Mo 206

Maintenance
and Operation
of
Air Compressor Plants
NAVFAC MO-206
January 1989
SN 0525-LP173-1715
ABSTRACT
This manual is directed to operators and supervisors who

actually perform and supervise operations and maintenance work.
The manual is divided into five chapters with chapter one
covering definitions and responsibilities. Chapters two and
three cover positive displacement and dynamic compressors,
respectively. Chapter four deals with auxiliary equipment,
while chapter five covers compressor controls. In general, this
manual provides guidelines for maintenance and operation of air
compressor plants.
FOREWORD
This publication provides information on the maintenance
and operation of air compressor plants.
For maximum benefit, this manual should be used in
conjunction with equipment manufacturers' manuals, parts lists
and drawings. In case of conflict, manufacturers'
recommendations on use, care, operations, adjustment and repair
of specific equipment should be followed. The manual is a
general guide which establishes standards for the operators,
mechanics, and supervisors who are responsible for carrying out
operations and maintenance functions.
Additional information concerning procedures, suggestions,
recommendations OK modifications that will improve this manual
are continually invited and should be submitted through
appropriate channels to the Commander, Naval Facilities
Engineering Command, (Attention: Code 165), 200 Stovall Street,
Alexandria, VA 22332-2300.
This publication cancels and supersedes NAVAC MO-206 of
January 1964 and any changes thereto. It has been reviewed and
approved in accordance with the Secretary of the Navy
Instruction 5600.16A and is certified as an official publication
of the Naval Facilities Engineering Command.
C. M. MASKELL
Captain, CEC, U.S. Navy
Deputy Commander for
Public Works
CONTENTS
Page
CHAPTER 1. DEFINITIONS AND RESPONSIBILITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l-l
Section 1. AIR COMPRESSOR PLANT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . l-l

1 COMPONENTS OF AN AIR COMPRESSOR PLANT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l-l
2 AIR COMPRESSOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l-l
3 AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l-l
4 CONTROLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l-3
5 COOLING WATER TREATMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l-4
Section 2. OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE RESPONSIBILITIES . . . . . . . . . . .

l-5
1 OPERATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
l-5
2 DISASTER CONTROL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
l-5
3 OPERATOR MAINTENANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
l-6
4 PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
l-7
5 BREAKDOWN MAINTENANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l-7
6 COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEM LEAKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-7
CHAPTER 2. POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT COMPRESSORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-l
Section 1. RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2-l
1 DESCRIPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-l
2 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-l
3 STARTUP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3
4 NORMAL OPERATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5
5 SHUTDOWN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5
6 OPERATIONAL PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-6
7 PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE INSPECTION . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-6
8 MAINTENANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-8
Section 2. ROTARY SLIDING VANE COMPRESSORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2-13
1 DESCRIPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-13
2 STARTUP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-13
3 NORMAL OPERATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-15
4 SHUTDOWN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-15
5 OPERATIONAL PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-16
6 PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE INSPECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-16
7 MAINTENANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-17
Section 3. ROTARY TWIN-LOBE COMPRESSORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2-19
1 DESCRIPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-19
2 STARTUP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-19
3 NORMAL OPERATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-21
4 SHUTDOWN . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-21
5 OPERATIONAL PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-21
6 PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE INSPECTION. .. . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-21
7 MAINTENANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-22
Section 4. ROTARY LIQUID PISTON COMPRESSORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2-23
1 DESCRIPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-23
2 STARTUP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-23
CONTENTS (Continued)
Page
3 NORMAL OPERATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-23

4 SHUTDOWN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-23
5 OPERATIONAL PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-25
6 PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE INSPECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-25
7 MAINTENANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-26
CHAPTER 3. DYNAMIC COMPRESSORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-l

1 DESCRIPTION . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-l
2 STARTUP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3
3 NORMAL OPERATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5
4 SHUTDOWN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5
5 OPERATIONAL PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-7
6 PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE INSPECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-8
7 MAINTENANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-9
CHAPTER 4. AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-l
Section 1. INTAKE FILTERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-l

1 DESCRIPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-l
2 INSPECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-l
3 MAINTENANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2
Section 2. SILENCERS 4-5

1 DESCRIPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5
2 INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5
Section 3. INTERCOOLERS AND AFTERCOOLERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7

1 DESCRIPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .4 - 7
2 STARTUP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-8
3 NORMAL OPERATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-8
4 SHUTDOWN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4 - 9
5 OPERATIONAL PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 9
6 PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE INSPECTION . . . . . . . . . . . .4 - 9
7 MAINTENANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-11
Section 4. SEPARATORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-13 .

1 DESCRIPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-13 .
2 OPERATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-13 .
3 PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE INSPECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-13 .
4 MAINTENANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-14
Section 5. TRAPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-15

1 DESCRIPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 4-15
2 STARTUP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-15
3 SHUTDOWN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-15
4 PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE INSPECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-15
5 MAINTENANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-15
Section 6. AIR RECEIVERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-19

1 DESCRIPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-19
ii
CONTENTS (Continued)
Page
2 NORMAL OPERATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-19
3 PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE INSPECTION . . . . . . . . . 4-19
4 MAINTENANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-20
Section 7. DRYERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-21
1 DESCRIPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-21
2 TYPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-21
5 MAINTENANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-25
CHAPTER 5. CONTROLS.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...................... 5-l
Section 1. PRIME MOVER CONTROLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-l
1 DESCRIPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-l
2 STARTUP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4
4 SHUTDOWN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4
5 OPERATIONAL PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE . . . . . . . . 5-4
7 MAINTENANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-5
Section 2. COMPRESSOR CONTROLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-7
1 CAPACITY CONTROL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-7
2 STARTUP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-15
4 SHUTDOWN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-15
5 OPERATIONAL PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE . . . . . . . . 5-15
7 MAINTENANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-16
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reference-l
APPENDIX A - ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS . . . . . . . . . . . . A-l
APPENDIX B - EVALUATION OF LOSSES IN COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS. . . B-l
1 COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEM LEAKS . . . . . . . . . . . . B-2
2 TEST METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-2
3 TEST EQUIPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-2
4 TEST PRECAUTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-2
5 TEST PROCEDURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-2
6 CORRECTIVE MEASURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-6
INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Index-1
iii
FIGURES
Figure Page
1-1 Main Components of an Air-Compressor Plant. . . . . . . . l-2
2-1 Two-Cylinder, Two-Stage, V-Type Air Compressor . . . . . 2-2
2-2 Installing Piston Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-9
2-3 Connecting Rod With Wedge Adjusting Bearings . . . . . . 2-10
2-4 Connecting Rod Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-11
2-5 Method of Checking the Tension of V-Belts . . . . . . . . 2-11
2-6 Cross Section of Rotary Sliding Vane Compressor . . . . . 2-13
2-7 Cutaway View of Two-Stage, Rotary Sliding Vane
Compressor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-14
2-8 Impeller Arrangement of Rotary Twin-Lobe Compressor . . . 2-20
2-9 Rotary Twin-Lobe Compressor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-20
2-10 Compression Cycle, Rotary Liquid Piston Compressor. . . . 2-24
2-11 Functional Elements, Rotary Liquid Piston Compressor. . . 2-25
3-l Simple Volute Pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-l
3-2 Six-Stage Compressor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2
3-3 Impeller Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2
3-4 Axial Flow Compressor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3
3-5 Rotor and Stator Blades, Axial Compressor . . . . . . . . 3-4
3-6 Alignment Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-11
3-7 Coupling Alignment and Misalignment . . . . . . . . . . . 3-12
4-1 Oil-Bath Intake Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2
4-2 Compressor Intake Silencer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5
4-3 Air-Cooled Heat Exchanger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7
4-4 Water-Cooled Heat Exchanger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-8
4-5 Centrifugal Type Separator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-13
4-6 Baffle Type Separator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-14
4-7 Drain Traps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-16
4-8 Air Receiver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-19
4-9 Flow Diagram of Electric Reactivated Absorption Dryer . . 4-21
4-10 Deliquescent (Absorption) Dryer . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-22
4-11 Flow Diagram of Refrigeration Dryer . . . . . . . . . . . 4-23
5-1 Automatic Start-Stop Governor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-2
5-2 Variable Speed, Oil Relay Governor . . . . . . . . . . . 5-3
5-3 Inlet Valve Unloader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-8
5-4 Airflow Diagram of Compressor With Five-Step Control . . 5-9
5-5 Three-Way Solenoid Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-10
5-6 Five-Step Clearance Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-11
5-7 Intake Unloader for Rotary Sliding Vane Compressor . . . 5-13
B-1 Loss (cfm) vs Pressure (psig) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-6
TABLES
Table Title Page
1-1 Maximum Pressures and Capacities of Air Compressors . . . 1-3
1-2 Troubleshooting Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-8
B-1 Amount and Cost of Air Leaks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-3
B-2 Pressure Test Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-4
B-3 Calculation of Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-4
iv
SAFETY SUMMARY
Whenever work is to be accomplished on air compressor plants there is

always the possibility of a hazardous situation occurring, which could result
in serious injury to or death of personnel. Performance without injury is a
sign of conscientious workmanship and planned supervision. Therefore, safety
is a primary consideration when operating, inspecting, or maintaining any of
the air compressor plants addressed in this publication.
The first essential action is to read and understand all publications

associated with the systems and equipment being used. The manuals explain
safe and accepted ways of installation, startup, operation, inspection,
maintenance, removal, and shutdown. If you do not understand what you have
read, DO NOT attempt to perform the intended task; get guidance from your
supervisor.
The following safety rules are emphasized:
GENERAL
• All personnel should be trained and qualified in cardiopulmonary

resuscitation (CPR).
• All personnel should wear safety shoes.
• All personnel should wear clothing appropriate to the job being

performed. Eliminate loose clothing, which can get caught in
machinery.
• Wear hardhats when required.
• All personnel should wear eye and ear protection prescribed for the
task being performed.
• Report all injuries, even if they seem to be minor.
• DO NOT WORK ALONE. At least one other person should be on hand to

provide assistance, if needed.
• Always use the correct tool for the job.
• Prevent skin ruptures and sensory injuries when working with

compressed air. Close isolation valves before working on lines or
fittings.
• Follow lockout and tagout procedures prescribed for the plant.
• Current and accurate drawings of various mechanical systems are

essential for operational safety of the plant.
ELECTRICAL WORK
• Do not wear jewelry, including rings, bracelets, necklaces, or wrist

watches.
v
• Do not wear jackets with metal zippers.
• Do not use metal ladders.
• Do not take short cuts. The steps recommended by a manufacturer

usually have a margin of safety built into them.
• Do not try to connect meters to circuits unless you are qualified.

Wait for an electrician.
• Always use insulated tools and grounded equipment. NEVER USE

screwdrivers or other tools with metal shanks extending through the
handle.
• Always use and observe tags and lockouts on circuits being worked on.
WARNINGS AND CAUTIONS
Warnings and cautions appear in equipment manuals. A CAUTION is a

statement regarding an operating or maintenance procedure, practice, or
condition which, if not strictly observed, could result in damage to, or
destruction of, equipment or data, loss of mission effectiveness, or long-term
health hazards to personnel. A WARNING is a statement regarding an operating
or maintenance procedure, practice, or condition which, if not strictly
observed, could result in injury to, or death of, personnel.
The warnings and cautions which appear in this manual are repeated here
for emphasis and reinforcement of their need to be observed explicitly. The
numbers in parentheses at the end of each warning and caution indicate the
page on which it appears; for example, (4-15) refers to page 4-15.
Do not use gasoline, kerosene, or other low flashpoint solvents. A

serious explosion m a y result. (2-8, 3-10, 4-3, 4-6, 4-15, 4-20,
5-5, 5-16)
If impellers are to be rotated, keep hands, feet, loose clothing,

and foreign objects away from inlet and discharge openings, as
serious personal injury or damage to equipment can occur. (2-19)
Do not operate equipment without adequate silencing devices. High

noise levels may cause permanent hearing damage. (2-19)
Compressor equipment, compressed air, and electricity can be

dangerous. To prevent injury, before attempting any maintenance be
certain the compressor cannot be started accidentally. (3-3)
vi
Protective devices must be worn to avoid damage to hearing. (3-4)
Do not attempt to repair or remove any compressor system parts

without first relieving pressure from the entire system. (4-9,
4-14, 4-15, 4-20, 4-24, 4-25, 4-26)
Never operate compressor in the critical speed range (insufficient

volume at the compressor inlet to permit stable operation); surging
or pumping will occur. Operation under these conditions may result
in equipment damage. (3-5)
To avoid damage to equipment, after shutting down the drive, keep

auxiliary lubricating oil pump operating until bearings have cooled
to ambient temperatures. (3-5)
To avoid internal damage to equipment, use only synthetic sponges

when cleaning internal surfaces and components. Do not use cloth
rags or cotton waste. (3-10)
To ensure proper alignment, check alignment in both the hot and cold
condition. After checking the alignment in the cold condition,
operate the compressor under full load for 1 hour. Shut down the
unit and recheck the alignment immediately. (3-10)
Dry type filter elements can easily be damaged allowing harmful

particulates to pass. If in doubt about correct cleaning
procedures, replace the filter element. (4-2)
Ensure all joints are tight to avoid entry of unfiltered air. Dirt
in the air will cause premature wear to the compressor. (4-6)
Never hammer on the tubes or use sharp edged scrapers which may
damage the tubes. (4-11)
Chemical solutions used for cleaning should be capable of dissolving

the scale or other deposits without attacking the metal. (4-11)
vii
Do not overrun the unit. Overrunning will result in the tower
becoming saturated and unable to absorb any more moisture. Moisture
laden air will then be carried over into the distribution system.
(4-23)
On systems where oil carryover from the compressor is present,

provision should be made to protect the desiccant bed of the dryer
from becoming oil saturated. Oil deposits in the desiccant bed
cause a decrease in drying efficiency and necessitate frequent
replacement of the desiccant. (4-23)
Do not attempt to service the sealed refrigeration unit; damage to

the unit may result. Contact the manufacturer in the event of any
malfunction. (4-26)
The operator must have a thorough understanding of the control

system and its operation. (5-4, 5-15)
vii
CHAPTER 1. DEFINITIONS AND RESPONSIBILITIES
Section 1. AIR COMPRESSOR PLANT
1 COMPONENTS OF AN AIR COMPRESSOR PLANT. Compressed air is a form of power

that has many important uses in industrial activities. Air compressor plants
are used to provide an adequate quantity of compressed air at sufficient
pressure to various points of application. Distribution of compressed air is
found in NAVFAC MO-209, Maintenance of Steam, Hot Water, and Compressed Air
Distribution Systems. Components of a plant are: air compressor, intercool-
ers, aftercoolers, moisture separator, air receiver, and controls (figure l-l).
2 AIR COMPRESSOR. The air compressor is the heart of a compressed air

plant. Compressors are used to increase the pressure of air from the initial
conditions (air intake) to the discharge conditions (air discharge).
Compressors may be used as vacuum pumps. A vacuum pump has an intake that is
below atmospheric pressure and usually compresses to no higher than
atmospheric pressure. The degree of vacuum attainable is dependent upon the
type of system, leakage into the system, and limitations of the equipment.
The main types of air compressors are positive displacement and dynamic.
2.1 Positive Displacement Compressors. There are two basic types of positive
displacement compressors. In one, air is compressed as the volume of the
enclosed space is reduced. In the other, a definite quantity of air is
trapped and transferred from the suction intake to the discharge port without
reducing its volume. Pressure increase is caused by backflow into the casing
when the discharge port is uncovered. Examples of the first type are
reciprocating compressors, rotary sliding vane compressors, and rotary liquid
piston compressors. An example of the second type is the rotary twin-lobe
compressor. Refer to chapter 2 for details.
2.2 Dynamic Compressors. Dynamic compressors operate by imparting velocity

and pressure to the admitted air, through the action of a rapidly spinning
impeller or rotating vanes. The main types of dynamic compressors are
centrifugal and axial compressors. Refer to chapter 3 for details.
2.3 Maximum Pressures and Capacities of Air Compressors. The approximate

maximum pressures in pounds-force per square inch gauge (psig), and the
approximate maximum capacities in cubic feet per minute (cfm) for various
types of compressors are given in table l-l.
3 AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT. The following auxiliary equipment is required for the

proper operation of an air compressor plant.
3.1 Air Intake Filters. Filters prevent the admission of atmospheric dust to
the air compressor. Refer to chapter 4, section 1 for details.
3.2 Silencers. Silencers reduce objectionable compressor suction noise.

Refer to chapter 4, section 2.
3.3 Intercoolers and Aftercoolers. Intercoolers are used between consecutive

stages of multistage compressors to remove the heat of compression.
Aftercoolers are installed on the compressor discharge lines to remove the
heat of compression after compression is completed. Both are effective in
1-1
FIGURE l-l. Main Components of an Air Compressor Plant
1-2
TABLE l-l. Maximum Pressures and Capacities of Air Compressors
Compressor Maximum Pressure Maximum Capacity

Type (psig) (cfm)
Reciprocating 100,000 26,000
Rotary sliding vane 400 6,000
Rotary twin-lobe 20 32,800
Rotary liquid piston 100 16,000
Centrifugal 5,500 650,000
Axial 500 1,000,000
removing moisture and oil from the compressed air. Refer to chapter 4,
section 3.
3.4 Separators. Separators remove and collect entrained water and oil
precipitated from the air. Refer to chapter 4, section 4.
3 . 5 Traps.Traps drain condensed moisture and oil from separators,

intercoolers, aftercoolers, receivers, and distribution piping. Refer to
chapter 4, section 5.
3.6 Air Receivers. Air receivers are tanks wherein compressed air is
discharged and stored. They help to reduce pulsations in the discharge line
and provide storage capacity to meet peak demands exceeding the capacity of
the compressor. Refer to chapter 4, section 6.
3.7 Air Dryers. Air dryers remove moisture that might condense in air lines,
air tools, or pneumatic instruments. Refer to chapter 4, section 7.
3.8 Safety Valves. Safety valves are used in a compressed air or gas
system. They must open rapidly and fully so that excessive pressure buildup
can be relieved immediately to prevent damage or destruction of the system
components. Although the terms safety valve and relief valve are often used
interchangeably, this is technically incorrect. A relief valve is used with
liquid systems. Since liquids are virtually incompressible, a relief valve is
designed to open gradually as the venting of a small amount of liquid is often
sufficient to relieve excessive pressure throughout the system. There is one
class of valve known as a safety-relief valve that can be used as either type
depending upon internal adjustments. Safety valves are found in interstages,
air receivers, and between a positive displacement compressor and any shutoff
valve.
4 CONTROLS. Control systems for air compressors vary from the relatively
simple to the extremely sophisticated. The simpler control systems, through
the use of sensors, monitor the performance of the equipment and, through the
l-3
use of lights and/or audible signals, alert an operator that some variable is
outside the normal operating range. Most systems automatically initiate a
shutdown procedure under certain conditions to prevent equipment damage. With
increasing use of remote,unattended compressor installations, the demand for
the highest degree of protection and reliability has brought about many
advancements and lessened the need for operator involvement. Many control
systems provide a completely automatic sequence for starting, operating, and
shutdown of compressors. The more advanced control systems are able to
optimize equipment efficiency by controlling one or more variables to obtain a
specified level of performance.
5 COOLING WATER TREATMENT. Cooling water systems are used in compressed air
plants to remove heat from engines, air compressors, refrigeration condensers,
intercoolers, and aftercoolers. These cooling systems are classified as
either once-through or recirculating. Once-through systems often require
nothing more than chlorination to prevent biological fouling of heat
exchangers. Treatment is more critical in open recirculating systems because
of solids buildup due to evaporation. As hardness and other solids increase,
probability of mineral scale formation in heat exchangers increases. To
combat scale damage, chemical additives are used to keep scale-forming salts
in solution. Dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide are prime corrosion
developers. Corrosion control is provided by addition of inhibitors. Slime
accumulation and fouling may be prevented by the addition of chlorine or other
biocides. Solids concentration is controlled by blowdown. More detailed
information on cooling water treatment is contained in the proposed
publication, NAVFAC MO-225, Industrial Water Treatment.
l-4
Section 2. OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE RESPONSIBILITIES
1 OPERATION. Operation includes startup, normal operation, emergency

operation, and shutdown of plant equipment. Good operation is safe, reliable,
and economical. Operators and operator supervisors are responsible for safe
and efficient operation of equipment. Follow these basic rules of good
operation.
• All operators should be thoroughly familiar with the equipment and

systems they operate. Carefully study drawings, diagrams, instruction
manuals, special operation procedures, and emergency procedures. Know
the location, method of operation, and function of all valves,
switches, electrical controls, and other control devices.
• Perform work assignments in a safe manner in accordance with approved

operating procedures. Use available protective safety clothing and
equipment.
• Operate equipment and systems economically, safely, and reliably.
• Teamwork and cooperation are essential.
• Be alert and concentrate on your work. Errors and forgetfulness can

cause serious personnel injuries and costly damage to equipment.
2 DISASTER CONTROL. Disaster control includes the prevention, minimization,

and correction of operational and emergency casualties to plant facilities and
installations. Sound design, careful inspection, and effective organization
and training of plant personnel are part of a disaster control program. All
plant personnel are responsible for disaster control as follows:
(a) The responsibilities of the operators are:
• Operating the plant equipment in a safe and reliable manner
• Handling emergencies and casualties effectively using approved

procedures
• Reporting immediately to their supervisors any equipment defects

or operational deficiencies
(b) The responsibilities of the maintenance personnel are:
• Maintaining the equipment in good condition at all times
• Making quick effective repairs when equipment breakdowns occur
(c) The responsibilities of the supervisory and engineering personnel

are:
• Selection of competent personnel
• Preparation and supervision of adequate personnel training

programs
l-5
• Preparation and supervision of an adequate plant maintenance,
housekeeping, and inspection program
• Competent design and installation of all plant equipment
• Preparation and supervision of normal operating procedures that

are safe, reliable, and economical
• Preparation and supervision of emergency and casualty procedures
• Preparation and procurement of training aids, system diagrams,

and manufacturers' manuals for the training and guidance of
operating and maintenance personnel
• Preparation and supervision of a periodic test and inspection

program for all plant safety devices, fire fighting equipment,
and other emergency equipment
3 OPERATOR MAINTENANCE. Operator maintenance is the necessary routine,

recurring maintenance work performed by the operators to keep the equipment
operating at its designed capacity and efficiency.
3.1 Responsibilities. The operator is an important member of the maintenance

team. A well-informed and responsible operator performs the following duties:
• Keeps equipment in service for maximum periods
• Detects any flaws so that equipment is removed from service in time to

prevent serious damage
• Performs minor repairs on equipment removed from service to minimize

down time
3.2 Duties. Everyone in the operating chain should be aware of the following
conditions.
(a) Cleanliness. Dirt is the principal cause of equipment failure and

should be removed immediately by the operator.
(b) Lubrication. Any two surfaces brought together develop friction.

When not properly lubricated, these surfaces wear down, change clearances, and
cause equipment breakdowns.
(c) Temperature Change. Any unusual temperature change which the

operator cannot correct should be reported immediately to the plant
supervisor. When the temperature of a piece of equipment rises rapidly,
immediately shut it down.
(d) Vibration. Vibration is a major source of equipment failure.,

Equipment not properly secured will vibrate. This vibration causes loosening
of components and possible misalignment of parts, leading to more serious
problems. The operator,in making rounds, should check the bearings,
l-6
compressor housing, and motor casing for any unusual sound, vibration, or
motion. Take immediate action to correct any problems.
4 PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE. Preventive maintenance (PM) is a system of routine

inspections of equipment recorded for future reference on inspection records.
Its purpose is to anticipate and prevent possible equipment failures by making
periodic inspections and minor repairs in advance of major operating
difficulties.
4.1 Responsibilities. PM is the responsibility of the operators and

specified maintenance crews. The operator is expected to do as much
maintenance as his technical abilities, tools, and time allows. Specifically
assigned maintenance crews work on equipment requiring no operator, or where
the work to be done is beyond the scope of the operator.
4.2 Scheduling. Scheduling PM is the responsibility of the plant

supervisor. Maintain a record card for each major piece of equipment with
entries of the PM schedule, inspections, and operation. See NAVFAC MO-322,
Inspection of Shore Facilities, for more detailed information.
5 BREAKDOWN MAINTENANCE. Breakdown maintenance is the emergency repair of

inoperable equipment performed by operators or maintenance crews. The plant
and maintenance supervisors are responsible for emergency repairs. The
Utility and Maintenance Shops should develop a coordinated plan to efficiently
handle emergency breakdowns.
5.1 Troubleshooting. Troubleshooting is a means of locating the source of

trouble when problems occur so that repairs can be made. Compressor
manufacturers will normally provide troubleshooting charts for their
equipment. These charts can be very helpful in diagnosing problems. Table
l-2 is an example of a typical, but partial, troubleshooting chart. This
troubleshooting table is not meant to be a complete source of information. It
is a composite list developed from the manufacturers of various types of
compressors and compressor system components. The list contains some commonly
found problems, possible causes, and remedies.
6 COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEM LEAKS. A malfunction which may affect the demand
upon a compressed air plant is a loss of air within the distribution system.
A discussion of the evaluation of losses in compressed air systems is
presented in appendix 8.
l-7
TABLE l-2. Troubleshooting Chart
Problem Possible Cause Remedy
Compressor unit No power to motor. Turn on power.

will not start
Unloaders not operating. Repair unloaders.
Repair or readjust
controls.
Obstruction to rotation. Remove obstruction.
Motor Discharge pressure above Readjust control.

overheating rating.
Unloader setting incorrect. Readjust unloader.
Inlet filter clogged. Clean or replace filter.
Overheating of Discharge pressure above Lower discharge pressure.

compressor rating.
parts
Intake filter clogged. Clean.
Worn or broken valves. Replace.
Leaking gaskets. Replace.
Unloader or control defective. Replace.
Unloader setting wrong. Correct.
Compressor components worn or Replace.

broken.
Cylinder head, intercooler Clean.

dirty.
Insufficient cooling water. Increase quantity of

cooling water.
V-belt or coupling misalign- Realign components.

ment.
Bearings too tight. Adjust bearings.
Oil level too high. Correct oil level.
l-8
TABLE l-2. Troubleshooting Chart (Continued)
Oveheating of Lubrication inadequate. Correct oil level.

compressor
parts Correct oil pressure.
(continued)
Ensure correct oil
viscosity is being used.
Ambient temperature too high. Lower ambient temperature.
Increase ventilation.
Valves dirty. Clean valves.
Belts too tight. Readjust belt tension.
Packings too tight. Readjust packings.
Delivery of air System leaks excessive. Stop leaks.

less than
rated capacity Intake filter clogged. Clean or replace filter as
applicable.
Valves worn or broken. Replace worn or broken

valves.
Belts slipping. Tighten.
Speed lower than rating. Increase speed.
Compressor components worn or Replace.

broken.
Control device inoperative or Repair or adjust control

maladjusted. device.
Water quantity insufficient. Increase water quantity.
Inlet temperature too high. Check water quantity and

temperature at inter-
cooler.
Excessive Mounting bolts loose. Tighten mounting bolts.

vibration of
compressor
l-9
Excessive Misalignment of belt pulleys Realign as necessary.

vibration of or drive coupling.
compressor
(continued) Bearings out of adjustment or Adjust or replace
excessively worn. bearings.
Outlet water Cylinder, head, or intercooler Clean compressor system

temperature dirty. parts.
above normal
Water quantity insufficient. Increase cooling water
supply.
Compressor speed too high. Slow down compressor.
Compressor Discharge pressure above Lower discharge pressure.

noisy or rating.
knocks
Belts slipping. Readjust belts.
V-belts or coupling misaligned. Realign.
Pulley or flywheel loose. Tighten pulley or flywheel

mountings.
Drive motor or compressor Tighten mounting bolts.

mounting bolts loose.
Lubrication inadequate. Increase oil level or

pressure.
Use correct oil viscosity.
Intercooler vibrating. Check for loose mounting

hardware.
Operating cycle Discharge pressure above Readjust control.

lasts too long rating.
Worn or broken internal Replace worn or broken,

compressor parts. parts.
Unloader or control device Replace defective device

defective.
1-10
Air receiver Unloader or control defective. Repair or replace

pressure above defective parts.
normal
Unloader setting wrong. Correct unloader setting.
Leaks in control air piping. Stop leaks.
Control air line clogged. Unclog control air lines.
Intercooler Valves worn or broken. Replace valves.

pressure above
normal Valves not seated or Reseat or relocate valves.
incorrectly located.
Intercooler passages clogged. Clean intercooler.
Insufficient water. Increase water supply.
Intercooler System demand exceeds rating. Upgrade compressor.

pressure below
normal System leakage excessive. Stop leakage.
Intake filter clogged. Clean or replace air

filter as applicable.
Valves worn or broken. Replace worn or broken

valves.
Air in receiver Moisture separator not Unclog or repair separator

too moist draining. drain.
Air coolers ineffective. Check temperature of

cooler at discharge port.
Inadequate cooling waterflow Check cooling waterflow

rate. pressure.
1-11
Oil in air Clogged air filter. Clean or replace air

receiver filter element.
Broken piston and/or rings. Replace broken parts.
Oil level too high. Correct oil level.
Oil viscosity incorrect. Change lubricant to proper

viscosity.
Oil wrong type. Change lubricant to proper

viscosity.
Unloaded running time too Use auto start/stop

long. control.
Surging of Operating at less than Increase flow of

distribution designed minimum flow. compressor.
air
Install surge control
valve in discharge line.
Cavitation of Feedwater level too low. Increase feedwater level

water in in reservoir.
cooling supply
Air leaks into suction piping. Stop leaks.
1-12
CHAPTER 2. POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT COMPRESSORS
Section 1. RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS
1 DESCRIPTION. Reciprocating air compressors are manufactured in a variety

of shapes, sizes, and capacities. Single-stage machines draw air from the
atmosphere and discharge it into the receiver or storage tank. Two-stage
compressors (figure 2-l) bring the air up to intermediate pressure in one
cylinder and to final pressure in a second cylinder. Where two or more stages
are employed, the unit is defined as a multistage air compressor. Multistage
compressors produce higher discharge pressures. Stationary air compressors
are usually water-cooled, with the exception of small units that are
air-cooled. Portable units are also usually air-cooled. Air-cooled
compressors utilize finned cylinders to increase the radiating area.
Compressor drives include electric motors, steam reciprocating engines, steam
turbines, or internal combustion engines. Drives may be direct connected,
connected through reduction gears, or belt connected. Operating and
maintenance instructions for electric motors, internal combustion engines,
steam engines, and steam turbine drives are contained in NAVFAC MO-205,
Central Heating and Steam Electric Generating Plants.
1.1 High-Pressure Systems. Although high-pressure air compressors can

compress air to pressures of approximately 100,000 pounds-force per square
inch gauge (psig), in this manual discussion of high-pressure systems is
limited to the 400- to 6,000-psig range. Multistage reciprocating compressors
are commonly used for this service. Depending upon the discharge pressure,
the compressor will have from two to five stages of compression, intercoolers
between stages, and an aftercooler. Smaller compressors may be air-cooled or
a combination of air- and water-cooled while larger compressors are normally
water-cooled. Power for larger compressors is usually provided by electric
motors, although in some installations the compressors may be powered by
diesel or steam engines. In smaller compressor applications, gasoline engine
drives may be provided. Power is normally transmitted from the power source
to the compressor through a direct drive or V-belts. Steam engines are
usually integral with the compressor. Typical applications for high-pressure
air are:
• Testing and operating catapults
• Testing and launching missiles
• Torpedo workshops
• Wind tunnels
• Ammunition depots
2 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS.
2.1 Explosive Hazards. Although compressed air at low or medium pressures is

dangerous if carelessly handled, the dangers associated with high-pressure
systems are of much greater consequence. Serious explosions, complete
destruction of facilities, and heavy loss of life have been attributed to
unsafe practices involving high-pressure compressed air systems. A serious
2-l
2-2
potential danger exists in these systems whenever high-pressure air is
suddenly admitted into pockets,or dead ends, that are at or near atmospheric
pressure. The air temperature in the confined space is raised to the ignition
point of any flammable material that may be present. This autoignition or
diesel action has been identified as the cause of several major disasters
associated with high-pressure air systems. Such an explosion may set up shock
waves that can travel throughout the compressed air system and possibly cause
explosions at remote points. Under these conditions, even a small quantity of
oil residue, a smear of grease, or a small cotton thread may be sufficient to
cause an explosion. Because of the serious nature of these problems, it is
extremely important that competent personnel,experienced in high-pressure
systems, be employed for maintaining and operating such equipment.
2.2 Preventive Measures. As a safeguard against explosions in high-pressure

compressed air systems, a number of precautions should be taken.
(a) Use of Slow-Opening Valves. These valves are used in pocketed

spaces such as lines to gauges and regulators to prevent a sudden pressure
rise.
(b) Elimination of Flame Arrestors. Flame arrestors, sometimes used to

prevent the spread of flame in pipelines, SHOULD NOT be installed in
high-pressure air systems as they may create additional hazards.
(c) Pipe Coloring. High-pressure air lines are identified with a

painted light gray band and adjoining light green arrowhead pointing in the
normal flow direction. These markings are placed on high-pressure air lines
at each point where piping enters or emerges from a wall and immediately
adjacent to all valves, regulators, check valves, strainers, and other
components.
(d) Location of Equipment. High-pressure air storage and dryer

cylinders are isolated from other facilities as a precaution against damage
that could result from rupture of the cylinders.
(e) System Tests. Before putting a high-pressure system into operation,

the required testing of NAVFAC DM-3.5, Compressed Air and Vacuum Systems, must
be accomplished by competent personnel with an engineer responsible for safety.
3 STARTUP.
3.1 Prestart Inspection. Carefully inspect the compressor installation to

ensure the following prestart requirements are fulfilled.
(a) Verify all installation and repair work has been completed.
(b) Ensure system has been cleaned and tested for leaks.
(c) Ensure interstage and discharge safety valves are operating properly.
(d) Ensure compressor and drive are lubricated in accordance with the
manufacturers' instructions. On units fitted with a forced mechanical
lubricator, pump or crank by hand to see that the oil is getting to all parts
requiring lubrication.
2-3
3.2 Startup Procedure for Motor-Driven Compressors. Proceed as follows:
(a) Open all shutoff valves between compressor and receiver.
(b) Make sure compressor is unloaded. Consult the manufacturer's

instructions for procedure.
(c) Turn on cooling water, if provided. Thoroughly vent cylinder

jackets and coolers if vents are provided.
(d) Turn compressor over by hand to see that all parts are free.
(e) Start compressor motor. When up to speed, apply load if machine is

running smoothly.
3.3 Startup Procedure for Steam-Driven Reciprocating Compressors. Proceed as

follows:
(a) Open all shutoff valves between compressor and receiver.
(b) Turn on cooling water services ensuring cylinder jackets and coolers
are thoroughly vented.
(c) Make sure compressor is unloaded by opening the separator drain

valve or the compressor cylinder indicator cocks.
(d) Open valve chest, exhaust, and steam cylinder drain valves.
(e) Open the drain valve on the steam admission line above the throttle
valve. When all condensation has drained from the line and the pipe is hot,
close the drain valve until it is open approximately one-fourth of a turn.
(f) Crack open the throttle valve and allow the steam cylinder to warm
up.
(g) Open steam exhaust valve.
(h) Slowly open the throttle valve and allow the governor to take over
control.
(i) Close the drain valves when steam discharge is free of condensate.
(j) When the compressor is up to speed, slowly build up the load.
3.4 Startup Procedure for New or Overhauled Compressors. When starting a new
compressor, or one that has been overhauled, allow the compressor to run
unloaded for 1 or 2 hours to give the running surfaces a polished finish.
Periodically check for overheating. Build up load gradually over a period of
several hours. After a few days of operation, shut down compressor and
recheck all cylinder head, valve cover, cylinder flange, shaft cover, and
foundation bolts for tightness.
2-4
4 NORMAL OPERATION. While the system is operating, perform the following
tasks.
(a) Watch for irregular compressor performance; excessive vibration; and

overheating of bearings, motors, and packing.
(b) Maintain proper lubricating oil levels.
(c) Drain intercooler and aftercooler separators as necessary.
(d) If automatic drainers are provided, check their operation.
(e) Check temperatures and pressures of cooling water, compressed air,

and lubricating oil regularly.
5 SHUTDOWN. Proceed as follows:
(a) Unload the compressor before stopping the drive.
(b) Drain separators, steam cylinders, and turbines.
(c) Shut off cooling water supply if an automatic shutoff valve is not
provided.
(d) If the compressor might be subjected to freezing temperatures while

shutdown, thoroughly drain cylinder jackets, coolers, and drain traps.
5.1 Extended Shutdown. Any compressor taken out of service for an extended
period will deteriorate rapidly from rust and corrosion if not properly
protected. The manufacturer should be contacted to obtain the recommended
procedure for protecting the equipment. Take the following precautions in
addition to those stated in paragraph 5(a) through 5(d).
(a) Drain and refill the crankcase with a preservative oil.
(b) Operate the machine without pressure for no less than 15 minutes.
This allows thorough distribution of the oil and elimination of any crankcase
condensate.
(c) While the machine is running, spray a fog of preservative oil into
the compressor intake.
(d) Remove piston rod packing and oil wiper rings from the rod or
corrosion of the piston rod may result. Coat the piston rod and oil wiper
rings with grease and wrap them in waterproof paper.
(e) Tape or plug all openings to keep out moisture.
(f) Relieve V-belts of tension.
(g) Drain the receiver and aftercooler.
(h) Drain the aftercooler cooling water, if used.
2-5
(i) Follow the prime mover manufacturer's instructions for the method of
protection during extended shutdown.
6 OPERATIONAL PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE. Operational preventive maintenance

includes the following tasks.
(a) Keep daily operating logs that record pressures and temperatures of
air and water in the compressor, intercoolers and aftercoolers, and of
compressor lubricating oil.Deviations from normal values indicate the
corrective action that must be taken to return the system to normal and to
prevent damage to the equipment from insufficient lubrication or inadequate
cooling.
(b) The operating log also helps in detecting valve troubles. On

two-stage compressors, low intercooler pressure indicates malfunctioning of
the low-pressure cylinder valves, and high intercooler pressure may be due to
improper operation of the high-pressure cylinder valves. Locate defective
valve by feeling the valve cover plates and determining which is the hottest.
Leaking high-pressure suction valves cause the intercooler pressure to
fluctuate above normal values. Leaking high-pressure discharge valves cause
the intercooler pressure to build up steadily until the safety valve releases
it. Low-pressure discharge valves that leak cause intercooler pressure to
fluctuate below normal intercooler pressure.
(c) Keep compressor clean at all times. Wipe the machine daily with a
cloth. Dirt on the machine will eventually work its way into the lubricating
system. On air-cooled compressors, dirt accumulations form an insulating
blanket causing increased temperatures within the machine and excessive wear
on moving parts.
(d) Clean intake air filter regularly to prevent atmospheric dust from
entering the compressor cylinders.
(e) Keep piston rod packing tight enough to prevent air leakage, but do
not overtighten. Overtightening causes excessive packing wear and scoring of
the piston rod.
7 PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE INSPECTION. The following inspection schedules are

adequate for average installations.
7.1 Daily Inspection. Inspect the compressor daily for the following
conditions:
(a) Unusual noise or vibration
(b) Abnormal pressures or temperatures of compressed air, cooling water,

and lubricating oil
(c) Proper unloader operation
(d) Abnormal stuffing box temperatures
(e) Abnormal bearing temperatures
2-6
(f) Correct lubricating oil levels
7.2 Quarterly Inspection. Inspect the compressor every 3 months for the
following conditions:
(a) Wear and dirt on, and proper seating of, compressor valves
(b) Operation of all safety valves
(c) Wear of packing and scoring of piston rods
(d) Sludge accumulations in crankcase
(e) Tightness of cylinder head bolts
(f) Tension, wear, and deterioration of belts
(g) Wear of connecting rods and crossheads
(h) Wear of, and dirt in, bearings
(i) Operation of lubricators and oil cups
7.3 Annual Inspection. Repeat the quarterly inspection outlined above and
inspect for the following conditions:
(a) Wear, scoring, and corrosion of, and dirt in,cylinders
(b) Leakage, wear, scoring, and security to the piston rod of pistons;
head clearances
(c) Damage, wear, and tightness of, and dirt in, piston rings
(d) Wear at packing glands of piston rods and security of piston rods to
crosshead and piston
(e) Wear and proper operation of crankcase and crankshaft bearings
(f) Wear and proper operation of crossheads, crosshead guides,wedges,

and pins
(g) Security to shaft of flywheel; wear and dirt on flywheel bearings
(h) Alignment of compressor with drive
2-7
8 MAINTENANCE.
8.1 Lubrication.
Do not gasoline,kerosene, or other low flashpoint solvents. A

serious explosion may result.
Establish a lubrication schedule for air compressors. Normal oil levels must
be maintained at all times. Use only lubricants recommended by the
manufacturer. Frequency of oil changes is dependent upon severity of service
and atmospheric dust and dirt. The time for oil changes can best be
determined by the physical condition of the oil. When changing oil, clean the
inside of the crankcase by wiping with clean, lint-free rags. If this is not
possible, use a good grade of flushing oil to remove any settled particles.
8.2 Packing. When replacing fibrous packing, thoroughly clean the stuffing
box of old packing and grease. Cover each piece of new packing with the
recommended lubricant. Separate the new rings at the split joint to place
them over the shaft. Place one ring of packing at a time in the stuffing box
and tamp firmly in place. Stagger the joints of each ring so they will not be
in line. After the last ring is in place, assemble the gland and tighten the
nuts evenly until snug. After a few minutes, loosen the nuts and retighten
them finger-tight.
8.3 Cleaning.
Do not use gasoline,kerosene, or other low flashpoint solvents. A

Cylinder jackets of water-cooled compressors should be cleaned annually with

water. Dirt accumulations interfere with water circulation. Cleaning can be
accomplished using a small hose nozzle to play water into the jackets. On
compressors fitted with mechanical lubricators,cylinders may be cleaned with
a nonflammable cleaning fluid.
8.4 Valves. Replace all defective valve parts as required. When a valve
disk or plate wears to less than one-half its original thickness, it should be
replaced. Valve seats may be resurfaced by lapping or regrinding. On some
valve designs it is necessary to check the lift after resurfacing. If the
lift is found to be more than that recommended by the manufacturer, the bumper
must be cut down an equal amount. Failure to do this results in more rapid
valve and spring wear. Carbon deposits should be removed and the valve
assembly washed in nonflammable cleaning fluid. Before replacing valves, make
sure the valve seat and cover plate gaskets are in good condition. If any
defects are found, replace the gaskets. Make sure the valve is returned to
2-8
the same port from which it was removed. Carefully follow the manufacturer's
instructions for valve removal and replacement.
8.5 Piston Rings. When replacing worn piston rings, the new rings must be
tried in the cylinder for fit. If the cylinder wall is badly scored or out of
round, rebore the cylinder, or if cylinder liners are fitted, replace them.
If necessary to file for end clearance, take care to file the ends parallel.
Clean the ring grooves and remove any carbon deposits before installing the
new rings. To install new rings, place several metal strips not more than
0.032-inch thick between the piston and rings (figure 2-2). Slide the new
rings over these strips until they are centered over the grooves and then pull
out the strips. Make sure the ring is free by rotating it in its groove.
Stagger the ring gaps of succeeding rings so they are not in line. Use a ring
clamping device when reinstalling the piston. If this is not available, wire
the rings tightly so they enter the bore easily. Consult the manufacturer's
instructions for carbon ring replacement.
8.5.1 Piston End Clearance. Always check piston end clearance after
replacing pistons or after adjustment or replacement of main, crankpin,
wristpin, or crosshead bearings. Consult the manufacturer's instructions for
proper clearances and method of clearance adjustment. To measure piston end
clearance, insert a length of l/B-inch diameter solder into the cylinder
through a valve port and turn the compressor over by hand so that the piston
moves to the end of its stroke. Remove the compressed solder and measure its
thickness to determine the piston end clearance.
FIGURE 2-2. Installing Piston Rings
2-9
8.6 Bearings. Sleeve type main bearings are adjusted by removing or adding
metal shims between the cap and body of the bearing housing. The same number
of shims should be added or removed from each side of the bearing. Make sure
caps are tightly secured so they cannot work loose. Do not overtighten as
this causes overheating of the bearing. Consult the manufacturer's
instructions for adjustment of tapered roller main bearings.
8.6.1 Horizontal Compressor Bearings. Many horizontal compressors have wedge

adjusting crosshead and crankpin bearings (figure 2-3). Adjustment is made by
tightening or loosening the adjusting screws. Do not overtighten the
bearings. A tight fit at the crosshead bearing causes the crosshead to rock,
damaging the crosshead guides and shoes.
8.6.2 Vertical Compressor Bearings. Vertical compressors are usually fitted

with automotive type crankpin bearings with babbitted inserts (figure 2-4).
These bearings are not adjustable and must be replaced. When replacing
bearing inserts or bushings, make sure all parts are thoroughly clean and that
the oil hole is aligned with the oil hole in the connecting rod.
8.7 V-Belt Drives. Adjust tension or replace V-belts as required. When one
or more belts in a set require replacement, replace the entire set with
matched belts. If this is not done, the new unstretched belts, being shorter
than the old belts, will carry most of the load and will be subjected to undue
strain. Removed belts that appear to be in a serviceable condition may be
kept for emergency use.
FIGURE 2-3. Connecting Rod With Wedge Adjusting Bearings
2-10
FIGURE 2-4. Connecting Rod Assembly
8.7.1 Belt Sheaves. Check condition of belt sheaves when installing new
belts. If grooves are worn, regroove or replace the sheaves. Worn grooves
cause rapid belt wear. Sheaves should be clean and free of oil or grease.
Belts should be installed by hand and not pried into place. After all belts
have been installed, adjust the belt tensions (figure 2-5). Proper tension is
indicated when each belt can be deflected one belt thickness for each 48
inches of unsupported length. After belts have been tensioned, check sheave
alignment by placing a straight edge across the faces of the driving and
driven sheaves. The straight edge should contact both sheaves squarely.
FIGURE 2-5. Method of Checking the Tension of V-Belts
2-11
INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
2-12
Section 2. ROTARY SLIDING VANE COMPRESSORS
1 DESCRIPTION. Rotary sliding vane compressors (figures 2-6 and 2-7) consist
of a cylindrical casing in which an eccentrically mounted rotor is located.
The rotor is fitted with blades that are free to slide in and out of
longitudinal slots. In operation, the blades are forced outward by
centrifugal force and form compartments where air is compressed. Each
compartment varies from a maximum volume on the suction side of the revolution
to a minimum volume on the compression half of the revolution. This gives a
positive displacement type suction and pressure effect. Rotary sliding vane
machines are normally directly connected to electric motors or internal
combustion engines. Operating and maintenance instructions for electric
motors and internal combustion engines are contained in NAVFAC MO-205, Central
Heating and Steam Electric Generating Plants.
2 STARTUP.

(a) All installation and repair work has been completed.
(b) Installation has been cleaned and tested for leaks.
(c) Alignment has been checked.
(d) Unit is properly lubricated; crank lubricator by hand to clear lines

of air and to assure oil supply for startup.
FIGURE 2-6. Cross Section of Rotary Sliding Vane Compressor
2-13
FIGURE 2-7. Cutaway View of Two-Stage, Rotary Sliding Vane Compressor
2-14
(e) Compressor turns freely by hand.
(f) Direction of motor rotation is correct.
(g) Unloader operation has been checked.
(h) Safety valve operation has been checked.
2.2 Startup. Proceed as follows:
(a) Open discharge shutoff valve.
(b) Turn on cooling water supply. Thoroughly vent jackets and

intercooler.
(c) Set regulating device to unloaded position.
(d) Start motor and bring unit up to speed.
(e) Check and adjust lubricator feed rate in accordance with

manufacturer's instructions.
(f) Load the compressor if machine is running smoothly.

tasks.
(a) Maintain proper lubricating oil levels.
(b) Drain oil separator and receiver.
(c) Check automatic traps for proper operation.
(d) Check compressed air and cooling water pressures and temperatures
daily.
4 SHUTDOWN. Proceed as follows:
(a) Unload compressor.
(b) Stop motor.
(c) Shut off cooling water supply.
(d) If the compressor is to be subjected to freezing temperatures,

thoroughly drain cylinder jackets, coolers, and drain traps.
4.1 Extended Shutdown. Rotary sliding vane compressors should not be left
idle for long periods of time. Rust and corrosion will cause rapid
deterioration if the machine is not properly protected. Rotor blade
expansion, caused by the absorption of moisture, is another potential
problem. Observation of the following procedure should adequately provide the
proper protection.
2-15
(a) Every 2 weeks, turn the compressor over by hand to distribute oil t o
those areas requiring lubrication, then operate the compressor for a minimum
of 2 hours. This will keep the interior dry, well lubricated, and prevent
absorption of moisture by the blades.
(b) Do not allow cooling water to run after shutdown. This causes
internal condensation that can be absorbed by the blades.
(c) If the compressor is to be subjected to freezing temperatures,

thoroughly drain cylinder jackets, coolers, and drain traps.

(a) Keep a daily log of compressed air and cooling water temperatures
and pressures, and lubricating oil additions to detect any deviations from
normal operating values. On two-stage machines,low interstage pressure
indicates a malfunction in the first stage or stoppage of the intake filter.
High interstage pressure may indicate that the second stage is not operating
properly or that the air from the first stage is not being cooled sufficiently
by the intercooler.
(b) Keep the machine clean at all times by wiping daily with a cloth.
Dirt accumulations will eventually work their way into the machine and cause
accelerated wear.
(c) Do not operate a compressor beyond its rated capacity. Overload

operation results in overheating and damage to running surfaces.
(d) Do not overtighten packing gland. This results in rapid packing

wear and shaft scoring. Gland should be pulled up finger-tight and some oil
leakage should be present.
(e) Check lubricator weekly for proper drop rate.

6.1 Daily Inspection. The operator shall inspect the installation daily for
the following conditions:
(b) Abnormal pressures or temperatures
(c) Proper lubricating oil levels
(d) Abnormal stuffing box temperatures
(e) Abnormal bearing temperatures
(f) Overheating of motor
2-16
6.2 Quarterly Inspection. Inspect the compressor every 3 months for the
following conditions:
(a) Operation of all safety valves
(b) Proper operation of all controls
6.3 Semiannual Inspection. Inspect for the following conditions:
(a) Alignment of the compressor to the drive
(b) On two-stage units, alignment of the outboard compressor to the

inboard one
(c) Condition of packing, if provided
6.4 Annual Inspection. Once a year or more often, depending on the severity
of service, dismantle the compressor and inspect for the following conditions:
(a) Bearings for wear and dirt
(b) Shaft for wear at seals
(c) Mechanical seals for damage, if they are provided
(d) Rotor blades; remove and inspect for wear
(e) Wear and scoring of cylinder bore
(f) Damage to gaskets
7 MAINTENANCE.
7.1 Rotor Blades. Rotor blades should be replaced if the blade thickness at
any point is less than 85 percent of the rotor slot width; if the blade width
is less than 90 percent of the rotor slot depth; or if there is any charring,
splitting, or chipping on the running edge of the blades.
(a) Thoroughly clean the rotor slots when replacing or installing new
blades.
(b) Thoroughly clean and oil blades before installation.
7.2 Cylinders. Thoroughly clean cylinder interior annually as follows:
(a) Blow out all oil holes ensuring they are open and free of sludge.
(b) Flush out cylinder jackets with a water hose to remove dirt
accumulations.
(c) Stone rough spots on cylinder walls, cylinder heads, and rotor.
2-17
(d) When reassembling, oil each part with clean lubricating oil.
(e) Replace defective gaskets.
7.3 Bearings. Replace worn or defective bearings as required. If bearing

replacement becomes necessary,the inner race may be removed from the shaft by
heating it with a torch. Care must be taken to heat the inner race only and
not the shaft. The inner race is shrunk onto the shaft, so that heating both
parts will not free the bearing. Never attempt to pull the inner race off the
shaft without heat, as damage to the shaft will result. To install a new
inner race, it is necessary for it to be thoroughly heated in an oil bath to a
temperature of 200°F to 300°F depending on manufacturer's instructions. It
will then slip easily onto the shaft.
7.4 Clearances. Each time the compressor is inspected internally or

disassembled for repair, clearances must be checked. These include clearances
between the rotor and cylinder, the rotor ends and the cylinder heads, and in
the bearings. Clearances must be closely held for proper operation of the
compressor. Clearances are normally given on the compressor nameplate.
Follow the manufacturer's instructions carefully for setting clearances.
7.5 Lubrication. Rotary sliding vane compressors are normally fitted with
mechanical force-feed lubricators driven from the compressor shaft. On new
compressors, or compressors that have been overhauled, feed about 25 percent
more oil than normal for about 2 weeks until the compressor has been run-in.
For normal operation, the feed should be adjusted to the drip rate indicated
on the lubricator nameplate. Rate of flow can be observed in the sight flow
indicators.
2-18
Section 3. ROTARY TWIN-LOBE COMPRESSORS
1 DESCRIPTION. Rotary twin-lobe compressors (blowers) consist of two

impellers mounted on parallel shafts that rotate in opposite directions within
a housing (figure 2-B). As the impellers rotate, they trap a quantity of air
between themselves and the blower housing and move the air from the inlet to
the discharge port. The operating principle of this type compressor is
unusual since the impellers do not compress the air while moving it. Instead,
as each impeller uncovers the discharge port, the pressurized air in the
discharge line flows back into the compressor compressing the air between the
discharge port and the next lobe of the impeller. As the impellers turn, they
force this pressurized air into the discharge line and immediately start a new
cycle, as shown in figure 2-B. This action takes place four times per
revolution, twice for each impeller. The impellers are positioned in relation
to each other by timing gears located at the end of each shaft and external to
the blower housing. Rotary twin-lobe compressors (figure 2-9) are normally
electric motor driven through V-belts or by direct connection. Operating and
maintenance instructions for electric motors are contained in NAVFAC MO-205,
Central Heating and Steam Electric Generating Plants.
2 STARTUP.
If impellers are to be rotated, keep hands, feet, loose clothing,

and foreign objects away from inlet and discharge openings, as
serious personal injury or damage to equipment can occur.
Do not operate equipment without adequate silencing devices. High

noise levels may cause permanent hearing damage.

(d) Compressor and drive have been properly lubricated.
(e) Operation of safety valves has been checked.
(f) Compressor discharge valves are open.
(a) Turn compressor over by hand to see that it turns freely.
2-19
FIGURE 2-B. Impeller Arrangement of Rotary Twin-Lobe Compressor
FIGURE 2-9. Rotary Twin-Lobe Compressor
2-20
(b) Check motor for correct direction of rotation.
(c) Turn on cooling water to oil cooler, if provided.
(d) Start the compressor.

tasks.
(a) Maintain correct oil levels.
(b) Check air discharge and lubricating oil pressures.
(c) Watch for irregular compressor performance and any unusual noise or
vibration.
4 SHUTDOWN. When the compressor is to be out of service for an extended

period, coat the impellers and the inside of the housing with a heavy oil or
grease to prevent rusting and corrosion. Before returning the unit to
service, thoroughly clean all oil or grease from the compressor interior.

(a) Operate the compressor within the rated capacity, otherwise

overheating of the compressor and drive may occur.
(b) On units fitted with oil coolers, ensure that the temperature of the
oil to the gears and bearings is within the limits recommended by the
manufacturer.
(c) Maintain oil levels within the limits indicated on the oil level
gauge. Insufficient oil will result in improper lubrication. Too much oil
will cause overheating of bearings and gears.

6.1 Daily Inspection. The operator shall inspect the compressor daily for
the following conditions:
(b) Abnormal suction or discharge pressure or temperature
(c) Abnormal oil pressure when force-fed lubrication is provided
(d) Abnormal bearing temperatures
(e) Overheating of motor
(f) Oil leaks
2-21
6.2 Annual Inspection. Once a year or as required, depending on the severity
of service, clean and inspect the compressor for the following conditions:
(a) Corrosion or erosion of parts
(b) Proper clearances
(c) Correct alignment
(d) Worn or broken timing gears
(e) Timing gear setting
(f) Operation and setting of safety valves
(g) Wear of shafts at seals
7 MAINTENANCE.
7.1 Lubrication. Establish a definite lubrication schedule for the

compressor, and establish specific responsibilities for carrying out periodic
lubrication. Frequency of lubrication and type of lubricant should be as
recommended by the manufacturer.
7.2 Timing Gears. Timing gears maintain the compressor impellers in proper
rotative position and hold impeller clearances. They must be securely locked
to their shafts in proper position. Gears or impellers that have been removed
for repair must be returned to their original positions. When installing new
or repaired parts, carefully follow the manufacturers' instructions for
setting clearances. Clearances must be set accurately or damage to the
machine may result from impeller rubbing.
7.3 Seals. Rotary twin-lobe compressors are normally fitted with mechanical
seals. Seals should be kept free of dirt, dust, and foreign matter to ensure
long life. Sealing faces are lapped together during manufacture and the
entire assembly must be replaced when defective seals are found. Use extreme
care when installing seals to prevent marring of the sealing faces. Be sure
that the lapped sealing faces are free of scratches, dust, or finger marks
before installation. Carefully follow the manufacturers' instructions when
replacing mechanical seals.
7.4 Bearings. Rotary twin-lobe compressors are normally fitted with

antifriction ball or roller bearings. Worn or defective bearings should be
replaced. Wear to bearings may allow the impeller shaft to shift position
until a cylinder rub develops or the impellers begin rubbing. Carefully
follow the manufacturers' instructions when replacing bearings.
2-22
Section 4. ROTARY LIQUID PISTON COMPRESSORS
1 DESCRIPTION. Rotary liquid piston compressors (figures 2-10 and 2-11)

utilize a liquid (water or other low viscosity liquid) as the compressant.
The unit consists of a round multiblade rotor that rotates in an elliptical
casing partially filled with liquid. The liquid is carried around by the
rotor and follows the contour of the casing. The rotor buckets are filled
with air, through the intake port, by the suction created when the liquid is
forced to recede from the rotor buckets at the wide point of the elliptical
casing. As the liquid reaches the narrow point of the ellipse, it reenters
the buckets, compresses the air, and passes it out through the discharge
ports. The cycle is repeated twice for each revolution of the rotor. Liquid
is supplied continuously to the compressor to take up the heat of
compression. Excess water is discharged from the compressor with the air and
is removed by a separator connected to the compressor discharge. Operating
and maintenance instructions for electric motor drives are contained in NAVFAC
MO-205, Central Heating and Steam Electric Generating Plants.
2 STARTUP.
2.1 Prestart Inspection. Carefully inspect the installation to ensure the

following prestart requirements are fulfilled.
(d) Safety valve has been tested for proper operation.
(e) Compressor is properly lubricated.
(a) Open compressor discharge valves.
(b) Turn on compressor sealing-water.
(c) Start the compressor.

tasks.
(a) Maintain correct sealing-water flow rate.
(b) Check air discharge pressures.
(c) Watch for irregular performance of the compressor.
4 SHUTDOWN. When removing the compressor from service for an extended

period, thoroughly drain the casing of all sealing-water. Run a flushing oil
through the compressor to prevent rusting and corrosion. Repack grease
lubricated bearings with new grease and fill oil lubricated bearings with
2-23
Starting at point A, the chambers of the rotor are filled with
water. This water rotates with the rotor, but follows the contour
of the casing. The water, which entirely fills the rotor chamber
at point A, recedes into the casing as the rotor advances, until
at point C, the rotor chamber is empty. The converging casing
forces the water back into the rotor chamber, until at point D,
the chamber is again full. This cycle occurs once during each
revolution of the rotor. As water recedes from the rotor chamber
at point B, the water is replaced by air drawn through an inlet
port in the stationary conical casing that connects to the
compressor inlet. As the rotor turns through 360° and water is
forced by the casing back into the rotor chamber, the air that has
filled the chamber is forced through discharge ports in the
conical casing to the compressor discharge. The water used as the
liquid compressant also serves to seal clearances between the
rotor and the cone and is referred to as seal water.
FIGURE 2-10. Compression Cycle, Rotary Liquid Piston Compressor
2-24
FIGURE 2-11. Functional Elements, Rotary Liquid Piston Compressor
fresh oil. Remove shaft packing. Turn the compressor over by hand once a
week to keep a coating of oil on the bearings.

shall include the following tasks.
(a) Never run a liquid piston compressor dry. Operation without

sealing-water results in serious damage to the compressor.
(b) Maintain correct sealing-water flow rate. Insufficient sealing-water

will result in a loss of capacity. Excess sealing-water overloads the
compressor drive. Consult the manufacturer's instructions for correct
sealing-water quantities.
(c) Do not overtighten the packing on units with stuffing boxes. This
results in rapid packing wear and scoring of the shaft.

6.1 Daily Inspection. The operator shall inspect the compressor installation
daily for the following conditions:
(b) Abnormal discharge pressures
(c) Overheating of motor
2-25
(d) Abnormal bearing temperatures
(e) Correct sealing-water flow and pressure
6.2 Semiannual Inspection. Inspect the following items:
(a) Alignments
(b) Wear of packing and scoring of shaft at packing or seals
(c) Setting and operation of safety valves
6.3 Annual Inspection. Once a year or as required, depending upon the

severity of service, inspect for the following conditions:
(a) Bearings for wear and dirt
(b) Corrosion or erosion of parts
(c) Correct clearances
(d) Compressor internals for scale deposits
(e) Gaskets for damage
(f) Mechanical seals, if provided, for damage
7 MAINTENANCE.
7.1 Lubrication. Establish a definite lubrication schedule, in accordance

with the manufacturer's recommendations, for all liquid piston compressors.
Assign responsibilities for carrying out the lubrication schedule. Follow the
manufacturer's recommendations for the types of lubricants to be used.
7.2 Packing. When replacing fibrous packing, thoroughly clean the stuffing
box of old packing and grease. Cover each piece of new packing with the
recommended lubricant. Separate the new rings at the split joint to place
them over the shaft. Place one ring of packing at a time in the stuffing box
and tamp firmly in place. Stagger the joints of each ring so they are not in
line. After the last ring is in place, assemble the gland and tighten the
nuts evenly until snug. After a few minutes, loosen the nuts and retighten
them finger-tight.
7.3 Bearings. Worn or defective bearings should be replaced. Bearings are

mounted in brackets on each end of the housing and are attached to the rotor
shaft by locknuts. When bearings are replaced on belt-driven units,
carefully check and set the belt tension. Keep the belt as loose as possible
without slippage. Excessive belt tightening will put an unnecessary strain on
the compressor bearings. When mounting pulleys or couplings that require a
drive fit on the compressor shaft, back up the opposite end of the shaft to
absorb the driving force. Unless this is done, there is danger of damaging
the bearings. Maintenance instructions for antifriction ball and roller
bearings are contained in NAVFAC MO-205, Central Heating and Steam Electric
Generating Plants.
2-26
CHAPTER 3. DYNAMIC COMPRESSORS
1 DESCRIPTION. Centrifugal and axial flow compressors are both categorized

as dynamic compressors. Dynamic compressors move gases by a process of
acceleration. The direction of airflow in the centrifugal compressor is
radial with respect to the axis of rotation. In the axial flow compressor
airflow is parallel to the axis of rotation. Centrifugal and axial flow
compressors are driven by electric motors or steam turbines. Operating and
maintenance instructions for electric motor and steam turbine drives are
contained in NAVFAC MO-205, Central Heating and Steam Electric Generating
Plants.
1.1 Centrifugal Compressor. The major components of a centrifugal compressor

are: impeller, shaft, casing, and diffuser/volute (figures 3-l and 3-2). In
the center of the impeller is the suction eye area, the center of low pressure
when the impeller is rotating. Figure 3-3 illustrates three basic impeller
designs. Air entering the suction eye is moved outward along the impeller
blades by centrifugal force with increasing velocity. The air leaves the
impeller through the diffuser to the volute where the air is slowed and the
velocity component of the air mass is partially converted into pressure. In a
multistage compressor the air exiting the volute is fed to another impeller-
diffuser-volute series to further increase the air pressure.
1.2 Axial Flow Compressor. The major components of an axial flow compressor
are: rotor with rows of blades, and a stator with rows of stationary blades
(figures 3-4 and 3-5). The moving blades accelerate the air, and the
stationary blades direct the flow of air into the next row of moving blades.
FIGURE 3-l. Simple Volute Pump
3-1
FIGURE 3-2. Six-Stage Compressor
FIGURE 3-3. Impeller Design
3-2
This sequence continues until the air has passed through all the rows of
moving blades. The stationary blades also offer a small amount of flow
resistance, which slows down the air and increases its pressure. In an axial
flow compressor, it is the continual process of accelerating the air and then
slowing it down that builds up the air pressure.
2 STARTUP.
2.1 Prestart Inspection. Carefully inspect the compressor installation,

performing the following prestart tasks.
Compressor equipment, compressed air, and electricity can be

dangerous. To prevent injury, before attempting any maintenance be
certain the compressor cannot be started accidentally.
(a) Ensure power switch is in OFF position and tag, or verify that power
shutoff valve is in OFF position and tag.
(b) Verify completion of all installation or repair work.
(c) Ensure installation has been cleaned.
(d) Verify that system has been tested for leaks.
FIGURE 3-4. Axial Flow Compressor
3-3
FIGURE 3-5. Rotor and Stator Blades, Axial Compressor
(e) Check coupling alignment (refer to paragraph 7.2).
(f) Check lubricating oil levels and top off, if required.
(g) Check all safety devices and controls for proper operation.
(h) Turn compressor over by hand to see that it rotates freely.
(i) Open all compressor, drain valves, drain off all liquid, and close
drain valves.
2.2 Startup Procedure. Proceed as follows:
Protective devices must be worn to avoid damage to hearing.
(a) Remove tag from electric power switch and switch to ON position, or
remove tag from power shutoff valve and turn to ON position.
(b) Turn on cooling water.
(c) Start oil pump and check oil pressure.
(d) Turn on sealing air to seals, if provided.
(e) Open suction and discharge valves.
3-4
Never operate compressor in the critical speed range (insufficient
volume at the compressor inlet to permit stable operation); surging
or pumping will occur. Operation under these conditions may result
in equipment damage.
(f) Start compressor drive motor as follows, depending on type:
(1) Single Speed Motor. Start and stop the motor quickly and allow
the compressor to coast to a stop. Check for freedom of rotation and any
unusual noise or vibration. If unit runs smoothly, start the motor and bring
up to speed.
(2) Variable Speed Motor. Start the motor and bring it slowly up
to speed, observing the operation carefully for unusual noise or vibration.

tasks.
(a) Check and record operational data at prescribed intervals

(paragraph 5).
(b) Watch for irregular performance of the compressor and drive.
(c) Maintain proper lubricating oil levels.
4 SHUTDOWN.
4.1 Short-Term Shutdown. Proceed as follows:
To avoid damage to equipment, after shutting down the drive, keep

auxiliary lubricating oil pump operating until bearings have cooled
to ambient temperatures.
(a) Shut down compressor drive.
(b) Close suction and discharge valves.
(c) Shut off cooling water supply.
(d) Shut off seal air, if provided.
(e) Open compressor drain valves and drain off any liquid present.
(f) Shut off lube oil pump after bearings have cooled to ambient
temperature.
3-5
4.2 Long-Term Shutdown. Long-term shutdown procedures require extensive
disassembly. Consult the manufacturer for complete details for specific
compressors. In the absence of specific procedures, use the following
procedures where applicable.
(a) Centrifugal Compressors. Proceed as follows:
(1) Shutdown system as described in paragraph 4.1.
(2) Open the compressor case, remove intercoolers, diffusers,

diffuser covers, rotors, bearings, and drain traps.
(3) Remove the plain and thrust bearings.
(4) Blow dry air through the water manifolds, including the oil
coolers. Spread vapor phase inhibitor (VPI) crystals in the cooling water
manifolds.
(5) Identify each rotor and impeller if applicable. Coat each rotor
component with a rust inhibitor and pack securely in a carton.
(6) Wipe and dry all unprotected internal machined surfaces. Coat
all surfaces with a rust inhibitor, including diffuser and intercooler bores.
(7) Thoroughly dry the intercoolers and reinstall them.
(8) Reinstall diffuser covers, diffusers, and intercoolers.

Distribute VPI crystals throughout and close the machine.
(9) All openings must be adequately sealed with gasketed flanges,

plugs, or poly wraps to prevent loss of VPI vapors, including the seal air
casing vents and drains.
(10) Remove the reservoir breather and seal the opening. Coat the
exposed portion of the shaft and coupling hub with preservative.
(11) Remove inlet and bypass control valves and the check valve.
Clean, dry, and box.
(12) Remove all probes and cables and box adequately.
(13) Replace thrust bearing and covers and close up ALL openings
using pipe plugs or blank flanges with gasket.
(14) Seal the bottom of the control cabinet if it is of the open

design.
(15) Coat main drive coupling spacer with preservative and pack in
separate box.
(16) Coat all external machined unpainted surfaces with preservative.
3-6
(b) Axial Flow Compressors. It is important to implement proper
long-term storage (LTS) procedures according to the specific model of
compressor. In situations where LTS is planned, the manufacturer must be
contacted to provide LTS procedures. In most instances, LTS will include
specific variations of the following:
(1) Partial disassembly
(2) Periodic rotation of main shaft
(3) Use of desiccants
(4) Specialized bearing maintenance according to bearing types
(5) Proper tagging
4.3 Cold Climate Shutdown. If the compressor might be subjected to freezing

temperatures while shut down, perform the following steps as applicable.
(a) Perform steps 4.1(a) through 4.1(f).
(b) Drain water from oil cooler.
(c) Drain all steam lines.
(d) Drain all cooling lines.
(e) Drain water-cooled diaphragms.
(f) Tag equipment controls.

(a) Keep a daily operating log to aid in detecting equipment

malfunctions. The following list may be helpful in designing a site specific
operations log for collecting and developing a useful data base:
(1) Log-in time
(2) Vibration monitor reading at each compressor stage
(3) Warning lights
(4) Inlet temperature
(5) Inlet filter pressure
(6) Pressure and temperature of each compressor stage
(7) Condition of condensate trap at each compressor stage
(8) Air coolers temperature in and out
3-7
(9) Oil pressure
(10) Oil cooler temperature in and out
(11) Oil level at motor
(12) Oil level at oil reservoir
(13) Drain drip legs
(14) Hours on unit
(15) Bearing temperatures
(16) Compressor speed
(b) Wipe down machine daily with clean, lint-free rag.
6 PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE INSPECTION. An inspection and maintenance program

is important to ensure satisfactory performance. One of the most important
aspects of any maintenance program is prudent use of the operational data base
compiled from a daily operating log [paragraph 5(a)]. An operational log
provides an indication of performance, need for revising the maintenance
schedule, and, indirectly, spare parts requirements. Generalized procedures
are presented herein, but frequency of inspections will vary and must reflect
each installation's operating conditions and environment.
6.1 Daily Inspection. Preventive maintenance inspections shall include the

following tasks.
(a) Review the current operating log for significant deviations in the
data such as:
(1) Abnormal pressures or temperatures of lubricating oil
(2) Abnormal appearance or presence of water in lubricating oil
(3) Lubricating oil levels
(4) Abnormal bearing temperatures
(5) Increased inlet filter pressure
(b) Listen for unusual noises.
(c) Listen and feel for unusual vibrations.
(d) Visually inspect the complete compressor plant for leaking fittings
or loose fasteners.
6.2 Semiannual Inspection. In addition to performing inspections specified

in paragraph 6.1, perform the following tasks.
(a) Check lubricating oil for deterioration and/or presence of water.
3-8
(b) Test safety controls to ensure proper functioning.
6.3 Annual Inspection. In addition to performing inspections specified in

paragraphs 6.1 and 6.2, perform the following procedures where applicable.
(a) Check journal and thrust bearings for wear. Adjust or replace as
required.
(b) Check alignment and coupling condition. Visually inspect coupling

condition and use dial indicator to realign coupling within specified
tolerances (paragraph 7.2).
(c) Clean and repaint all areas of corrosion or peeling paint on

compressor case.
(d) Check compressor bolts for tightness. Retighten loose bolts to

specified torque values.
6.4 Internal Inspection. If compressor performance has fallen off, or noise

or driver overload indicate internal trouble, dismantle the compressor and
make the following inspection.
(a) Examine casing or stator for corrosion or erosion damage and dirt.
(b) Check case for water leaks if diaphragm cooling is provided.
(c) Inspect rotor for corrosion or erosion damage to impellers or blades.
(d) Check rotor for balance.
(e) Check clearances and condition of rotor, bearings, and seals.

Record all measurements. If the need for bearing replacement is indicated,
refer to paragraph 7.3.
(f) Perform lubrication system maintenance (paragraph 7.1).
7 MAINTENANCE.
7.1 Lubrication System. Lubrication system maintenance must be performed at

intervals prescribed for each specific installation. In addition, lubrication
system maintenance shall be performed at times of internal inspection and
repair. Lubrication system maintenance includes the following tasks.
(a) Clean oil filters and strainers or replace cartridges.
(b) Change oil if it is warranted by a chemical analysis or periodic

schedule. To change oil perform the following tasks.
(1) Tag equipment controls.
(2) Drain oil from all systems.
3-9
To avoid internal damage to equipment, use only synthetic sponges
when cleaning internal surfaces and components. Do not use cloth
rags or cotton waste.
(3) Thoroughly clean bearing chambers and oil reservoirs.

(4) Flush out complete lubricating system with flushing oil.
(5) Inspect oil pumps for corrosion, erosion, and wear.
(6) Remove tube bundles from oil coolers, if applicable, and

thoroughly clean tubes.
(7) Ensure closure of all drain valves, reinstallation of plugs,

and reinstallation of sump covers.
(8) Refill lubricating oil reservoirs to proper level.
(9) Remove tag from controls.
(10) Follow procedures for startup provided in paragraph 2.2.
7.2 Alignment. Alignment of the unit may be checked with a dial indicator.
Refer to specific installation manual for applicable tolerances. To align the
coupling, perform the following procedure.
To ensure proper alignment, check alignment in both the hot and cold
condition. After checking the alignment in the cold condition,
operate the compressor under full load for 1 hour. Shut down the
unit and recheck the alignment immediately.
NOTE
When using the dial indicator, make sure the compressor shaft end
play is held constant in one direction.
(a) Attach indicator bracket to compressor hub of coupling. Figure 3-6

illustrates two methods of attaching the indicator mounting bracket to the
coupling.
3-10
(b) Attach dial indicator to mounting bracket with the pointer
contacting the shoulder on the coupling hub.
(c) Rotate compressor shaft and take readings 90° apart.
(d) Correct axial misalignment by adding or removing shims under the

driver to bring compressor and drive centerlines into alignment.
(e) To check angular alignment, follow the above procedure, but take
indicator readings on the coupling hub face (figures 3-6 and 3-7).
(f) To correct angular misalignment, parallel the coupling faces by

shifting the drive on its base and adding or removing shims under the driver
base.
7.3 Bearings. Centrifugal and axial flow compressors utilize many bearing
types such as: split sleeve, steel backed babbit inserts, tilting pad, and
antifriction roller and ball bearings. Use specific manufacturer's
information for bearing wear, adjustment, and replacement considerations.
FIGURE 3-6. Alignment Setup
3-11
FIGURE 3-7. Coupling Alignment and Misalignment
3-12
CHAPTER 4. AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT
Section 1. INTAKE FILTERS
1 DESCRIPTION. Air filters are provided on air compressor intakes to prevent

atmospheric dust from entering the compressor and causing scoring and
excessive wear. There are two types of air filters, the dry type and the
oil-wetted type. Generally, dry type filters are more efficient than
oil-wetted types in trapping and removing very fine, solid particles from the
incoming air. However, dry type filters must be cleaned and replaced more
often than oil-wetted types. Oil-wetted types are often used where there are
heavy dust concentrations present in the atmosphere.
1.1 Dry Type Filter. Dry filters employ many different materials for the
filter media. Paper, polyester felt, and fine wire mesh are a few examples.
The filter media can be folded, wrapped, and layered in many configurations to
achieve the desired efficiency. Although the dry filter is more efficient
than the wetted type filter, the pores in the dry filter media become clogged
and result in a pressure drop across the filter. Dry type filters cannot be
used successfully where intake air contains moisture or vapors in amounts that
would cause disintegration of the filtering media. The main advantages of the
dry type filter, when used in an approved application, is its high efficiency
and ease of maintenance.
1.2 Oil-Wetted Type Filter. Wet filters have filter elements that are coated
with a film of oil. The oil film catches airborne particulates before they
reach the actual filter element media. Wetted type filters are of two
designs, oil-wetted and oil-bath filters. In an oil-wetted filter, a coating
of oil is deposited on the filter element, which is usually made of layers of
wire mesh. The oil coating is intended to adhere to the element for a fairly
long service period. The airborne particulates are impinged or trapped on the
filter element which has been covered with a film of oil. In an oil-bath
filter (figure 4-l), the same viscous impingement principle is employed.
However, the airflow is directed through the oil sump, carrying oil with it to
the filter element where the oil collects and washes the impinged particles
down to the oil sump, forming sludge. The self-washing aspect of the oil-bath
filter extends the time between maintenance routines.
2 INSPECTION. Air filter inspections are to be performed when any of the

following conditions exist.
(a) Prescribed time interval on the maintenance schedule has elapsed.
(b) Pressure drop across the filter element indicates a maintenance

requirement.
(c) One-fourth inch of sludge has built up in the oil sump of the
oil-bath type filter.
4-l
FIGURE 4-l. Oil-Bath Intake Filter
3 MAINTENANCE. Maintenance methods differ for each type of air filter. Use
the appropriate method for the filter undergoing maintenance per the following
paragraphs.
Dry type filter elements can easily be damaged allowing harmful

particulates to pass. If in doubt about correct cleaning
procedures, replace the filter element.
3.1 Dry Type Filter. Service the filter assembly as follows:
(a) Shut down compressor and tag controls.
(b) Remove top of filter assembly.
(c) Remove filter element and clean as prescribed by manufacturer or

replace.
(d) Reassemble filter element and top to filter assembly.
(e) Remove tag from controls.
3.2 Oil-Wetted Type Filter. Clean the filter assembly as follows:
4-2
(b) Remove the top and filter element from filter assembly.

(c) Wash filter element with approved solvent or detergent and water
solution.
(d) Dry filter element thoroughly.
(e) Apply fresh oil by spray or dip and let excess oil drain. Use oil
type suggested by manufacturer.
(f) Clean filter body.
(g) Reinstall filter element and top to filter assembly.
(h) Remove tag from controls.
3.3 Oil-Bath Filter. Clean the filter assembly as follows:
(b) Remove filter assembly from compressor.

(c) Wash filter element with approved solvent or detergent and water
solution.
(d) Dry filter element thoroughly.
(e) Clean and dry filter oil sump.
(f) Add oil to oil sump to indicated level.
(g) Reinstall filter element and top on filter assembly.
(h) Reinstall filter assembly on compressor.
(i) Remove tag from controls.
4-3
4-4
Section 2. SILENCERS
1 DESCRIPTION. Compressor system silencers are sound-absorbing accessories

attached to the system at the intake and output of the compressor. The
silencers absorb noise produced by the compressor in order to reduce the noise
output to an acceptable level. In general, air noise silencers are
cylindrical housings containing acoustically tuned baffles and sound-absorbing
material (figure 4-2).
2 INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE. At intervals prescribed by the manufacturer's

maintenance schedule, inspect and perform maintenance on the silencer as
follows:
(a) Shut down system and tag controls.
(b) Inspect internal parts for damage or loosening from corrosion or

vibration.
(c) Inspect interior of silencer and, if dirt is present, clean as

follows:
(1) Remove silencer from intake system and look for sources of dirt
entry into silencer.
FIGURE 4-2. Compressor Intake Silencer
4-5
(2) Clean silencer using approved solvent or detergent and water

solution.
(3) Dry silencer thoroughly.
Ensure all joints are tight to avoid entry of unfiltered air. Dirt
in the air will cause premature wear to the compressor.
(4) Reinstall silencer into compressor system using new gaskets and
seals.
(d) Check all external surfaces for corrosion, peeling, or damaged

paint. Repaint as necessary.
(e) Remove tag from controls.
4-6
Section 3. INTERCOOLERS AND AFTERCOOLERS
1 DESCRIPTION. Intercoolers and aftercoolers are heat exchangers employed to

dissipate the heat generated in compression. There are two types of heat
exchangers used on air compressors, air-cooled and water-cooled.
1.1 Air-Cooled Heat Exchanger. Air-cooled heat exchangers are most often
used on small compressors. The air-cooled heat exchanger is a finned, tubular
radiator (figure 4-3).
1.2 Water-Cooled Heat Exchanger. The most common design of water-cooled heat
exchangers, shell and tube type, consists of a single bundle of tubes enclosed
inside a cylindrical shell (figure 4-4). The air to be cooled passes through
the tubes while the water passes over the tubes. Baffles are often provided
in the tube bundle to direct the waterflow across the heat exchanger tubes in
the most efficient manner.
(a) The intercooler is located between the discharge of one cylinder and
the intake of the next cylinder of multistage compressors. The intercooler
reduces the temperature and the volume of the compressed air for delivery to
the next compression stage.
(b) The aftercooler is located at the discharge of the last cylinder to

cool the air, reduce its volume, and to liquify any condensable vapors.
FIGURE 4-3. Air-Cooled Heat Exchanger
4-7
FIGURE 4-4. Water-Cooled Heat Exchanger
2 STARTUP.
2.1 Prestart Inspection. Carefully inspect the intercooler or aftercooler,

ensuring the following prestart requirements have been fulfilled.
(a) Verify completion of all installation or repair work.
(b) Ensure equipment has been cleaned and tested for leaks.
(c) Ensure thermometers, pressure gauges, and controls are in good

operating condition.
(d) Ensure safety valves are operating.
2.2 Startup Procedure. Always start intercooler and aftercooler cooling

waterflow before starting the air compressor. Proceed as follows:
(a) Open air vent valves on waterside of cooler.
(b) Open cooling water inlet and outlet valves.
(c) Close waterside vent valves after all air has been displaced.
3 NORMAL OPERATION. Maintain rated cooling waterflow. Check airside drain

periodically to see that it is operating properly and unit is free of
condensate.
4-8
4 SHUTDOWN. If the compressor is going to be shut down, perform the
following procedures.
(a) Maintain cooling waterflow until coolers have reached ambient

temperature.
(b) Drain all water from cooling system if the cooler will be exposed to
freezing temperatures.
5 OPERATIONAL PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE. Observe the following procedures

during normal operation.
(a) Maintain rated cooling waterflow. Avoid excessive waterflow which

might cause erosion.
(b) Adjust waterflow rates slowly to avoid sudden temperature changes in

the cooler.
(c) Shut down compressor if condensate trap is collecting excessive

amounts of water. Cooler tubes may be leaking.
(d) Shut down compressor if cooler air temperature is abnormally high.

Leak in cooler tubes could be allowing air to displace cooling water in
waterside of cooler.
6 PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE INSPECTION.
6.1 Daily Inspection. Inspect the cooler daily for the following conditions:
(a) Proper operation of the automatic controls and instruments
(b) Water leaks, temperature, and flow rate
(c) Any deviations from normal temperature or pressure drops across the
cooler
6.2 Periodic Inspection. Inspect the following items at intervals prescribed

by the manufacturer's maintenance schedule.
(a) Check cooler for corrosion and peeling paint.

without first relieving pressure from the entire system.
(b) Check safety valves for setting and proper operation.
(c) Check manual and automatic valves for leakage and corrosion.
4-9
(d) Remove the tube bundle from the cooler and carefully inspect the
internals of the unit for the following conditions.
(1) Corrosion to tubes, tube sheets, and baffles: Corrosion and

electrolysis (galvanic corrosion) may appear very similar, but they are
different and occur because of the presence of entirely different elements.
Since carbon dioxide and oxygen are the main causes of corrosion, any
operating method that reduces the content of carbon dioxide and/or oxygen will
reduce corrosive effects. One method to control CO2,and 02 levels in the
coolant is to reduce coolant losses wherever possible. This reduces the entry
of additional free CO2 and 02 present in most makeup water. Different
pretreatments of makeup water may be required such as: lime soda softening,
hot lime zeolite softening, acid cycle softening, and salt splitting. All
types reduce the quantity of CO2. Internally, corrosion of piping can be
controlled by the use of corrosion inhibitors.For more information, refer to
NAVFAC MO-225, Industrial Water Treatment.
(2) Electrolysis of tubes, tube sheets, and baffles: Electrolysis

is an electrochemical corrosion associated with the current caused by
dissimilar metals in an electrolyte (coolant). It resembles erosion in
appearance, but the loss of material is due to the exposure of two metals of
different compositions (such as steel and bronze or steel and aluminum) to an
electrolyte (coolant). Two methods used for controlling the effects of
electrolysis are electronic cathodic systems and sacrificial anode placement
within the system (such as zinc compound plugs).
(3) Erosion to tubes, tube sheets, and baffles: Erosion may be

evident at material edges, tube ends, and baffles, due to excessive flow rates
and coolant impurities. Evidence of erosion is rounded edges or depressions
in material surfaces at locations where the flow changes direction or rate.
(4) Leaking tubes: Any leaks in the cooler between the tubes
carrying coolant and the tubes carrying compressed air is detrimental to the
system. If a leak is found during a disassembly inspection it should be
repaired before reassembly. In many instances when the water pressure is
greater than the air pressure, the first indication of a leak is the sudden
increase of moisture at the separator or receiver. If the air pressure is
higher than the water pressure, air then enters the coolant system resulting
in higher temperatures.
(5) Plugged tubes: If tubes become plugged, it is an indication of

an imbalance in the coolant-equipment relationship and conditioning of the
coolant should be considered. Plugged tubes, depending on the number, usually
result in higher system temperatures. Most plugged tubes can be cleaned
without causing damage to the tube. Consult the manufacturer's instructions
for details.
(6) Scale deposits: Scale deposits are an indication of an

imbalance between the coolant-equipment relationship. Conditioning of the
coolant should be considered. Scale results in higher system temperatures.
Refer to the manufacturer's instructions for correctional procedures.
4-10
7 MAINTENANCE.
Never hammer on the tubes or use sharp edged scrapers which may
damage the tubes.
Chemical solutions used for cleaning should be capable of dissolving

the scale or other deposits without attacking the metal.
7.1 Cleaning. Tube interiors may be cleaned by flushing a stream of water

through them. For more persistent deposits, brushes, rods, or other cleaning
tools may be required. Tube exteriors can be cleaned by hosing with steam or
hot water. A stiff bristle brush will aid in removing deposits from between
tubes. Cooler interiors may be cleaned without dismantling the unit by
circulating a chemical solution through it. All chemicals should be
thoroughly washed out of the cooler before returning it to service.
7.2 Tube Replacement and Repair. Coolers with leaking tubes must be repaired
in accordance with manufacturers' recommendations. Refer to specific
manufacturer's service manual for tube repair and replacement instructions.
4-11
4-12
Section 4. SEPARATORS
1 DESCRIPTION. Separators are used on compressor installations to remove

entrained water and oil from the compressed air. Figure 4-5 shows a
centrifugal type moisture separator where air is directed into the unit so
that it obtains a swirling motion. Centrifugal action forces the moisture
particles against the wall of the separator where they drain to the bottom.
In the baffle type separator (figure 4-6) the air is subjected to a series of
sudden changes in direction. The heavier moisture particles strike the
baffles and walls of the separator and drain to the bottom of the unit.
2 OPERATION. Drain separators regularly if automatic drainers are not

provided. Frequency of draining is best determined by experience with the
installation. Improperly drained separators result in moisture carryover into
the air distribution system.
3 PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE INSPECTION. Inspect the separator at periodic

maintenance intervals for the following conditions:
(a) Externally for rust, corrosion and peeling paint
(b) Internally for corrosion and accumulations of dirt and oil
(c) Gaskets for damage
FIGURE 4-5. Centrifugal Type Separator
4-13
FIGURE 4-6. Baffle Type Separator
4 MAINTENANCE. Perform the following maintenance tasks.

(a) Remove corrosion and peeling paint.
(b) Prime and paint prepared surfaces.
(c) Thoroughly clean separator internals.
(d) Replace defective gaskets.
4-14
Section 5. TRAPS
1 DESCRIPTION. Traps drain condensed moisture from intercoolers,

aftercoolers, receivers, and distribution piping. The most common traps are
the ball float trap, bucket trap, and inverted bucket trap (figure 4-7). An
in depth discussion of traps is found in NAVFAC MO-209, Maintenance of Steam,
Hot Water, and Compressed Air Distribution Systems.
2 STARTUP. Some compressed air drain traps must be primed before placing
them in service. This is done by filling the trap half full with freshwater.
3 SHUTDOWN. If the compressed air system is not in operation and the drain
traps might be subjected to freezing temperatures, thoroughly drain the traps
of all condensate to prevent damage from freezing.
4.1 Daily Inspection. Check the operation of drain traps daily. Make sure
the trap is draining properly and not blowing air.
4.2 Periodic Inspection. At intervals prescribed by the manufacturer's

maintenance schedule, dismantle the trap. Parts should be cleaned and
evaluated as to their ability to perform satisfactorily until the next
scheduled periodic inspection. Inspect the trap for the following conditions:
(a) Corrosion and erosion
(b) Damaged or excessively worn valves and seats
(c) Defective float or bucket
(d) Loose, damaged, or excessively worn linkage and pivot points
5 MAINTENANCE.


5.1 Cleaning. Frequency of cleaning depends upon the condition of the system
and whether or not a strainer is installed ahead of the trap. Thoroughly
clean trap internals. Remove all dirt accumulations from the trap body and
mechanism, using detergent and water, or an approved solvent if necessary.
Valve seats may be cleaned using a small spiral brush.
4-15
FIGURE 4-7. Drain Traps
4-16
FIGURE 4-7. Drain Traps (Continued)
5.2 Valves and Seats. Replace badly worn or grooved valves and seats. If
either the valve or the seat is worn, replace both as they are matched parts.
Ensure that the valve and seat are clean before installation. Foreign matter
will interfere with proper seating.
5.3 Levers. Levers and linkages wear at pivot points. If excessive play in
the linkages is found, they should be replaced. Worn levers affect the bucket
or float travel and result in a loss of capacity. Replace corroded or worn
pins.
5.4 Buckets and Floats. Replace corroded or damaged buckets or floats.
4-17
4-18
Section 6. AIR RECEIVERS
1 DESCRIPTION. Air receivers (figure 4-8) serve as reservoirs for the

storage of compressed air so that air is available to meet peak demands in
excess of the compressor capacity. They also function as pulsation dampers on
reciprocating compressor installations. Air receivers are usually vertically
mounted, but may be horizontal in the smaller sizes. Receivers are furnished
with a relief valve, pressure gauge, drain valve, and inspection openings.
2 NORMAL OPERATION. Drain receivers of accumulated condensate at least once

each shift if an automatic drainer is not provided.
3.1 Daily Inspection. Check automatic drainer for proper operation, if one
is provided.
3.2 Periodic Inspection. Proceed as follows at intervals prescribed by the

manufacturer's maintenance schedule.
(a) Check operation of safety valve.
(b) Examine receiver for corrosion and peeling paint.
(c) Inspect the receiver internally for corrosion and dirt accumulation.
(d) Refer to NAVFAC MO-324, Inspection and Certification of Boilers and

Unfired Pressure Vessels.
FIGURE 4-8. Air Receiver
4-19
4 MAINTENANCE. Proceed as follows:


(a) Thoroughly clean the receiver internals annually.
(b) Calibrate pressure gauge semiannually.
(c) Repaint exterior of receiver where there is corrosion or damaged

paint.
4-20
Section 7. DRYERS
1 DESCRIPTION. Compressed air dryers remove moisture that might otherwise

condense in air lines, air tools, and pneumatic instruments. This condensate
can cause damage to equipment from corrosion, freezing, and water hammer, and
can cause malfunctioning of instruments and controls.
2. TYPES. Three types of air dryers are available: adsorption, deliquescent,

and refrigeration.
2.1 Adsorption Type. The adsorptive or desiccant dryer contains a bed of an

inert desiccant material, either silica gel or activated alumina, which has
high adsorptive surface area for a given weight and volume. This area is in
submicroscopic cavities that can hold water vapor removed from the air. When
the adsorptive desiccant is completely saturated with water, the water can be
driven off again by heating. An airstream passed through the desiccant will
carry away the released water vapor restoring the desiccant to its initial
adsorptive condition. Adsorption type dryers (figure 4-9) generally consist
of two drying towers,each containing an adsorbent, plumbed in parallel. The
dryer towers are cycled either manually, semiautomatically, or automatically,
so that one drying tower is on stream while the other tower is being
reactivated. Reactivation is accomplished by means of electric or steam
heaters embedded in the adsorbent or by passing dried process air through the
unit.
FIGURE 4-9. Flow Diagram of Electric Reactivated Adsorption Dryer
4-21
2.2 Deliquescent (Absorption) Type. The deliquescent or absorption dryer is
lowest in initial cost but requires continual replenishment of the drying
medium (figure 4-10). Simple in design, this type of dryer is a pressure
vessel in which a bed of crystalline solids is placed on top of a screen which
is located close to the bottom of the vessel. Wet air from the aftercooler
and separator enters the bottom of the vessel and flows upward through the
bed. As it passes through the bed, the liquid water and vapor present in the
air, dissolve the drying medium in what is termed a deliquescent effect. The
resulting solution trickles to the bottom of the dryer where it is removed by
a trap. The frequency with which the crystalline absorbent material must be
replaced is a function of the design thickness of the bed and the amount of
water and vapor present in the air entering the dryer.
2.3 Refrigeration Type. Dryers that remove moisture from the air by
condensation incorporate a mechanical refrigeration unit (figure 4-11) or cold
water, if available. Inlet air passes through the precooler/reheater to the
air-to-refrigerant exchanger which contains the refrigeration coils. As the
air passes over the coils, further cooling takes place and moisture condenses
into droplets. The droplets of oil or water then pass through the
moisture/oil separator and are collected and drained through a condensate
trap. The cool, dry air is then directed back through the precooler/reheater,
warmed by the incoming air and discharged for reuse by the system.
FIGURE 4-10. Deliquescent (Absorption) Dryer
4-22
FIGURE 4-11. Flow Diagram of Refrigeration Dryer
3 NORMAL OPERATION.
Do not overrun the unit. Overrunning will result in the tower

becoming saturated and unable to adsorb any more moisture. Moisture
laden air will then be carried over into the distribution system.
On systems where oil carryover from the compressor is present,

provision should be made to protect the desiccant bed of the dryer
from becoming oil saturated. Oil deposits in the desiccant bed
cause a decrease in drying efficiency and necessitate frequent
replacement of the desiccant.
3.1 Adsorption Type Dryer. Maintain normal operating pressure and

temperature in the drying towers. Ensure proper operation of condensate traps
on steam reactivated dryers. Reactivate drying towers at the intervals
specified by the manufacturer if reactivation is not under automatic control.
3.2 Deliquescent Type Dryer. Maintain normal operating temperatures and

pressures in the dryer. Maintain an adequate level of drying medium in the
dryer. Ensure condensate trap is functioning properly.
4-23
3.3 Refrigeration Type Dryer. Ensure condensate trap is draining properly
and condensate is not allowed to build up.
4.1 Adsorption Type Dryer.
4.1.1 Daily Inspection. Inspect the dryer assembly for the following
conditions:
(a) Proper operation of instruments and drain traps where provided
(b) Air or steam leaks
4.1.2 Periodic Inspection. Thoroughly inspect the installation at intervals

prescribed by the manufacturer's maintenance schedule. Check the following
items:
(a) Safety valves for proper operation
(b) Dryer towers, piping, and valves for corrosion, rust, and peeling
paint

(c) Desiccant bed for oil, dirt, or other foreign matter
4.2 Deliquescent Type Dryer.
4.2.1 Daily Inspection. Inspect the dryer assembly for the following
conditions:
(a) Proper operation of instruments and drain traps where provided
(b) Air or steam leaks

prescribed by the manufacturer's maintenance schedule. Check the following
items:
(a) Safety valves for proper operation
(b) Dryer towers, piping, and valves for corrosion, rust, and peeling
paint
4-24
(c) Desiccant level
4.3 Refrigeration Type Dryer.
4.3.1 Daily Inspection. Inspect for the following conditions:
(a) Proper operation of condensate drainer
(b) Air leaks

prescribed by the manufacturer's maintenance schedule. Examine the following
items:

(a) Condition of filter cartridge
(b) Condensate collection chamber and condenser-evaporator tubes for oil

and dirt accumulation
5 MAINTENANCE.
5.1 Adsorption Type Dryer. Proceed as follows:

(a) Calibrate instruments semiannually.
(b) Lubricate and repack leaking valves.
(c) Repair all leaks.
(d) Repair or replace defective controls and instruments.
(e) Repaint dryer towers and piping where paint is damaged.
4-25
(f) Replace desiccant. Refer to desiccant manufacturer's instructions
for proper intervals and instructions.
5.2 Deliquescent Type Dryer. Proceed as follows:

(a) Calibrate instruments semiannually.
(b) Lubricate and repack leaking valves.
(c) Repair all leaks.
(d) Repair or replace defective controls and instruments.
(e) Repaint dryer towers and piping where paint is damaged.
(f) Replace drying medium as required. Refer to drying medium

5.3 Refrigeration Type Dryer. Proceed as follows:
Do not attempt to service the sealed refrigeration unit; damage to

the unit may result. Contact the manufacturer in the event of any
malfunction.
(a) Clean or replace filter element as required.
(b) Clean deposits from condensate collection chamber and condenser-

evaporator tubes with compressed air or steam.
(c) Lubricate and repack leaking valves.
4-26
CHAPTER 5. CONTROLS
Section 1. PRIME MOVER CONTROLS
1 DESCRIPTION. Compressed air delivery is regulated by control of the

compressor drive. This is accomplished by varying the drive speed to regulate
air output in response to load variations.
1.1 Steam Engine Controls. The steam engine is still used to a limited
extent as a prime mover at some Navy installations. When steam engines
require replacement,they are usually replaced by electric motors, steam
turbines, and internal combustion engines. Where the steam engine is used
with reciprocating compressors, it is generally integral to the compressor.
Control is normally furnished with steam-driven air compressors by a
combination of speed and pressure governors. These governors are of two
types, throttling and automatic cutoff.
1.1.1 Throttling Governors. A change in steam pressure changes in compressor

speed. This change varies the delivery of the oil pump which is chain-driven
from the compressor shaft. Oil discharging from the pump passes through a
variable restriction. The back pressure restriction is applied to the
diaphragm of the throttle valve. Increased oil delivery and compressor speed
raises the pressure on the diaphragm causing the throttle valve to close,
restoring the speed of the compressor. A small orifice and return line is
provided from the throttle valve diaphragm to permit a small amount of oil to
be recirculated to prevent any air from accumulating in the diaphragm. When
receiver pressure changes,the pressure control valve varies the restriction
in the oil line from the pump. This changes the back pressure applied to the
diaphragm of the throttle valve,which changes the compressor speed to restore
receiver pressure. This control is used with steam engines of 150 hp or less.
1.1.2 Automatic Cutoff Governors. In the automatic cutoff governor,

hydraulic pressure is supplied by the oil pump which is driven from the
compressor shaft. Any variation in steam pressure, which changes the speed of
the compressor, causes a change in oil pressure from the pump. This pressure
change either raises or lowers the piston. The rack on the piston rotates the
sprocket, which in turn rotates the cutoff valve rod to reset the cutoff and
adjust the speed. Any change in receiver pressure also affects the hydraulic
pressure. The pressure control valve, which senses receiver pressure,
bypasses some of the oil flow to increase or decrease hydraulic pressure.
1.1.3 Automatic Start-Stop Governors. Automatic start-stop governors (figure

5-l) are also used on steam-driven compressors. This governor has a
spring-loaded diaphragm, the underside of which is always open to receiver
pressure. When receiver pressure becomes greater than the spring pressure
above the diaphragm, the diaphragm is raised, unseating the needle valve. Air
then flows to the chamber above the piston attached to the steam valve. Air
pressure on this piston forces the steam valve to its seat, cutting off the
flow of steam to the compressor. With a decrease in steam pressure, the valve
operates in reverse to readmit steam to the cylinder.
1.2 Motor Controls. Where air demand is intermittent, a start-stop control

may be provided for the air compressor. This system consists basically of a
pressure operated switch connected to the motor starter circuit. When air
5-1
FIGURE 5-1. Automatic Start-Stop Governor
pressure rises to a preset level, the pressure switch contacts open,

deenergizing the starter and shutting down the motor. When receiver pressure
falls to another preset value, the pressure switch contacts close, starting
the driving motor. There are several methods of obtaining variable speed
control of electric motors.
1.2.1 Belt and Pulley Arrangement. The variable speed drive unit consists of
a constant speed motor and a belt and pulley arrangement to vary the output
speed. Speed change is accomplished by varying the distance between two disks
that form each pulley. Turning the speed control dial moves one of the disks
on the motor shaft toward its companion disk which forms a belt pulley. This
causes the belt to climb up on the tapered disks to a larger diameter.
Simultaneously, since the belt is of fixed length, the belt causes the two
disks of the driven pulley to separate and permit the belt to assume a smaller
diameter. This change of pulley diameters results in increased speed of the
driven shaft while the motor speed remains constant. Reverse movement of the
control dial results in a decrease in the speed of the driven shaft. The use
of this arrangement is limited to drivers of 30 hp or less.
1.2.2 Hydraulic or Magnetic Couplings. Although not drivers, these types of

couplings are sometimes a part of the driving mechanism and provide variable
speed output from a constant speed driver. Hydraulic or magnetic couplings
are also used to vary the speed of compressors driven by squirrel cage
induction or synchronous motors.
1.3 Steam Turbine Drives. Commonly used with centrifugal or axial

compressors, steam turbines can be fitted with variable speed governors which
allow the turbine speed to be set at any point within its operating speed
5-2
range while the unit is in operation. An oil relay governor (figure 5-2) is
one type of variable speed turbine governor. Oil discharging from a pump
driven by the turbine shaft is circulated back to a reservoir through an
orifice valve. The back pressure developed by the restriction acts on the
actuator piston. Movement of the piston is transmitted through a linkage to
the pilot valve. The pilot valve admits oil from a different pump to either
side of the governor valve piston, opening or closing the governor valve. The
lever which is attached to the governor valve piston and moves with it,
returns the pilot valve to its neutral position to stop further movement of
the governor valve until there is an oil pressure change below the actuator
piston. Speed is changed manually by adjustment of the orifice valve.
FIGURE 5-2. Variable Speed, Oil Relay Governor
5-3
1.4 Reciprocating Engine Drives. Industrial type gas, gasoline, and diesel
engines are used to drive compressors by direct connection or V-belt drives.
Gasoline engines are available in either 4- or 2-cycle models. These
reciprocating engines can be throttled and possess a minimum speed range of
approximately 50 to 60 percent of the rated revolutions per minute (rpm).
2 STARTUP.
2.1 Prestart Inspection. Carefully inspect the prime mover control system to
ensure that the following prestart requirements are fulfilled.
(a) All installation or repair work has been completed.
(b) System has been cleaned and tested for leaks.

system and its operation.
(c) Manufacturer's instructions and diagrams are available.
(d) All controllers are lubricated.
(e) All piping and tubing are clean and reservoirs of hydraulic
governors or couplings are filled.
(f) Correct electric power supply is available for electric controls.
(a) Place prime mover controls in operation in accordance with the

(b) Make any required adjustments to obtain desired compressor delivery

or discharge pressure.
3 NORMAL OPERATION. Adjust controls to regulate compressor output. Check

liquid levels in hydraulic systems at intervals prescribed by the
manufacturer's maintenance schedule.
4 SHUTDOWN. When a prime mover control is to be taken out of service for

repairs, carefully inspect and observe the operation of the control and list
all necessary repair work. Switch the compressor to manual control, if
possible; tag the system; and remove the control from service in accordance
with the manufacturer's instructions.
5 OPERATIONAL PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE. Report immediately to the supervisor

any malfunctioning of the prime mover control system. Where required,
maintain correct hydraulic fluid levels in reservoirs. Keep all electrical
contact surfaces of components, such as rheostats, clean at all times and
lightly greased, if required.
5-4
6.1 Daily Inspection. Inspect the control system daily for proper operation.

maintenance schedule, thoroughly inspect the control system for corrosion,
wear, and dirt. Check all governor linkages, mechanisms, springs, and pins
for mechanical defects and wear. Examine governor valves for erosion,
corrosion, proper seating, and condition of packing and diaphragms.
Inspection procedures for electrical control components are contained in
NAVFAC MO-205, Central Heating and Steam Electric Generating Plants.
7 MAINTENANCE.
7.1 Lubrication System. Prepare a lubrication schedule for all prime mover
controls requiring periodic lubrication. Consult the manufacturer's
instructions for frequency and type of lubricant.

7.2 Cleaning. In accordance with the manufacturer's maintenance schedule,

thoroughly clean all control components. Clean all sludge and accumulations
from hydraulic systems with an approved solvent. Thoroughly flush out all
control lines and refill system with clean hydraulic fluid.
7.3 Control System Components. Repair or replace defective control system

components. Establish a preventive maintenance inspection schedule for all
components of the control system. Consult the manufacturer's instructions for
maintenance procedures. Perform the following maintenance.
(a) Replace defective diaphragms, bellows, and gaskets.
(b) Carefully inspect, clean, and test governor valves. Repair or

replace faulty parts.
(c) Repair or replace defective chains and sprockets.
(d) Replace badly worn linkage pins and bushings.
(e) Repair all leaks.
(f) Repaint piping as required.
(g) Refer to NAVFAC MO-205, Central Heating and Steam Electric

Generating Plants for maintenance instructions on electrical control
components.
5-5
5-6
Section 2. COMPRESSOR CONTROLS
1 CAPACITY CONTROL. Capacity control is usually achieved by one of three

methods: automatic stop/start, constant speed, and variable speed. Automatic
start/stop is primarily limited to electric motor-driven units. Constant
speed can be applied to all types of compressors. Automatic start/stop and
constant speed control are often combined in a dual control to meet differing
demand periods. The variable control is used where the driver is capable of
fluctuating with the demand, such as with gas- and steam-driven engines. The
method of control used is usually associated with the type of compressor plant
being controlled.
1.1 Constant Speed Control. Under constant speed control, the load on the
compressor changes,being fully loaded for a certain period of time and then
varying between partially and fully loaded during another period of time.
There are several ways used to achieve constant speed control.
1.1.1 Reciprocating Compressor. Three methods of control are used for

reciprocating compressors: automatic start/stop, constant speed, and variable
speed. Automatic start/stop is usually limited to electric motor-driven
units. Constant speed is applicable to all types of compressors and drivers.
When variable speed is used, the driver can operate at speeds commensurate
with the demand.
1.1.1.1 Inlet Valve Unloader. There are several methods of unloading the
compressor. One system holds the inlet valves open mechanically during both
the suction and compression strokes, thereby preventing the air from being
compressed. The unloader (figure 5-3) is located above the inlet valve so
that the yoke fingers are almost touching the valve. When the air receiver
pressure rises to the preset unloading pressure, a pressure switch operates a
solenoid unloader valve which operates and sends air receiver pressure to the
inlet valve unloader. The pressure from the air receiver acting on the
diaphragm of the inlet valve unloader forces the yoke fingers against the
inlet valve, holding it open. The intake air is pushed back out of the inlet
valve on the compression stroke so that no compression takes place.
(a) Five-Step Capacity Control.
(1) Figure 5-4 shows a typical airflow diagram of a five-step

capacity control system applied to a two-stage, four-cylinder, double action
reciprocating compressor. Assuming that the compressor is required to
maintain a pressure of 93 to 100 psi, the pressure switches would be set to
load and unload as follows: air pressure switch (APS) No. 1, load at 93 psi,
unload at 97 psi;APS No. 2, load at 94 psi, unload at 98 psi; APS No. 3, load
at 95 psi, unload at 99 psi; and APS No. 4, load at 96 psi, unload at 100
psi. As the receiver pressure reaches the high setting of each pressure
switch, 25 percent of the compressor capacity unloads. As receiver pressure
falls to the low setting of each switch, 25 percent of the compressor capacity
loads. APS No. 1 therefore unloads 25 percent of the compressor capacity at
97 psi and loads 25 percent at 93 psi. As receiver pressure fluctuates
between 93 and 100 psi, the compressor capacity varies in five steps: full,
75 percent, 50 percent, 25 percent, and zero capacity.
5-7
FIGURE 5-3. Inlet Valve Unloader
(2) To understand the operation of this five-step control system

which combines the components previously described, refer to figure 5-4. When
the compressor is started, the air pressure switches are closed and the
solenoids in the unloader valves become energized so that receiver pressure
cannot enter the unloading lines and compression is allowed to take place. As
receiver pressure builds up and reaches 97 psi, APS No. 1 breaks contact,
deenergizing the unloader and allowing 97 psi receiver air to enter control
line No. 1, actuating the inlet valve unloader. Twenty five percent of the
compressor has become unloaded and compression has been reduced from full to
75 percent capacity. Control lines Nos. 2, 3, and 4 operate in the same way
as receiver pressure increases. At 100 psi, all cylinders are unloaded and
air compression ceases, but the compressor continues to run under no load. As
air is drawn off from the receiver, the pressure begins to drop. When the
pressure falls to 96 psi, APS No. 4 makes contact and energizes the unloading
of valve 4, which cuts off receiver pressure from the inlet unloader and vents
the unloader pressure to atmosphere. The inlet valve unloader releases the
inlet valve and normal compression takes place, loading the compressor to 25
percent capacity. If the demand for air increases and receiver pressure
continues to decrease,control lines Nos. 3, 2, and 1 will load in sequence.
5-8
5-9
(b) Three-Way Solenoid Valve. The unloader valve (figure 5-5) is a
three-way solenoid-operated valve actuated by operation of the pressure
switch. Connection A of the valve is piped to the inlet valve unloader,
connection B is a vent to atmosphere, and connection C is connected to the air
receiver. When receiver pressure has reached its preset maximum, the pressure
switch contacts open, deenergizing the solenoid. The core of the solenoid
moves the operating lever downward to close connection B of the valve and open
connection C, allowing receiver pressure to act on the inlet valve unloader.
Connection C is held open until receiver pressure drops to the minimum setting
of the pressure switch. The switch then closes, energizing the solenoid.
Connection C closes, cutting off pressure to the inlet unloader, and
connection B opens,releasing the pressure on the unloader to atmosphere.
1.1.1.2 Clearance Pockets. Another method of unloading a compressor is by

the use of clearance pockets built into the cylinder. Normal clearance is the
volume at the end of the piston and under the valves when the piston is at the
top of the compression stroke. Each end of the cylinder is fitted with two
clearance pockets which are connected with, but cut off from, the cylinder by
air-operated clearance valves. Each clearance pocket can hold one-quarter of
the air compressed by the cylinder in one stroke. When both pockets at one
end of the cylinder are open, no air is taken into that end of the cylinder.
The clearance valves are separate from, and work independently of, the main
compressor valves. They are similar to the regular inlet valves but have an
air-operated lifting yoke which operates in the same manner as the inlet valve
unloader described in paragraph 1.1.1.1. Figure 5-6 illustrates the operation
of the clearance pockets and the corresponding indicator diagrams of an air
compressor under five-step clearance control.
FIGURE 5-5. Three-Way Solenoid Valve
5-10
FIGURE 5-6. Five-Step Clearance Control
1.1.2 Centrifugal Compressor. Five methods are generally used to control

centrifugal compressors.
1.1.2.1 Inlet Guide Vanes. Centrifugal compressor control may be

accomplished by the use of adjustable inlet guide vanes. The purpose of the
guide vanes is to direct the airflow and distribute it uniformly into the eye
of the impeller. The adjustable vanes located at the first-stage inlet or the
inlet to each stage, are used to modify the pressure-volume characteristics of
the compressor. Guide vanes are manually or automatically adjustable.
1.1.2.2 Blowoff of Output. Blowoff and recirculation are occasionally used

but do not save any power because the compressor is continually operating at
full load pressure and inlet volume. Blowoff relieves excess gas to the
atmosphere, and recirculation puts throttled gas back through the compressor.
1.1.2.3 Intake Throttling. Intake throttling is widely used for control of

constant speed machines. Either inlet butterfly valves or inlet guide vanes
may be automatically or manually controlled. Power conservation is less than
with variable speed, but is still significant.
1.1.2.4 Two-Step Control. Two-step control is mainly useful during load

operations below 50 percent capacity. The amount of flow is dependent upon
two set points. Operation is at full load until the upper set point is
reached, then the unit is unloaded and operates at 15 percent flow until the
lower set point is reached and the system reverts back to full load. The
action is cyclic, maintaining an intermediate pressure value between the set
points. Two-step control is not recommended if a complete load-unload cycle
5-11
occurs more often than every 3 minutes because this will cause excessive wear
on the bearings and valves.
1.1.2.5 Butterfly Valves. Centrifugal compressor control may also be

accomplished by throttling the suction or discharge of the compressor with a
butterfly valve.
1.1.3 Rotary Sliding Vane Compressor. There are several common methods for
maintaining constant speed control of rotary sliding vane compressors.
1.1.3.1 Automatic Start/Stop at Predetermined Pressures. Speed control is

maintained automatically according to predetermined pressures.
1.1.3.2 Blocking the Compressor Inlet. Blocking or unblocking of the

compressor inlet maintains speed control.
1.1.3.3 Intake Unloaders.Intake unloading consists of an automatic valve

located at the compressor suction. This valve closes off the compressor
intake, thereby preventing the compressor from taking in air. The intake
unloader (figure 5-7) incorporates two valves in one body, an air
piston-operated inlet valve and a pressure release valve. When the compressor
is delivering air, the inlet valve is in its normal open position and the
release valve is closed. When receiver pressure builds up to the unloading
pressure, a pressure switch deenergizes a three-way solenoid pilot valve which
admits receiver pressure to the piston of the inlet valve. The piston rises,
closing the inlet valve and opening the pressure release valve. The pressure
release valve relieves air pressure from the portion of the compressor
discharge line between the compressor and the discharge check valve. This
permits unloaded operation of the compressor at atmospheric pressure. When
receiver pressure drops to the lower setting of the pressure switch, the
contacts close, energizing the solenoid pilot valve. This cuts off receiver
pressure and vents the pressure in the unloader to atmosphere. The inlet
valve is opened, permitting the compressor to load.
1.1.4 Rotary Twin-Lobe Compressor. Control methods for the rotary twin-lobe
are the same as for the rotary sliding vane compressor.
1.1.5 Rotary Liquid Piston Compressor. Control methods for the rotary liquid
piston compressor are the same as for the rotary sliding vane compressor.
1.1.6 Axial Flow Compressor. Control methods for the axial flow compressor
are the same as for the centrifugal compressor.
1.2 Variable Speed Control. There are many methods available to vary the
speed of the compressor to produce a more efficient system. Those listed
below may not apply to all types of compressors, but generally, more than one
method deserves consideration during a system design or retrofit. The
following methods vary in applicability depending on energy source,
horsepower, weight, revolutions per minute, and cost requirements.
1.2.1 Gasoline, Steam, and Diesel Engines. These engines can be manually
controlled or load controlled by the use of a governor.
5-12
FIGURE 5-7. Intake Unloader for Rotary Sliding Vane Compressor
5-13
1.2.2 Multiple Winding Motors. The advantages of the multiple winding method
are that it is relatively simple and inexpensive. The disadvantage is that
the number of different available speeds is limited. The multiple winding
method is therefore unsuitable for applications that require a continuously
varying speed of rotation.
1.2.3 Variable Diameter Pulleys. A typical variable diameter pulley has

conical faces that can be adjusted so that the distance between the faces is
variable. If the drive belt for the pulley has edges that are tapered to
match the shape of the pulley faces, the belt can be made to contact the
pulley anywhere along the pulley faces, depending on the distance between the
pulley faces. This effectively changes the pulley diameter. At larger pulley
diameters, the shaft driven by the pulley rotates more slowly. At smaller
pulley diameters,the shaft driven by the pulley rotates more quickly. The
advantages of the variable diameter method are that it is relatively simple
and it is comparatively inexpensive. The disadvantages are that its use is
limited to applications requiring approximately 30 hp or less; the pulleys
require careful alignment; and the belts are sensitive to small misalignments
and can be damaged easily.
1.2.4 Geared Transmissions. A geared transmission can be used to vary the

speed of rotation of the drive shaft in discrete steps. The advantages of
geared transmissions are that they are relatively reliable and can be used for
higher power applications. The disadvantages are that they are expensive,
relatively inefficient, and difficult to install.
1.2.5 Fluid Couplings. Fluid couplings, or torque converters, can be used to

provide a continuously variable output to the shaft of a centrifugal pump.
The advantages of this type of pump are that fluid couplings are simpler than
geared transmissions,are easier to install, and are continuously variable.
The principal disadvantage of these pumps is that they are comparatively
inefficient.
1.2.6 Eddy Current Couplers. Eddy current couplers are magnetic clutches in
which the intensity of the magnetic field, which couples the two major
rotating parts of the clutch, can be varied. An increase in field intensity
increases the amount of magnetic coupling, with a consequent increase in
torque. The advantages of the eddy current coupler are that it is relatively
simple and reliable. Its principal disadvantage is that it is inefficient.
The slippage developed in the clutch causes a loss of energy that is
dissipated in the form of heat. Eddy current couplers and other devices that
allow the motor to run at full speed but at reduced torque, have an adverse
effect on the power factor of the motor.
1.2.7 Synchronous Inverters. Synchronous inverters are electronic devices

that vary the input power frequency to the motor. Advantages of the
synchronous inverter as a means to change motor rpm are numerous. Typical
output frequencies of a synchronous inverter range from 0 to 90 hertz, which
produces a wide and continuous range of motor speeds. The synchronous
inverter may be mounted in a remote location not requiring mechanical retrofit
changes. Because the synchronous inverter is not a mechanical device,
maintenance is minimal.
5-14
2 STARTUP.
2.1 Prestart Inspection. Carefully inspect the control system installation

to ensure that the following prestart requirements are fulfilled.
(a) All installation or repair work has been completed.
(b) System has been cleaned and tested for leaks.

system and its operation.
(c) Manufacturer's instructions and control piping and wiring diagrams

are available.
(d) Correct electric power is available for operation of electrical

components.
(e) All piping and tubing are blown out clean.
(f) All control components are installed, tested, and adjusted in

accordance with the manufacturer's instructions.
(a) Set unloading device to unload position before placing the

compressor in operation.
(b) Place the compressor in service per manufacturer's instructions or

as given in chapters 2 and 3.
(c) Place the control system in service following the procedures

outlined in the manufacturer's instruction manual.
3 NORMAL OPERATION. Adjust the control system to obtain system pressure or

compressor capacity. Drain condensate from moisture separators and strainers
once each shift.
4 SHUTDOWN. If the compressor control system is to be taken out of service

for repairs, carefully inspect the installation, observe the operation, tag
the system, and list all necessary repairs. Transfer the compressor to manual
control, if possible, and remove the controller from service.
5 OPERATIONAL PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE. Report immediately to the supervisor

any malfunction in the control system or components. Thoroughly drain all
moisture from pneumatic control line separators at least once each shift.
6.1 Daily. Inspect the compressor control system for operation of all
control components.
5-15
maintenance schedule, thoroughly inspect all control system components for
wear, corrosion, dirt, or defects.
7 MAINTENANCE. Prepare a lubrication schedule for all compressor control

system components. Consult the manufacturer's instructions for frequency and
type of lubricant to be used. Obtain detailed instructions from the
manufacturer and use these instructions when making adjustments to, and
calibrations of, the control system components. Only one person should be
responsible for the adjustments and calibrations of the control system
components.
7.1 Control System Components. Prepare a periodic maintenance program for

all compressor control system components. Refer to the manufacturer's manuals
for maintenance instructions for each particular control component. Perform
the following maintenance work as required.

(a) Carefully clean, inspect, and test the operation of unloaders,

clearance control, and pilot valves. Regrind or replace worn valve seats and
disks. Replace badly worn valve stems and defective diaphragms. Check spring
tension adjustments.
(b) Thoroughly clean moisture separators and strainers. Remove all oil
deposits. Replace defective strainer elements.
(c) Refer to NAVFAC MO-205, Central Heating and Steam Electric

Generating Plants, for maintenance instructions for electrical control
components.
7.2 Piping. Thoroughly clean all control system piping and test for leaks.
Lines should be thoroughly blown out with compressed air until all oil and
dirt have been removed. Repair all leaks and repaint piping as required.
5-16
APPENDIX A
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
A-1
APPENDIX A
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
APS Air pressure switch

CFM Cubic feet per minute
CPR Cardiopulmonary resuscitation
F Fahrenheit
HP Horsepower
LTS Long-term storage
PM Preventive maintenance
PSI Pounds per square inch
PSIG Pounds per square inch gauge
RPM Revolutions per minute
SCFM Standard cubic feet per minute
VPI Vapor phase inhibitor
A-2
APPENDIX B
EVALUATION OF LOSSES IN COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS
B-1
APPENDIX B
EVALUATION OF LOSSES IN COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS
1 COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEM LEAKS. Leakage of compressed air is a problem at

industrial installations and, if uncorrected, will result in significant
monetary losses (table B-l). Leakage can result from corrosion in underground
piping, damaged joints,and defective fittings and valves. A relatively
simple test has been devised which rapidly and economically determines whether
a distribution line is leaking and if so, the magnitude of the losses.
2 TEST METHOD. This test requires that a segment of a compressed air

distribution line be pressurized, sealed, and checked by use of a pressure
gauge to determine if the line is leaking. If there is no pressure decrease,
there is no leakage. If the pressure does decrease, a leak is indicated. The
amount of leakage can be determined and a graph prepared that determines the
loss at operating pressure.
3 TEST EQUIPMENT. The following test equipment is simple and inexpensive:
• Pressure gauge
• Stopwatch
4 TEST PRECAUTIONS. This test produces valid results as long as the

relationship between pressure and flow rate is linear. Assuming a sonic exit
velocity, the relationship will be linear as long as the ratio of the
atmospheric pressure to the line pressure exceeds the critical pressure ratio
of 0.53 for gases. Thus, to ensure maximum accuracy, test data should not be
used if the pressure gauge registers less than 20 psig.
5 TEST PROCEDURES. The following steps must be performed to complete a

pressure decay test.
(a) Obtain scale drawings of the section to be tested. Verify drawings

in the field and calculate the volume of the section to be tested.
(b) Install a pressure gauge at a convenient location.
(c) Secure all loads the line supplies.
(d) Isolate the line from the compressed air system.
(e) Immediately begin taking readings at the pressure gauge but do not
try to start the moment the valve is closed. Observe the pressure gauge and
begin timing when the pointer passes a convenient mark. Example: On a
lOO-psig system, wait for the pressure gauge to reach 95 psig before starting
the stopwatch.
(f) Note the time at convenient pressure intervals (5 or 10 psi

increments). Continue data recording until 20 psig is reached. A suggested
format for collecting this data in the field is shown in table B-2.
B-2
TABLE B-l. Amount and Cost of Air Leaks
1
Airflow is based on nozzle coefficient of 0.64. Costs of air losses based on a system
continuously pressurized with compressed air costs of $0.50 per 1,000 cubic feet.
B-3
(g) Using the field data, construct a chart as shown in table B-3. The
LOSS column values (Q) are calculated by using the field data in formula
5.1(a).
(h) On graph paper, plot Q on the Y axis and P on the X axis.
(i) Using linear regression, calculate the equation for the best fitting
straight line and solve for Qnominal.(Qnominal is defined as normal
operating pressure.)
TABLE B-2. Pressure Test Data
Pressure Time
(psig) (min:sec)
90 0:00
80 10:42
70 23:17
60 38:34
50 58:56
40 87:28
30 135:01
TABLE B-3. Calculation of Losses
Average
Pressure Pressure Time Time Loss
(psig) (psig) (min:sec) (min) (scfm)
90-80 85 10:42 10.70 40

80-70 75 23:17 23.28 34
70-60 65 38:34 38.57 28
60-50 55 58:56 58.93 21
50-40 45 87:28 87:47 15
40-30 35 135:01 135.02 9
30-20 25 277:40 277.67 3
B-4
5.1 Test Formula. In determining the air losses, use the following mass loss
formula.
(a) Q = 35.852 V (PI-PF)

(T+460)(t F-tI)
Where: Q = volumetric airflow (scfm)
V = volume of tank, ft3
T = temperature, °F
P = pressure, psig
t = time, minutes
I = initial
F = final
(b) Although the regression equation can be calculated by hand, the

calculations are quite laborious. It is strongly recommended that an
inexpensive hand-held calculator with statistics capability or an in-house
computer program be used as the information can then be rapidly and accurately
calculated.
5.2 Example. The following example illustrates the pressure decay test
procedure.
(a) A section of l0-inch compressed air line is suspected of leakage.

The line is located on drawings and verified by a field inspection. Using an
engineering scale and the drawing, the length of line is found to be 1,000
feet. Calculating the volume of the line:
V =
π d2 1
4 =
1 π x
4 (10.75
12 in/ft )
in x 1,000 ft
V = 630.3 ft3
(b) A pressure gauge is installed on the line at an outlet valve, and

all loads on the line are secured. With a person watching the gauge, the line
is isolated from the central air distribution system.
(c) The pressure gauge, which had indicated 96 psig, begins to fall
immediately. When the gauge reaches 90 psig, the stopwatch is started. Time
is recorded at l0-psi intervals as shown in table B-2. (A stopwatch with a
lap counter makes this easier.)
(d) Assuming an ambient temperature of 68°F, the losses can be

calculated for each pressure interval, using equation 5.1(a). Results are
shown in table B-3.
(e) The data can be plotted as shown in figure B-l to determine how well
the test data fits a straight line. Although test data from an actual test
will normally be offset from a straight line to some degree, severe deviations
will require that the test be repeated.
B-5
AVERAGE PRESSURE (PSIG)
FIGURE B-l. Loss (cfm) vs Pressure (psig)
(f) Calculating the linear regression formula from the available data
and making the following substitutions:
X = avg press. (P)

Y = loss (Q)
Y = mX+b
yields the equation: Q = 0.62 P - 12.75.
Losses at operating or nominal pressure (96 psig) are calculated:
Q9 6 = 0.62 (96) - 12.75 Q 9 6 = 47 scfm
At a cost of 50 cents for 1,000 cubic feet of compressed air,

this represents: $12,35O/year (dollar figure will vary based on
facility costs for compressed air).
6 CORRECTIVE MEASURES. Qnominal represents the loss in the compressed air

system at operating conditions, assuming a constant pressure over the length
of pipe in question. This value, taken with the activity's cost to produce
compressed air, can be used, as justification,to develop projects to repair
or replace sections of compressed air line.
B-6
REFERENCES
1. NAVFAC DM-3.5, Compressed Air and Vacuum Systems.
2. NAVFAC MO-205, Central Heating and Steam Electric Generating Plants.
3. NAVFAC MO-209, Maintenance of Steam, Hot Water. and Compressed Air

Distribution Systems.
4. NAVFAC MO-225, Industrial Water Treatment.
5. NAVFAC MO-322, Inspection of Shore Facilities.
6. NAVFAC MO-324, Inspection and Certification of Boilers and Unfired

Pressure Vessels.
Reference-l
INDEX*
A
Abbreviations and Acronyms .................... A-1
Air Compressor Plant
Breakdown Maintenance ....................... 1-7
Compressed Air Leaks ....................... 1-7, B-1
Engineering Responsibilities ................ 1-5
Maintenance Responsibilities ................ 1-5
Operation, Maintenance, and Supervision ..... 1-5 thru 1-7
Operator Maintenance ........................ 1-6
Operator Responsibilities .................... 1-5
Preventive Maintenance ...................... 1-7
Supervisory Responsibilities ................ 1-5
Troubleshooting ............................ 1-B thru 1-12 (T)
Air Dryers .................................... 4-21 thru 4-26
Maintenance ................................. 4-25
Operations .................................. 4-23
Types ....................................... 4-21
Air Filters ................................... 4-1 thru 4-4
Inspection .................................. 4-1
Maintenance ................................. 4-2
Air Receivers ................................. 4-19
Maintenance ................................. 4-20
Operations ........ .......................... 4-19, 5-1, 5-7, 5-B, 5-10,
5-12
Auxiliary Equipment ........................... 4-1 thru 4-26
Air Receivers ............................... 1-3, 4-19, 4-20, 5-1, 5-7,
5-B, 5-10, 5-12
Air Dryers .................................. 1-3, 4-21 thru 4-26
Air Filters ................................. 1-1, 4-1 thru 4-4
Intercoolers and Aftercoolers ............... 1-11, 2-6, 2-16, 3-6, 4-7
thru 4-12, 4-15
Separators .................................. 1-3, 2-23, 4-10, 4-13, 4-14
Silencers ................................... 1-1, 4-5, 4-6
Traps ....................................... 1-3, 3-6, 3-7, 4-9, 4-15 thru
4-17, 4-23, 4-24
C
Compressed Air System Losses .................. B-1
Compressor
Controls .................................... 3-6, 3-7, 3-9, 3-10, 5-7 thru
5-16
Constant Speed ........................... 5-7 thru 5-12
Control System Maintenance ............... 5-16
Piping Maintenance ....................... 5-16
*(T) = Table (F) = Figure
Index-1
Compressor (Continued)
Controls (Continued)
Normal Operation ......................... 5-15
Preventive Maintenance ................... 5-15
Shutdown ................................. 5-15
Startup .................................. 5-15
Variable Speed ........................... 5-12 thru 5-14
Dynamic ..................................... 1-1, 3-1 thru 3-12
Alignment Maintenance .................... 3-10, 3-11 (F), 3-12 (F)
Axial Flow ............................... 3-1, 3-3 (F)
Bearings Maintenance ..................... 3-11
Centrifugal .............................. 3-1, 3-2 (F)
Cold Climate Shutdown .................... 3-7
Long-Term Shutdown ....................... 3-6
Lubrication Maintenance .................. 3-9
Preventive Maintenance ................... 3-7
Short-Term Shutdown ...................... 3-5
Startup ..................................
Maximum Capacity ............................ 1-1, 1-3 (T)
Maximum Pressures ........................... 1-1, 1-3 (T)
Positive Displacement ....................... 1-1, 1-3, 2-1 thru 2-26
Liquid Piston, Rotary .................... 2-20
Reciprocating ............................ 2-1, 2-2 (F), 5-1, 5-7
Sliding Vane, Rotary ..................... 2-13
Twin-Lobe, Rotary ........................ 2-19
Controls, Prime Mover ......................... 5-l thru 5-16
Cooling Water Treatment ....................... 1-4
E
Engineering Responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5
H
High-Pressure Compressed Air Systems . . . . . . . . . . 2-1
I
Intercoolers and Aftercoolers ................. 4-7 thru 4-12
Cleaning Maintenance ........................ 4-11
Shutdown .................................... 4-9
Startup ..................................... 4-8
Tubes Maintenance ........................... 4-11
L
Leaks, Compressed Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-1
Index-2
M
Maintenance Responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5
0
Operator Responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5
P
Plant, Air Compressor (See Air Compressor Plant)
Prime Mover Controls .......................... 1-1, 1-3, 1-4, 5-1 thru 5-16
Control System .............................. 5-5
Lubrication Maintenance ..................... 5-5
Motor ....................................... 5-1
Normal Operation ............................ 5-4
Reciprocating Engine ........................ 5-4
Shutdown .................................... 5-4
Startup ..................................... 5-4
Steam Engine ................................ 5-1
Steam Turbine ............................... 5-2
R
Reciprocating Compressor ...................... 1-1, 2-1 thru 2-12
Bearings Maintenance ........................ 2-10
Belt Drives Maintenance ..................... 2-10
Extended Shutdown ........................... 2-5
High Pressure ............................... 2-1
Motor Driven Startup ........................ 2-4
New/Overhauled Startup ...................... 2-4
Packing Maintenance ......................... 2-8
Piston Rings Maintenance .................... 2-9
Preventive Maintenance ...................... 2-6, 2-7
Safety Precautions .......................... 2-1
Shutdown .................................... 2-5
Startup ..................................... 2-3
Steam-Driven Startup ........................
Rotary Liquid Piston .......................... 1-1, 2-23, 2-24 (F),
2-25 (F), 5-12
Bearings Maintenance ........................ 2-26
Packing Maintenance ......................... 2-26
Shutdown .................................... 2-23
Startup ..................................... 2-23
Index-3
Rotary Sliding Vane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-1, 2-13 thru 2-18,
2-14 (F), 5-12, 5-13 (F)
Bearings Maintenance........................2-18
Clearances Maintenance ......................2-18
Cylinders Maintenance.......................2-17
Extended Shutdown...........................2-15
Normal Operation............................ 2-15
Rotor Blades Maintenance .................... 2-17
Shutdown .................................... 2-15
Startup ..................................... 2-13
Rotary Twin-Lobe..............................1-1, 2-19 thru 2-22,
2-20 (F), 5-12
Bearings Maintenance........................2-22
Normal Operation............................2-21
Preventive Maintenance ......................2-21
Seals Maintenance...........................2-22
Shutdown .................................... 2-21
Startup ..................................... 2-19
Timing Gears Maintenance .................... 2-22
S
Safety Procedures, High-Pressure Systems ...... 2-1
Separators .............. ........... ........... 4-13, 4-14
Maintenance ....................... .......... 4-14
Operation .................. ................. 4-13
Silencers ..................... ................ 4-5, 4-6
Inspection and Maintenance .................. 4-5
Supervisory Responsibilities .................. 1-5
T
Traps .............. ........................... 4-15 thru 4-17
Buckets and Floats Maintenance .............. 4-17
Levers Maintenance .......................... 4-17
Shutdown .................................... 4-15
Startup ......... ........... ................. 4-15
Valves Maintenance .......................... 4-17
Troubleshooting ............... ................ 1-B (T) thru 1-12 (T)
Index-4

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Maintenance

This manual is directed to operators and supervisors who

CHAPTER 1. DEFINITIONS AND RESPONSIBILITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l-l

Section 1. AIR COMPRESSOR PLANT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . l-l

Section 2. OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE RESPONSIBILITIES . . . . . . . . . . .

CHAPTER 2. POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT COMPRESSORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-l

Section 1. RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Section 2. ROTARY SLIDING VANE COMPRESSORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Section 3. ROTARY TWIN-LOBE COMPRESSORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Section 4. ROTARY LIQUID PISTON COMPRESSORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3 NORMAL OPERATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-23

CHAPTER 3. DYNAMIC COMPRESSORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-l

CHAPTER 4. AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-l

Section 1. INTAKE FILTERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-l

Section 2. SILENCERS 4-5

Section 3. INTERCOOLERS AND AFTERCOOLERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7

Section 4. SEPARATORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-13 .

Section 5. TRAPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-15

Section 6. AIR RECEIVERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-19

Whenever work is to be accomplished on air compressor plants there is

The first essential action is to read and understand all publications

The following safety rules are emphasized:

• All personnel should be trained and qualified in cardiopulmonary

• All personnel should wear safety shoes.

• All personnel should wear clothing appropriate to the job being

• Wear hardhats when required.

• Report all injuries, even if they seem to be minor.

• DO NOT WORK ALONE. At least one other person should be on hand to

• Always use the correct tool for the job.

• Prevent skin ruptures and sensory injuries when working with

• Follow lockout and tagout procedures prescribed for the plant.

• Current and accurate drawings of various mechanical systems are

• Do not wear jewelry, including rings, bracelets, necklaces, or wrist

• Do not use metal ladders.

• Do not take short cuts. The steps recommended by a manufacturer

• Do not try to connect meters to circuits unless you are qualified.

• Always use insulated tools and grounded equipment. NEVER USE

WARNINGS AND CAUTIONS

Warnings and cautions appear in equipment manuals. A CAUTION is a

Do not use gasoline, kerosene, or other low flashpoint solvents. A

If impellers are to be rotated, keep hands, feet, loose clothing,

Do not operate equipment without adequate silencing devices. High

Compressor equipment, compressed air, and electricity can be

Do not attempt to repair or remove any compressor system parts

Never operate compressor in the critical speed range (insufficient

To avoid damage to equipment, after shutting down the drive, keep

To avoid internal damage to equipment, use only synthetic sponges

Dry type filter elements can easily be damaged allowing harmful

Chemical solutions used for cleaning should be capable of dissolving

On systems where oil carryover from the compressor is present,

Do not attempt to service the sealed refrigeration unit; damage to

The operator must have a thorough understanding of the control

Section 1. AIR COMPRESSOR PLANT

1 COMPONENTS OF AN AIR COMPRESSOR PLANT. Compressed air is a form of power

2 AIR COMPRESSOR. The air compressor is the heart of a compressed air

2.2 Dynamic Compressors. Dynamic compressors operate by imparting velocity

2.3 Maximum Pressures and Capacities of Air Compressors. The approximate

3 AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT. The following auxiliary equipment is required for the

3.2 Silencers. Silencers reduce objectionable compressor suction noise.