............................................................288
12.2 Invoking the Hex Conversion Utility..................................................................................................................... 289
12.3 Understanding Memory Widths.............................................................................................................................293
12.4 The ROMS Directive............................................................................................................................................... 297
12.5 The SECTIONS Directive........................................................................................................................................300
12.6 The Load Image Format (--load_image Option)...................................................................................................302
12.7 Excluding a Specified Section.............................................................................................................................. 303
12.8 Assigning Output Filenames.................................................................................................................................303
12.9 Image Mode and the --fill Option...........................................................................................................................304
12.10 Array Output Format............................................................................................................................................ 305
12.11 Building a Table for an On-Chip Boot Loader.................................................................................................... 305
12.12 Using Secure Flash Boot on TMS320F2838x Devices...................................................................................... 312
12.13 Controlling the ROM Device Address.................................................................................................................313
12.14 Control Hex Conversion Utility Diagnostics...................................................................................................... 314
12.15 Description of the Object Formats......................................................................................................................315
12.16 Hex Conversion Utility Error Messages............................................................................................................. 321
Hex Conversion Utility Description www.ti.com
12.1 The Hex Conversion Utility's Role in the Software Development Flow
Figure 12-1 highlights the role of the hex conversion utility in the software development process.
C
source
files
Macro C2xx
source C/C++
compiler assembler
files source
Archiver
source assistant
Macro Assembler
library Assembler
source
Debugging
tools
object support
Post-link
optimizer
Executable
object file
Hex-conversion
utility

Absolute lister
Figure 12-1. The Hex Conversion Utility in the TMS320C28x Software Development Flow
12.2 Invoking the Hex Conversion Utility

There are two basic methods for invoking the hex conversion utility:
• Specify the options and filenames on the command line. The following example converts the file
firmware.out into TI-Tagged format, producing two output files, firm.lsb and firm.msb.
hex2000 -t firmware -o firm.lsb -o firm.msb
• Specify the options and filenames in a command file. You can create a file that stores command line
options and filenames for invoking the hex conversion utility. The following example invokes the utility using a
command file called hexutil.cmd:
hex2000 hexutil.cmd
In addition to regular command line information, you can use the hex conversion utility ROMS and SECTIONS
directives in a command file.
12.2.1 Invoking the Hex Conversion Utility From the Command Line
To invoke the hex conversion utility, enter:
hex2000 [options] filename
hex2000 is the command that invokes the hex conversion utility.

options supplies additional information that controls the hex conversion process. You can use options on the command line or
in a command file. Table 12-1 lists the basic options.
• All options are preceded by a hyphen and are not case sensitive.
• Several options have an additional parameter that must be separated from the option by at least one space.
• Options with multi-character names must be spelled exactly as shown in this document; no abbreviations are
allowed.
• Options are not affected by the order in which they are used. The exception to this rule is the --quiet option, which
must be used before any other options.
filename names an object file or a command file (for more information, see Section 12.2.2).
Table 12-1. Basic Hex Conversion Utility Options

Option Alias Description See
General Options
Number output locations by bytes rather than by target
--byte -byte --
addressing
Specify the entry point at which to begin execution after boot
--entrypoint=addr -e Table 12-2
loading
--exclude={fname(sname) | If the filename (fname) is omitted, all sections matching sname
-exclude Section 12.7
sname} will be excluded.
--fill=value -fill Fill holes with value Section 12.9.2
Display the syntax for invoking the utility and list available
options. If the option is followed by another option or phrase,
--help -options, -h detailed information about that option or phrase is displayed. Section 12.2.2
For example, to see information about options associated with
generating a boot table, use --help boot.
--image -image Select image mode Section 12.9.1
--linkerfill -linkerfill Include linker fill sections in images --
--map=filename -map Generate a map file Section 12.4.2
--memwidth=value -memwidth Define the system memory word width (default 16 bits) Section 12.3.2
--order={LS|MS} -order Specify data ordering (endianness) Section 12.3.4
--outfile=filename -o Specify an output filename Section 12.8
--quiet -q Run quietly (when used, it must appear before other options) Section 12.2.2
Table 12-1. Basic Hex Conversion Utility Options (continued)

Specify the ROM device width (default depends on format used).
--romwidth=value -romwidth This option is ignored for the TI-TXT, binary, and TI-Tagged Section 12.3.3
formats.
--zero -zero, -z Reset the address origin to 0 in image mode Section 12.9.3
Diagnostic Options
--diag_error=id Categorizes the diagnostic identified by id as an error Section 12.14
--diag_remark=id Categorizes the diagnostic identified by id as a remark Section 12.14
--diag_suppress=id Suppresses the diagnostic identified by id Section 12.14
--diag_warning=id Categorizes the diagnostic identified by id as a warning Section 12.14
--display_error_number Displays a diagnostic's identifiers along with its text Section 12.14
--issue_remarks Issues remarks (nonserious warnings) Section 12.14
--no_warnings Suppresses warning diagnostics (errors are still issued) Section 12.14
Sets the error limit to count. The linker abandons linking after this
--set_error_limit=count Section 12.14
Boot Options
Convert all sections into bootable form (use instead of a
--boot -boot Table 12-2
SECTIONS directive)
--bootorg=addr -bootorg Specify the source address of the boot loader table Table 12-2
Specify a file containing the CMAC key for use with secure flash
--cmac=file Section 12.12
boot on TMS320F2838x devices.
--divsel value -divsel Specify the initial value for the DIVSEL register. This is valid only Refer to the boot
if -xintf8/16 is used. If no value specified, uses 2. ROM documentation
for your device.
Specify table source as the GP I/O port, 8-bit mode. (This is
--gpio8 -gpio8 Table 12-2
aliased by --can8.)
--gpio16 -gpio16 Specify table source as the GP I/O port, 16-bit mode Table 12-2
--lospcp=value -lospcp Specify the initial value for the LOSPCP register Table 12-2
--pllcr value -pllcr Specify the initial value for the PLLCR register. This is valid only if Refer to the boot
-xintf8/16 is used. If no value specified, uses 0. ROM documentation
for your device.
--sci8 -sci8 Specify table source as the SCI-A port, 8-bit mode Table 12-2
--spi8 -spi8 Specify table source as the SPI-A port, 8-bit mode Table 12-2
--spibrr=value -spibrr Specify the initial value for the SPIBRR register Table 12-2
--xintcnf2 value -xintcnf2 Specify the initial value for the XINTCNF2 register. This is valid Refer to the boot
only if -xintf8/xintf16 is used. ROM documentation
for your device.
--xintf8 -xintf8 Indicate use of parallel XINTF stream, 8-bit mode. Refer to the boot
ROM documentation
for your device.
--xintf16 -xintf16 Indicate use of parallel XINTF stream, 16-bit mode. Refer to the boot
ROM documentation
for your device.
--xtiming value -xtiming Specify the initial value for the XTIMINGn register. This is valid Refer to the boot
only if -xintf8/xintf16 is used. ROM documentation
for your device.
Output Options
--array Select array output format Section 12.10
--ascii -a Select ASCII-Hex Section 12.15.1
--binary -b Select binary (Must have memory width of 8 bits.) --
--intel -i Select Intel Section 12.15.2
--motorola=1 -m1 Select Motorola-S1 Section 12.15.3
--motorola=2 -m2 Select Motorola-S2 Section 12.15.3
Table 12-1. Basic Hex Conversion Utility Options (continued)

--motorola=3 -m3 Select Motorola-S3 (default -m option) Section 12.15.3
--tektronix -x Select Tektronix (default format if no output option specified) Section 12.15.4
--ti_tagged -t Select TI-Tagged (Must have memory width of 16 bits.) Section 12.15.5
--ti_txt Select TI-Txt (Must have memory width of 8 bits.) Section 12.15.6
Load Image Options
--load_image Output a file with load image object format Section 12.6
--load_image:combine_sections Specify whether sections should be combined. The default is Section 12.6
=[true|false] true.
--load_image:endian=[big|little] Specify the object file endianness. If this option is omitted, the Section 12.6
endianness of the first file on the command line is used.
--load_image:file_type Specify a file type other than object files. Object files can be Section 12.6
=[relocatable|executable] linked with one another, but addresses are lost. Relocatable files
contain the address in the sh_addr field of a section. Executable
files maintain address bindings and can be directly loaded.
--load_image:format=[coff|elf] Specify the ABI format of the object file. If this option is omitted, Section 12.6
the format is determined from the first file on the command line.
--load_image:globalize=string Do not localize the specified symbol. The default can be set with Section 12.6
the --load_image:symbol_binding option.
--load_image:localize=string Make the specified symbol local. The default can be set with the Section 12.6
--load_image:symbol_binding option.
--load_image:machine=[ARM| Specify the object file machine type. If this option is omitted, the Section 12.6
C2000|C6000|C7X|MSP430|PRU] machine type from the first file on the command line is used.
--load_image:output_symbols Specify whether symbols should be output to the file. The default Section 12.6
=[true|false] is false.
--load_image:section_addresses Specify whether the load address should be written in the output Section 12.6
=[true|false] file. Applies to relocatable files only. The default is true.
--load_image:section_prefix Specify a prefix for section names. The default is "image_". Section 12.6
=string
--load_image:symbol_binding Specify the default binding of symbols in the load image. Section 12.6
=[local|global]
The --section_name_prefix option is deprecated and replaced by --load_image:section_prefix. Undocumented

--host_image options have been replaced with --load_image options that are similar in many cases.
12.2.2 Invoking the Hex Conversion Utility With a Command File

A command file is useful if you plan to invoke the utility more than once with the same input files and options.
It is also useful if you want to use the ROMS and SECTIONS hex conversion utility directives to customize the
conversion process.
Command files are ASCII files that contain one or more of the following:
• Options and filenames. These are specified in a command file in exactly the same manner as on the
command line.
• ROMS directive. The ROMS directive defines the physical memory configuration of your system as a list of
address-range parameters. (See Section 12.4.)
• SECTIONS directive. The hex conversion utility SECTIONS directive specifies which sections from the
object file are selected. (See Section 12.5.)
• Comments. You can add comments to your command file by using the /* and */ delimiters. For example:
/* This is a comment. */
To invoke the utility and use the options you defined in a command file, enter:
hex2000 command_filename
You can also specify other options and files on the command line. For example, you could invoke the utility by
using both a command file and command line options:
hex2000 firmware.cmd --map=firmware.mxp
The order in which these options and filenames appear is not important. The utility reads all input from the
command line and all information from the command file before starting the conversion process. However, if you
are using the -q option, it must appear as the first option on the command line or in a command file.
The --help option displays the syntax for invoking the compiler and lists available options. If the --help option is
followed by another option or phrase, detailed information about the option or phrase is displayed. For example,
to see information about options associated with generating a boot table use --help boot.
The --quiet option suppresses the hex conversion utility's normal banner and progress information.
• Assume that a command file named firmware.cmd contains these lines:
firmware.out /* input file */
--ti-tagged /* TI-Tagged */
--outfile=firm.lsb /* output file */
--outfile=firm.msb /* output file */
You can invoke the hex conversion utility by entering:

hex2000 firmware.cmd
• This example shows how to convert a file called appl.out into eight hex files in Intel format. Each output file is
one byte wide and 4K bytes long.
appl.out /* input file */
--intel /* Intel format */
--map=appl.mxp /* map file */
ROMS
{
ROW1: origin=0x00000000 len=0x4000 romwidth=8
files={ appl.u0 appl.u1 app1.u2 appl.u3 }
ROW2: origin=0x00004000 len=0x4000 romwidth=8
files={ app1.u4 appl.u5 appl.u6 appl.u7 }
}
SECTIONS
{ .text, .data, .cinit, .sect1, .vectors, .econst:
}
12.3 Understanding Memory Widths

The hex conversion utility makes your memory architecture more flexible by allowing you to specify memory and
ROM widths. To use the hex conversion utility, you must understand how the utility treats word widths. Three
widths are important in the conversion process:
• Target width
• Memory width
• ROM width
The terms target word, memory word, and ROM word refer to a word of such a width.
Figure 12-2 illustrates the separate and distinct phases of the hex conversion utility's process flow.
Raw data in object files is
represented in the target’s
addressable units. For the
Input file TMS320C28x, this is 16 bits.
The raw data in the object file

Phase I is grouped into words according
to the size specified by the
--memwidth option.
The memwidth-sized words are

broken up according to the size
specified by the --romwidth option
Phase II
and are written to a file(s)
according to the specified format
(i.e., Intel, Tektronix, etc.).
Output file(s)
Figure 12-2. Hex Conversion Utility Process Flow
12.3.1 Target Width

Target width is the unit size (in bits) of the target processor's word. The width is fixed for each target and cannot
be changed. The TMS320C28x targets have a width of 16 bits.
12.3.2 Specifying the Memory Width
Memory width is the physical width (in bits) of the memory system. Usually, the memory system is physically the
same width as the target processor width: a 16-bit processor has a 16-bit memory architecture. However, some
applications require target words to be broken into multiple, consecutive, and narrower memory words.
By default, the hex conversion utility sets memory width to the target width (in this case, 16 bits).
You can change the memory width (except for TI-TXT, binary, and TI-Tagged formats) by:
• Using the --memwidth option. This changes the memory width value for the entire file.
• Setting the memwidth parameter of the ROMS directive. This changes the memory width value for the
address range specified in the ROMS directive and overrides the --memwidth option for that range. See
Section 12.4.
For both methods, use a value that is a power of 2 greater than or equal to 8.
You should change the memory width default value of 16 only when you need to break single target words into
consecutive, narrower memory words.
Note
Binary Format is 8 Bits Wide: You cannot change the memory width of the Binary format. The Binary
hex format supports an 8-bit memory width only. See Section 12.15.6 for more about using the ROMS
directive with an 8-bit format.
Note
TI-TXT Format is 8 Bits Wide: You cannot change the memory width of the TI-TXT format. The
TI-TXT hex format supports an 8-bit memory width only. See Section 12.15.6 for more about using the
ROMS directive with the TI-TXT hex format.
Figure 12-3 demonstrates how the memory width is related to object file data.
Source file
.word 0 AABBh
.word 01122h
COFF data (assumed to be in big-endian format)
AA BB
11 22
Memory widths (variable)
--memwidth=16 (default) --memwidth=8
AABB AA
Data after
phase I of 1122 BB
hex2000
11
22
Figure 12-3. Object File Data and Memory Widths
12.3.3 Partitioning Data Into Output Files

If your *.out file contains sections allocated to multiple pages, separate output files are generated for each page.
See Section 8.5.4.2 for information about specifying memory pages.
In addition, ROM width determines how the hex conversion utility partitions the data into output files. ROM width
specifies the physical width (in bits) of each ROM device and corresponding output file (usually one byte or eight
bits). After the object file data is mapped to the memory words, the memory words are broken into one or more
output files. The number of output files is determined by the following formulas:
• If memory width ≥ ROM width:
number of files = memory width ÷ ROM width
• If memory width < ROM width:
number of files = 1
For example, for a memory width of 16, you could specify a ROM width value of 16 and get a single output file
containing 16-bit words. Or you can use a ROM width value of 8 to get two files, each containing 8 bits of each
word.
The default ROM width that the hex conversion utility uses depends on the output format:
• All hex formats except TI-Tagged are configured as lists of 8-bit bytes; the default ROM width for these
formats is 8 bits.
• TI-Tagged is a 16-bit format; the default ROM width for TI-Tagged is 16 bits.
Note
The TI-Tagged Format is 16 Bits Wide
You cannot change the ROM width of the TI-Tagged format. The TI-Tagged format supports a 16-bit
ROM width only.
Note
TI-TXT Format is 8 Bits Wide
You cannot change the ROM width of the TI-TXT format. The TI-TXT hex format supports only an
8-bit ROM width. See Section 12.15.6 for more about using the ROMS directive with the TI-TXT hex
format.
You can change ROM width (except for TI-Tagged and TI-TXT formats) by:
• Using the --romwidth option. This option changes the ROM width value for the entire object file.
• Setting the romwidth parameter of the ROMS directive. This parameter changes the ROM width value for a
specific ROM address range and overrides the --romwidth option for that range. See Section 12.4.
For both methods, use a value that is a power of 2 greater than or equal to 8.
If you select a ROM width that is wider than the natural size of the output format, the utility simply writes
multibyte fields into the file. The --romwidth option is ignored for the TI-TXT and TI-Tagged formats.
Figure 12-4 illustrates how the object file data, memory, and ROM widths are related to one another.
Memory width and ROM width are used only for grouping the object file data; they do not represent values.
Thus, the byte ordering of the object file data is maintained throughout the conversion process. To refer to the
partitions within a memory word, the bits of the memory word are always numbered from right to left as follows:
--memwidth=16
AABB1122
15 0
Source file
.word 0 AABB h
.word 01122 h
COFF data (assumed to be in big-endian format)
AA BB
11 22
Memory widths (variable)
--memwidth=16 --memwidth=8
AABB AA
Data after
phase I of 1122 BB
hex2000 11
22
Output files
--romwidth=16
--outfile=file.wrd A A B B 1 1 2 2
Data after --romwidth=8

phase II of
hex2000 --outfile=file.b0 BB 22
--outfle=file.b1 AA 11
--romwidth=8
--outfile=file.byt A A B B1 1 2 2
Figure 12-4. Data, Memory, and ROM Widths
12.3.4 Specifying Word Order for Output Words

There are two ways to split a wide word into consecutive memory locations in the same hex conversion utility
output file:
• --order=MS specifies big-endian ordering, in which the most significant part of the wide word occupies the
first of the consecutive locations.
• --order=LS specifies little-endian ordering, in which the least significant part of the wide word occupies the
first of the consecutive locations.
By default, the utility uses little-endian format. Unless your boot loader program expects big-endian format, avoid
using --order=MS.
Note
When the --order Option Applies
• This option applies only when you use a memory width with a value less than 16. Otherwise,
--order is ignored.
• This option does not affect the way memory words are split into output files. Think of the files as
a set: the set contains a least significant file and a most significant file, but there is no ordering
over the set. When you list filenames for a set of files, you always list the least significant first,
regardless of the --order option.
12.4 The ROMS Directive

The ROMS directive specifies the physical memory configuration of your system as a list of address-range
parameters.
Each address range produces one set of files containing the hex conversion utility output data that corresponds
to that address range. Each file can be used to program one single ROM device.
The ROMS directive is similar to the MEMORY directive of the TMS320C28x linker: both define the memory map
of the target address space. Each line entry in the ROMS directive defines a specific address range. The general
syntax is:
ROMS
{
romname : [origin=value,] [length=value,] [romwidth=value,]
[memwidth=value,] [fill=value]
[files={ filename 1, filename 2, ...}]
romname : [origin=value,] [length=value,] [romwidth=value,]
[memwidth=value,] [fill=value]
[files={ filename 1, filename 2, ...}]
...
}
ROMS begins the directive definition.

romname identifies a memory range. The name of the memory range can be one to eight characters in length. The name has
no significance to the program; it simply identifies the range, except when the output is for a load image in which
case it denotes the section name. (Duplicate memory range names are allowed.)
origin specifies the starting address of a memory range. It can be entered as origin, org, or o. The associated value must
be a decimal, octal, or hexadecimal constant. If you omit the origin value, the origin defaults to 0. The following table
summarizes the notation you can use to specify a decimal, octal, or hexadecimal constant:
Constant Notation Example

Hexadecimal 0x prefix or h suffix 0x77 or 077h
Octal 0 prefix 077
Decimal No prefix or suffix 77
length specifies the length of a memory range as the physical length of the ROM device. It can be entered as length, len, or
l. The value must be a decimal, octal, or hexadecimal constant. If you omit the length, it defaults to the length of the
entire address space.
romwidth specifies the physical ROM width of the range in bits (see Section 12.3.3). Any value you specify here overrides the
--romwidth option. The value must be a decimal, octal, or hexadecimal constant that is a power of 2 greater than or
equal to 8.
memwidth specifies the memory width of the range in bits (see Section 12.3.2). Any value you specify here overrides the
--memwidth option. The value must be a decimal, octal, or hexadecimal constant that is a power of 2 greater than or
equal to 8. When using the memwidth parameter, you must also specify the paddr parameter for each section in the
SECTIONS directive. (See Section 12.5.)
fill specifies a fill value to use for the range. In image mode, the hex conversion utility uses this value to fill any holes
between sections in a range. A hole is an area between the input sections that comprises an output section that
contains no actual code or data. The fill value must be a decimal, octal, or hexadecimal constant with a width equal
to the target width. Any value you specify here overrides the --fill option. When using fill, you must also use the
--image command line option. (See Section 12.9.2.)
files identifies the names of the output files that correspond to this range. Enclose the list of names in curly braces and
order them from least significant to most significant output file, where the bits of the memory word are numbered
from right to left. The number of file names must equal the number of output files that the range generates. To
calculate the number of output files, see Section 12.3.3. The utility warns you if you list too many or too few
filenames.
Unless you are using the --image option, all of the parameters that define a range are optional; the commas and
equal signs are also optional. A range with no origin or length defines the entire address space. In image mode,
an origin and length are required for all ranges.
Ranges must not overlap and must be listed in order of ascending address.
12.4.1 When to Use the ROMS Directive
If you do not use a ROMS directive, the utility defines a single default range that includes the entire address
space. This is equivalent to a ROMS directive with a single range without origin or length.
Use the ROMS directive when you want to:
• Program large amounts of data into fixed-size ROMs. When you specify memory ranges corresponding to
the length of your ROMs, the utility automatically breaks the output into blocks that fit into the ROMs.
• Restrict output to certain segments. You can also use the ROMS directive to restrict the conversion to
a certain segment or segments of the target address space. The utility does not convert the data that falls
outside of the ranges defined by the ROMS directive. Sections can span range boundaries; the utility splits
them at the boundary into multiple ranges. If a section falls completely outside any of the ranges you define,
the utility does not convert that section and issues no messages or warnings. Thus, you can exclude sections
without listing them by name with the SECTIONS directive. However, if a section falls partially in a range and
partially in unconfigured memory, the utility issues a warning and converts only the part within the range.
• Use image mode. When you use the --image option, you must use a ROMS directive. Each range is filled
completely so that each output file in a range contains data for the whole range. Holes before, between,
or after sections are filled with the fill value from the ROMS directive, with the value specified with the --fill
option, or with the default value of 0.
12.4.2 An Example of the ROMS Directive

The ROMS directive in A ROMS Directive Example shows how 16K bytes of 16-bit memory could be partitioned
for two 8K-byte 8-bit EPROMs. Figure 12-5 illustrates the input and output files.
A ROMS Directive Example
infile.out
--image
--memwidth 16
ROMS
{
EPROM1: org = 0x00004000, len = 0x2000, romwidth = 8
files = { rom4000.b0, rom4000.b1}
EPROM2: org = 0x00006000, len = 0x2000, romwidth = 8,
fill = 0xFF00FF00,
files = { rom6000.b0, rom6000.b1}
}
Figure 12-5. The infile.out File Partitioned Into Four Output Files
The map file (specified with the --map option) is advantageous when you use the ROMS directive with multiple
ranges. The map file shows each range, its parameters, names of associated output files, and a list of contents
(section names and fill values) broken down by address. Map File Output From Showing Memory Ranges is a
segment of the map file resulting from the example in A ROMS Directive Example.
Map File Output From A ROMS Directive Example Showing Memory Ranges
-----------------------------------------------------
00004000..00005fff Page=0 Width=8 "EPROM1"
-----------------------------------------------------
OUTPUT FILES: rom4000.b0 [b0..b7]
rom4000.b1 [b8..b15]
CONTENTS: 00004000..0000487f .text
00004880..00005b7f FILL = 00000000
00005b80..00005fff .data
-----------------------------------------------------
00006000..00007fff Page=0 Width=8 "EPROM2"
-----------------------------------------------------
OUTPUT FILES: rom6000.b0 [b0..b7]
rom6000.b1 [b8..b15]
CONTENTS: 00006000..0000633f .data
00006340..000066ff FILL = ff00ff00
00006700..00007c7f .table
00007c80..00007fff FILL = ff00ff00
EPROM1 defines the address range from 0x00004000 through 0x00005FFF with the following sections:
This section ... Has this range ...
.text 0x00004000 through 0x0000487F
.data 0x00005B80 through 0x00005FFF
The rest of the range is filled with 0h (the default fill value), converted into two output files:
• rom4000.b0 contains bits 0 through 7
EPROM2 defines the address range from 0x00006000 through 0x00007FFF with the following sections:
This section ... Has this range ...
.data 0x00006000 through 0x0000633F
.table 0x00006700 through
0x00007C7F
The rest of the range is filled with 0xFF0 (from the specified fill value). The data from this range is converted into
two output files:
12.5 The SECTIONS Directive
You can convert specific sections of the object file by name with the hex conversion utility SECTIONS directive.
You can also specify those sections that you want to locate in ROM at a different address than the load address
specified in the linker command file. If you:
• Use a SECTIONS directive, the utility converts only the sections that you list in the directive and ignores all
other sections in the object file.
• Do not use a SECTIONS directive, the utility converts all initialized sections that fall within the configured
memory.
Uninitialized sections are never converted, whether or not you specify them in a SECTIONS directive.
Note
Sections Generated by the C/C++ Compiler: The TMS320C28x C/C++ compiler automatically
generates these sections:
• Initialized sections: .text, .econst or .const (depending on the ABI), and .cinit
• Uninitialized sections: .ebss or .bss, .stack, and .esysmem or .sysmem
Use the SECTIONS directive in a command file. (See Section 12.2.2.) The general syntax is:
SECTIONS
{
oname(sname)[:] [paddr=value]
oname(sname)[:] [paddr= boot]
oname(sname)[:] [boot]
...
}
SECTIONS begins the directive definition.

oname identifies the object filename the section is located within. The filename is optional when only a single input file is
given, but required otherwise.
sname identifies a section in the input file. If you specify a section that does not exist, the utility issues a warning and
ignores the name.
paddr=value specifies the physical ROM address at which this section should be located. This value overrides the section load
address given by the linker. This value must be a decimal, octal, or hexadecimal constant. It can also be the word
boot (to indicate a boot table section for use with a boot loader). If your file contains multiple sections, and if one
section uses a paddr parameter, then all sections must use a paddr parameter.
boot configures a section for loading by a boot loader. This is equivalent to using paddr=boot. Boot sections have a
physical address determined by the location of the boot table. The origin of the boot table is specified with the
--bootorg option.
For more similarity with the linker's SECTIONS directive, you can use colons after the section names (in place of
the equal sign on the boot keyboard). For example, the following statements are equivalent:
SECTIONS { .text: .data: boot }
SECTIONS { .text: .data = boot }
In the example below, the object file contains six initialized sections: .text, .data, .econst, .vectors, .coeff,
and .tables. If you want only .text and .data to be converted, use this a SECTIONS directive:
SECTIONS { .text: .data: }
To configure both of these sections for boot loading, add the boot keyword:
SECTIONS { .text = boot .data = boot }
For more information about --boot and other command line options associated with boot tables, see Section 12.2
and Section 12.11.
12.6 The Load Image Format (--load_image Option)

A load image is an object file that contains the load addresses and initialized sections of one or more executable
files. The load image object file can be used for ROM masking or can be relinked in a subsequent link step.
Several command-line options allow you to control the format of the file produced when --load_image is used.
Options allow you to do the following:
• Create a relocatable or executable output file with the --load_image:file_type option.
• Specify the ABI, machine type, and endianness with the -load_image:format, --load_image:machine, and
--load_image:endian options, respectively.
• Combine sections, add a prefix to section names, or include load addresses in the output file with the
--load_image:combine_sections, --load_image:section_prefix, and --load_image:section_addresses options.
• Choose whether to output symbols and specify their binding in the output with the
--load_image:output_symbols and --load_image:symbol_binding options.
• Control whether individual symbols are local or global with the -load_image:localize and
--load_image:globalize options.
These command-line options are described in Section 12.2.1.
12.6.1 Load Image Section Formation
The load image sections are formed by collecting the initialized sections from the input executables. There are
two ways the load image sections are formed:
• Using the ROMS Directive. Each memory range that is given in the ROMS directive denotes a load image
section. The romname is the section name. The origin and length parameters are required. The memwidth,
romwidth, and files parameters are invalid and are ignored.
When using the ROMS directive and the --load_image option, the --image option is required.
• Default Load Image Section Formation. If no ROMS directive is given, the load image sections are formed
by combining contiguous initialized sections in the input executables. Sections with gaps smaller than the
target word size are considered contiguous.
The default section names are image_1, image_2, ... If another prefix is desired, the --
load_image:section_prefix=prefix option can be used.
12.6.2 Load Image Characteristics
All load image sections are initialized data sections. In the absence of a ROMS directive, the load/run address of
the load image section is the load address of the first input section in the load image section. If the SECTIONS
directive was used and a different load address was given using the paddr parameter, this address will be used.
The load image format always creates a single load image object file. The format of the load image object file is
determined based on the input files. The file is not marked executable and does not contain an entry point. The
default load image object file name is ti_load_image.obj. This can be changed using the --outfile option. Only
one --outfile option is valid when creating a load image, all other occurrences are ignored.
Note
Concerning Load Image Format: These options are invalid when creating a load image:
• --memwidth
• --romwidth
• --order
• --zero
• --byte
If a boot table is being created, either using the SECTIONS directive or the --boot option, the ROMS
directive must be used.
12.7 Excluding a Specified Section

The --exclude section_name option can be used to inform the hex utility to ignore the specified section.
If a SECTIONS directive is used, it overrides the --exclude option. For example, if a SECTIONS directive
containing the section name mysect is used and an --exclude mysect is specified, the SECTIONS directive takes
precedence and mysect is not excluded.
The --exclude option has a limited wildcard capability. The * character can be placed at the beginning or end of
the name specifier to indicate a suffix or prefix, respectively. For example, --exclude sect* disqualifies all sections
that begin with the characters sect. If you specify the --exclude option on the command line with the * wildcard,
use quotes around the section name and wildcard. For example, --exclude"sect*". Using quotes prevents the *
from being interpreted by the hex conversion utility. If --exclude is in a command file, do not use quotes.
If multiple object files are given, the object file in which the section to be excluded can be given in the form
oname(sname). If the object filename is not provided, all sections matching the section name are excluded.
Wildcards cannot be used for the filename, but can appear within the parentheses.
12.8 Assigning Output Filenames
When the hex conversion utility translates your object file into a data format, it partitions the data into one or
more output files. When multiple files are formed by splitting memory words into ROM words, filenames are
always assigned in order from least to most significant, where bits in the memory words are numbered from right
to left. This is true, regardless of target or endian ordering.
The hex conversion utility follows this sequence when assigning output filenames:
1. It looks for the ROMS directive. If a file is associated with a range in the ROMS directive and you have
included a list of files (files = {. . .}) on that range, the utility takes the filename from the list. For example,
assume that the target data is 16-bit words being converted to two files, each eight bits wide. To name the
output files using the ROMS directive, you could specify:
ROMS {
RANGE1: romwidth=8, files={ xyz.b0 xyz.b1 }
}
The utility creates the output files by writing the least significant bits to xyz.b0 and the most significant bits to
xyz.b1.
2. It looks for the --outfile options. You can specify names for the output files with the --outfile option. If no
filenames are listed in the ROMS directive and you use --outfile options, the utility takes the filename from
the list of --outfile options. The following options have the same effect as the ROMS directive above:
--outfile=xyz.b0 --outfile=xyz.b1
If your *.out file contains sections allocated to multiple pages, separate output files are generated for each
page. See Section 8.5.4.2 for information about specifying memory pages.
If both the ROMS directive and --outfile options are used, the ROMS directive overrides the --outfile options.
3. It assigns a default filename. If you specify no filenames or fewer names than output files, the utility
assigns a default filename. A default filename consists of the base name from the input file plus a 2- to
3-character extension. The extension has three parts:
a. A format character, based on the output format (see Section 12.15):
a for ASCII-Hex
i for Intel
m for Motorola-S
t for TI-Tagged
x for Tektronix
b. The range number in the ROMS directive. Ranges are numbered starting with 0. If there is no ROMS
directive, or only one range, the utility omits this character.
c. The file number in the set of files for the range, starting with 0 for the least significant file.
For example, assume a.out is for a 16-bit target processor and you are creating Intel format output. With no
output filenames specified, the utility produces two output files named a.i0, a.i1, a.i2, a.i3.
If you include the following ROMS directive when you invoke the hex conversion utility, you would have four
output files:
ROMS
{
range1: o = 0x1000 l = 0x1000
range2: o = 0x2000 l = 0x1000
}
These output files ... Contain data in these locations ...

a.i00 and a.i01 0x1000 through 0x1FFF
a.i10 and a.i11 0x2000 through 0x2FFF
12.9 Image Mode and the --fill Option

This section points out the advantages of operating in image mode and describes how to produce output files
with a precise, continuous image of a target memory range.
12.9.1 Generating a Memory Image
With the --image option, the utility generates a memory image by completely filling all of the mapped ranges
specified in the ROMS directive.
An object file consists of blocks of memory (sections) with assigned memory locations. Typically, all sections
are not adjacent: there are holes between sections in the address space for which there is no data. When such
a file is converted without the use of image mode, the hex conversion utility bridges these holes by using the
address records in the output file to skip ahead to the start of the next section. In other words, there may be
discontinuities in the output file addresses. Some EPROM programmers do not support address discontinuities.
In image mode, there are no discontinuities. Each output file contains a continuous stream of data that
corresponds exactly to an address range in target memory. Any holes before, between, or after sections are
filled with a fill value that you supply.
An output file converted by using image mode still has address records, because many of the hexadecimal
formats require an address on each line. However, in image mode, these addresses are always contiguous.
Note
Defining the Ranges of Target Memory
If you use image mode, you must also use a ROMS directive. In image mode, each output file
corresponds directly to a range of target memory. You must define the ranges. If you do not supply
the ranges of target memory, the utility tries to build a memory image of the entire target processor
address space. This is potentially a huge amount of output data. To prevent this situation, the utility
requires you to explicitly restrict the address space with the ROMS directive.
12.9.2 Specifying a Fill Value

The --fill option specifies a value for filling the holes between sections. The fill value must be specified as an
integer constant following the --fill option. The width of the constant is assumed to be that of a word on the target
processor. For example, specifying --fill=0x0FF results in a fill pattern of 0x0FF. The constant value is not sign
extended.
The hex conversion utility uses a default fill value of 0 if you do not specify a value with the fill option. The --fill
option is valid only when you use --image; otherwise, it is ignored.
12.9.3 Steps to Follow in Using Image Mode

Step 1: Define the ranges of target memory with a ROMS directive. See Section 12.4.
Step 2: Invoke the hex conversion utility with the --image option. You can optionally use the --zero option to reset the address origin
to 0 for each output file. If you do not specify a fill value with the ROMS directive and you want a value other than the default
of 0, use the --fill option.
12.10 Array Output Format

The --array option causes the output to be generated in C array format. In this format, data contained in
initialized sections of an executable file are defined as C arrays. Output arrays may be compiled along with a
host program and used to initialize the target at runtime.
Arrays are formed by collecting the initialized sections from the input executable. There are two ways arrays are
formed:
• With the ROMS directive. Each memory range that is given in the ROMS directive denotes an array. The
romname is used as the array name. The origin and length parameters of the ROM directive are required.
The memwidth, romwidth, and files parameters are invalid and are ignored.
• No ROMS directive (default). If no ROMS directive is given, arrays are formed by combining initialized
sections within each page, beginning with the first initialized section. Arrays will reflect any gaps that exist
between sections.
The default name for the array generated for test.out is test_image_0. The --array:name_prefix option
can be used to override the default prefix for array names. For example, use --array:name_prefix=myarray to
cause the name for the array to be myarray_0.
The data type for array elements is uint16_t.
12.11 Building a Table for an On-Chip Boot Loader
Some C28x devices, such as the F2810/12, have a built-in boot loader that initializes memory with one or more
blocks of code or data. The boot loader uses a special table stored in memory or loaded from a device peripheral
to initialize code or data. The hex conversion utility supports the boot loader by automatically building the boot
table.
See Section 3.1.2 for a general discussion of bootstrap loading.
12.11.1 Description of the Boot Table
The input for a boot loader is the boot table. The boot table contains records that instruct the on-chip loader to
copy blocks of data contained in the table to specified destination addresses. The table can be stored in memory
(such as EPROM) or read in through a device peripheral (such as a serial or communications port).
The hex conversion utility automatically builds the boot table for the boot loader. Using the utility, you specify the
sections you want the boot loader to initialize and the table location. The hex conversion utility builds a complete
image of the table according to the format specified and converts it into hexadecimal in the output files. Then,
you can burn the table into ROM or load it by other means.
The boot loader supports loading from memory that is narrower than the normal width of memory. For example,
you can boot a 16-bit TMS320C28x from a single 8-bit EPROM by using the --memwidth option to configure the
width of the boot table. The hex conversion utility automatically adjusts the table's format and length. See the
boot loader example in the TMS320C28x DSP CPU and Instruction Set Reference Guide for an illustration of a
boot table.
12.11.2 The Boot Table Format
The boot table format is simple. Typically, there is a header record containing a key value that indicates memory
width, entry point, and values for control registers. Each subsequent block has a header containing the size and
destination address of the block followed by data for the block. Multiple blocks can be entered. The table ends
with a header containing size zero. See the boot loader section in the TMS320C28x DSP CPU and Instruction
Set Reference Guide for more information.
12.11.3 How to Build the Boot Table

Table 12-2 summarizes the hex conversion utility options available for the boot loader.
Table 12-2. Boot-Loader Options
Option Description
--boot Convert all sections into bootable form (use instead of a SECTIONS directive).
--bootorg=value Specify the source address of the boot-loader table.
--entrypoint=value Specify the entry point at which to begin execution after boot loading. The value can be an address or a
global symbol.
--gpio8 Specify the source of the boot-loader table as the GP I/O port, 8-bit mode
--gpio16 Specify the source of the boot-loader table as the GP I/O port, 16-bit mode
--lospcp=value Specify the initial value for the LOSPCP register. The value is used only for the spi8 boot table format
and is ignored for all other formats. A value greater than 0x7F is truncated to 0x7F.
--sci8 Specify the source of the boot-loader table as the SCI-A port, 8-bit mode
--spi8 Specify the source of the boot-loader table as the SPI-A port, 8-bit mode
--spibrr=value Specify the initial value for the SPIBRR register. The value is used only for the spi8 boot table format
and is ignored for all other formats. A value greater than 0x7F is truncated to 0x7F.
12.11.3.1 Building the Boot Table

To build the boot table, follow these steps:
Step 1: Link the file. Each block of the boot table data corresponds to an initialized section in the object file. Uninitialized sections
are not converted by the hex conversion utility (see Section 12.5).
When you select a section for placement in a boot-loader table, the hex conversion utility places the section's load address
in the destination address field for the block in the boot table. The section content is then treated as raw data for that block.
The hex conversion utility does not use the section run address. When linking, you need not worry about the ROM address
or the construction of the boot table; the hex conversion utility handles this.
Step 2: Identify the bootable sections. You can use the --boot option to tell the hex conversion utility to configure all sections for
boot loading. Or, you can use a SECTIONS directive to select specific sections to be configured (see Section 12.5). If you
use a SECTIONS directive, the --boot option is ignored.
Step 3: Set the boot table format. Specify the --gpio8, --gpio16, --sci8, or --spi8 options to set the source format of the boot table.
You do not need to specify the memwidth and romwidth as the utility will set these formats automatically. If --memwidth and
--romwidth are used after a format option, they override the default for the format.
Step 4: Set the ROM address of the boot table. Use the --bootorg option to set the source address of the complete table.
For example, if you are using the C28x and booting from memory location 0x3FF000, specify --bootorg=0x3FF000. The
address field for the boot table in the hex conversion utility output file will then start at 0x3FF000.
Step 5: Set boot-loader-specific options. Set entry point and control register values as needed.
Step 6: Describe your system memory configuration. See Section 12.3 and Section 12.4.
12.11.3.2 Leaving Room for the Boot Table

The complete boot table is similar to a single section containing all of the header records and data for the boot
loader. The address of this section is the boot table origin. As part of the normal conversion process, the hex
conversion utility converts the boot table to hexadecimal format and maps it into the output files like any other
section.
Be sure to leave room in your system memory for the boot table, especially when you are using the ROMS
directive. The boot table cannot overlap other nonboot sections or unconfigured memory. Usually, this is not
a problem; typically, a portion of memory in your system is reserved for the boot table. Simply configure this
memory as one or more ranges in the ROMS directive, and use the --bootorg option to specify the starting
address.
12.11.4 Booting From a Device Peripheral
You can choose to boot from the F2810/12 serial or parallel port by using the --gpio9, --gpio16, --sci8, or --spi8
boot table format option. The initial value for the LOSPCP register can be specified with the --lospcp option. The
initial value for the SPIBRR register can be specified with the --spibrr option. Only the --spi8 format uses these
control register values in the boot table.
If the register values are not specified for the --spi8 format, the hex conversion utility uses the default values
0x02 for LOSPCP and 0x7F for SPIBRR. When the boot table format options are specified and the ROMS
directive is not specified, the ASCII format hex utility output does not produce the address record.
12.11.5 Setting the Entry Point for the Boot Table
After completing the boot load process, execution starts at the default entry point specified by the linker and
contained in the object file. By using the --entrypoint option with the hex conversion utility, you can set the entry
point to a different address.
For example, if you want your program to start running at address 0x0123 after loading, specify --
entrypoint=0x0123 on the command line or in a command file. You can determine the --entrypoint address
by looking at the map file that the linker generates.
Note
Valid Entry Points
The value can be a constant, or it can be a symbol that is externally defined (for example, with
a .global) in the assembly source.
12.11.6 Using the C28x Boot Loader

This subsection explains how to use the hex conversion utility with the boot loader for C28x devices. The C28x
boot loader accepts the formats listed in Table 12-3.
Table 12-3. Boot Table Source Formats
Format Option
Parallel boot GP I/O 8 bit --gpio8
Parallel boot GP I/O 16 bit --gpio16
8-bit SCI boot --sci8
8-bit SPI boot --spi8
The F2810/12 can boot through the SCI-A 8-bit, SPI-A 8-bit, GP I/O 8-bit, or GP I/I 16-bit interface. The format of
the boot table is shown in Table 12-4.
Table 12-4. Boot Table Format
Description Word Content
Boot table header 1 Key value (0x10AA or 0x08AA)
2-9 Register initialization value or reserved for future use
10-11 Entry point
Block header 12 Block size in number of words (n1)
13-14 Destination address of the block
Block data 15 Raw data for the block (n1 words)
Block header 16 + nl Block size in number of words
. Destination address of the block
Block data . Raw data for the block
Additional block headers and data, as ... Content as appropriate
required
Block header with size 0 0x0000; indicates the end of the boot table.
The C28x can boot through either the serial 8-bit or parallel interface with either 8- or 16-bit data. The format
is the same for any combination: the boot table consists of a field containing the destination address, a field
containing the length, and a block containing the data. You can boot only one section. If you are booting from an
8-bit channel, 16-bit words are stored in the table with MSBs first; the hex conversion utility automatically builds
the table in the correct format. Use the following options to specify the boot table source:
• To boot from a SCI-A port, specify --sci8 when invoking the utility. Do not specify --memwidth or --romwidth.
• To boot from a SPI-A port, specify --spi8 when invoking the utility. Do not specify --memwidth or --romwidth.
Use --lospcp to set the initial value for the LOSPCP register and --spibrr to set the initial value for the SPIBRR
register. If the register values are not specified for the --spi8 format, the hex conversion utility uses the default
value 0x02 for LOSPCP and 0x7F for SPIBRR.
• To load from a general-purpose parallel I/O port, invoke the utility with --gpio8 or --gpio16. Do not specify
--memwidth or --romwidth.
The command file in Example 12-1 allows you to boot the .text and .cinit sections of test.out from a 16-bit-wide
EPROM at location 0x3FFC00. The map file test.map is also generated.
Example 12-1. Sample Command File for Booting From 8-Bit SPI Boot
/*---------------------------------------------------------------------------*/
/* Hex converter command file. */
/*---------------------------------------------------------------------------*/
test.out /* Input file */
--ascii /* Select ASCII format */
--map=test.map /* Specify the map file */
--outfile=test_spi8.hex /* Hex utility out file */
--boot /* Consider all the input sections as boot sections */
--spi8 /* Specify the SPI 8-bit boot format */
--lospcp=0x3F /* Set the initial value for the LOSPCP as 0x3F */
/* The -spibrr option is not specified to show that */
/* the hex utility uses the default value (0x7F) */
--entrypoint=0x3F0000 /* Set the entry point */
The command file in Example 12-1 generates the out file in Figure 12-6. The control register values are coded in
the boot table header and that header has the address that is specified with the --entrypoint option.
Key value
LOSPCP initial value
SPIBRR register initial value
Reserved for future use Entry point
Length of first block in words

Address of the first block
Length of second block in words

Address of the second block
02 00 82 10 89 00 3F 00 00 00 00 00
Terminating header with length zero
Figure 12-6. Sample Hex Converter Out File for Booting From 8-Bit SPI Boot
The command file in Example 12-2 allows you to boot the .text and .cinit sections of test.out from the 16-bit
parallel GP I/O port. The map file test.map is also generated.
Example 12-2. Sample Command File for C28x 16-Bit Parallel Boot GP I/O
/*---------------------------------------------------------------------*/
/*---------------------------------------------------------------------*/
--ascii /* Select ASCII format */
--outfile=test_gpio16.hex /* Hex utility out file */
--gpio16 /* Specify the 16-bit GP I/O boot format */
SECTIONS
{
.text: paddr=BOOT
.cinit: paddr=BOOT
}
The command file in Example 12-2 generates the out file in Figure 12-7.
Key value Reserved for future use Entry point

A8 00 00 06
00 02 10 82 00 89 00 3F 00 00 00 00
Figure 12-7. Sample Hex Converter Out File for C28x 16-Bit Parallel Boot GP I/O
The command file in Example 12-3 allows you to boot the .text and .cinit sections of test.out from a 16-bit wide
EPROM from the SCI-A 8-bit port. The map file test.map is also generated.
Example 12-3. Sample Command File for Booting From 8-Bit SCI Boot
/*---------------------------------------------------------------------*/
/*---------------------------------------------------------------------*/
-ascii /* Select ASCII format */
--outfile=test_sci8.hex /* Hex utility out file */
--sci8 /* Specify the SCI 8-bit boot format */
SECTIONS
{
.text: paddr=BOOT
.cinit: paddr=BOOT
}
The command file in Example 12-3 generates the out file in Figure 12-8.
Key value Reserved for future use Entry point

02 00 82 10 89 00 3F 00 00 00 00 00
Figure 12-8. Sample Hex Converter Out File for Booting From 8-Bit SCI Boot
12.12 Using Secure Flash Boot on TMS320F2838x Devices

The hex conversion utility supports the secure flash boot capability provided by TMS320F2838x devices, which
have both C28 and ARM cores. The secure flash boot applies the Cipher-based Message Authentication
Protocol (CMAC) algorithm to verify CMAC tags for regions of allocated memory.
Secure flash boot is similar to the regular flash boot mode in that the boot flow branches to the configured
memory address in flash. The difference is that this branch occurs only after the flash memory contents have
been authenticated. The flash authentication uses CMAC to authenticate 16 KB of flash. The CMAC calculation
requires a 128-bit key that you define. Additionally, you must calculate a golden CMAC tag based on the 16
KB flash memory range and store it along with the application code at a hardcoded address in flash. During
secure flash boot, the calculated CMAC tag is compared to the golden CMAC tag in flash to determine the
pass/fail status of the CMAC authentication. If authentication passes, the boot flow continues and branches to
flash to begin executing the application. See the TMS320F2838x Microcontrollers Technical Reference Manual
(SPRUII0) for further details about secure flash boot and the CMAC algorithm.
use the hex conversion utility as follows to apply the CMAC algorithm to regions in allocated memory:
• Use the --cmac=file option. The file should contain a 128-bit hex CMAC key. The CMAC key in the
file specified by the --cmac command-line option must use the format 0xkey0key1key2key3 in order
to access the device registers for CMACKEY0-3. For example, the following file contents represent
CMACKEY registers containing key0= 0x7c0b7db9, key1= 0x811f10d0, key2= 0x0e476c7a, and key3=
0x0d92f6e0.
0x7c0b7db9811f10d00e476c7a0d92f6e0
• Use either the --image option or the --load_image option when using the --cmac option. If you use the --image
option, set both --memwidth and --romwidth to 16.
• If you use the --boot option (and other boot table options described in Section 12.11.3) with the --cmac option,
the CMAC algorithm assumes that a fill value of 1 is used for gaps between boot table regions. Because of
this assumption, you should also set --fill=0xFFFF when using the --boot and --cmac options together.
• Specify a HEX directive with one entry that represents all the allocated flash memory. Use a 128-bit aligned
length and specify the optional fill value. (The default fill is set to 0’s.)
• Define the global CMAC tags in C code.
The CMAC feature uses four secure flash boot memory regions that are hardcoded for start/end/tag addresses,
and one flexible CMAC region. The flexible region can encompass the entire allocated region as input in the
HEX directive or user-specified start/end addresses defined in C code.
C code definitions like the following are required to reserve space for the CMAC tag symbols.
struct CMAC_TAG
{ char tag[8];
uint32_t start;
uint32_t end;
};
#pragma RETAIN(cmac_sb_1)
#pragma LOCATION(cmac_sb_1, 0x080002)
const char cmac_sb_1[8] = { 0 };
#pragma LOCATION(cmac_sb_2, 0x088002)
#pragma LOCATION(cmac_sb_3, 0x0a8002)
#pragma LOCATION(cmac_sb_4, 0x0be002)
#pragma RETAIN(cmac_all)
#pragma LOCATION(cmac_all, 0x087002)
const struct CMAC_TAG cmac_all = { 0 }, 0x0, 0x0};
The four secure flash boot region CMAC tags are stored in the cmac_sb_1 through cmac_sb_4 symbols. The
cmac_all symbol stores the CMAC tag for the flexible user-specified region. For cmac_all :
• If the start and end CMAC_TAG struct members are zero, then the CMAC algorithm runs over entire
memory region specified in the HEX directive. The hex conversion utility populates the start and end memory
locations with the addresses input from the HEX directive entry.
• If the start and end members are non-zero, then the CMAC algorithm is instead applied between the
specified addresses.
RETAIN pragmas are required in the C code if these symbols are not accessed in the application code.
LOCATION pragmas are required to place symbols at the required memory locations. The LOCATION entries
for cmac_sb_1 through cmac_sb_4 are at fixed addresses. The LOCATION address for cmac_all can be
user-specified. However, it must not be located within any secure flash boot regions, because the ROM CMAC
implementation on the devices does not support this.
The CMAC algorithm is applied prior to the hex conversion. No changes are made to the original input ELF
executable.
The hex conversion utility applies the CMAC algorithm only to CMAC regions that have global symbols defined.
So if an ELF executable defines only cmac_sb_1 and cmac_all , then only those two CMAC tags will be
generated and populated in the generated hex output file.
12.13 Controlling the ROM Device Address
The hex conversion utility output address field corresponds to the ROM device address. The EPROM
programmer burns the data into the location specified by the hex conversion utility output file address field.
The hex conversion utility offers some mechanisms to control the starting address in ROM of each section.
However, many EPROM programmers offer direct control of the location in ROM in which the data is burned.
The address field of the hex-conversion utility output file is controlled by the following items, which are listed from
low to high priority:
1. The linker command file. By default, the address field of the hex conversion utility output file is the load
address (as given in the linker command file) .
2. The paddr parameter of the SECTIONS directive. When the paddr parameter is specified for a section,
the hex conversion utility bypasses the section load address and places the section in the address specified
by paddr.
3. The --zero option. When you use the --zero option, the utility resets the address origin to 0 for each output
file. Since each file starts at 0 and counts upward, any address records represent offsets from the beginning
of the file (the address within the ROM) rather than actual target addresses of the data.
You must use the --zero option in conjunction with the --image option to force the starting address in each
output file to be zero. If you specify the --zero option without the --image option, the utility issues a warning
and ignores the --zero option.
4. The --byte option. Some EPROM programmers may require the output file address field to contain a byte
count rather than a word count. If you use the −byte option, the output file address increments once for each
byte. For example, if the starting address is 0h, the first line contains eight words, and you use no −byte
option, the second line would start at address 8 (8h). If the starting address is 0h, the first line contains
eight words, and you use the −byte option, the second line would start at address 16 (010h). The data in
both examples are the same; −byte affects only the calculation of the output file address field, not the actual
target processor address of the converted data.
The --byte option causes the address records in an output file to refer to byte locations within the file,
whether the target processor is byte-addressable or not.
12.14 Control Hex Conversion Utility Diagnostics

The hex conversion utility uses certain C/C++ compiler options to control hex-converter-generated diagnostics.
--diag_error=id Categorizes the diagnostic identified by id as an error. To determine the numeric identifier of a
diagnostic message, use the --display_error_number option first in a separate link. Then use --
diag_error=id to recategorize the diagnostic as an error. You can only alter the severity of discretionary
diagnostics.
--diag_remark=id Categorizes the diagnostic identified by id as a remark. To determine the numeric identifier of
a diagnostic message, use the --display_error_number option first in a separate link. Then use
--diag_remark=id to recategorize the diagnostic as a remark. You can only alter the severity of
discretionary diagnostics.
--diag_suppress=id Suppresses the diagnostic identified by id. To determine the numeric identifier of a diagnostic message,
use the --display_error_number option first in a separate link. Then use --diag_suppress=id to suppress
the diagnostic. You can only suppress discretionary diagnostics.
--diag_warning=id Categorizes the diagnostic identified by id as a warning. To determine the numeric identifier of
a diagnostic message, use the --display_error_number option first in a separate link. Then use
--diag_warning=id to recategorize the diagnostic as a warning. You can only alter the severity of
discretionary diagnostics.
--display_error_number Displays a diagnostic's numeric identifier along with its text. Use this option in determining which
arguments you need to supply to the diagnostic suppression options (--diag_suppress, --diag_error,
--diag_remark, and --diag_warning). This option also indicates whether a diagnostic is discretionary. A
discretionary diagnostic is one whose severity can be overridden. A discretionary diagnostic includes
the suffix -D; otherwise, no suffix is present. See the TMS320C28x Optimizing C/C++ Compiler User's
Guide for more information on understanding diagnostic messages.
--issue_remarks Issues remarks (nonserious warnings), which are suppressed by default.
--no_warnings Suppresses warning diagnostics (errors are still issued).
--set_error_limit=count Sets the error limit to count, which can be any decimal value. The linker abandons linking after this
--verbose_diagnostics Provides verbose diagnostics that display the original source with line-wrap and indicate the position of
the error in the source line
12.15 Description of the Object Formats

The hex conversion utility has options that identify each format. Table 12-5 specifies the format options. They are
described in the following sections.
• You should use only one of these options on the command line. If you use more than one option, the last one
you list overrides the others.
• The default format is Tektronix (--tektronix option).
Table 12-5. Options for Specifying Hex Conversion Formats
Option Alias Format Address Bits Default Width
--ascii -a ASCII-Hex 16 8
--intel -i Intel 32 8
--motorola=1 -m1 Motorola-S1 16 8
--ti-tagged -t TI-Tagged 16 16
--ti_txt TI_TXT 8 8
--tektronix -x Tektronix 32 8
Address bits determine how many bits of the address information the format supports. Formats with 16-bit
addresses support addresses up to 64K only. The utility truncates target addresses to fit in the number of
available bits.
The default width determines the default output width of the format. You can change the default width by using
the --romwidth option or by using the romwidth parameter in the ROMS directive. You cannot change the default
width of the TI-Tagged format, which supports a 16-bit width only.
12.15.1 ASCII-Hex Object Format (--ascii Option)
The ASCII-Hex object format supports 16-bit addresses. The format consists of a byte stream with bytes
separated by spaces. Figure 12-9 illustrates the ASCII-Hex format.
Nonprintable
Nonprintable Address end code
start code
^B $AXXXXXXXX,
XX XX XX XX XX XX XX XX XX XX. . .^C
Data byte
Figure 12-9. ASCII-Hex Object Format
The file begins with an ASCII STX character (ctrl-B, 02h) and ends with an ASCII ETX character (ctrl-C, 03h).
Address records are indicated with $AXXXXXXX, in which XXXXXXXX is a 8-digit (16-bit) hexadecimal address.
The address records are present only in the following situations:
• When discontinuities occur
• When the byte stream does not begin at address 0
You can avoid all discontinuities and any address records by using the --image and --zero options. This creates
output that is simply a list of byte values.
12.15.2 Intel MCS-86 Object Format (--intel Option)

The Intel object format supports 16-bit addresses and 32-bit extended addresses. Intel format consists of a
9-character (4-field) prefix (which defines the start of record, byte count, load address, and record type), the
data, and a 2-character checksum suffix.
The 9-character prefix represents three record types:
Record Type Description
00 Data record
01 End-of-file record
04 Extended linear address record
Record type00, the data record, begins with a colon ( : ) and is followed by the byte count, the address of the
first data byte, the record type (00), and the checksum. The address is the least significant 16 bits of a 32-bit
address; this value is concatenated with the value from the most recent 04 (extended linear address) record to
create a full 32-bit address. The checksum is the 2s complement (in binary form) of the preceding bytes in the
record, including byte count, address, and data bytes.
Record type 01, the end-of-file record, also begins with a colon ( : ), followed by the byte count, the address, the
record type (01), and the checksum.
Record type 04, the extended linear address record, specifies the upper 16 address bits. It begins with a colon
( : ), followed by the byte count, a dummy address of 0h, the record type (04), the most significant 16 bits of
the address, and the checksum. The subsequent address fields in the data records contain the least significant
bytes of the address.
Figure 12-10 illustrates the Intel hexadecimal object format.
Start
character Extended linear
address record
Address
Most significant 16 bits
Data
records
:00000001FF
Checksum
Byte Record End-of-file
count type record
Figure 12-10. Intel Hexadecimal Object Format
12.15.3 Motorola Exorciser Object Format (--motorola Option)

The Motorola S1, S2, and S3 formats support 16-bit, 24-bit, and 32-bit addresses, respectively. The formats
consist of a start-of-file (header) record, data records, and an end-of-file (termination) record. Each record
consists of five fields: record type, byte count, address, data, and checksum. The three record types are:
Record Type Description
S0 Header record
S1 Code/data record for 16-bit addresses (S1 format)
S7 Termination record for 32-bit addresses (S3 format)
The byte count is the character pair count in the record, excluding the type and byte count itself.
The checksum is the least significant byte of the 1s complement of the sum of the values represented by the
pairs of characters making up the byte count, address, and the code/data fields.
Figure 12-11 illustrates the Motorola-S object format.
Record Address Checksum
type
S00600004844521B Header record
S31A0001FFEB000000000000000000000000000000000000000000FA Data records

S70500000000FA Termination
record
Checksum
Byte count
Address for S3 records
Figure 12-11. Motorola-S Format
12.15.4 Extended Tektronix Object Format (--tektronix Option)

The Tektronix object format supports 32-bit addresses and has two types of records:
Data records contains the header field, the load address, and the object code.
Termination records signifies the end of a module.
The header field in the data record contains the following information:
Number of ASCII
Item Characters Description
% 1 Data type is Tektronix format
Block length 2 Number of characters in the record, minus the %
Block type 1 6 = data record
8 = termination record
Checksum 2 A 2-digit hex sum modulo 256 of all values in the record except the % and the
checksum itself.
The load address in the data record specifies where the object code will be located. The first digit specifies
the address length; this is always 8. The remaining characters of the data record contain the object code, two
characters per byte.
Figure 12-12 illustrates the Tektronix object format.
Checksum: 21h = 1+5+6+8+1+0+0+0+0+0+0+
0+
2+0+2+0+2+0+2+0+2+0+2+
Block length 0
1ah = 26 Object code: 6 bytes
Header %15621810000000202020202020
character
Load address: 10000000h
Block type: 6 Length of
(data) load address
Figure 12-12. Extended Tektronix Object Format
12.15.5 Texas Instruments SDSMAC (TI-Tagged) Object Format (--ti_tagged Option)

The Texas Instruments SDSMAC (TI-Tagged) object format supports 16-bit addresses, including start-of-file
record, data records, and end-of-file record. Each data records consists of a series of small fields and is signified
by a tag character:
Tag Character Description
K Followed by the program identifier
7 Followed by a checksum
8 Followed by a dummy checksum (ignored)
9 Followed by a 16-bit load address
B Followed by a data word (four characters)
F Identifies the end of a data record
* Followed by a data byte (two characters)
Figure 12-13 illustrates the tag characters and fields in TI-Tagged object format.
Start-of-file Load
record Program address Tag characters
identifier
Data
BFFFFBFFFFBFFFFBFFFFBFFFFBFFFFBFFFFBFFFFBFFFFBFFFF7F245F records
:
End-of-file Data
record words Checksum
Figure 12-13. TI-Tagged Object Format
If any data fields appear before the first address, the first field is assigned address 0000h. Address fields may
be expressed but not required for any data byte. The checksum field, preceded by the tag character 7, is the 2s
complement of the sum of the 8-bit ASCII values of characters, beginning with the first tag character and ending
with the checksum tag character (7 or 8). The end-of-file record is a colon ( : ).
12.15.6 TI-TXT Hex Format (--ti_txt Option)

The TI-TXT hex format supports 8-bit hexadecimal data. It consists of section start addresses, data byte, and an
end-of-file character. These restrictions apply:
• The number of sections is unlimited.
• Each hexadecimal start address must be even.
• Each line must have 8 data bytes, except the last line of a section.
• Data bytes are separated by a single space.
• The end-of-file termination tag q is mandatory.
Because the TI-TXT format (along with the binary format) supports only an 8-bit physical memory width and an
8-bit ROM width, the ROMS directive needs to have the origin and length specifications doubled when moving
from a 16-bit format to an 8-bit format. If you receive a warning like the following, check the ROMS directive.
warning: section file.out(.data) at 07e000000h falls in unconfigured memory
For example, suppose the ROMS directive for a format that uses 16-bit ROM widths, such as ASCII-Hex with the
--romwidth=16 option used, is as follows:
/* Memory counted as 16-bit words */
ROMS
{
FLASH: origin=0x3f000000, length=0x1000
}
You would double the address and length in the ROMS directive when using an 8-bit ROM width:
/* Memory counted as 8-bit bytes */
ROMS
{
FLASH: origin=0x7e000000, length=0x2000
}
The data record contains the following information:

Item Description
@ADDR Hexadecimal start address of a section
DATAn Hexadecimal data byte
q End-of-file termination character
Section
start
@ADDR1
Data
DATA01 DATA02 ........ DATA16
bytes DATA17 DATA32 ........ DATA32
DATAm ........ DATAn
Section @ADDR2
start DATA01 .................... DATAn Data
q bytes
End-of-line
character
Figure 12-14. TI-TXT Object Format
Example 12-4. TI-TXT Object Format
@F000
31 40 00 03 B2 40 80 5A 20 01 D2 D3 22 00 D2 E3
21 00 3F 40 E8 FD 1F 83 FE 23 F9 3F
@FFFE
00 F0
Q
12.16 Hex Conversion Utility Error Messages

section mapped to reserved memory
Description A section is mapped into a memory area that is designated as reserved in the processor memory map.
Action Correct section or boot-loader address. For valid memory locations, refer to the TMS320C28x CPU and Instruction Set
Reference Guide.
sections overlapping
Description Two or more section load addresses overlap, or a boot table address overlaps another section.
Action This problem may be caused by an incorrect translation from load address to hexadecimal output-file address that is
performed by the hex-conversion utility when memory width is less than data width. See Section 12.3 and Section
12.13.
unconfigured memory error

Description The file contains a section whose load address falls outside the memory range defined in the ROMS directive.
Action Correct the ROM range as defined by the ROMS directive to cover the memory range needed, or modify the section
load address. Remember that if the ROMS directive is not used, the memory range defaults to the entire processor
address space. For this reason, removing the ROMS directive could also be a workaround.
www.ti.com Sharing C/C++ Header Files With Assembly Source
Chapter 13
Sharing C/C++ Header Files With Assembly Source
You can use the .cdecls assembler directive to share C headers containing declarations and prototypes between
C and assembly code. Any legal C/C++ can be used in a .cdecls block and the C/C++ declarations will cause
suitable assembly to be generated automatically, allowing you to reference the C/C++ constructs in assembly
code.
13.1 Overview of the .cdecls Directive......................................................................................................................... 324

13.2 Notes on C/C++ Conversions................................................................................................................................ 324
13.3 Notes on C++ Specific Conversions.....................................................................................................................328
13.4 Special Assembler Support...................................................................................................................................329
Sharing C/C++ Header Files With Assembly Source www.ti.com
13.1 Overview of the .cdecls Directive

The .cdecls directive allows programmers in mixed assembly and C/C++ environments to share C headers
containing declarations and prototypes between the C and assembly code. Any legal C/C++ can be used in
a .cdecls block and the C/C++ declarations will cause suitable assembly to be generated automatically. This
allows the programmer to reference the C/C++ constructs in assembly code — calling functions, allocating
space, and accessing structure members — using the equivalent assembly mechanisms. While function and
variable definitions are ignored, most common C/C++ elements are converted to assembly: enumerations, (non
function-like) macros, function and variable prototypes, structures, and unions.
See the .cdecls directive description for details on the syntax of the .cdecls assembler directive.
The .cdecls directive can appear anywhere in an assembly source file, and can occur multiple times within
a file. However, the C/C++ environment created by one .cdecls is not inherited by a later .cdecls; the C/C++
environment starts over for each .cdecls instance.
For example, the following code causes the warning to be issued:
.cdecls C,NOLIST
%{
#define ASMTEST 1
%}
.cdecls C,NOLIST
%{
#ifndef ASMTEST
#warn "ASMTEST not defined!" /* will be issued */
#endif
%}
Therefore, a typical use of the .cdecls block is expected to be a single usage near the beginning of the assembly
source file, in which all necessary C/C++ header files are included.
Use the compiler --include_path=path options to specify additional include file paths needed for the header files
used in assembly, as you would when compiling C files.
Any C/C++ errors or warnings generated by the code of the .cdecls are emitted as they normally would for
the C/C++ source code. C/C++ errors cause the directive to fail, and any resulting converted assembly is not
included.
C/C++ constructs that cannot be converted, such as function-like macros or variable definitions, cause a
comment to be output to the converted assembly file. For example:
; ASM HEADER WARNING - variable definition 'ABCD' ignored
The prefix ASM HEADER WARNING appears at the beginning of each message. To see the warnings, either
the WARN parameter needs to be specified so the messages are displayed on STDERR, or else the LIST
parameter needs to be specified so the warnings appear in the listing file, if any.
Finally, note that the converted assembly code does not appear in the same order as the original C/C++ source
code and C/C++ constructs may be simplified to a normalized form during the conversion process, but this
should not affect their final usage.
13.2 Notes on C/C++ Conversions
The following sections describe C and C++ conversion elements that you need to be aware of when sharing
header files with assembly source.
13.2.1 Comments
Comments are consumed entirely at the C level, and do not appear in the resulting converted assembly file.
13.2.2 Conditional Compilation (#if/#else/#ifdef/etc.)

Conditional compilation is handled entirely at the C level during the conversion step. Define any necessary
macros either on the command line (using the compiler --define=name=value option) or within a .cdecls block
using #define. The #if, #ifdef, etc. C/C++ directives are not converted to assembly .if, .else, .elseif, and .endif
directives.
13.2.3 Pragmas
Pragmas found in the C/C++ source code cause a warning to be generated as they are not converted. They
have no other effect on the resulting assembly file. See the .cdecls topic for the WARN and NOWARN parameter
discussion for where these warnings are created.
13.2.4 The #error and #warning Directives
These preprocessor directives are handled completely by the compiler during the parsing step of conversion. If
one of these directives is encountered, the appropriate error or warning message is emitted. These directives
are not converted to .emsg or .wmsg in the assembly output.
13.2.5 Predefined symbol __ASM_HEADER__
The C/C++ macro __ASM_HEADER__ is defined in the compiler while processing code within .cdecls. This
allows you to make changes in your code, such as not compiling definitions, during the .cdecls processing.
Note
Be Careful With the __ASM_HEADER__ Macro
You must be very careful not to use this macro to introduce any changes in the code that could
result in inconsistencies between the code processed while compiling the C/C++ source and while
converting to assembly.
13.2.6 Usage Within C/C++ asm( ) Statements

The .cdecls directive is not allowed within C/C++ asm( ) statements and will cause an error to be generated.
13.2.7 The #include Directive
The C/C++ #include preprocessor directive is handled transparently by the compiler during the conversion step.
Such #includes can be nested as deeply as desired as in C/C++ source. The assembly directives .include
and .copy are not used or needed within a .cdecls. Use the command line --include_path option to specify
additional paths to be searched for included files, as you would for C compilation.
13.2.8 Conversion of #define Macros
Only object-like macros are converted to assembly. Function-like macros have no assembly representation and
so cannot be converted. Pre-defined and built-in C/C++ macros are not converted to assembly (i.e., __FILE__,
__TIME__, __TI_COMPILER_VERSION__, etc.). For example, this code is converted to assembly because it is
an object-like macro:
#define NAME Charley
This code is not converted to assembly because it is a function-like macro:

#define MAX(x,y) (x>y ? x : y)
Some macros, while they are converted, have no functional use in the containing assembly file. For example,
the following results in the assembly substitution symbol FOREVER being set to the value while(1), although this
has no useful use in assembly because while(1) is not legal assembly code.
#define FOREVER while(1)
Macro values are not interpreted as they are converted. For example, the following results in the assembler
substitution symbol OFFSET being set to the literal string value 5+12 and not the value 17. This happens
because the semantics of the C/C++ language require that macros are evaluated in context and not when they
are parsed.
#define OFFSET 5+12
Because macros in C/C++ are evaluated in their usage context, C/C++ printf escape sequences such as \n are
not converted to a single character in the converted assembly macro. See Section 13.2.11 for suggestions on
how to use C/C++ macro strings.
Macros are converted using the .define directive (see Section 13.4.2), which functions similarly to the .asg
assembler directive. The exception is that .define disallows redefinitions of register symbols and mnemonics to
prevent the conversion from corrupting the basic assembly environment. To remove a macro from the assembly
scope, .undef can be used following the .cdecls that defines it (see Section 13.4.3).
The macro functionality of # (stringize operator) is only useful within functional macros. Since functional macros
are not supported by this process, # is not supported either. The concatenation operator ## is only useful in
a functional context, but can be used degenerately to concatenate two strings and so it is supported in that
context.
13.2.9 The #undef Directive
Symbols undefined using the #undef directive before the end of the .cdecls are not converted to assembly.
13.2.10 Enumerations
Enumeration members are converted to .enum elements in assembly. For example:
enum state { ACTIVE=0x10, SLEEPING=0x01, INTERRUPT=0x100, POWEROFF, LAST};
is converted to the following assembly code:

state .enum
ACTIVE .emember 16
SLEEPING .emember 1
NTERRUPT .emember 256
POWEROFF .emember 257
LAST .emember 258
.endenum
The members are used via the pseudo-scoping created by the .enum directive.
The usage is similar to that for accessing structure members, enum_name.member.
This pseudo-scoping is used to prevent enumeration member names from corrupting other symbols within the
assembly environment.
13.2.11 C Strings
Because C string escapes such as \n and \t are not converted to hex characters 0x0A and 0x09 until their use in
a string constant in a C/C++ program, C macros whose values are strings cannot be represented as expected in
assembly substitution symbols. For example:
#define MSG "\tHI\n"
becomes, in assembly:
.define """\tHI\n""",MSG ; 6 quoted characters! not 5!
When used in a C string context, you expect this statement to be converted to 5 characters (tab, H, I, newline,
NULL), but the .string assembler directive does not know how to perform the C escape conversions.
You can use the .cstring directive to cause the escape sequences and NULL termination to be properly handled
as they would in C/C++. Using the above symbol MSG with a .cstring directive results in 5 characters of memory
being allocated, the same characters as would result if used in a C/C++ strong context. (See Section 13.4.7 for
the .cstring directive syntax.)
13.2.12 C/C++ Built-In Functions
The C/C++ built-in functions, such as sizeof( ), are not translated to their assembly counterparts, if any, if they
are used in macros. Also, their C expression values are not inserted into the resulting assembly macro because
macros are evaluated in context and there is no active context when converting the macros to assembly.
Suitable functions such as $sizeof( ) are available in assembly expressions. However, as the basic types such
as int/char/float have no type representation in assembly, there is no way to ask for $sizeof(int), for example, in
assembly.
13.2.13 Structures and Unions
C/C++ structures and unions are converted to assembly .struct and .union elements. Padding and ending
alignments are added as necessary to make the resulting assembly structure have the same size and member
offsets as the C/C++ source. The primary purpose is to allow access to members of C/C++ structures, as well as
to facilitate debugging of the assembly code. For nested structures, the assembly .tag feature is used to refer to
other structures/unions.
The alignment is also passed from the C/C++ source so that the assembly symbol is marked with the same
alignment as the C/C++ symbol. (See Section 13.2.3 for information about pragmas, which may attempt to
modify structures.) Because the alignment of structures is stored in the assembly symbol, built-in assembly
functions like $sizeof( ) and $alignof( ) can be used on the resulting structure name symbol.
When using unnamed structures (or unions) in typedefs, such as:
typedef struct { int a_member; } mystrname;
This is really a shorthand way of writing:

struct temporary_name { int a_member; };
typedef temporary_name mystrname;
The conversion processes the above statements in the same manner: generating a temporary name for the
structure and then using .define to output a typedef from the temporary name to the user name. You should use
your mystrname in assembly the same as you would in C/C++, but do not be confused by the assembly structure
definition in the list, which contains the temporary name. You can avoid the temporary name by specifying a
name for the structure, as in:
typedef struct a_st_name { ... } mystrname;
If a shorthand method is used in C to declare a variable with a particular structure, for example:
extern struct a_name { int a_member; } a_variable;
Then after the structure is converted to assembly, a .tag directive is generated to declare the structure of the
external variable, such as:
_a_variable .tag a_st_name
This allows you to refer to _a_variable.a_member in your assembly code.
13.2.14 Function/Variable Prototypes

Non-static function and variable prototypes (not definitions) will result in a .global directive being generated for
each symbol found.
See Section 13.3.1 for C++ name mangling issues.
Function and variable definitions will result in a warning message being generated (see the WARN/NOWARN
parameter discussion for where these warnings are created) for each, and they will not be represented in the
converted assembly.
The assembly symbol representing the variable declarations will not contain type information about those
symbols. Only a .global will be issued for them. Therefore, it is your responsibility to ensure the symbol is
used appropriately.
See Section 13.2.13 for information on variables names which are of a structure/union type.
13.2.15 C Constant Suffixes
The C constant suffixes u, l, and f are passed to the assembly unchanged. The assembler will ignore these
suffixes if used in assembly expressions.
13.2.16 Basic C/C++ Types
Only complex types (structures and unions) in the C/C++ source code are converted to assembly. Basic types
such as int, char, or float are not converted or represented in assembly beyond any existing .int, .char, .float, etc.
directives that previously existed in assembly. Typedefs of basic types are therefore also not represented in the
converted assembly.
13.3 Notes on C++ Specific Conversions
The following sections describe C++ specific conversion elements that you need to be aware of when sharing
header files with assembly source.
13.3.1 Name Mangling
C++ compilers use name mangling to avoid conflicts between identically named functions and variables. If name
mangling were not used, symbol name clashes can occur.
You can use the demangler (dem2000) to demangle names and identify the correct symbols to use in assembly.
See the "C++ Name Demangler" chapter of the TMS320C28x Optimizing C/C++ Compiler User's Guide for
details.
To defeat name mangling in C++ for symbols where polymorphism (calling a function of the same name with
different kinds of arguments) is not required, use the following syntax:
extern "C" void somefunc(int arg);
The above format is the short method for declaring a single function. To use this method for multiple functions,
you can also use the following syntax:
extern "C"
{
void somefunc(int arg);
int anotherfunc(int arg);
...
}
13.3.2 Derived Classes

Derived classes are only partially supported when converting to assembly because of issues related to C+
+ scoping which does not exist in assembly. The greatest difference is that base class members do not
automatically become full (top-level) members of the derived class. For example:
class base
{
public:
int b1;
};
class derived : public base
{
public:
int d1;
}
In C++ code, the class derived would contain both integers b1 and d1. In the converted assembly structure
"derived", the members of the base class must be accessed using the name of the base class, such as
derived.__b_base.b1 rather than the expected derived.b1.
A non-virtual, non-empty base class will have __b_ prepended to its name within the derived class to signify it is
a base class name. That is why the example above is derived.__b_base.b1 and not simply derived.base.b1.
13.3.3 Templates
No support exists for templates.
13.3.4 Virtual Functions
No support exists for virtual functions, as they have no assembly representation.
13.4 Special Assembler Support
13.4.1 Enumerations (.enum/.emember/.endenum)
The following directives support a pseudo-scoping for enumerations:
ENUM_NAME .enum
MEMBER1 .emember [value]
MEMBER2 .emember [value]
...
.endenum
The .enum directive begins the enumeration definition and .endenum terminates it.
The enumeration name (ENUM_NAME) cannot be used to allocate space; its size is reported as zero.
To use a member's value, the format is ENUM_NAME.MEMBER, similar to using a structure member.
The .emember directive optionally accepts the value to set the member to, just as in C/C++. If not specified, the
member takes a value one more than the previous member. As in C/C++, member names cannot be duplicated,
although values can be. Unless specified with .emember, the first enumeration member will be given the value 0
(zero), as in C/C++.
The .endenum directive cannot be used with a label, as structure .endstruct directives can, because
the .endenum directive has no value like the .endstruct does (containing the size of the structure).
Conditional compilation directives (.if/.else/.elseif/.endif) are the only other non-enumeration code allowed within
the .enum/.endenum sequence.
13.4.2 The .define Directive

The .define directive functions in the same manner as the .asg directive, except that .define disallows creation
of a substitution symbol that has the same name as a register symbol or mnemonic. It does not create a new
symbol name space in the assembler, rather it uses the existing substitution symbol name space. The syntax for
the directive is:
.define substitution string , substitution symbol name
The .define directive is used to prevent corruption of the assembly environment when converting C/C++ headers.
13.4.3 The .undefine/.unasg Directives
The .undef directive is used to remove the definition of a substitution symbol created using .define or .asg. This
directive will remove the named symbol from the substitution symbol table from the point of the .undef to the end
of the assembly file. The syntax for these directives is:
.undefine substitution symbol name
.unasg substitution symbol name
This can be used to remove from the assembly environment any C/C++ macros that may cause a problem. Also
see Section 13.4.2, which covers the .define directive.
13.4.4 The $defined( ) Built-In Function
The $defined directive returns true/1 or false/0 depending on whether the name exists in the current substitution
symbol table or the standard symbol table. In essence $defined returns TRUE if the assembler has any user
symbol in scope by that name. This differs from $isdefed in that $isdefed only tests for NON-substitution
symbols. The syntax is:
$defined( substitution symbol name )
A statement such as ".if $defined(macroname)" is then similar to the C code "#ifdef macroname".
See Section 13.4.2 and Section 13.4.3 for the use of .define and .undef in assembly.
13.4.5 The $sizeof Built-In Function
The assembly built-in function $sizeof( ) can be used to query the size of a structure in assembly. It is an alias for
the already existing $structsz( ). The syntax is:
$sizeof( structure name )
The $sizeof function can then be used similarly to the C built-in function sizeof( ).
The assembler's $sizeof( ) built-in function cannot be used to ask for the size of basic C/C++ types, such
as $sizeof(int), because those basic type names are not represented in assembly. Only complex types are
converted from C/C++ to assembly.
Also see Section 13.2.12, which notes that this conversion does not happen automatically if the C/C++ sizeof( )
built-in function is used within a macro.
13.4.6 Structure/Union Alignment and $alignof( )

The assembly .struct and .union directives take an optional second argument which can be used to specify a
minimum alignment to be applied to the symbol name. This is used by the conversion process to pass the
specific alignment from C/C++ to assembly.
The assembly built-in function $alignof( ) can be used to report the alignment of these structures. This can
be used even on assembly structures, and the function will return the minimum alignment calculated by the
assembler.
13.4.7 The .cstring Directive
You can use the .cstring directive to cause the escape sequences and NULL termination to be properly handled
as they would in C/C++.
.cstring "String with C escapes.\nWill be NULL terminated.\012"
See Section 13.2.11 for more information on the .cstring directive.
www.ti.com Symbolic Debugging Directives
Appendix A
Symbolic Debugging Directives
The assembler supports several directives that the TMS320C28x C/C++ compiler uses for symbolic debugging.
These directives differ for the two debugging formats, DWARF and COFF.
These directives are not meant for use by assembly-language programmers. They require arguments that can
be difficult to calculate manually, and their usage must conform to a predetermined agreement between the
compiler, the assembler, and the debugger. This appendix documents these directives for informational purposes
only.
A.1 DWARF Debugging Format.....................................................................................................................................334

A.2 Debug Directive Syntax...........................................................................................................................................334
Symbolic Debugging Directives www.ti.com
A.1 DWARF Debugging Format

A subset of the DWARF symbolic debugging directives are always listed in the assembly language file that the
compiler creates for program analysis purposes. To list the complete set used for full symbolic debug, invoke the
compiler with the --symdebug:dwarf option, as shown below:
cl2000 --symdebug:dwarf --keep_asm input_file
The --keep_asm option instructs the compiler to retain the generated assembly file.
To disable the generation of all symbolic debug directives, invoke the compiler with the -symdebug:none option:
cl2000 --symdebug:none --keep_asm input_file
The DWARF debugging format consists of the following directives:

• The .dwtag and .dwendtag directives define a Debug Information Entry (DIE) in the .debug_info section.
• The .dwattr directive adds an attribute to an existing DIE.
• The .dwpsn directive identifies the source position of a C/C++ statement.
• The .dwcie and .dwendentry directives define a Common Information Entry (CIE) in the .debug_frame
section.
• The .dwfde and .dwendentry directives define a Frame Description Entry (FDE) in the .debug_frame
section.
• The .dwcfi directive defines a call frame instruction for a CIE or FDE.
A.2 Debug Directive Syntax
Table A-1 is an alphabetical listing of the symbolic debugging directives. For information on the C/C++ compiler,
refer to the TMS320C28x Optimizing C/C++ Compiler User's Guide.
Table A-1. Symbolic Debugging Directives
Label Directive Arguments
.dwattr DIE label , DIE attribute name ( DIE attribute value )[, DIE attribute name ( attribute value ) [, ...]
.dwcfi call frame instruction opcode[, operand[, operand]]
CIE label .dwcie version , return address register
.dwendentry
.dwendtag
.dwfde CIE label
.dwpsn " filename ", line number , column number
DIE label .dwtag DIE tag name , DIE attribute name ( DIE attribute value )[, DIE attribute name ( attribute value ) [, ...]
www.ti.com XML Link Information File Description
Appendix B
XML Link Information File Description
The TMS320C28x linker supports the generation of an XML link information file via the --xml_link_info file option.
This option causes the linker to generate a well-formed XML file containing detailed information about the result
of a link. The information included in this file includes all of the information that is currently produced in a
linker-generated map file.
As the linker evolves, the XML link information file may be extended to include additional information that could
be useful for static analysis of linker results.
This appendix enumerates all of the elements that are generated by the linker into the XML link information file.
B.1 XML Information File Element Types..................................................................................................................... 336

B.2 Document Elements.................................................................................................................................................336
XML Link Information File Description www.ti.com
B.1 XML Information File Element Types

These element types will be generated by the linker:
• Container elements represent an object that contains other elements that describe the object. Container
elements have an id attribute that makes them accessible from other elements.
• String elements contain a string representation of their value.
• Constant elements contain a 32-bit unsigned long representation of their value (with a 0x prefix).
• Reference elements are empty elements that contain an idref attribute that specifies a link to another
container element.
In Appendix B.2, the element type is specified for each element in parentheses following the element description.
For instance, the <link_time> element lists the time of the link execution (string).
B.2 Document Elements
The root element, or the document element, is <link_info>. All other elements contained in the XML link
information file are children of the <link_info> element. The following sections describe the elements that an XML
information file can contain.
B.2.1 Header Elements
The first elements in the XML link information file provide general information about the linker and the link
session:
• The <banner> element lists the name of the executable and the version information (string).
• The <copyright> element lists the TI copyright information (string).
• The <link_time> is a timestamp representation of the link time (unsigned 32-bit int).
• The <output_file> element lists the name of the linked output file generated (string).
• The <entry_point> element specifies the program entry point, as determined by the linker (container) with
two entries:
– The <name> is the entry point symbol name, if any (string).
– The <address> is the entry point address (constant).
Header Element for the hi.out Output File
<banner>TMS320Cxx Linker Version x.xx (Jan 6 2008)</banner>
<copyright>Copyright (c) 1996-2008 Texas Instruments Incorporated</copyright>
<link_time>0x43dfd8a4</link_time>
<output_file>hi.out</output_file>
<entry_point>
<name>_c_int00</name>
<address>0xaf80</address>
</entry_point>
B.2.2 Input File List

The next section of the XML link information file is the input file list, which is delimited with a <input_file_list>
container element. The <input_file_list> can contain any number of <input_file> elements.
Each <input_file> instance specifies the input file involved in the link. Each <input_file> has an id attribute that
can be referenced by other elements, such as an <object_component>. An <input_file> is a container element
enclosing the following elements:
• The <path> element names a directory path, if applicable (string).
• The <kind> element specifies a file type, either archive or object (string).
• The <file> element specifies an archive name or filename (string).
• The <name> element specifies an object file name, or archive member name (string).
Input File List for the hi.out Output File
<input_file_list>
<input_file id="fl-1">
<kind>object</kind>
<file>hi.obj</file>
<name>hi.obj</name>
</input_file>
<path>/tools/lib/</path>
<kind>archive</kind>
<file>rtsxxx.lib</file>
<name>boot.obj</name>
</input_file>
<name>exit.obj</name>
</input_file>
<name>printf.obj</name>
</input_file>
...
</input_file_list>
B.2.3 Object Component List

The next section of the XML link information file contains a specification of all of the object components that are
involved in the link. An example of an object component is an input section. In general, an object component is
the smallest piece of object that can be manipulated by the linker.
The <object_component_list> is a container element enclosing any number of <object_component> elements.
Each <object_component> specifies a single object component. Each <object_component> has an id attribute
so that it can be referenced directly from other elements, such as a <logical_group>. An <object_component> is
a container element enclosing the following elements:
• The <name> element names the object component (string).
• The <load_address> element specifies the load-time address of the object component (constant).
• The <run_address> element specifies the run-time address of the object component (constant).
• The <size> element specifies the size of the object component (constant).
• The <input_file_ref> element specifies the source file where the object component originated (reference).
Object Component List for the fl-4 Input File
<object_component id="oc-20">
<name>.text</name>
<load_address>0xac00</load_address>
<run_address>0xac00</run_address>
<size>0xc0</size>
<input_file_ref idref="fl-4"/>
</object_component>
<name>.data</name>
<load_address>0x80000000</load_address>
<run_address>0x80000000</run_address>
<size>0x0</size>
</object_component>
<name>.ebss</name>
<size>0x0</size>
</object_component>
B.2.4 Logical Group List

The <logical_group_list> section of the XML link information file is similar to the output section listing in a
linker-generated map file. However, the XML link information file contains a specification of GROUP and UNION
output sections, which are not represented in a map file. There are three kinds of list items that can occur in a
<logical_group_list>:
• The <logical_group> is the specification of a section or GROUP that contains a list of object components or
logical group members. Each <logical_group> element is given an id so that it may be referenced from other
elements. Each <logical_group> is a container element enclosing the following elements:
– The <name> element names the logical group (string).
– The <load_address> element specifies the load-time address of the logical group (constant).
– The <run_address> element specifies the run-time address of the logical group (constant).
– The <size> element specifies the size of the logical group (constant).
– The <contents> element lists elements contained in this logical group (container). These elements refer
to each of the member objects contained in this logical group:
• The <object_component_ref> is an object component that is contained in this logical group
(reference).
• The <logical_group_ref> is a logical group that is contained in this logical group (reference).
• The <overlay> is a special kind of logical group that represents a UNION, or a set of objects that share the
same memory space (container). Each <overlay> element is given an id so that it may be referenced from
other elements (like from an <allocated_space> element in the placement map). Each <overlay> contains the
following elements:
– The <name> element names the overlay (string).
– The <run_address> element specifies the run-time address of overlay (constant).
– The <size> element specifies the size of logical group (constant).
– The <contents> container element lists elements contained in this overlay. These elements refer to each
of the member objects contained in this logical group:
• The <object_component_ref> is an object component that is contained in this logical group
(reference).
• The <logical_group_ref> is a logical group that is contained in this logical group (reference).
• The <split_section> is another special kind of logical group that represents a collection of logical groups
that is split among multiple memory areas. Each <split_section> element is given an id so that it may be
referenced from other elements. The id consists of the following elements.
– The <name> element names the split section (string).
– The <contents> container element lists elements contained in this split section. The <logical_group_ref>
elements refer to each of the member objects contained in this split section, and each element referenced
is a logical group that is contained in this split section (reference).
Logical Group List for the fl-4 Input File

<logical_group_list>
...
<logical_group id="lg-7">
<name>.text</name>
<size>0xb240</size>
<contents>
<object_component_ref idref="oc-34"/>
<object_component_ref idref="oc-e2"/>
...
</contents>
</logical_group>
...
<overlay id="lg-b">
<name>UNION_1</name>
<run_address>0xb600</run_address>
<size>0xc0</size>
<contents>
<logical_group_ref idref="lg-8"/>
</contents>
</overlay>
...
<split_section id="lg-12">
<name>.task_scn</name>
<size>0x120</size>
<contents>
</contents>
...
</logical_group_list>
B.2.5 Placement Map

The <placement_map> element describes the memory placement details of all named memory areas in the
application, including unused spaces between logical groups that have been placed in a particular memory area.
The <memory_area> is a description of the placement details within a named memory area (container). The
description consists of these items:
• The <name> names the memory area (string).
• The <page_id> gives the id of the memory page in which this memory area is defined (constant).
• The <origin> specifies the beginning address of the memory area (constant).
• The <length> specifies the length of the memory area (constant).
• The <used_space> specifies the amount of allocated space in this area (constant).
• The <unused_space> specifies the amount of available space in this area (constant).
• The <attributes> lists the RWXI attributes that are associated with this area, if any (string).
• The <fill_value> specifies the fill value that is to be placed in unused space, if the fill directive is specified
with the memory area (constant).
• The <usage_details> lists details of each allocated or available fragment in this memory area. If the
fragment is allocated to a logical group, then a <logical_group_ref> element is provided to facilitate access to
the details of that logical group. All fragment specifications include <start_address> and <size> elements.
– The <allocated_space> element provides details of an allocated fragment within this memory area
(container):
• The <start_address> specifies the address of the fragment (constant).
• The <size> specifies the size of the fragment (constant).
• The <logical_group_ref> provides a reference to the logical group that is allocated to this fragment
(reference).
– The <available_space element provides details of an available fragment within this memory area
(container):
• The <start_address> specifies the address of the fragment (constant).
• The <size> specifies the size of the fragment (constant).
Placement Map for the fl-4 Input File
<placement_map>
<memory_area>
<name>PMEM</name>
<page_id>0x0</page_id>
<origin>0x20</origin>
<length>0x100000</length>
<used_space>0xb240</used_space>
<unused_space>0xf4dc0</unused_space>
<attributes>RWXI</attributes>
<usage_details>
<allocated_space>
<start_address>0x20</start_address>
<size>0xb240</size>
</allocated_space>
<available_space>
<start_address>0xb260</start_address>
<size>0xf4dc0</size>
</available_space>
</usage_details>
</memory_area>
...
</placement_map>
B.2.6 Symbol Table

The <symbol_table> contains a list of all of the global symbols that are included in the link. The list provides
information about a symbol's name and value. In the future, the symbol_table list may provide type information,
the object component in which the symbol is defined, storage class, etc.
The <symbol> is a container element that specifies the name and value of a symbol with these elements:
• The <name> element specifies the symbol name (string).
• The <value> element specifies the symbol value (constant).
Symbol Table for the fl-4 Input File
<symbol_table>
<symbol>
<name>_c_int00</name>
<value>0xaf80</value>
</symbol>
<symbol>
<name>_main</name>
<value>0xb1e0</value>
</symbol>
<symbol>
<name>_printf</name>
<value>0xac00</value>
</symbol>
...
</symbol_table>
www.ti.com CRC Reference Implementation
Appendix C
CRC Reference Implementation
This appendix contains source code in C for a reference implementation of a CRC calculation routine that is
compatible with the linker-generated CRC tables. This code is found in the file labeled ref_crc.c.
This appendix also contains source code for a simple example application using linker-generated CRC tables
and copy tables. The application contains several tasks which share a common run area. Linker-generated copy
tables move the tasks from their load addresses to the run address. The application also uses the reference
CRC calculation routine to compute CRC values which are compared against the linker-generated values.
This code is for reference only, and no warranty is made as to suitability for any purpose.
C.1 Compilation Instructions.........................................................................................................................................344

C.2 Reference CRC Calculation Routine...................................................................................................................... 344
C.3 Linker-Generated Copy Tables and CRC Tables...................................................................................................347
CRC Reference Implementation www.ti.com
C.1 Compilation Instructions

1. Run a stand-alone test of the reference implementation of CRC computation.
• For C2000 on Linux:
cl2000 -D=_RUN_MAIN ref_crc.c -z -o ref_crc_c2000 -l lnk2800_ml.cmd
<Linking>
Run ref_crc_c2000 with an appropriate simulator:

– CRC-32-PRIME: 4beab53b
– CRC-8-PRIME: 70
– CRC16_802_15_4: 1bd3
• For GCC on Linux:
gcc -D_RUN_MAIN -o ref_crc_gcc ref_crc.c
./ref_crc_gcc
Run ref_crc_gcc with an appropriate simulator:

– CRC-8-PRIME: 70
– CRC16_802_15_4: 1bd3
2. Run a simple example program using copy tables and CRC tables.
• For C2000 on Linux:
cl2000 -c *.c
cl2000 -z -lex1.cmd
<Linking>
Run ex1.out with an appropriate simulator:

– CRC-8-PRIME: 70
– CRC16_802_15_4: 1bd3
C.2 Reference CRC Calculation Routine
Example C-1. Reference Implementation of a CRC Calculation Function: ref_crc.c
/*****************************************************************************/
/* Reference implementation of a CRC calculation function */
/* */
/* gen_crc is the interface function which should be called from the */
/* application. There is also a stand-alone test mode that can be used */
/* if _RUN_MAIN is defined. */
/*****************************************************************************/
/*---------------------------------------------------------------------------*/
/* This file does NOT implement a general-purpose CRC function. */
/* Specifically, it does not handle parameterization by initial value, bit */
/* reflection, or final XOR value. This implementation is intended only to */
/* implement the CRC functions used by the linker for C28x CRC tables. The */
/* algorithms used by the linker are selected to match the CRC algorithms in */
/* the PRIME and IEEE 802.15.4-2006 standards, which use the polynomials */
/* supported by the C28x VCU hardware. To understand CRCs in general, */
/* especially what other parameters exist, see: */
/* */
/* "A Painless Guide To CRC Error Detection Algorithms" likely at: */
/* http://www.ross.net/crc/download/crc_v3.txt */
/* Author : Ross Williams ([email protected].). */
/* Date : 3 June 1993. */
/* Status : Public domain (C code). */
/*---------------------------------------------------------------------------*/
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <limits.h>
/*---------------------------------------------------------------------------*/
/* These are the CRC algorithms supported by the linker, which match the */
/* polynomials supported in C28x VCU hardware, which match the PRIME and */
/* IEEE 802.15.4-2006 standards. These must match the values in crc_tbl.h. */
/*---------------------------------------------------------------------------*/
#define CRC32_PRIME 0
#define CRC16_802_15_4 1
#define CRC16_ALT 2
#define CRC8_PRIME 3
typedef struct crc_config_t
{
int id;
int degree;
unsigned long poly;
} crc_config_t;
const crc_config_t crc_config[] = { { CRC32_PRIME, 32, 0x04c11db7 },
{ CRC16_802_15_4, 16, 0x1021 },
{ CRC16_ALT, 16, 0x8005 },
{ CRC8_PRIME, 8, 0x07 } };
unsigned long crc_table[256] = { 0 };
const crc_config_t *find_config(int id) {
size_t i;
for (i = 0; i < sizeof(crc_config) / sizeof(*crc_config); i++)
if (crc_config[i].id == id)
return &crc_config[i];
fprintf(stderr, "invalid config id %d\n", id);
exit(EXIT_FAILURE);
return NULL;
}
/*---------------------------------------------------------------------------*/
/* Table-driven version */
/*---------------------------------------------------------------------------*/
unsigned long generate_mask(int degree)
{
unsigned long half = (1ul << (degree / 2)) - 1;
return half << (degree / 2) | half;
}
void generate_crc_table(const crc_config_t *config)
{
int i, j;
unsigned long bit, crc;
unsigned long high_bit = (1ul << (config->degree - 1));
unsigned long mask = generate_mask(config->degree);
for (i = 0; i < 256; i++)
{
crc = (unsigned long)i << config->degree - 8;
for (j = 0; j < 8; j++)
{
bit = crc & high_bit;
crc <<= 1;
if (bit) crc^= config->poly;
}
crc_table[i] = crc & mask;
}
}
/*****************************************************************************/
/* gen_crc - Return the CRC value for the data using the given CRC algorithm */
/* int id : identifies the CRC algorithm */
/* char *data : the data */
/* size_t len : the size of the data */
/*****************************************************************************/
unsigned long gen_crc(int id, const unsigned char *data, size_t len)
{
/*-----------------------------------------------------------------------*/
/* Note: this is not a general-purpose CRC function. It does not handle */
/* parameterization by initial value, bit reflection, or final XOR */
/* value. This CRC function is specialized to the CRC algorithms in the */
/* linker used for C28x CRC tables. */
/*-----------------------------------------------------------------------*/
/*-----------------------------------------------------------------------*/
/* This CRC function is not intended to be optimal; it is written such */
/* that it works and generates the same result on all 8-bit and 16-bit */
/* targets, including C28x, other TI DSPs, and typical desktops. */
/*-----------------------------------------------------------------------*/
const crc_config_t *config = find_config(id);
unsigned long crc = 0;

unsigned long mask = generate_mask(config->degree);
size_t i;
generate_crc_table(config);
for (i = 0; i < len; i++)
{
unsigned int datum = data[i];
/*--------------------------------------------------------------------*/
/* This loop handles 16-bit chars when we compile on 16-bit machines. */
/*--------------------------------------------------------------------*/
int n;
for (n = 0; n < (CHAR_BIT / 8); n++)
{
/*----------------------------------------------------------------*/
/* For 16-bit machines, we need to feed the octets in an */
/* arbitrary order. For C2000, the arbitrary order we choose is */
/* to feed the LEAST significant octet of char 0 first. The */
/* first octet fed to the CRC is the LEAST-significant octet of */
/* char 0; the second octet is the MOST-significant octet of char */
/* 0. See the "Special Note regarding 16-bit char" in the */
/* Assembly Language Tools User's Guide. */
/*----------------------------------------------------------------*/
#if __TMS320C28XX__
/*----------------------------------------------------------------*/
/* Using __byte is not necessary; we use it here to illustrate */
/* how it relates to octet order. */
/*----------------------------------------------------------------*/
unsigned long octet = __byte((int*)&datum, n);
#else
unsigned long octet = ((datum >> (8 * n)) & 0xff);
#endif
unsigned long term1 = (crc << 8);
int idx = ((crc >> (config->degree - 8)) & 0xff) ^ octet;
crc = term1 ^ crc_table[idx];
}
}
return crc & mask;
}
#ifdef _RUN_MAIN
/*****************************************************************************/
/* main - If requested, compute the CRC of test data using each algorithm. */
/*****************************************************************************/
int main(void)
{
#if CHAR_BIT == 16
const unsigned char data[] = { 'a', 'b', 'c', 'd' };
#elif CHAR_BIT == 8
/*-----------------------------------------------------------------------*/
/* This represents "abcd" as it would appear in C2000 memory if we view */
/* C2000 memory as octets, least-significant octet first; see "a special */
/* note regarding 16-bit char" in Assembly Language Tools User's Guide. */
/*-----------------------------------------------------------------------*/
const unsigned char data[] = { 'a', 0, 'b', 0, 'c', 0, 'd', 0 };
#endif
/* CRC_8_PRIME: 0x70 */
/* CRC_16_802: 0x1bd3 */
/* CRC_32_PRIME: 0x4beab53b */
const unsigned char *p = (const unsigned char *)data;
unsigned long crc;
crc = gen_crc(CRC32_PRIME, p, sizeof data);
printf("CRC_32_PRIME: %08lx\n", crc);
crc = gen_crc(CRC8_PRIME, p, sizeof data);
printf("CRC_8_PRIME: %02lx\n", crc);
crc = gen_crc(CRC16_802_15_4, p, sizeof data);
printf("CRC16_802_15_4: %04lx\n", crc);
return 0;
}
#endif
C.3 Linker-Generated Copy Tables and CRC Tables

Three tasks exist in separate load areas. As each is needed, it is copied into the common run area and
executed. A separate copy table is generated for each task (see table() operator in ex1.cmd). CRC values for the
task functions are verified as well. See Example C-7 for the crc_table() operator calls.
Example C-2. Main Routine for Example Application: main.c
#include <stdio.h>
#include <crc_tbl.h>
extern CRC_TABLE task1_crctbl;
extern CRC_TABLE union_crctbl;
/****************************************************************************/
/* copy_in - provided by the RTS library to copy code from its load */
/* address to its run address. */
/* my_check_CRC - verify that the CRC values stored in the given table */
/* match the computed value at run time, using load address. */
/* taskX - perform a simple task. These routines share the same run */
/* address. */
/****************************************************************************/
extern void copy_in(COPY_TABLE *tp);
extern unsigned int my_check_CRC(CRC_TABLE *tp);
int x = 0;
main()
{
unsigned int ret_val = 0;
unsigned int CRC_ok = 1;
printf("Start task copy test with CRC checking.\n");
printf("Check CRC of task1 section.\n");
ret_val = my_check_CRC(&task1_crctbl);
if (ret_val == 1)
printf("\nPASSED: CRCs for task1_crc_tbl match.\n");
else
{
CRC_ok = 0;
printf("\nFAILED: CRCs for task1_crc_tbl do NOT match.\n");
}
/*************************************************************************/
/* Copy task1 into the run area and execute it. */
/*************************************************************************/
task1();
printf("Check CRC of UNION.\n");
if ((ret_val = my_check_CRC(&union_crctbl)) == 1)
printf("\nPASSED: CRCs for union_crc_tbl match.\n");
else
{
CRC_ok = 0;
printf("\nFAILED: CRCs for union_crc_tbl do NOT match.\n");
}
task2();
task3();
printf("Copy table and CRC tasks %s!!\n",
((CRC_ok == 1 && x == 6)) ? "PASSED" : "FAILED");
}
Example C-3. Checking CRC Values: check_crc.c
#include <stdio.h>
#include "crc_tbl.h"
/****************************************************************************/
/* gen_crc() - computes the CRC value of data using the CRC algorithm ID */
/* specified. Found in ref_crc.c */
/****************************************************************************/
unsigned long gen_crc(int id, const unsigned char *data, size_t len);
/****************************************************************************/
/* my_check_CRC() - verify the CRC values for all records stored in the */
/* given CRC table. Print diagnostic information also. */
/****************************************************************************/
unsigned int my_check_CRC(CRC_TABLE *tp)
{
int i;
unsigned int ret_val = 1;
uint32_t my_crc;
printf("\n\tTABLE INFO: rec size=%d, num_rec=%d.",
tp->rec_size, tp->num_recs);
for (i = 0; i < tp->num_recs; i++)
{
CRC_RECORD crc_rec = tp->recs[i];
/**************************************************/
/* COMPUTE CRC OF DATA STARTING AT crc_rec.addr */
/* FOR crc_rec.size UNITS. USE */
/* crc_rec.crc_alg_ID to select algorithm. */
/* COMPARE COMPUTED VALUE TO crc_rec.crc_value. */
/**************************************************/
my_crc = gen_crc(crc_rec.crc_alg_ID, (unsigned char *)crc_rec.addr,
crc_rec.size);
printf("\n\tCRC record: page=%x, alg=%x, addr = %lx, size=%lx, "
"\n\t\tcrc=%lx, my_crc=%lx.",
crc_rec.page_id, crc_rec.crc_alg_ID,
crc_rec.addr, crc_rec.size, crc_rec.crc_value, my_crc);
if (my_crc == crc_rec.crc_value)
printf("\n\tCRCs match for record %d.\n", i);
else
{
ret_val = 0;
printf("\n\tCRCs DO NOT match for record %d.\n", i);
}
}
return ret_val;
}
Example C-4. Task1 Routine: task1.c
#include <stdio.h>
extern int x;
#pragma CODE_SECTION(task1, ".task1_scn")
void task1(void) { printf("hit task1, x is %d\n", x); x += 1; }
#include <stdio.h>
extern int x;
#include <stdio.h>
extern int x;
Example C-7. Example 1 Command File: ex1.cmd (for COFF)
/****************************************************************************/
/* Linker Generated Copy Tables - Example #1 */
/* */
/* 3 separate tasks are loaded into 3 separate areas of target memory. */
/* They all must be run in a common area of memory (overlay). Before */
/* each task is run, it is copied into its run space using a linker */
/* generated copy table for each task. */
/* */
/* Two linker generated CRC tables are created. One is for .task1_scn */
/* and the other is for the UNION. The UNION table will contain CRC */
/* records for .task1_scn, .task2_scn and .task3_scn. */
/****************************************************************************/
-c
-x
ex1.obj
task1.obj
task2.obj
task3.obj
check_crc.obj
ref_crc.obj
-o ex1.out
-m ex1.map
-stack 0x1000
-heap 0x800
MEMORY
{
PAGE 0 : RESET(R): origin = 0x000000, length = 0x00002
VECTORS(R) : origin = 0x000002, length = 0x003FE
PROG(R) : origin = 0x3f0000, length = 0x10000
PAGE 1 : RAM1 (RW) : origin = 0x000402 , length = 0x003FE
PAGE 1 : RAM2 (RW) : origin = 0x001000 , length = 0x04000
PAGE 1 : RAM3 (RW) : origin = 0x3e0000 , length = 0x08000
}
SECTIONS
{
UNION
{
.task2_scn: load = RAM3, PAGE = 1, table(_task2_ctbl)
.task3_scn: load = RAM3, PAGE = 1, table(_task3_ctbl)
.task1_scn: load = RAM3, PAGE = 1, table(_task1_ctbl),
crc_table(_task1_crctbl)
} run = PROG, PAGE = 0, crc_table(_union_crctbl, algorithm=CRC16_ALT)
vectors : load = VECTORS, PAGE = 0
.text : load = PROG, PAGE = 0
.data : load = 440h, PAGE = 1
.cinit : > PROG, PAGE = 0
.ebss : > RAM3, PAGE = 1
.econst : > RAM3, PAGE = 1
.reset : > RESET, PAGE = 0
.stack : > RAM2, PAGE = 1
.sysmem : > RAM2, PAGE = 1
.esysmem : > RAM3, PAGE = 1
.ovly > RAM2, PAGE = 1
}
www.ti.com Glossary
Appendix D
Glossary
D.1 Terminology
ABI Application binary interface.
absolute address An address that is permanently assigned to a TMS320C28x memory location.

absolute constant An expression that does not refer to any external symbols or any registers or memory
expression reference. The value of the expression must be knowable at assembly time.
absolute lister A debugging tool that allows you to create assembler listings that contain absolute
addresses.
address constant A symbol with a value that is an address plus an addend that is an absolute constant
expression expression with an integer value.
alignment A process in which the linker places an output section at an address that falls on an
n-byte boundary, where n is a power of 2. You can specify alignment with the SECTIONS
linker directive.
allocation A process in which the linker calculates the final memory addresses of output sections.
ANSI American National Standards Institute; an organization that establishes standards

voluntarily followed by industries.
archive library A collection of individual files grouped into a single file by the archiver.
archiver A software program that collects several individual files into a single file called an archive
library. With the archiver, you can add, delete, extract, or replace members of the archive
library.
ASCII American Standard Code for Information Interchange; a standard computer code for
representing and exchanging alphanumeric information.
assembler A software program that creates a machine-language program from a source file
that contains assembly language instructions, directives, and macro definitions. The
assembler substitutes absolute operation codes for symbolic operation codes and
absolute or relocatable addresses for symbolic addresses.
assembly-time A symbol that is assigned a constant value with the .set directive.
constant
big endian An addressing protocol in which bytes are numbered from left to right within a word.
More significant bytes in a word have lower numbered addresses. Endian ordering is
hardware-specific and is determined at reset. See also little endian
Glossary www.ti.com
binding A process in which you specify a distinct address for an output section or a symbol.
block A set of statements that are grouped together within braces and treated as an entity.
.bss section One of the default object file sections. You use the assembler .bss directive to reserve
a specified amount of space in the memory map that you can use later for storing data.
The .bss section is uninitialized.
byte Per ANSI/ISO C, the smallest addressable unit that can hold a character. For
TMS320C28x, the size of a byte is 16-bits, which is also the size of a word.
C/C++ compiler A software program that translates C source statements into assembly language source
statements.
COFF Common object file format; a system of object files configured according to a standard
developed by AT&T. These files are relocatable in memory space.
command file A file that contains options, filenames, directives, or commands for the linker or hex
conversion utility.
comment A source statement (or portion of a source statement) that documents or improves
readability of a source file. Comments are not compiled, assembled, or linked; they have
no effect on the object file.
compiler program A utility that lets you compile, assemble, and optionally link in one step. The compiler runs
one or more source modules through the compiler (including the parser, optimizer, and
code generator), the assembler, and the linker.
conditional A method of processing one block of source code or an alternate block of source code,
processing according to the evaluation of a specified expression.
configured Memory that the linker has specified for allocation.

memory
constant A type whose value cannot change.
constant An expression that does not in any way refer to a register or memory reference.
expression
cross-reference A utility that produces an output file that lists the symbols that were defined, what file they
lister were defined in, what reference type they are, what line they were defined on, which lines
referenced them, and their assembler and linker final values. The cross-reference lister
uses linked object files as input.
cross-reference An output file created by the assembler that lists the symbols that were defined, what line
listing they were defined on, which lines referenced them, and their final values.
.data section One of the default object file sections. The .data section is an initialized section that
contains initialized data. You can use the .data directive to assemble code into the .data
section.
directives Special-purpose commands that control the actions and functions of a software tool (as
opposed to assembly language instructions, which control the actions of a device).
www.ti.com Glossary
DWARF A standardized debugging data format that was originally designed along with ELF,
although it is independent of the object file format.
EABI An embedded application binary interface (ABI) that provides standards for file formats,
data types, and more.
ELF Executable and linking format; a system of object files configured according to the System
V Application Binary Interface specification.
emulator A hardware development system that duplicates the TMS320C28x operation.
entry point A point in target memory where execution starts.
environment A system symbol that you define and assign to a string. Environmental variables are often
variable included in Windows batch files or UNIX shell scripts such as .cshrc or .profile.
epilog The portion of code in a function that restores the stack and returns.
executable module A linked object file that can be executed in a target system.
expression A constant, a symbol, or a series of constants and symbols separated by arithmetic

operators.
external symbol A symbol that is used in the current program module but defined or declared in a different
program module.
field For the TMS320C28x, a software-configurable data type whose length can be
programmed to be any value in the range of 1-16 bits.
global symbol A symbol that is either defined in the current module and accessed in another, or
accessed in the current module but defined in another.
GROUP An option of the SECTIONS directive that forces specified output sections to be allocated
contiguously (as a group).
hex conversion A utility that converts object files into one of several standard ASCII hexadecimal formats,
utility suitable for loading into an EPROM programmer.
high-level The ability of a compiler to retain symbolic and high-level language information (such as
language type and function definitions) so that a debugging tool can use this information.
debugging
hole An area between the input sections that compose an output section that contains no
code.
identifier Names used as labels, registers, and symbols.
immediate operand An operand whose value must be a constant expression.
incremental linking Linking files in several passes. Incremental linking is useful for large applications,
because you can partition the application, link the parts separately, and then link all of
the parts together.
Glossary www.ti.com
initialization at An autoinitialization method used by the linker when linking C/C++ code. The linker uses
load time this method when you invoke it with the --ram_model link option. This method initializes
variables at load time instead of run time.
initialized section A section from an object file that will be linked into an executable module.
input section A section from an object file that will be linked into an executable module.
ISO International Organization for Standardization; a worldwide federation of national

standards bodies, which establishes international standards voluntarily followed by
industries.
label A symbol that begins in column 1 of an assembler source statement and corresponds to
the address of that statement. A label is the only assembler statement that can begin in
column 1.
linker A software program that combines object files to form an object module that can be
allocated into system memory and executed by the device.
listing file An output file, created by the assembler, that lists source statements, their line numbers,
and their effects on the section program counter (SPC).
literal constant A value that represents itself. It may also be called a literal or an immediate value.
little endian An addressing protocol in which bytes are numbered from right to left within a word.
More significant bytes in a word have higher numbered addresses. Endian ordering is
hardware-specific and is determined at reset. See also big endian
loader A device that places an executable module into system memory.
macro A user-defined routine that can be used as an instruction.
macro call The process of invoking a macro.
macro definition A block of source statements that define the name and the code that make up a macro.
macro expansion The process of inserting source statements into your code in place of a macro call.
macro library An archive library composed of macros. Each file in the library must contain one macro;
its name must be the same as the macro name it defines, and it must have an extension
of .asm.
map file An output file, created by the linker, that shows the memory configuration, section
composition, section allocation, symbol definitions and the addresses at which the
symbols were defined for your program.
member The elements or variables of a structure, union, archive, or enumeration.
memory map A map of target system memory space that is partitioned into functional blocks.
memory reference An operand that refers to a location in memory using a target-specific syntax.
operand
mnemonic An instruction name that the assembler translates into machine code.
www.ti.com Glossary
model statement Instructions or assembler directives in a macro definition that are assembled each time a
macro is invoked.
named section An initialized section that is defined with a .sect directive.
object file An assembled or linked file that contains machine-language object code.
object library An archive library made up of individual object files.
object module A linked, executable object file that can be downloaded and executed on a target system.
operand An argument of an assembly language instruction, assembler directive, or macro directive

that supplies information to the operation performed by the instruction or directive.
optimizer A software tool that improves the execution speed and reduces the size of C programs.
options Command-line parameters that allow you to request additional or specific functions when
you invoke a software tool.
output module A linked, executable object file that is downloaded and executed on a target system.
output section A final, allocated section in a linked, executable module.
overlay page A section of physical memory that is mapped into the same address range as another
section of memory. A hardware switch determines which range is active.
partial linking Linking files in several passes. Incremental linking is useful for large applications because
you can partition the application, link the parts separately, and then link all of the parts
together.
quiet run An option that suppresses the normal banner and the progress information.
raw data Executable code or initialized data in an output section.
register operand A special pre-defined symbol that represents a CPU register.
relocatable An expression that refers to at least one external symbol, register, or memory location.
constant The value of the expression is not known until link time.
expression
relocation A process in which the linker adjusts all the references to a symbol when the symbol's
address changes.
ROM width The width (in bits) of each output file, or, more specifically, the width of a single data value
in the hex conversion utility file. The ROM width determines how the utility partitions the
data into output files. After the target words are mapped to memory words, the memory
words are broken into one or more output files. The number of output files is determined
by the ROM width.
run address The address where a section runs.
run-time-support A library file, rts.src, that contains the source for the run time-support functions.
library
Glossary www.ti.com
section A relocatable block of code or data that ultimately will be contiguous with other sections in
the memory map.
section program An element that keeps track of the current location within a section; each section has its
counter (SPC) own SPC.
sign extend A process that fills the unused MSBs of a value with the value's sign bit.
simulator A software development system that simulates TMS320C28x operation.
source file A file that contains C/C++ code or assembly language code that is compiled or
assembled to form an object file.
static variable A variable whose scope is confined to a function or a program. The values of static
variables are not discarded when the function or program is exited; their previous value is
resumed when the function or program is reentered.
storage class An entry in the symbol table that indicates how to access a symbol.
string table A table that stores symbol names that are longer than eight characters (symbol names of
eight characters or longer cannot be stored in the symbol table; instead they are stored in
the string table). The name portion of the symbol's entry points to the location of the string
in the string table.
structure A collection of one or more variables grouped together under a single name.
subsection A relocatable block of code or data that ultimately will occupy continuous space in the
memory map. Subsections are smaller sections within larger sections. Subsections give
you tighter control of the memory map.
symbol A name that represents an address or a value.
symbolic constant A symbol with a value that is an absolute constant expression.
symbolic The ability of a software tool to retain symbolic information that can be used by a
debugging debugging tool such as an emulator or simulator.
tag An optional type name that can be assigned to a structure, union, or enumeration.
target memory Physical memory in a system into which executable object code is loaded.
.text section One of the default object file sections. The .text section is initialized and contains
executable code. You can use the .text directive to assemble code into the .text section.
unconfigured Memory that is not defined as part of the memory map and cannot be loaded with code or
memory data.
uninitialized A object file section that reserves space in the memory map but that has no actual
section contents. These sections are built with the .bss and .usect directives.
UNION An option of the SECTIONS directive that causes the linker to allocate the same address
to multiple sections.
union A variable that can hold objects of different types and sizes.
www.ti.com Glossary
unsigned value A value that is treated as a nonnegative number, regardless of its actual sign.
variable A symbol representing a quantity that can assume any of a set of values.
well-defined A term or group of terms that contains only symbols or assembly-time constants that have
expression been defined before they appear in the expression.
word A 16-bit addressable location in target memory
Revision History www.ti.com
Revision History
Changes from December 16, 2020 to June 15, 2021 (from Revision V (December 2020) to
Revision W (June 2021)) Page
• Corrected the name of the C28_CHECKSUM_16 algorithm.......................................................................... 257
• Corrected the name of the C28_CHECKSUM_16 algorithm.......................................................................... 266
Changes from September 1, 2020 to December 15, 2020 (from Revision U (September 2020) to
Revision V (December 2020)) Page
• Added the --lfu_reference_elf command-line option.........................................................................................48
• Added the .preserve directive for use with Live Firmware Update (LFU)......................................................... 78
• Added the SYM_PRESERVE and SYM_UPDATE type for the .elfsym directive........................................... 109
• Added the .preserve directive for use with Live Firmware Update (LFU)....................................................... 134
• Removed documentation of the --rom linker option, which is not supported.................................................. 180
• Added support for Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) checks over memory ranges.......................................257
• Added the C28_CHECKSUM algorithm for CRC checks to match the CCS checksum utility........................257
• Added support for Cyclic Redundancy Code (CRC) checks over memory ranges........................................ 262
• The new C28_CHECKSUM algorithm operated on 16-bit units, unlike the CRC algorithms......................... 266
• Documented Hex Conversion Utility options related to the boot table for use with parallel XINTF streams.. 289
• Documented Hex Conversion Utility options related to image loading........................................................... 289
• Documented additional Hex Conversion Utility options related to image loading...........................................302
Changes from February 28, 2020 to August 31, 2020 (from Revision T (February 2020) to
Revision U (August 2020)) Page
• Updated the numbering format for tables, figures, and cross-references throughout the document................ 11
• Removed references to the Processors wiki throughout the document............................................................11
The following table lists changes made to this document prior to changes to the document numbering format.
The left column identifies the first version of this document in which that particular change appeared.
Version
Chapter Location Additions / Modifications / Deletions
Added
Program
SPRU513T Section 3.3.2.3 Corrected information about RAM and ROM model use of CINIT for initialization.
Loading
Clarified that either --rom_model or --ram_model is required if only the linker is being
SPRU513T Linker Section 8.4.26 run, but --rom_model is the default if the compiler runs on C/C++ files on the same
command line.
Clarified that zero initialization takes place only if the --rom_model linker option is
SPRU513T Linker Section 8.4.36
used, not if the --ram_model option is used.
Section 8.5.4.2,
Added LAST operator to define a symbol with the run-time address of the last
SPRU513T Linker Section 8.5.11.7,
allocated byte in the related memory range.
and Section 8.5.11.8
Hex
Boot tables can now be used with the hex conversion utility's Secure Flash Boot
SPRU513T Conversion Section 12.12
(--cmac) capability.
Utility
www.ti.com Revision History
Version
Added
Hex
Provided example showing the effects of 8-bit memory width vs. 16-bit memory
SPRU513T Conversion Section 12.15.6
width on the ROMS directive syntax.
Utility
The default file extensions for object files created by the compiler have been
changed in order to prevent conflicts when C and C++ files have the same names.
SPRU513S -- throughout -- Object files generated from C source files have the .c.obj extension. Object files
generated from C++ source files have the .cpp.obj extension. Object files generated
from assembly source files still have the .obj extension.
Hex
Added support for the secure flash boot capability provided by TMS320F2838x
SPRU513S Conversion Section 12.12
devices.
Utility
SPRU513R.1 Linker Section 8.5.9 Added documentation for the NOINIT special section type. (EABI only)
Added further documentation of EABI support. This includes identifying features that
SPRU513R -- throughout -- are supported only for COFF or EABI. Identified examples as COFF-specific where
necessary.
SPRU513R Object Modules Section 2.1 Added information about the ELF object file format.
Section 2.3.1,
SPRU513R Object Modules Added information about section names used by EABI.
Section 2.4.1
SPRU513R Object Modules Section 2.6 Revised information about types of symbols for clarity.
Program
SPRU513R Section 3.3.2 Added information about the RAM model and ROM model for EABI.
Loading
Assembler
SPRU513R Section 4.4 Added information about controlling the ABI setting.
Description
Assembler
SPRU513R Section 4.8.6 Corrected list of symbolic constants.
Description
Assembler
SPRU513R Section 4.8.7 Added the documentation for the FPU RB register.
Description
Added topics for directives
Assembler
SPRU513R Section 5.12 related to EABI: .bss, .common, .elfsym, .group, .gmember,
Directives
endgroup, .retain, .retainrefs, .weak, .xfloat, and .xldouble.
Assembler
SPRU513R .bits topic Modified the description of the .bits directive.
Directives
Assembler
SPRU513R .usect topic Modified the description of the .usect directive.
Directives
Assembler .symdepend
SPRU513R Split .symdepend and .weak directive topics.
Directives topic, .weak topic
SPRU513R Linker Section 8.4 Added the --emit_references:file linker option.
Added linker options related to EABI: --cinit_compression, --copy_compression, --
SPRU513R Linker Section 8.4
retain, --unused_section_elimination, --warn_sections, and --zero_init.
SPRU513R Linker Section 8.5.11.4 Added symbols automatically defined by the linker for EABI.
SPRU513R Linker Section 8.6.2 Added information about weak symbols used by EABI.
SPRU513R Linker Section 8.8.5 Added information about compression available with EABI.
SPRU513Q Added support for EABI. The COFF ABI is the default.
Added support for 64-bit floating point operations (--float_support=fpu64).
Section 4.8.6, Added support for fast integer division (--idiv_support=idiv0).
Assembler,
SPRU513Q Section 4.11, and Added support for additional TMU instructions (--tmu_support=tmu1).
Linker
Section 8.4.11 Added support for Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) with the VCU (--
vcu_support=vcrc).
Section 8.4, Section
Added the --ecc=on linker option, which enables ECC generation. Note that ECC
SPRU513Q Linker 8.4.12, and Section
generation is now off by default.
8.5.10
SPRU513Q Linker Section 8.5.7.3 Added linker syntax to combine initialized section with uninitialized sections.
Revision History www.ti.com
Version
Added
Hex
Section 12.2.1 and
SPRU513P Conversion Added the --array option, which causes the array output format to be generated.
Section 12.10
Utility
Object
Modules, Section 2.4.1
SPRU513M Added information about DP load optimization.
Assembler and .usect topic
Directives
Section 4.3, Section
Assembler
SPRU513M 4.11, and Section Documented support for CLA version 2 and CLA v2 background tasks.
Description
4.11.3
Assembler
SPRU513M .usect topic Explain the effect of the alignment flag for the .usect directive.
Directives
Linker Provided a link to an E2E blog post that provides examples that perform cyclic
SPRU513M Section 8.9
Description redundancy checking using linker-generated CRC tables.
Linker
SPRU513L Section 8.5.10 Documented revised behavior of ECC directives.
Description
Several linker options have been deprecated, removed, or renamed. The linker
Linker
SPRU513K Section 8.4 continues to accept some of the deprecated options, but they are not recommended
Description
for use.
Linker Information about accessing files and libraries from a linker command file has been
SPRU513J Section 8.5.3
Description added.
Linker
SPRU513J Section 8.9.1.1 The list of available CRC algorithms has been expanded.
Description
Object File A –cg option has been added to the Object File Display utility to display function
SPRU513J Section 11.1
Utilities stack usage and callee information in XML format.
Program Section 3.3.3.1 and
SPRU513I Added the BINIT (boot-time initialization) copy table.
Loading, Linker Section 8.8.4.2
SPRU513I Linker Section 8.4.20 Added modules as a filter for the --mapfile_contents linker option.
SPRU513I Linker Section 8.5.5.2.1 Added an example for placing functions in RAM.
SPRU513I Linker Section 8.8.4.3 Documented the table() operator.
The near and far keywords are deprecated, and the small memory model is no
longer supported; the only memory model uses 32-bit pointers. The C27x object
mode is also no longer supported. The .bss, .const, and .sysmem sections are no
SPRU513H -- --
longer used; the .ebss, .econst, and .esysmem sections are used instead. As a
result, the --farheap linker option, far call trampolines, and several other related
features are no longer documented.
SPRU513H Object Modules Section 2.4.4 Added information about the current section and how directives interact with it.
Section 2.6 and
SPRU513H Object Modules Added information about various types of symbols and about symbol tables.
Section 2.6.4
Assembler Section 4.3 and
SPRU513G Added support for Type 2 VCU via --vcu_support=vcu2.
Description Section 4.11
Assembler Section 4.3 and
SPRU513G Added support for Type 1 CLA via --cla_support=cla1.
Description Section 4.11
Assembler The naming of function frames in scratchpad memory for the CLA compiler has
SPRU513H Section 4.11.3
Description changed.
Section 8.4.2,
SPRU513H Linker Section 8.5.11.7, Added information about referencing linker symbols.
and Section 8.6.1
SPRU513H Linker Section 8.4.11 Added a list of the linker's predefined macros.
SPRU513G Linker Section 8.5.5.1 Removed invalid syntax for load and fill properties.
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TMS320C28x Assembly Language Tools

Literature Number: SPRU513W

Read This First......................................................................................................................................................................... 11

4.5 Naming Alternate Directories for Assembler Input........................................................................................................... 49

6.3.3 Recursive Substitution Symbols.............................................................................................................................. 161

8.4.36 Zero Initialization (--zero_init Option).................................................................................................................... 199

12.3.3 Partitioning Data Into Output Files.........................................................................................................................294

13.4.3 The .undefine/.unasg Directives............................................................................................................................ 330

Figure 8-10. CRC Storage Format for Memory Ranges.......................................................................................................... 265

Table 8-9. Miscellaneous Options Summary........................................................................................................................... 182

About This Manual

[--output_file= name.out] --library= libraryname

• The TMS320C2800 core is referred to as TMS320C28x or C28x.

Related Documentation From Texas Instruments

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1.1 Software Development Tools Overview....................................................................................................................16

1.1 Software Development Tools Overview

EPROM Cross-reference Object file C28x

Figure 1-1. TMS320C28x Software Development Flow

1.2 Tools Descriptions

2.1 Object File Format Specifications.............................................................................................................................20

2.1 Object File Format Specifications

Figure 2-1. Partitioning Memory Into Logical Blocks

2.3.1 Special Section Names

2.4.1 Uninitialized Sections

2.4.5 Section Program Counters

2.4.7 Using Sections Directives

Figure 2-2. Using Sections Directives Example

Figure 2-3. Object Code Generated by the File in Figure 2-2

2.5 How the Linker Handles Sections

Figure 2-4. Combining Input Sections to Form an Executable Object Module

The following code fragment illustrates these definitions.

2.7 Symbolic Relocations

2.7.1 Expressions With Multiple Relocatable Symbols (COFF Only)

2.8 Loading a Program

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Figure 3-1. Bootloading Sequence (Simplified)

Figure 3-2. Bootloading Sequence with Secondary Bootloader

3.1.2.1 Boot, Load, and Run Addresses

; ======== boot_c671x.s62 ========

3.2 Entry Point

Figure 3-3. Autoinitialization at Run Time

3.3.2.2 Initializing Variables at Load Time (--ram_model)

Figure 3-4. Initialization at Load Time

3.3.2.3 The --rom_model and --ram_model Linker Options

3.3.3 About Linker-Generated Copy Tables

4.1 Assembler Overview.................................................................................................................................................. 46

4.1 Assembler Overview

4.2 The Assembler's Role in the Software Development Flow

EPROM Cross-reference Object file C28x

Figure 4-1. The Assembler in the TMS320C28x Software Development Flow

4.3 Invoking the Assembler

The valid assembler options are listed in Table 4-1.

Table 4-1. TMS320C28x Assembler Options

Table 4-1. TMS320C28x Assembler Options (continued)

4.4 Controlling Application Binary Interface

Assume the following paths for the copy.asm file:

4.5.2 Using the C2000_A_DIR Environment Variable

Assume the following paths for the files:

4.6 Source Statement Format