Commercial Guide

Sporty’s Commercial Pilot Training Course
Video Training Study Guide and Review Notes
© 2022 by Sporty’s Academy, Inc. All Rights Reserved

03/21 v1.2
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Sporty’s Commercial Pilot Training Course 1
Chapter 1 – Flight Procedures and Maneuvers 5
Steep Turns 5
Chandelles 6
Lazy Eights 8
Eights on Pylons 10
Steep Spiral 12
Slow Flight 13
Power-Off Stalls 14
Power-On Stalls 16
Spin Awareness with Patty Wagstaff 17
Takeoff and Landing Variations 18
Max Performance Takeoffs and Landings 21
Power-off Accuracy Approaches 23
Emergencies 24
Collision Avoidance 25
Chapter 2 – Weather for Pilots 26
Atmospheric Stability 26
Air Masses and Fronts 28
Fog and Atmospheric Pressure 31
Cloud Formations 33
Weather Depiction and Radar 35
METARs 36
Terminal Aerodrome Forecast (TAF) 37
Weather Forecasts and PIREPs 38
Winds Aloft, AIRMETs and SIGMETs 39
Graphical Forecast for Aviation 41
ForeFlight Weather Imagery 42
Ice 44
Thunderstorms 45
Flying with Datalink Weather 46
Turbulence 47
Windshear and Microbursts 48
Satellite Weather Imagery 49
Chapter 3 – Aerodynamics and Performance 50
Aerodynamics 101 50
Angle of Attack 52
Basic Aerodynamics 53
Drag 55
Thrust, Stability and Center of Gravity 56
Load Factor and VG Diagram 58
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Weight and Balance 59
A Balanced Approach 61
Performance Charts 62
When Enough’s Not Enough 64
Chapter 4 – Airplane Systems and High-Altitude Flight 65
Pitot Static System 65
Glass Cockpit Flight Instruments 67
Airplane Engines 69
Propeller Fuel and Electrical System 71
High-Performance and Complex Airplanes 72
Ice Protection Systems 74
Flight Director and HSI 75
Flying with the Autopilot 76
Engine Instrumentation 77
Turbocharging 78
Oxygen Use 79
Pressurization 80
Aeromedical Factors 81
Chapter 5 – Navigation and Cross-Country 82
Flight Information Publications 82
Understanding Time Zones 84
Reading Sectional Charts 85
Sporty’s E6B: Flight Planning and Test Prep 86
Flight Planning Part 1: Plotting a Course 87
Flight Planning Part 2: Preparing a Navlog 89
Cross-Country Flight Planning with iPad 90
VFR Flight Plans 91
Six Rules for Cross Country Flights 92
Dual Cross Country Flight 93
Magnetic Compass 94
Aviation Communications 96
VOR Navigation 98
Global Positioning System 100
ATC Radar Services 101
VFR Flight Following 103
ADS-B 104
Normal Airspace 105
Special Use Airspace 107
Night Flying 108
The Night Shift 110
International Flight Planning 111
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Chapter 6 – Commercial Pilot Regulations 113
Pilot Responsibilities and Currency 113
Medical Certificate and BasicMed 115
Flight Regulations 116
NTSB Reporting 119
Commercial Pilot Privileges and Limitations 120
Flight Level Rules and Procedures 121
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Chapter 1 – Flight Procedures and Maneuvers
Steep Turns
Commercial Pilot Chapter 1 – Video Segment 1
In this section we will discuss steep turns made at a constant bank. These are turns with a bank of
50 degrees or more.
Review:
1. Steep turns call for orientation, power control, and rapid application of smooth and varying
control pressures.
2. To maintain altitude you must use a higher pitch attitude and more power to compensate for
the added drag.
3. Do your steep turn for 360 degrees and start on one of the cardinal points of the compass.
Pick a prominent point, like a road or other landmark, to help you judge the completion of the
turn. Use a 50 degree bank, and maintain altitude within 100 feet.
4. After 30 degrees, increase power as necessary, and increase back elevator pressure.
5. Don't stare at any one thing. Cross-check the attitude indicator with the nose, wings, horizon,
altimeter, and reference point as you turn.
6. If you are losing altitude, don't correct with back pressure only. This will tighten the turn.
Shallow the bank by 5 or 10 degrees, and then increase the pitch attitude. Return to the 50
degree bank after the airplane is back to the starting altitude.
7. If the airplane is climbing, you can make a slight increase in the bank or a small decrease in
back pressure.
8. You may need to hold some aileron pressure against the turn to keep the bank from
increasing.
9. You will probably need a slight amount of right rudder pressure during a steep turn, and even
more right rudder pressure to enter one to the right.
10. When the airplane's heading is within 25 to 35 degrees of the reference point, apply opposite
aileron and rudder pressure to roll out of the turn, relaxing back elevator pressure and
reducing power to the level flight setting.
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Chandelles
In addition to the steep turns, slow flight, and stalls that you learned during private pilot training,
there are four new maneuvers you’re required to learn when working towards a commercial pilot
certificate. These are Chandelles, Lazy Eights, Eights on Pylons and Steep Spirals.
Review:
1. The Chandelle is a maximum performance, 180° climbing turn.

2. The maneuver begins from approximately straight-and-level flight and concludes with the
airplane in a wings-level, nose-high attitude just above stall speed.
3. The goal is to gain the most altitude possible for a given bank angle and power setting.
4. A chandelle is best described in two specific phases: the first 90° of turn and the second 90°
of turn. The first 90° of turn is described as constant bank and changing pitch; and the
second 90° as constant pitch and changing bank.
5. Select a starting altitude no lower than 1,500 ft AGL, perform the pre-maneuver checklist and
proceed with clearing turns to check for traffic.
6. Align the aircraft into the wind if possible and select a reference point off of the left or right
wing, depending on the direction you intend to perform the Chandelle.
7. Verify the airplane is configured for a maximum performance climb, ensuring the flaps and
gear are retracted. Establish straight-and-level flight and adjust power as necessary to fly at
the appropriate entry airspeed.
8. Start the maneuver by smoothly entering a coordinated turn to the desired angle of bank,
which is generally 30 degrees.
9. Once the bank angle is established, smoothly apply elevator back pressure to enter a
climbing turn and increase engine power to the recommended setting. This will be full power
in most training airplanes, or a reduced climb power setting in high-performance airplanes.
10. As airspeed decreases, right-rudder pressure is progressively increased to ensure that the
airplane remains in coordinated flight.
11. Keep an eye on the visual reference as you approach the 90 degree point. When at this point
begin to slowly roll out of the bank at a constant rate while holding the pitch attitude constant.
12. The maneuver essentially switches from constant bank and increasing pitch, to constant
pitch and changing bank.
13. Continue slowly rolling out of the turn in coordinated flight while maintaining a constant
nose-up pitch attitude.
14. Remember, as the bank angle decreases, the vertical component of lift is increased which,
will require a reduction in elevator back pressure to maintain a constant pitch angle. At
slower airspeeds, opposite aileron may be required as well to counteract overbanking
tendencies.
15. When the airspeed is slowest, near the completion of the chandelle, right rudder pressure
will be greatest. This is even more apparent when rolling out from a left chandelle due to left
adverse yaw and left turning tendencies.
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16. The goal is to reach the 180° point with wings level to the horizon just above stall speed. The
airplane’s pitch high attitude should be held momentarily while avoiding a stall.
17. When ready to recover, reduce the pitch attitude, return to straight-and-level cruise flight and
reduce power as necessary.
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Lazy Eights
Review:
1. The lazy eight flight maneuver is designed to develop proper coordination of the flight
controls across a wide range of airspeeds and attitudes.
2. Before starting the maneuver, select an altitude that will allow the maneuver to be performed
without descending below 1,500 feet AGL. Perform the Pre-maneuver Checklist and clear
the area.
3. Then, select a few prominent reference points along the horizon. The reference points
selected should be at 45°, 90°, and 135° from the direction in which the maneuver is started
for each 180° turn.
4. Lazy eights are flown at a fixed power setting. Set the power to fly straight and level at the
entry airspeed recommended by the airplane manufacturer, which is generally no greater
than maneuvering speed. The power remains constant from that point on.
5. The maneuver is then started from level flight with a gradual climbing turn in the direction of
the first 45° reference point.
6. Continue to slowly increase the bank angle and pitch attitude, to arrive at the 45 degree point
at approximately 15 degrees bank and at the maximum pitch-up attitude for the maneuver.
7. Continue to slowly increase bank angle past the 45 degree point, while relaxing back
pressure to continuously decrease pitch-attitude as you approach the 90 degree point.
8. The airspeed should continue to decrease for the first half of the maneuver and be at
minimum about 5 to 10 knots above stall speed at the 90 degree reference point. Do not
allow the airplane to stall at any time throughout the maneuver.
9. The goal is to arrive at the maximum 30 degrees of bank when at the 90 degree reference
point, with the nose continuing to slowly pitch down as it slices through the horizon. You
should not hesitate or level off when reaching the 90° point and continue right into a
descending turn.
10. Coordinated flight at this point may require the addition of a slight amount of opposite aileron
pressure to prevent the wings from overbanking, while maintaining rudder pressure to cancel
the effects of left turning tendencies.
11. Begin to slowly roll out of the turn by applying opposite aileron. The pitch attitude should
continue to decrease, with the goal of reaching the 135 degree point at the lowest pitch
attitude for the maneuver.
12. Continue the light but deliberate application of aileron to continue rolling out, along with back
elevator pressure, in an effort to reach the 180 degree point in straight and level flight.
13. As the airplane approaches the 180° point, it is necessary to progressively relax rudder and
aileron pressure while simultaneously raising pitch and roll to level flight.
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14. As the rollout is being accomplished, you should note the amount of turn remaining and
adjust the rate of rollout and pitch change so that the wings and nose are level at the original
airspeed and altitude as the 180° point is reached.
15. Upon arriving at the 180° point with wings level, a climbing turn should be started
immediately in the opposite direction toward the preselected reference points to complete the
second half of the lazy eight in the same manner as the first half.
16. The lazy eight requires substantial skill in coordinating the aileron and rudder throughout the
maneuver. As airspeed decreases and power remains high, right rudder must be gradually
increased to counteract yaw in both right and left turns of the lazy eight.
17. When rolling left, little to no right rudder pressure will be required in climbing turns because
P-factor will help cancel the effects of adverse yaw. The lazy eight to the right will likely
require a significant amount of right rudder, especially passing the 90 degree point as the
nose descends through the horizon. To help remember this concept use the pneumonic; right
rudder when rolling right.
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Eights on Pylons
Review:
1. This is a ground reference maneuver which will help you learn how to maneuver the airplane
in a coordinated manner while dividing attention between the flight path and the selected
points on the ground.
2. The maneuver involves varying the aircraft’s altitude in order to maintain a defined visual
reference to preselected reference points on the ground, called pivot points, or pylons.
3. Eights on Pylons rely on adjusting altitude and airspeed in order to maintain a visual
reference line parallel to the airplane’s lateral axis down to the pivot points.
4. During preflight you’ll need to calculate the altitude in which to begin the maneuver, which is
called pivotal altitude.
5. First, determine the maneuvering speed, VA, based on the airplane’s weight for the day.
Then use current weather reports to determine wind speed and direction within 1,000 feet
above the ground. Calculate what the approximate groundspeed will be when flying with a
direct tailwind.
6. Take the calculated groundspeed in knots, square it, and divide by 11.3, to determine the
pivotal altitude in AGL format. The last step is to add the mean sea level altitude for where
you’ll be flying to get the final calculated Pivotal Altitude in MSL, which is the altitude you’ll
use to start the maneuver.
7. Selecting proper pylons on the ground is a key element when performing eights-on-pylons.
They should be sufficiently prominent so the pilot can view them when completing the turns,
while also adequately spaced to provide time for planning the turns.
8. The two pylons should also be at the same elevation, since differences of over few feet
necessitate climbing or descending between each turn.
9. The pylons should also rest along a line perpendicular to the direction of the wind. Since
you’ll be flying the maneuver in close proximity to the ground, identify a field or road nearby
to serve as an emergency landing spot.
10. To begin the maneuver, set up to fly diagonally on a leg crosswind between the pylons to a
point downwind from the first pylon, so that the first turn can be made into the wind.
11. As the airplane approaches a position where the pylon appears to be just ahead of the
wingtip, you should begin the turn by lowering the upwind wing to the point where the visual
reference line aligns with the pylon. The reference line should appear to pivot on the pylon.
12. As the turning airplane heads to the upwind side of the pylon, the groundspeed decreases,
which lowers the pivotal altitude. As a result, the pilot must release back pressure and
descend to hold the visual reference line on the pylon.
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13. The pivotal altitude is critical and changes with variations in groundspeed. A stronger wind
will create a greater shift in groundspeed as you turn from upwind to downwind or vice versa.
This will require more aggressive pitch adjustments to maintain the pivotal altitude.
14. If the visual reference line appears to move ahead of the pylon, the pilot should increase
pitch to increase altitude.
15. If the visual reference line appears to move behind the pylon, the pilot should decrease pitch
to decrease altitude.
16. Do not attempt to use the rudder to yaw the airplane and force the wing and references line
to align with the pylon. The airplane should remain in coordinated flight throughout the
maneuver.
17. As the turn progresses on the upwind side of the pylon, the wind becomes more of a
crosswind. The increasing groundspeed will require you to pitch up and climb to hold the
visual reference line on the pylon.
18. As the airplane turns toward a downwind heading, the pilot should roll out from the turn to
allow the airplane to proceed diagonally to a point tangent on the downwind side of the
second pylon.
19. Wings should remain level when crossing the center position and remain level for three to
five seconds. This is a good indicator that there is the correct amount of distance between
the pylons.
20. Apply proper wind correction to correct for wind drift, so that the airplane arrives at a point
downwind from the second pylon to begin the next turn.
21. At this point, the pilot should begin a turn in the opposite direction by lowering the upwind
wing to the point where the visual reference line aligns with the pylon.
22. As you turn into the wind and groundspeed decreases, you’ll again need to pitch down and
descend to hold the visual reference line on the pylon.
23. As the turn progresses on the upwind side, the increasing groundspeed will require you to
pitch up and climb again to hold the visual reference on the horizon.
24. The maneuver is complete when you are flying on the diagonal again between the two
pylons while departing from the downwind leg.
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Steep Spiral
Review:
1. Finally let’s explore the last new maneuver, steep spirals. The maneuver is flown in a gliding
turn at an idle power setting, with the goal of maintaining a constant radius turn around a
visual reference point on the ground.
2. Steep spirals will help you to develop the skills required to descend rapidly from a high
altitude while accounting for wind drift.
3. While the steep spiral is not considered an emergency maneuver, we’d recommend selecting
an emergency landing site near the reference point while practicing the maneuver.
4. Steep spirals should be started at a high enough altitude so that at least three 360° turns can
be completed. The maneuver should not be allowed to continue below 1,500 feet above
ground level.
5. The steep spiral is started by properly scanning and clearing the airspace for air traffic and
hazards. Next, close the throttle to idle, apply carburetor heat if equipped, and establish the
target gliding speed.
6. This calculated speed will be greater than the regular best glide speed to account for the
additional load factor at the higher bank angles required for the maneuver.
7. Once the proper airspeed is attained, the pitch should be lowered and the airplane rolled to
the desired bank angle when abeam the reference point.
8. The gliding spiral should be a turn of constant radius while maintaining a constant distance
from the reference spot on the ground.
9. This should be accomplished with proper correction for wind drift by steepening the bank on
downwind headings and shallowing the bank on upwind headings.
10. While a minimum bank is not specified for this maneuver, the name “steep” spiral infers that
the bank should reach at least 45 degrees at some point during the maneuver. Stronger wind
conditions will require a steeper bank, but at no point should the bank angle exceed 60°.
11. It’s important to maintain a constant airspeed throughout the maneuver. This will require
continuous pitch corrections since the airspeed will fluctuate as the bank angle is changed
through each turn.
12. To prevent complications while operating the engine at idle for an extended amount of time,
the throttle should be periodically advanced to a higher power setting for a few seconds.
We’d suggest performing this engine check once per turn when heading into the wind.
13. The goal of the Steep Spiral is to execute three turns and roll out towards a visual reference
point on the ground or on a specific heading.
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Slow Flight
Slow flight and stalls are taught to make you familiar with the feel, sight, sounds, and other
perceptions of the reduced margin between flying and stalling, and to develop a conditioned
reflex to take prompt corrective action.
Review:
1. Slow flight will develop your feel for the controls and reinforce the relationships of
airspeed and attitude control.
2. It also helps to familiarize you with the control pressures and techniques needed to fly
the airplane right after takeoff and just before the landing touchdown.
3. To maintain altitude at low airspeeds the angle of attack must be increased. The angle of
attack needed to maintain altitude at speeds near stalling causes a sharp rise in induced
drag.
4. The airspeed which corresponds to the lowest total drag is the airspeed for maximum
endurance. This is the lowest thrust required for level flight and will result in the lowest
fuel consumption and allow flight for the longest time.
5. From this point, to the stall airspeed, is what is called the backside of the power curve or
the region of reversed command.
6. In this configuration, to go slower and maintain altitude, you will have to increase power.
Any decrease in power will result in a loss of altitude.
7. To slow fly the airplane, clear the area, and start reducing power. At the same time,
increase back pressure to maintain your altitude and trim off any pressure.
8. When the airspeed is within 5 knots of the desired slow flight airspeed, increase the
power just enough to maintain altitude.
9. You will have to apply right rudder to maintain coordinated flight because of the effect of
high power, engine torque, P-factor, and the spiraling slipstream.
10. Check the ball frequently as well as the attitude indicator and altimeter.
11. Scan for traffic.
12. Now practice shallow turns during slow flight. Level turns at slow flight airspeed require
adding power to maintain altitude, and pitch must also be changed slightly to maintain
airspeed.
13. Maneuvering during slow flight should be practiced in all flap configurations.
14. Remember, extending the flaps lowers the stalling speed. However, because of the
added drag, power must be increased if you want to maintain altitude.
15. With the slow speed, high drag, and high lift condition of full flaps, there is little power left
to climb.
16. This is the situation when a landing has to be abandoned and a go around started in the
last moments of a landing. The airspeed may be below the no flap stalling speed and
sudden retraction of the flaps may stall the airplane.
17. To recover, full power is used and flaps are slowly retracted one position at a time. As
flaps are retracted back elevator pressure must be used to make up for the loss of lift.
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Power-Off Stalls
Stalls are practiced to enable you to recognize an impending stall and to react in the proper manner.
Review:
1. Practicing stalls will also help you learn the low airspeed flight characteristics of the
airplane, and how to control it at low airspeeds.
2. Part of your practice will include recognizing the first indications of a stall – these are
called imminent stalls.
3. When practicing imminent stalls, the recovery is made at the first indication of a stall.
The airplane is not allowed to become fully stalled. The object of this maneuver is to
avoid a full stall.
4. When doing full stalls, the stall is allowed to progress until full up elevator, buffeting, and
nose down pitching are reached.
5. A secondary stall occurs when the pitch attitude is raised too soon or too high during the
first stall recovery. Recover in the normal way.
6. Stalls are especially dangerous when they occur close to the ground or if the pilot tries to
recover in the wrong way.
7. A wing will always stall at the same angle of attack – this occurs when the angle of
attack reaches approximately 16 to 18 degrees. However, weight, bank angle, power
setting, and load factor may change the speed or the pitch attitude at which the airplane
stalls.
8. To recover from a stall, you must reduce the angle of attack, either by adding power or
sacrificing altitude.
9. Stall recoveries can be made without power, and your instructor will probably have you
do some power-off stall recoveries.
10. Power-off stalls simulate approach and landing conditions. Power-on stalls simulate
takeoff and departure situations.
11. Power-off stalls are normally called approach to landing stalls. They are practiced either
as imminent or full stalls.
12. When practicing stalls, make sure the airplane is of the proper weight, that it is balanced,
and the maneuver is flown at a safe altitude above the ground.
13. If weight is loaded too far forward, the airplane will stall at a higher airspeed; and if
loaded too far aft, stall recovery may be difficult.
14. For the power-off stall, set up the airplane in the approach mode, then start to bring the
nose up slowly until the airplane stalls. Don’t exceed a normal climb attitude. Recover in
the normal way – lower the nose and simultaneously apply full power.
15. Imminent power-off stalls during turns should be made at 20 degrees of bank –
simulating the turn from base to final.
16. During the stall entry, use control pressures as necessary to prevent the bank angle from
changing, keep the ball in the center, and keep the nose from dropping. Then, at the first
sign of the stall, lower the nose, apply power, and level the wings.
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17. The entry procedure for doing full stalls straight ahead with power off is the same as for
the imminent stalls. Usually the best clue that the airplane has stalled occurs when the
elevator control is full back and the nose pitches down.
18. Recovery from the full stall will require a lower pitch attitude in order to avoid a
secondary stall and the altitude loss will be greater. Reduce the angle of attack, add full
power, and maintain directional control using coordinated rudder and aileron pressures.
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Power-On Stalls
Stalls are practiced to enable you to recognize an impending stall and to react in the proper manner.
Review:
1. Power-on stalls simulate takeoff and are entered in the takeoff configuration at takeoff
speed and power. They are done straight ahead and in turns up to a maximum bank
angle of 20 degrees.
2. In the imminent takeoff stall, the speed is reduced to liftoff speed, takeoff or
recommended power is applied, and the pitch attitude is raised to the normal climb
attitude – don’t forget to apply a lot of right rudder to keep the ball centered.
3. Raise the nose above the climb attitude and hold it in this position until the first buffet or
control effectiveness decay is felt. At the first sign of a stall, recover by lowering the pitch
attitude to slightly below level flight.
4. The full takeoff stall is identical to the imminent stall with the exception that the recovery
is delayed until the airplane is fully stalled.
5. Note: during power-on turning stalls to the right, you may find it necessary to use right
rudder to overcome torque and "P" factor, and left aileron to prevent the bank from
increasing.
6. If the turn is perfectly coordinated at the stall, the airplane should not experience any
rolling moment. The nose simply pitches away from the pilot.
7. The main elements that determine the angle of attack of a wing are airspeed, weight,
and load factor.
8. Without an increased load factor, the normal weight of the airplane is 1-G. The
previously discussed stalls were done at 1 G or only slightly more in turning stalls.
9. An increase in weight or an increase in load factor will cause the airplane to stall at a
higher speed.
10. Stalls caused by an increased load factor are called accelerated stalls. They occur
during a steep turn or an abrupt pitch change.
11. With power reduced, the airplane should be slowed to a speed one and one half times
the normal stall speed in straight flight. Then initiate a 45 degree banked turn with back
elevator pressure used to maintain altitude. When the bank is established, back elevator
pressure is briskly increased to bring about the stall.
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Spin Awareness with Patty Wagstaff
We’re going to take a Closer Look at spin training and spin recovery techniques with aerobatic
instructor and airshow performer Patty Wagstaff.
Review:
1. Under current FAA regulations, spin training is only required for CFI candidates.
2. If the airplane was uncoordinated as the stall occurred and incorrect control inputs were
applied, a wing could drop and the airplane will enter the early phases of a spin.
3. Regardless of whether intentionally or unintentionally entered, a spin requires two
aerodynamic forces to be present: yaw and wing stall.
4. The spin is the result of an uncoordinated stall, with the wings generating unequal lift and
drag while being subjected to continuous yaw resulting in an autorotation around the vertical
axis.
5. There are four phases of a spin: entry, incipient, developed, and recovery.
6. During the entry phase the pilot intentionally or accidentally provides the necessary elements
for the spin.
7. You’ve now entered the incipient phase when the airplane stalls and starts rotating, up until
the point when the spin has fully developed. This may be in as little at one half a turn. The
incipient phase is complete once yaw and roll have been coupled together and autorotation
has begun.
8. The developed phase then continues with the airplane’s rotation, airspeed, and vertical
speed stabilized in a flightpath that is nearly vertical. In the developed phase, aerodynamic
forces are in balance, and the airplane’s attitude, angles, and motion around the vertical axis
are constant.
9. To recover, the pilot must apply control inputs to disrupt the spin equilibrium by stopping the
rotation and “unstalling” the wing.
10. PARE is an acronym developed by Rich Stowell for the standard spin recovery technique
applicable to many types of aircraft.
11. PARE stands for: Power – Idle. Ailerons – Neutral. Rudder – Full opposite to the spin and
held in that position. Elevator – Neutral. When Rotation stops: Rudder – Neutral. Elevator –
Pull and climb back to straight and level flight.
12. The correct place to look to observe the direction of yaw is down the nose of the aircraft.
Looking out to the side can cause disorientation. Focus on the nose and the direction of yaw.
13. If you add back elevator before opposite rudder during the spin recovery, you will delay the
recovery by accelerating the spin.
14. Remember, always add rudder first, followed by a neutral or slightly forward elevator in order
to decrease the angle of attack and break the stall.
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Takeoff and Landing Variations
In this section we will discuss the various types of takeoffs and landings you will learn, as well as the
techniques to do them successfully.
Review:
1. We always try to land into the wind. A headwind generates airspeed and shortens the ground
roll.
2. To takeoff in a crosswind, line up on the runway as usual, place the upwind aileron in the full
up position, and use rudder to keep the airplane rolling straight down the runway.
3. As speed increases and the ailerons become effective, reduce some of the aileron held into
the wind.
4. The airplane’s area behind the main landing gear presents a wide surface to the wind and
will cause the airplane to turn into the wind – just like a weathervane.
5. Keep the airplane on the runway until reaching a higher than normal takeoff speed, then
smoothly but firmly apply elevator back pressure.
6. Don’t force the airplane into the air prematurely.
7. Immediately after takeoff, keep the airplane in a sideslip. In other words, keep the upwind
wing down using rudder to keep the airplane lined up with the runway. This will counteract
the drifting effect of the crosswind.
8. When the airplane is well above the runway, the wings should be leveled and a crab
established to keep the airplane on the extended centerline of the runway.
9. To make a crosswind landing, use the appropriate flap settings for your airplane on
downwind, base, and final.
10. On final approach, the crosswind will drift the airplane toward the downwind side. There are
two ways to correct for this drift – a sideslip or a crab.
11. While the sideslip presents a little more challenge, there is less chance of landing with a side
load on the gear.
12. On final approach, the upwind wing is lowered and opposite rudder is used to keep the
longitudinal axis of the airplane aligned with the runway.
13. The sideslip is correct when the airplane stays on the extended center line of the runway and
pointed straight down the runway. You adjust bank and rudder to keep it there.
14. If you don't have enough rudder to keep the airplane lined up with the runway, the crosswind
is too strong – go elsewhere to land.
15. The slip is used throughout the landing and touchdown will be made on the upwind main
gear.
16. When you have learned to control drift with the sideslip, a combination of the crab and
sideslip may be used.
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17. Crab the airplane on final approach to stay on the extended centerline of the runway, then,
change the crab to a sideslip before touchdown.
18. It’s important to learn how to land without the use of flaps – for example, if you encounter a
strong wind situation or a flap lowering problem.
19. Fly the pattern as before. On final, without flaps, the stalling speed will be higher and the
descent angle will be flatter, so you need a faster approach speed. You can also expect a
longer landing roll.
20. If you are too high, rather than use flaps, use a forward slip. In a forward slip the airplane is
pointed at an angle to its flight path. This is unlike in the sideslip in which the airplane is
pointed down the runway.
21. The forward slip turns the airplane's fuselage into the relative wind, creating a high drag,
which produces a high rate of descent.
22. Lower a wing to one side or the other, yaw the nose of the airplane in the opposite direction
through the use of opposite rudder. Raise the nose a little to control airspeed. Close to the
ground, level the wings and head the airplane down the runway.
23. If there is a crosswind you will have to transition into a sideslip before your wheels
touchdown.
24. If you are low on final approach, apply power and raise the nose to increase lift and stop the
descent. When back on the proper approach path, set up the necessary attitude and adjust
power to hold it.
25. If you get too slow on the approach, add power to increase lift and reduce the sink rate.
26. If the landing is in doubt, go around for another approach.
27. To go around, add full power, change the airplane's pitch attitude to slow or stop the rate of
descent, and retract the flaps per manufacturer’s guidelines.
28. If you retract the flaps suddenly at low airspeed, you might lose so much lift that you would
settle onto the ground.
29. Usually, it's best to raise the flaps slowly in small increments to allow time for the airplane to
accelerate as the flaps are being retracted.
30. If you round-out too high, stop the round-out by slightly releasing elevator back pressure and
hold the pitch attitude constant. Then, let the airplane slow to the point where it begins to
descend. You might also have to add some power to keep from losing lift and airspeed too
rapidly. Now, set up the proper attitude and land.
31. If you make a late or rapid round-out, you run the risk of an accelerated stall and a hard
landing. In this situation, promptly add power and land normally if enough runway is left. If
not, go around.
32. If you are too high and fast, don’t dive and try to land the airplane on a specific spot.
Excessive speed will cause you to float.
33. The recovery depends on the amount of altitude, float, and runway length you have. If you
can’t land in the first third of the runway, add power and go around.
34. If you approach with a too high of a sink rate, when the airplane touches down, it will bounce
back into the air. If the bounce is slight, and no big pitch change is needed, correct by adding
19
enough power to cushion the next touchdown and, at the same time, adjust the pitch to the
proper landing attitude. If severe, go around.
35. Landings are not necessarily difficult to learn – they take practice.
20
Max Performance Takeoffs and Landings
In this section we will investigate short-field and soft-field maximum performance takeoff and landing
techniques.
Review:
1. Taking off and climbing from fields where the takeoff area is short or the available takeoff
area is restricted by obstructions requires that the pilot operate the airplane at the limit of its
takeoff performance capabilities.
2. You must learn to control attitude and airspeed so that takeoff and climb performance results
in the shortest ground roll and the steepest angle of climb.
3. To do this, you must be completely knowledgeable regarding the best angle of climb speed
and best rate of climb speed for your airplane.
4. The best angle of climb speed, VX, is the speed that produces the greatest gain in altitude
for a given distance over the ground.
5. The best rate of climb speed, VY, is the speed that produces the greatest gain in altitude per
unit of time.
6. When making a short-field takeoff, start as close to the beginning of the takeoff area as
possible. Set your flaps as recommended by the manufacturer before starting the takeoff roll.
7. After getting lined up, advance up to allowable or maximum takeoff power before you release
the brakes.
8. During the takeoff roll, adjust the airplane's pitch attitude to provide minimum drag – allowing
for the fastest acceleration. As you reach VX, firmly apply back elevator pressure until
airborne and maintain that speed until obstacles have been cleared or until reaching at least
50 feet above the ground.
9. Don't try to pull the airplane off the ground too soon or climb at too steep an angle. This
could cause the airplane to settle back to the runway or into obstacles.
10. Now lower the pitch attitude to attain VY.
11. At a safe maneuvering altitude, slowly retract the flaps.
12. The objective of a soft-field takeoff is to get the airplane flying as soon as possible to
eliminate the retarding force of soft surfaces like mud, sand, high grass, or snow.
13. During a soft-field takeoff, you want to get the airplane's weight carrying capability moved
from the wheels to the wings as soon as possible. You do this by establishing and
maintaining a nose high pitch attitude by use of elevator control as soon as possible during
the takeoff roll.
14. Set your flaps as recommended by the manufacturer prior to starting the takeoff roll. Once
you start to taxi, keep moving so you don't get bogged down in the soft surface. When lined
up for departure, apply takeoff power.
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15. As the airplane accelerates, apply enough back elevator pressure to maintain a positive
angle of attack and keep the weight off the nose wheel.
16. In this attitude the airplane will fly itself off the ground – lifting off and flying at a slower
airspeed than you are accustomed to. This is due to ground effect.
17. Roughly, ground effect extends up to a height above the ground equal to your airplane's
wingspan.
18. Once flying, and while just above the ground, slowly lower the pitch attitude and let the
airplane accelerate to VX if you have to clear obstacles.
19. If no obstacles are in the way, accelerate to VY. Don't attempt to fly out of ground effect
before reaching a safe airspeed. If you do so, the greater induced drag may cause the
airplane to settle back to the ground.
20. Once you have established VY, and reached a safe maneuvering altitude, then slowly raise
the flaps.
21. A short-field approach and landing, especially over obstacles, presents a unique challenge.
22. In a short-field landing, you have to use a low speed, power-on type of approach right to
touchdown, because you must control the rate of descent and airspeed accurately.
23. You do this so you touch down at the slowest airspeed to stop in the shortest possible
distance.
24. The use of full flaps is usually recommended. Adjust the power and pitch attitude to maintain
the manufacturer's recommended approach speed.
25. If you are too high, reduce power and lower the pitch to increase the descent without
increasing airspeed. If too low, increase power and raise the pitch attitude to slow the rate of
descent without lowering airspeed.
26. Don't get too slow. Adding full power and increasing pitch may only increase the rate of
descent. In this case, you are operating on the back side of the power curve.
27. Touchdown in an attitude that will produce a power-off stall when you reduce the power to
idle. Hold the elevator control full back, and firmly apply brakes.
28. In making a soft-field landing, use flaps as recommended by the airplane's manufacturer.
Use the same final approach speed as you did for the short-field landing.
29. After the round-out, fly the airplane just above the surface. Do this as long as practical so
you can be as slow as possible at touchdown.
30. Once down, hold the airplane in a nose high attitude with full back elevator pressure. This is
to help keep the nose-wheel clear of the surface while you slow down. You don't want it to
dig in.
31. Don't use the brakes. In fact, you might have to add power to keep moving and prevent
becoming bogged down.
32. NOTE: When faced with making a short, soft-field takeoff or landing, don't, except under the
most dire emergency situation.
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Power-off Accuracy Approaches
The power off accuracy landing maneuvers will help you develop the judgment and skill to land the
aircraft safely, without power. They are the 90, 180, and 360 degree power off accuracy approaches.
As a note, the 180 degree power off accuracy approach is a necessary maneuver in acquiring the
commercial certificate.
Review:
1. The idea here is to simulate a power off landing while on base – the 90 degree approach,
from downwind – the 180 degree approach, or when over an intended landing spot – the 360
degree approach as might happen if you are forced to land in a field. All three variations are
performed with the engine at idle, gliding towards the runway.
2. To make it more precise, your touchdown must be on a preselected spot or no more than
200 feet beyond that spot.
3. A point to keep in mind during these maneuvers, is to understand that your airspeed is
controlled mostly by pitch. Any speed other than best glide will reduce the glide distance to
the runway.
4. Slight adjustments in your pitch attitude and flap setting will be necessary to control the glide
angle and airspeed.
5. If you find yourself high on the approach with full flaps selected, a forward slip can be used to
increase the descent rate.
6. Determine the best path to the runway. Take into account wind, terrain, obstacles, and the
landing surface.
7. As in flying a normal pattern, make sure your downwind leg is not too far from the runway or
the landing area. Judging the appropriate distance may take some practice.
8. Also, be certain not to overextend the downwind leg, which can happen with a tailwind here.
Better to turn into the landing area a little too soon rather than too late.
9. Turning onto base, judge whether you are in a proper position to land or whether you are
higher than necessary. It is better to be a little too high here than too low.
10. Make sure to occasionally clear the engine on final – you don’t want this practice landing to
become an emergency. On the other hand, don’t use power to extend your glide.
11. As on base, use flaps or slips as necessary to control rate of descent and altitude.
12. Never try to stretch the glide or retract the flaps to reach the desired landing spot. Either
maneuver could cause excessive loss of altitude and cause you to land short of the mark.
13. Finally, don’t force the airplane onto the runway in order to avoid overshooting the
designated landing spot. If your landing is too long, go around and try it again.
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Emergencies
In this section we discuss emergencies. Pilots need to recognize the possibility that emergencies
can occur and be prepared.
Review:
1. The regulations state that in an emergency the pilot may deviate from any rule to the extent
required to meet that emergency.
2. For example, if the engine fails on takeoff, don't turn back to the runway. Your chances of
making a 180 degree turn with a dead engine while in a climbing attitude at a slow airspeed,
are not good. Instead, get the nose down quickly, maintain flying speed, and make the best
landing you can under the circumstances.
3. If you have a partial power failure on takeoff, fly straight ahead and try to gain some altitude.
Keep all turns shallow and gradually turn back to the airport. Once back in the pattern, keep
the power on until you are sure you can land normally.
4. Your instructor will simulate engine failures at cruise altitude. Your first concern should be to
fly the airplane and establish the best glide speed. Look for a suitable landing field. The goal
is to complete a safe landing in the largest and best field available.
5. If you have enough altitude, you can spiral down and try to enter a downwind leg as normal.
If you are lower than 1,000 feet, set up the best approach you can under the circumstances.
6. Follow the emergency landing checklist for your airplane. For example, establish best glide
speed, check that the fuel shutoff valve is ON, set the fuel selector valve on BOTH, turn the
auxiliary fuel pump ON, mixture to RICH if restart has not occurred, ignition switch to BOTH,
or START, if the propeller is stopped.
7. If power is not restored, prepare for a power off landing – seat backs upright, seats and seat
belts secure, mixture idle cutoff, fuel shutoff valve OFF, ignition OFF, flaps as required,
approach speed as required, master switch OFF when landing is assured, and unlatch the
doors prior to touchdown.
8. Once you select a field, try and stick with it and never try to stretch a glide. Discontinue the
exercise when it's apparent you can make the field.
9. Instrument failure is also a cause of emergencies. To simulate an instrument emergency in
the pattern, your instructor may cover the airspeed indicator or altimeter. With the proper
pitch and power combination you can land quite nicely without an airspeed reference.
10. An urgent situation such as an in-flight fire may require the need to execute an emergency
descent.
11. A simulated emergency descent should be made in a turn using a 30 to 45 degree bank to
look for traffic and scan for a suitable landing area.
12. Generally a high drag and high airspeed configuration will be used during the emergency
descent to maximize the rate of descent.
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Collision Avoidance
All pilots must maintain vigilance in order to see and avoid other aircraft. In a "see and be seen"
environment, you should continuously scan all areas of the sky visible from the cockpit for other
aircraft.
Review:
1. Scanning is the technique used to take advantage of the central visual area. It is best
accomplished with a series of short spaced eye movements covering ten degree segments
of the sky.
2. Each segment should be observed for about one second to allow detection of other aircraft.
Many pilots seem to prefer left to right horizontal eye movement for scanning, since the brain
is already trained to process sight information from left to right.
3. For effective scanning, you should develop a pattern that is most comfortable for you. You
also must learn to divide your attention between tasks inside the airplane, and scanning for
other aircraft.
4. Your eyes may require several seconds to refocus on objects in the distance after looking at
the instrument panel.
5. Eyes tend to tire quickly when required to adjust to distances after close up focus. A good
technique to reduce eye fatigue is to start the outside scan by looking at the left wing past
the tip to the center of the first scan area.
6. To offset the reduced visibility during climbs and descents, make gentle banks to the left and
right, so that you can continuously scan the surrounding airspace.
7. Use the horizon as a reference. If another aircraft is above the horizon, it is probably at a
higher altitude. An aircraft below your horizon is probably at a lower altitude.
8. If an aircraft stays in one spot and does not appear to have any relative motion, it is likely on
a collision course.
9. If the other aircraft becomes larger and shows no lateral or vertical motion, take evasive
action. Be especially alert in high air traffic areas such as over radio navigation stations and
in airport traffic patterns.
10. In the practice area, clearing turns should precede all stalls, slow flight, and other training
maneuvers.
11. Don't fixate on an aircraft that is not a factor. Continue scanning! There may be another
aircraft that is a threat.
12. Using exterior lights during the day will make your airplane more conspicuous.
25
Chapter 2 – Weather for Pilots
Atmospheric Stability
Stability is an important concept when applied to the atmosphere. Stable layers of the atmosphere
resist upward and downward displacement of air parcels.
Review:
1. In an unstable atmosphere vertically moving currents of air continue to move upward,

possibly developing into cumulus clouds.
2. Temperature changes caused by expansion or compression are called adiabatic temperature
changes.
3. As a volume of atmosphere expands, there is more distance between molecules, and
therefore fewer collisions. So the temperature is lower. The standard ambient lapse rate is
two degrees Celsius per 1,000 feet of altitude change.
4. The dry adiabatic lapse rate is three degrees Celsius per 1,000 feet.
5. Humid air at the surface is a good indicator of instability and the formation of afternoon
thunderstorms. Whether the atmosphere is stable or unstable is determined by the ambient
lapse rate and the amount of low-level moisture.
6. Clouds are good indicators of stability, but there are more clues you can use. For example, if
the temperature is constant or rises as altitude increases the air is stable.
7. An inversion occurs when temperature rises as you ascend. A telltale sign of an inversion is
an elevated layer of low visibility caused by the trapping of pollutants and other airborne
particles in the stable layer.
8. If the temperature decrease approaches 3 degrees Celsius for every 1,000 feet of ascent,
suspect unstable conditions especially if the air near the ground is moist.
9. When stable air crosses a mountain barrier, flying is relatively smooth on the windward side
and standing lenticular clouds may form.
10. Always anticipate mountain wave turbulence when stable air is blown by strong winds of 40
knots or greater across mountain ridges.
11. Another cause of turbulence is wind shear which is the change of wind direction, wind speed,
or both. Low-level wind shear is always present in thunderstorms.
12. Wind shear can lead to a stall – especially dangerous near the ground.
13. The low-level inversion may also be a wind shear zone – found just above the inversion.
14. Thunderstorms always have wind shear in and around them. Gusts in all thunderstorms can
cause stalls and the downbursts associated with thunderstorms can be a deadly hazard to
aviation.
15. All fronts are accompanied by a change in wind. Winds ahead of a cold front are usually from
the south through southwest and behind the cold front blow from west through north.
16. Ahead of a warm front the wind is from the east through southeast and after warm frontal
passage the winds blow from the south through the southwest.
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17. Icing is another major weather hazard to aviation. Icing occurs when flying through visible
water such as a cloud or rain and the temperature where the water strikes the aircraft is
freezing or below.
18. Freezing rain will cause the most rapid and severe ice accumulation.
19. Frost can occur in clear air whenever the dew point temperature is freezing or below and the
temperature of the airplane is equal to, or lower than, the dew point. Frost causes airflow
separation reducing lift.
20. Never attempt takeoff with frost on the airplane.
27
Air Masses and Fronts
In this section, we'll take a look inside air masses and see what happens to the weather when two air
masses meet. This knowledge is important for your planning and flying safety.
Review:
1. Air masses are defined as large bodies of air in which the temperature and humidity are fairly
uniform. Air masses are created whenever a large body of air approaches and remains at a
source region.
2. An air mass is created whenever air remains in a region long enough to acquire the
temperature and moisture characteristics of the surface.
3. When conflicting air masses meet, the differences of temperature and moisture are greatest
at the ground and at lower altitudes. The weather which results from this conflict is also most
intense at lower altitudes and tends to diminish higher up.
4. The best source regions are large snow and ice covered Polar Regions, cold northern
oceans, tropical oceans, and large desert areas.
5. Air masses are identified using three letters. The first lower case letter identifies the surface
of the source region, C for continental and M for maritime or a water surface. Source region
is indicated by an upper case letter, P for polar, A for arctic, T for tropical and E for
equatorial.
6. The last letter is lowercase, W for an air mass warmer and K for an air mass colder than the
surface over which it is moving.
7. A W air mass is cooled from below which implies stable conditions with smooth flying, stratus
clouds, fog, and poor visibility. Precipitation, if any, would be widespread drizzle and rain.
8. The K air mass indicates heating air from below and therefore unstable conditions. With
unstable conditions pilots can expect rough air to 10,000 feet or so, cumuliform clouds, and if
there is precipitation, it is localized or showery.
9. The zone between contrasting air masses is called a front. All fronts are in troughs which
extend from lows.
10. Air masses are highs meaning the air pressure within the air mass is higher than the
surrounding atmospheric pressure. The lowest pressure in each air mass is found at the
boundary between them – the front.
11. The position of a front aloft is just as important as its surface position. A frontal slope can be
as steep as 1 to 50 and as shallow as 1 to 300. An airplane 1 mile above the surface could
cross the frontal zone in as little as fifty miles from the surface position, or may have to fly as
many as 300 miles beyond the surface position of the front.
12. When moving across a front, the change of temperature, wind, and humidity may be quite
abrupt or very gradual depending on the properties of each air mass. Winds always change
direction when you cross a front.
28
13. Air should flow directly from high to low pressure, down the pressure gradient, but air flow is
modified by the Coriolis Effect which is caused by the earth's rotation.
14. The wind is deflected to the right in the northern hemisphere. Around a low, the flow is
counter clockwise or cyclonic. Flow around a high is clockwise or anticyclonic.
15. When crossing the front the change in wind direction calls for a heading change to the right
in order to maintain course. A heading change to the right is needed when crossing any front
in any direction.
16. There is a difference in the rate of pressure change across a front. Make sure to keep your
altimeter settings current.
17. The kind of weather you'll encounter in a front depends on the moisture available, stability of
the air that is being lifted, speed of movement, frontal slope, and upper wind flow.
18. Fronts can be classified as cold, warm, stationary, and occluded.
19. When cold air advances and replaces warmer air the leading edge of the cold air is called a
cold front. The chart symbol for the cold front is a line with triangles pointing in the direction
of movement.
20. Cold fronts typically move toward the southeast at speeds of 25 to 30 knots. They frequently
produce thunderstorms at the surface position of the front and lines of thunderstorms, called
squall lines, a hundred miles or so ahead of the front.
21. If warm air is advancing, replacing colder air, the leading edge of the warm air is called a
warm front. Warm fronts are charted as half circles on a line pointing in the direction of
movement.
22. Because warm fronts have a shallower slope, warm frontal weather is usually found over a
much wider band than cold front weather.
23. If the warm air is unstable there may be thunderstorms embedded in the massive layers of
stratus clouds.
24. If a front is not moving it's called a stationary front. The cold and warm front symbols are
alternated to indicate a stationary front – pointing in opposite directions.
25. Low ceilings, visibilities, and the weather associated with the stationary front may affect an
area for several days.
26. An occluded front is symbolized by warm and cold front symbols on the same side of the line
indicating the direction of movement. It's long lived and can cause violent weather. The warm
front moving northward is followed by a cold front which moves faster catching up with the
warm front – pushing air upward which tends to build towering cumulus clouds.
27. Weather associated with the occluded front is a combination of warm and cold front weather.
The worst weather associated with an occlusion is normally in the northeast portion of the
occlusion.
28. Occasionally a non frontal low forms just downwind of mountain ranges and can be quite a
weather maker. Upslope winds from across the plains can lead to low ceilings and visibilities,
drizzle, fog, snow, and ice.
29. Be wary of the lee-slopes low. Rapidly changing weather can cause a pleasant clear sky
flight to turn into a desperate search for the nearest airport, especially in winter.
29
30. Squall lines are lines of thunderstorms that form along lines of instability. While not directly
associated with fronts, squall lines tend to form 50 to 100 miles ahead of and parallel to a
cold front. Squall lines are indicated on a weather map by a line drawn with two dots
alternating with a long dash.
31. Frontal weather can change very rapidly. The cold front which only has cloudiness in the
morning may have a strong squall line forecast for the afternoon. The warm front which
causes partly cloudy skies in the afternoon may bring fog, drizzle, and low clouds by nightfall.
30
Fog and Atmospheric Pressure
In this section we begin the study of weather. As a pilot you must learn to recognize, respect, and
refrain from flying near marginal or hazardous weather.
Review:
1. Weather occurring on the ground may not be what's happening higher up.
2. The earth has an atmosphere around it. The first layer of the atmosphere is the troposphere,
extending from the surface to approximately 40,000 feet. At the top of the troposphere, the
tropopause marks the boundary between the troposphere and the stratosphere.
3. In an inversion, the temperature increases with altitude and results in a stable atmosphere.
Inversions cause low visibilities by trapping fog, smoke, dust, and other pollutants close to
the surface.
4. Two moisture related weather conditions are fog and thunderstorms.
5. Evaporation, condensation, sublimation, deposition, freezing, or melting change water from
vapor to liquid to ice or back the other way.
6. Condensation is the process which makes invisible water vapor appear as clouds or liquid
drops.
7. The amount of water vapor in the air is largely dependent upon the air's temperature. Cold
air contains less water vapor, warm air more.
8. Relative humidity is the relationship between the amount of water vapor in the air in
comparison to the maximum amount that could exist at that temperature.
9. The temperature at which relative humidity reaches one hundred percent is called the dew
point. At the dew point, air becomes saturated with water vapor.
10. If the temperature and dew point get within three degrees or less of each other, clouds or
fog, may form.
11. Fog is formed by either the addition of moisture to the air, or cooling the air to the dew point,
or a combination of the two working together.
12. Radiation fog, called ground fog, forms on a clear, cold night when the surface of the earth is
cooled by radiation until the temperature of the air near the surface is below initial dew point.
Cooling of the air causes fog to form. Light winds deepen the fog while stronger winds tend
to disperse it.
13. Advection fog, sometimes called sea fog, occurs mostly along coasts and is caused by wind
transporting warm moist air to a colder surface. Winter advection fog, caused by strong
southerly winds off the Gulf of Mexico, may cover the eastern U.S – as far north as the Great
Lakes. Light to moderate winds deepen the fog while strong winds lift the fog forming low
stratus clouds.
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14. Upslope fog is caused by wind forcing moist stable air up a sloping land surface. Moist
unstable air forced upward by mountain lift, called orographic lift, will form cumulus clouds
instead of fog.
15. Precipitation induced fog is caused by the evaporation of rain or drizzle. It can form rapidly
over a large area and persist for an extended period.
16. Ice fog forms in conditions similar to the conditions favorable for radiation fog, with the
difference being that extremely cold temperatures exist.
17. Calm or light winds are favorable for fog formation. Higher wind speeds tend to mix the air
and prevent its cooling to the dew point. Fog is apt to form when the temperature-dew point
spread is small. Dense fog is more likely in urban industrial areas than in rural areas since
condensation nuclei are typically more abundant there. Finally, be alert for cooling
processes, such as onshore winds at night, radiational cooling of land during clear nights, or
upslope winds.
18. Atmospheric pressure systems are called highs and lows. You can liken a high to a hill of
pressure, while a low is considered to be a valley of pressure.
19. At sea level on an average day, the atmosphere exerts a force of 14.7 pounds per square
inch. At 18,000 feet, the pressure is approximately one half, or 7.32 pounds per square inch.
20. The term standard day is defined as one in which the temperature is 59 degrees Fahrenheit
and the atmospheric pressure, at sea level, is 29.92 inches of mercury. From there,
temperature and pressure decrease at a standard rate as you go upward in the atmosphere.
21. The altimeter measures the change in atmospheric pressure and reads it out in feet of
altitude. Atmospheric pressure drops approximately 1 inch of mercury for every 1,000 feet of
altitude below 10,000 feet. Therefore, it's important to reset the altimeter periodically as you
fly to keep it accurate.
22. Temperature affects the altimeter because the atmosphere expands and contracts with
changes in temperature. Cold temperatures make the atmosphere contract. Remember,
"High temperatures to low, look out below." Look out below because the aircraft is lower than
the altimeter indicates.
23. The reverse of high to low is also true. If you fly from a low pressure to a high pressure area
without resetting the altimeter, you will have the aircraft higher than the altimeter indicates.
24. Flying from cold to high temperatures will also put the aircraft higher than the altimeter
indicates. Remember, "Low temperature to high, look to the sky".
32
Cloud Formations
All changes in weather are due to variations in solar energy received by the different regions on
Earth.
Review:
1. The amount of solar radiation received depends upon time of day. It will vary for any
particular spot with season, and for the globe as a whole with latitude.
2. Variations in solar radiation create differences in temperature which, in turn, create areas of
high and low atmospheric pressure.
3. During the day the heat received is greater than the heat that's lost in the form of terrestrial
radiation. At night the situation is reversed.
4. Often, fog forms just after sunrise, as the coldest temperature is approached.
5. During the afternoon, the maximum daily temperature occurs several hours after the sun is
directly overhead.
6. Seasonal variations of solar radiation occur because the axis of earth tilts to the plane of
Earth's orbit around the sun and the axis always points in the same direction.
7. For example, during June, July, and August the sun is higher in the sky in the northern
hemisphere making it warmer than the southern hemisphere due to the more intense
sunshine.
8. There is a temperature gradient from warm equator to cold poles which drives the weather
machine.
9. Because water has a tremendous capacity to absorb heat, large water bodies heat and cool
more slowly than the adjacent land areas. As a result, temperature variations near the water
are much smaller than temperature variations further inland.
10. A light colored surface will reflect a large portion of the solar radiation. A dark surface will
absorb most of it.
11. There are two basic cloud forms – cumulus and stratus.
12. Cumulus clouds have some vertical development, and result from rising currents of air. They
represent unstable, but not necessarily bad flying weather.
13. Stratus clouds form in horizontal layers. They result from the cooling of a stable layer. Stratus
clouds represent stable flying, but not necessarily good flying conditions.
14. Clouds are also classified into four families according to their altitude – low clouds, middle
clouds, high clouds, and clouds that develop vertically and may span all three levels.
15. High clouds are called cirrus and are almost entirely ice crystals. Their bases range in
altitude from about 16,500 to 45,000 feet.
16. Cirrocumulus clouds are high clouds formed by rising currents of air that cool as they rise.
They look like puffy patches.
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17. Cirrostratus clouds indicate a high-level stable layer that was cooled enough for clouds to
form. Cirrostratus look like a uniform layer high in the sky.
18. Middle-level cloud bases extend from 6,500 to about 23,000 feet and are more frequently
made of water than ice crystals.
19. Middle-level clouds are named using the prefix alto.
20. Altocumulus clouds are cumuliform clouds, indicating rising air currents and an unstable
layer.
21. Alto-stratus clouds are stratiform clouds indicating the cooling of a stable layer.
22. Stratus clouds, producing precipitation, are called nimbostratus. They have a high water
content and may be thousands of feet thick.
23. Low-level cloud bases extend from the surface to about 6,500 feet. Low-level clouds are
mostly water but may contain super cooled water drops which cause aircraft structural icing.
24. Low-level clouds include stratus – layered clouds indicating a cooled stable layer at
low-levels, and cumulus, indicating low-level vertical currents. A third type is stratocumulus –
part cumulus and part stratus.
25. Vertically developed clouds, the fourth family, indicate increased instability in the
atmosphere. The extensive vertical development shows rising currents are penetrating high
into the atmosphere.
26. Towering cumulus and cumulonimbus, the thunderstorm cloud, indicate turbulence, wind
shear, lightning, and possibly hail, and are quite an aviation hazard.
27. Towering cumulus are tall cumulus clouds that may have enough energy to grow into
cumulonimbus.
28. Cumulonimbus may extend to an altitude of 60,000 feet or higher. These powerful storms are
an extreme aviation hazard and must be avoided.
34
Weather Depiction and Radar
In this section we will discuss weather forecast maps and radar imagery how to properly interpret
radar pictures.
Review:
1. Reports are conditions in the atmosphere observed at a specific time. Always take into
account the time the observation was made because weather changes.
2. The weather depiction chart gives a big picture overview of weather conditions. It shows
areas of adverse weather, areas of good weather, and the fronts associated with the
weather.
3. Areas where the weather conditions were reported as instrument flight rules (IFR) are shown
by shading inside the contours. This occurs whenever the ceiling is less than 1000 feet
and/or the surface visibility is less than 3 statute miles or both. Marginal visual flight rules
(MVFR) is shown in areas without shading. VFR exists anywhere outside the contours.
4. The ceiling is always the lowest layer of clouds that covers more than half of the sky. If there
is a ceiling, at least 3 quarters of the station circle is filled in. For more on the weather
depiction chart, review the symbology of a station model.
5. The weather depiction chart is issued eight times a day. It is compiled from the hourly
surface aviation weather reports known as METARs.
6. Radars transmit microwave signals into the atmosphere and then listen for return signals, or
echoes.
7. Most providers use the same NEXRAD data and have similar presentations.
8. Each color on the radar map corresponds to a different level of reflectivity. Blue and light
green are light precipitation; yellow and orange are moderate; red is heavy; and magenta is
extreme.
9. The gradient describes how quickly the colors move from green to red. A shallow gradient,
where the distance between light and moderate echoes is large, often indicates a less
severe cell. In contrast, a steep gradient, where the echoes quickly go from green to yellow
to red, means a serious storm is developing.
10. Typically, higher echo tops correspond to convective weather and strong updrafts.
11. Cell movement is a useful guide to how a weather system or thunderstorm is developing.
One way to view cell movement is to animate the radar image, which will show the last 5-10
radar images in order.
35
METARs
In this section we will discuss METARs, which are routine reports of weather conditions at hundreds
of airports.
Review:
1. METARs are based on international meteorological standards, but modified for the USA.
Some of the abbreviations used are from French words, so the meanings may not be
intuitive for English speakers.
2. A variation of a METAR is called a "speci," short for special. A speci is issued when
conditions change significantly before the next routine report.
3. The distance from the airport a METAR covers is obviously limited by the visibility at the
surface.
4. The information is presented in a set sequence. It is easy to get started by remembering
where, when, and wind; always the first three pieces of information in a METAR.
5. Beyond statute mile visibilities, the visibility for a specific runway may be given as a runway
visual range in feet. RVRs are measured by sensors located near the runway and are of
interest to instrument operations.
6. Four letter identifiers outside the continental United States will begin with letters other than
‘K’, such as ‘M’ in Mexico, and ‘C’ in Canada, Toronto for example.
7. Some modifiers to a METAR may follow the time/date group. If you see COR following the
time/date group, it means this is a correction to an observation.
8. The remarks section may note the type of automated observation sensor used. An AO1 type
sensor, cannot discriminate between freezing and non-freezing precipitation. An AO2 type
sensor can discriminate.
9. Five zeroes are used to report calm winds. The plus sign in front of a precipitation
contraction means that it's heavy. A minus sign would indicate light. No sign means
moderate.
10. Remarks may contain information regarding when a thunderstorm began or ended or when
some other weather phenomenon occurred.
11. The letter "V" separating two values is used when the indicated condition varies.
12. VRB is used when the wind direction is variable and less than six knots. The theory is the
direction is not as significant when the wind is less than six knots.
13. One important note about METARs - when data is missing, it is simply omitted from the
report. Two exceptions to this are remarks used when runway visual range or sea level
pressure are usually reported but not currently available.
36
Terminal Aerodrome Forecast (TAF)
In this section we will discuss weather forecasts. For an in-depth discussion of each, review their
specific symbology and abbreviations.
Review:
1. In general, a short range forecast is more accurate than a long range forecast. A newer
forecast is more accurate than an older forecast. A forecast of good weather, generally, is
more accurate than a forecast of bad weather.
2. Pilots must carefully analyze a forecast to make a sound decision. To do this, check the
present weather against the weather that was forecast for the same time period. Be
suspicious of any forecast that varies greatly from the current weather conditions.
3. The area forecast is a prediction of general weather conditions for an area the size of several
states. It's used mostly to check en route weather.
4. At this point in your flight training, the most useful forecast is the Terminal Aerodrome
Forecast (TAF), because it's specific to an airport.
5. TAFs cover wind, visibility, weather phenomena, obstructions to vision, and cloud coverage
expected during specific periods during the day.
6. TAFs are a detailed twenty-four or thirty hour forecast of weather conditions expected to
occur within a five mile radius of a specific airport. TAFs are issued four times daily, 0000z,
0600z, 1200z, and 1800z and amended as necessary.
7. TAFs are written much like the METAR. Review the abbreviations used in the TAF. The TAF
can be obtained in a translated version.
8. If a TAF is issued internationally or by a U-S military base, it may have some differences.
37
Weather Forecasts and PIREPs
In this section, we'll take a look at Prog Charts and PIREPs.
Review:
1. Low-level significant weather prognostic charts (Prog Charts) are general visual weather
forecasts designed for flight planning up to 24,000 feet. They provide a visual depiction of
predicted weather.
2. There are four panels on the Prog Chart. The top panels forecast the weather conditions
between the surface and approximately 24,000 feet. Weather conditions at the surface are
forecast by the bottom charts. The left hand panels are 12 hour progs, and the right hand
panels are 24 hour progs.
3. In general, the 24 hour panels tend to be less reliable than the 12 hour panels. To determine
expected conditions beyond the valid time of the 12 hour prog it is necessary to interpolate
between it and the 24 hour prog.
4. The surface prog outlines areas of forecast precipitation and thunderstorms. A forecast of the
type of precipitation and amount of coverage is also shown.
5. Forecast areas of IFR and marginal VFR are indicated on the top two panels. The bases and
tops of moderate or greater turbulence as well as freezing levels are also shown. The
common standard weather symbols used on the prog are intermittent rain, drizzle, and snow.
6. Review the symbology for the Prog Chart.
7. Practice reading and interpreting both the Prog Chart.
8. Pilot Reports (PIREPs) give recent airborne information about cloud tops, icing, and
turbulence. They are the only means of obtaining certain critical information for briefers and
for forecasters.
9. PIREPs give the location of the report, time, altitude, aircraft type, and weather reported.
10. Depending on the reporting source, the information may or may not be useful. For example:
moderate turbulence reported by a Cessna 172 at 3000 feet would not be of much use to a
747 captain. However, a 172 pilot should be very interested in moderate turbulence reported
by a 747 crew at 3000 feet.
11. Pilots are requested to report anything observed that may be of concern to other pilots.
38
Winds Aloft, AIRMETs and SIGMETs
In this section we will continue our study of the weather, especially how and in what terms it is
presented. For example, is the information you're given in true or magnetic, statute or nautical?
Review:
1. Winds, direction of weather, and weather movement are measured from true north. The
exceptions to this are winds you get over the radio for takeoff or landing, which are given as
"magnetic," as are PIREPs and ASOS, AWOS and ATIS voice messages.
2. Runways are numbered on the basis of magnetic north. This is because the instruments in
your aircraft read magnetic. So, ATIS and ASOS voice broadcasts and telephone messages
give winds relative to magnetic north.
3. But, when sending a METAR on the computer, the ASOS reports the winds relative to true
north not magnetic. A way to remember this is, "If it's in print, it must be true."
4. Visibility is measured in statute miles. But the speed of weather movement and winds are
measured in knots.
5. Temperature, wind direction, and speed are forecast for specific levels.
6. Wind is not forecast for levels which are less than 1,500 feet above a station.
7. Textual radar reports include location, type, and intensity of precipitation. Radar stations
issue text reports at 35 minutes after the hour.
8. Note that textual radar reports do not use standard METAR codes for precipitation type and
intensity.
9. Location of the echoes is described by directions in reference to true north and nautical miles
from the radar.
10. Practice reading and interpreting some Radar Reports.
11. The convective outlooks describe areas in the continental United States where severe
thunderstorms may develop.
12. A convective outlook consists of a map showing where severe weather is expected, plus a
text discussion describing these areas.
13. The day one convective outlook is issued 5 times daily and is valid until 12Z the following
day.
14. Practice reading and interpreting convective outlooks.
15. In-flight advisories are unscheduled forecasts of the development of potentially hazardous
weather. In-flight advisories are available to all users of airspace, but are primarily for aircraft
in flight.
16. ASOS and AWOS broadcasts are indicated by an A in the circle.
17. SIGMETs (significant meteorological information) deal with convective conditions, specifically
thunderstorms.
39
18. Severe weather forecast alerts, indicate that a severe weather watch bulletin is being issued.
Severe weather watch bulletins notify the public of areas of severe thunderstorms or
tornadoes.
19. SIGMETs also advise of weather, other than convective activity, potentially hazardous to all
aircraft – including severe icing, severe or extreme turbulence, dust storms, sandstorms, or
volcanic ash.
20. Practice reading and interpreting SIGMETs.
21. AIRMETs deal with weather that may be hazardous to light aircraft and VFR pilots. They
cover moderate icing, moderate turbulence, sustained surface winds of 30 knots or more,
obscured mountains, and IFR conditions affecting more than half of an area.
40
Graphical Forecast for Aviation
The GFA replaced the text-based Area Forecast and allows pilots to view a wealth of weather
information, from TAFs and METARs to projections of turbulence and icing in a graphical form.
Review:
1. The GFA can be accessed from the Aviation Weather Center website
(www.aviationweather.gov) and is presented on an interactive map.
2. When you first load the GFA, you’ll see TAF information in surface plot map form.
3. Click on one of the reporting points to see the latest METAR, and - if one is produced - the
latest TAF for that site.
4. Select the “CIG/VIS” button you’ll see the option to display a graphical representation of
ceilings, flight categories, and visibilities. The default Flight Categories view provides a big
picture view of VFR and IFR conditions across the U.S., similar to legacy Weather Depiction
chart..
5. Select the “Clouds” button in the upper-level hand corner to review forecast cloud coverage,
tops and bases. Use the “TOPS,” “COV,” or “BASE” buttons in the small menu on the left
side of the map to switch between views.
6. The “PCPN/WX” layer will display weather and hazards for a given time.
7. The TS, or Thunderstorm layer, will display the forecast coverage of convection or
thunderstorms at a given time.
8. The “Winds” layer on the GFA shows winds aloft forecast at various altitudes. You can adjust
the flight level you want to review or display the maximum wind speed sampled across all
altitudes for each point on the map.
9. The “Turb” (or Turbulence) and “Ice” (or icing) layers operate similar to the “Winds” section.
The Turbulence layer is based on the eddy dissipation rate and shows forecast intensity
based on the altitude selected on the left side of the screen.
10. The Graphical Forecasts for Aviation or GFA tool is an excellent source of weather
information during your flight briefing. Make it a point to check it out before each flight to
supplement your self-weather briefings.
41
ForeFlight Weather Imagery
The ForeFlight app is an excellent resource for flight planning and preflight weather, allowing you to
view weather layers directly on the moving map.
Review:
1. For a more comprehensive collection of weather forecast charts and graphics, head over to
the Imagery section of the app. This is the place to find prognostic charts, surface weather
charts, cloud forecasts and much more.
2. By default, most images are for the United States, and come from the Aviation Weather
Center at the National Weather Service.
3. In general, there’s a loose top-to-bottom flow that mirrors the way you plan a flight: start with
big picture weather maps and long range forecasts at the top, then work down toward current
observations that affect smaller areas, like radar and PIREPs. it’s easier to work through
Imagery in a systematic way.
4. First, look at the big picture. Whether you’re flying VFR or IFR, it’s always smart to begin with
a look at the major weather systems.
5. Where are the highs and lows, the cold fronts and warm fronts? Where are these systems
forecast to move? Use the Prog Charts product to answer these questions, and get an
overview of major weather trends.
6. 6 Hr Qty of Precipitation and 12 hour Prob of Precipitation (or PoP) are oddly-named charts,
but they’re really valuable. That’s because, while moisture or precipitation doesn’t
necessarily equate to bad weather, there’s often a correlation.
7. In the winter, areas of precipitation often mean icing aloft; in the fall it might mean IFR
conditions. Get a general sense of where the moisture is and where it’s moving (or not as the
case may be).
8. The other benefit of these precipitation forecasts is that they stretch out far into the future.
Whereas TAFs are fairly near term forecasts, the PoP forecast goes out to 7 days. That’s
valuable if you’re planning the return leg of an out and back trip. Use it to get a general
sense of the long term weather trends.
9. The final piece of the “big picture” briefing is a look at convective hazards, which you can find
in the last three maps in the first section (CONUS weather).
10. Convective hazards can be added to your knowledge of the precipitation areas to determine
whether that precip is just rain or perhaps something a lot more serious.
11. With that background in mind, the graphical aviation forecasts will make a lot more sense.
You’ll find two different types of charts here – cloud and surface forecasts. Both rely on
computer models to generate the data shown on the charts.
12. The Cloud forecast maps graphically depict cloud coverage across the U.S. and includes
AIRMETs for ice and mountain obscurations.
42
13. The surface chart forecasts visibility, surface winds, precipitation and other weather hazards.
14. Next it’s time to consider the full three dimensions of the atmosphere. Specifically, ForeFlight
offers forecasts for three conditions at altitude – winds, icing and turbulence.
15. The winds aloft forecast maps are helpful for choosing the fastest cruise altitude, but they are
also valuable for understanding how the highs and lows are moving.
16. For instrument pilots, the icing forecasts are essential maps. You can get a detailed look at
potential in-flight icing risks, by both altitude and time.
17. The legends on the icing forecasts explain the colors well, but make sure you know whether
the chart you’re viewing forecasts the probability of icing (that is, how likely it is that icing
conditions exist) or the severity of icing (whether any ice will be light, moderate or severe).
You could be flying in an area where the probability is high but the severity is low - or vice
versa.
18. Comparing different altitudes will tell you which altitudes might be above or below any
potential icing.
19. The turbulence charts can help you find a smooth ride. Like the winds aloft, they are divided
into low-level, mid-level, and high-level sections, with each section showing specific altitudes
and forecasts out to 18 hours.
20. The turbulence charts are further divided by the cause of turbulence: clear air or mountain
wave.
21. Like the icing forecasts, the turbulence maps are model-driven, so back them up with actual
Pilot Reports.
22. All three of the upper level products - winds, turbulence, and icing - make it easy to plan not
only your route, but the right altitude.
23. So far we’ve dealt with mostly forecasts – that is, predictions about what might happen.
These are helpful, especially if your flight isn’t for a few days.
24. As you get closer to your time of departure, you need more real-time, more regional
information – observations instead of forecasts. The three main observations in ForeFlight
are satellite, radar and PIREPs.
25. Remember that, that satellite, radar, and PIREPs can be overlaid on the Maps page.
43
Ice
In this section we take a look at ice and some of the problems it creates for the instrument pilot.
Review:
1. Even with good deicing equipment, wise pilots put every effort into staying out of the ice, or
fleeing if ice is encountered. The technique is to take action at the first sign of ice.
2. Continuing into icing conditions, hoping for improvement, can definitely be hazardous to your
health.
3. Icing occurs when super cooled water droplets are splattered by the airplane. They then
freeze. A super cooled water droplet is one that has been lifted from an above freezing
temperature to a below freezing temperature. There it will remain liquid for a while, until
disturbed.
4. This tells you that the most severe icing will likely be encountered where there is moisture
and where there is lifting.
5. Because the severity of ice is directly related to instability or mechanical lifting, you can draw
one conclusion: If the air is turbulent and ice is encountered, there will likely be a lot of ice.
6. Ice can also be present in smooth stratus clouds. Accumulations would be more gradual
here but could still be substantial and require immediate action.
7. Ice is classified as clear, rime, or mixed. Clear is more likely found in cumulus clouds, very
unstable air, or with strong mechanical lifting over mountains.
8. Rime ice is milky looking, and is created by much smaller super cooled water droplets as
might be found in stratus clouds.
9. Mixed is a combination of the two. Most ice looks at least a little mixed. The exception might
be what is classified as light rime that accumulates slowly in stratus clouds that are five or
ten degrees below freezing.
10. When you are flying in visible moisture and the temperature is low, be alert for the formation
of ice.
11. The one form of precipitation that does create airframe ice, and can coat an airplane quickly,
is freezing rain. This is an absolute hazard.
44
Thunderstorms
In this section we’ll take a look at thunderstorms and why you should avoid them.
Review:
1. A thunderstorm is simply something that can beat you up badly, regardless of the size
airplane you're flying. Given a strong enough storm, the airplane might not be controllable or
might not have the structural strength or performance to make it through the storm.
2. The greatest turbulence is often found around the outside of a storm, where the inflow into
the storm is mixing it up with the outflow from the storm.
3. Usually, the greatest turbulence is found on the front side of the storm, the side on the
direction in which it is moving, as well as the side from which it is being fed moisture.
4. The gust front, where the surface wind freshens and shifts as the effect of the downdraft from
the storm arrives, can extend out as much as 15 or 20 miles in front of a strong storm.
5. The best in-flight aid is the convective SIGMET. These define where thunderstorms are
located and cover tornadoes, lines of thunderstorms, embedded thunderstorms, and the like.
6. If flying in instrument conditions, continuing into an area covered by a convective SIGMET
for embedded thunderstorms would certainly be putting yourself at risk.
7. Embedded thunderstorms are usually found in warm or stationary frontal zones. They lack
the clear definition of squall line or air mass storms.
8. Keeping up with the convective SIGMETs helps on avoidance. So does looking out the
window. Except where thunderstorms are embedded in other clouds, what you see counts
for a great deal.
9. The most common rule of thumb for storm avoidance is five miles except when severe
storms are forecast. Then 20 miles are recommended.
45
Flying with Datalink Weather
Datalink weather has revolutionized how instrument pilots fly, delivering a wide variety of helpful
weather products to both panel-mount and portable avionics. In this section we’ll take a look at some
of the devices that present us with weather information in our cockpit.
Review:
1. While radar and text weather reports can help you make smarter in-flight decisions, these
systems do have limitations.
2. Most importantly, remember that datalink weather is simply a tool to help you make better
decisions. A tablet or a glass cockpit can present a huge amount of information, but it does
not offer a clear go/no-go answer.
3. There are two ways to get datalink weather these days: ADS-B or SiriusXM.
4. They both offer the same key feature, namely the ability to view NEXRAD radar, METARs,
TAFs, pilot reports, and temporary flight restrictions on your tablet, panel-mount GPS, or
glass cockpit.
5. ADS-B relies on a network of ground stations to transmit data up to airplanes. If you’re within
range of a ground station and you have an ADS-B receiver, you’ll get the weather. That
means that both altitude and terrain matter - you likely won’t get ADS-B weather on the
ground or at low altitude in the mountains.
6. The good news is that ADS-B weather does not require a subscription, in contrast to
SiriusXM Weather, which requires a monthly subscription.
7. One of the benefits you get with that subscription is nationwide coverage, even on the
ground. Because SiriusXM uses satellites to continuously broadcast weather data, there are
no limitations with terrain or altitude.
8. ADS-B relies on a network of ground stations to transmit data up to airplanes. If you’re within
range of a ground station and you have an ADS-B receiver, you’ll get the weather.
9. You might notice right that ADS-B uses two different radar resolutions, a medium resolution
regional radar within about 250 miles of your airplane and a lower resolution national radar
beyond that.
10. SiriusXM, on the other hand, uses a single resolution nationwide. The actual resolution of
that radar varies depending on what screen it’s displayed on, but in general it is sharper than
ADS-B. SiriusXM also offers a few additional weather products, like storm cell tops, satellite
imagery, and surface forecasts.
11. Whichever system you fly with, some basic rules apply. This isn’t a definitive guide to
weather flying, but the concepts should guide your decision-making process.
12. Before you look at a radar picture or read a METAR, make sure you understand where the
lows and fronts are, where the weather is moving, and what the upper air analysis looks like.
Then you can fit the datalink weather reports into your mental map of the atmosphere.
13. Next, remember that all datalink weather is delayed. A red cell that appears 30 miles away
on your screen may not actually be 30 miles away. Make it a habit to
46
Turbulence
In this section we’ll take a look at turbulence and why you want to avoid it.
Review:
1. Light turbulence causes slight erratic changes in altitude or attitude. Occupants may feel a
slight strain against belts. Items that aren't secured might move about slightly.
2. In moderate turbulence, there are definite strains against belts and unsecured objects are
dislodged. Moderate chop is defined as rapid bumps or jolts without appreciable altitude or
attitude changes.
3. Severe turbulence causes large, abrupt changes in altitude and/or attitude. It usually causes
large airspeed variations and the aircraft may be out of control momentarily. Occupants are
forced violently against belts and unsecured objects move freely about the cabin.
4. Extreme turbulence is where the aircraft is violently tossed about, is practically impossible to
control, and may be damaged structurally.
5. After thunderstorms, another turbulent place is downwind of mountain ranges when the wind
is strong and perpendicular to the range.
6. Convective turbulence is almost always there during warm days and is most active on warm
summer afternoons when winds are light.
7. The cumulus clouds that form in convective turbulence demand respect because they are
quite turbulent by the time their tops reach 10,000 feet.
8. Most IFR pilots try to avoid all fair weather cumulus, at least to the extent possible.
9. To really understand wind shear turbulence, a pilot has to at least partially immerse himself in
the basic study of weather.
10. Perhaps the occlusion, where a cold front overtakes a warm front because of a strong
circulation around a deepening and slow moving low, creates the greatest atmospheric
confusion and low-level wind shear, and thus the most turbulence.
11. When mechanical or convective turbulence is considered, the faster an airplane encounters
a vertical current, the greater the airplane's reaction to that current.
12. If you are flying at maneuvering speed and you encounter a strong vertical gust, the airplane
would theoretically stall and relieve the loads on the flying surfaces before it would break.
47
Windshear and Microbursts
In this section we will discuss wind shear and microbursts.
Review:
1. Wind shear is defined as a change of wind speed or direction in a very short distance. It can
happen at almost any level anywhere in the atmosphere. The first in-cockpit sign of a wind
shear encounter is a sudden change in indicated airspeed.
2. Low-level wind shear happens in visual as well as instrument weather conditions.
3. As the airplane flies into the low-level wind shear, performance decreases, indicated
airspeed decreases, the airplane pitches nose down and the rate of descent increases.
4. If the pilot fails to add enough power to stabilize the airplane on the glideslope, the result is
going below the glideslope and landing slow, short, and hard.
5. When a tailwind shears to a calm or headwind there is an increase in performance. Indicated
airspeed and pitch increase and the rate of descent decreases.
6. Low-level wind shear can be found in and around thunderstorms, fronts, low-level inversions,
and mountain waves.
7. Low-level wind shear caused by microbursts can happen with any low or mid-level
convective clouds.
8. Microburst winds of 45 knots can produce as much as a 90 knot change, if you fly from a 45
knot headwind to a 45 knot tailwind.
9. At many of the larger airports sensors alert controllers of microbursts, gust fronts, and wind
shear, so that they can warn pilots.
10. The best remedy for low-level wind shear is avoidance.
11. For takeoff with the possibility of wind shear, use the longest suitable runway with maximum
rated power and consider using a higher airspeed for lift-off.
12. Landing precautions include stabilizing the approach as soon as possible, preferably 1,000
feet above the surface. Do not make large power reductions. It’s better to be high and
go-around for another try than to land short of the runway.
48
Satellite Weather Imagery
Whether you fly through them, around them, or just see them, you will likely encounter clouds on
your next flight. Knowing the heights and types of clouds you see will help you make informed
decisions and allow you to avoid threats.
Review:
1. There are three types of satellite imagery: visible imagery, infrared imagery, and water vapor
imagery.
2. Visible satellite imagery is, essentially, a real time view of the Earth from space in the visible
light spectrum. When you’re looking at visible satellite imagery, you’re looking at an image of
brightness temperature. It’s important to note that brightness temperature is not a true
temperature, but more of a measure of brightness received by the satellite’s sensor.
3. Infrared satellite imagery is made using sensors that measure the temperature of targets it
samples. Clouds are typically colder than the earth below them, so infrared imagery is helpful
for not just showing the contrast of the clouds and the Earth but also the contrast between
cloud layers.
4. Water vapor imagery is used to measure the presence and movement of water vapor in the
middle and upper levels of the troposphere, the layer of the atmosphere where weather
occurs and nearly all aircraft are able to fly.
5. Satellite imagery is of great use to a pilot when we remember that supercooled liquid water
layers can cause airframe icing.
6. The sky coverage markers in Foreflight can give you additional insight on cloud cover for a
given area, but it is important to note that surface observations have shortcomings.
7. Surface based weather systems, like AWOSes, only report cloud bases up to 12,000 feet
above ground level, and even observers at major airports will not include clouds 30,000 feet
or more above ground level in METARs.
8. Satellite imagery is another tool in your weather toolbox, but it is best used in combination
with other information, including PIREPs, METARs, radar, and temperatures aloft. Satellite
imagery can help you spot boundaries, fog, vigorous thunderstorms, and the movement of
moisture.
9. It can also help you see where there are elevated threats of icing. Imagery animations will
give you even more insight about the evolution of storms and weather threats.
49
Chapter 3 – Aerodynamics and Performance
Aerodynamics 101
In this section you will investigate the various aspects of the airplane – its controls, and the
aerodynamics that make it fly.
Review:
1. There are four forces that act on an airplane in flight – lift, weight, thrust, and drag. Lift is the
force that acts upward, against gravity. Thrust propels the airplane forward, and drag acts
opposite of thrust.
2. A Swiss mathematician, Daniel Bernoulli, found that, as the speed of the air increases, its
pressure will decrease.
3. The upper surface of a wing is curved and the lower surface is relatively flat. As air flow
meets the wing, the air flowing over the top curve, or camber, increases speed decreasing
the pressure on top of the wing. This decreased pressure is the major source of the lift
needed to make the airplane fly.
4. The front part of a wing is called the leading edge and the back is called the trailing edge. In
cross section, an imaginary line drawn between the leading edge and the trailing edge is
called the wing chord.
5. An airplane has three axis of movement – the longitudinal axis which passes through the
length of the airplane, the lateral axis which passes through the wings, and the vertical axis,
which passes through the body of the airplane perpendicular to the other two axes.
6. To maneuver an airplane you must control its movement around these three axes. This is
done by moving the primary control surfaces – the elevator, ailerons, and rudder.
7. Ailerons control roll, pitch is controlled by the elevator, and the rudder controls yaw.
8. Pulling the yoke back moves the elevator to rotate the airplane around the lateral axis
pitching the nose up. Pushing the yoke forward pitches the nose down.
9. Turning the control yoke moves the ailerons. Turn it right, right aileron is up and the left one
is down, and the airplane banks right. Move the control yoke left and the left aileron is up and
the right one is down, banking the airplane to the left. The bank will normally continue to
increase until the ailerons are returned to the neutral position.
10. Pushing the right rudder pedal moves the rudder to the right and the airplane’s nose yaws to
the right. Push the left rudder, and the nose goes left. Yawing the nose is not necessarily
turning the airplane.
11. In turning flight, the rudder's function is to counteract adverse yaw which occurs when the
airplane is rolled into a turn and when it's rolled back to wings level flight.
12. A trim tab is used to relieve the pressure needed to hold a primary control surface out of the
streamlined position. In many cases, elevator trim can be adjusted in flight. In some
airplanes it can only be adjusted on the ground.
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13. The flaps are the movable panels on the trailing edge of the inboard parts of the wings. Both
flaps are extended and retracted at the same time. Lowering the flaps increases both lift and
drag.
14. Extending the flaps allows the landing approach to be steeper and slower. In some situations
flaps are also used to shorten the takeoff run.
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Angle of Attack
You’ve probably heard that “a wing can be stalled at any airspeed and at any attitude.” While that’s
absolutely true, it’s not very intuitive. In this section, we will take a closer look at the meaning of
angle of attack.
Review:
1. The critical angle of attack remains the same - regardless of airspeed, weight, pitch attitude,
and bank angle.
2. Exceeding the critical angle of attack will cause the wing to stall - every time.
3. In general, keep the airspeed in the green arc and you won’t stall. Put another way, if your
airspeed is high, your angle of attack is probably low.
4. In steeply banked turns or other unusual attitudes, airspeed is not nearly as accurate a
substitute for angle of attack.
5. Maintain an awareness of your angle of attack at all times, and ask yourself if the airplane’s
pitch attitude and flight path are significantly different.
6. Try to fly smoothly. If you avoid aggressive maneuvers and keep the airspeed comfortably
above stall speed, you will most likely fly your entire career without ever getting close to a
stall.
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Basic Aerodynamics
In this section, we will continue our investigation of airplane aerodynamics.
Review:
1. There are two types of drag on an airplane – induced drag and parasite drag.
2. Induced drag is the rearward retarding force caused by the wings creating lift. Parasite drag
is caused by the fuselage and other protrusions disrupting the flow of air. Drag opposes
thrust.
3. If the airplane is in a steady climb or descent, you can further break down the forces of lift,
weight, thrust, and drag into their horizontal and vertical components.
4. If the airspeed is decreasing, the rearward forces are greater than the forward forces.
5. The angle of attack is the angle between the chord of the wing and the relative wind. Simply
stated, angle of attack is the angle between where the wing is pointed and where it's actually
going. Don't confuse the angle of attack with the pitch attitude of the airplane.
6. By changing the angle of attack, you control and change airspeed, lift, and drag.
7. At a low angle of attack, most of the lift is caused by the decrease in pressure above the
wing. As the angle of attack increases, the lift caused by the higher pressure below the wing
increases. Eventually the angle of attack becomes so large that the airflow can't flow over
the top of the wing.
8. When this happens the airfoil has reached the stalling angle of attack, sometimes called the
critical angle of attack or the burble point.
9. The rotary motion of the air which flows from the wingtip is called a wingtip vortex. Wingtip
vortices are a by-product of lift and increase in intensity as lift increases.
10. Vortices are greatest when you have a relatively high angle of attack, for example on takeoff
and landing. They diminish somewhat at cruise speed.
11. A wing’s center of lift can be thought of as the point where all the lift acts. In actual practice,
to determine the center of the wings lifting force, you must also consider the pressures below
the wing.
12. As you increase the angle of attack, airflow separation moves toward the front of the wing.
For example, at minimal controllable airspeed, any increase in angle of attack or load factor,
or any reduction in power, will result in an immediate stall.
13. The turbulent airflow spreads forward and outward from the wing root.
14. As the wing is stalled, lift diminishes rapidly. Air flow is turbulent farther outboard on the wing,
but the wing tips are still providing lift. The ailerons continue to have some effectiveness so
some roll control remains.
15. That the wing stalls progressively from the wing root outward toward the wing tip, is
advantageous.
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16. The stall progresses this way because of modern wing design. For example, the wing is
attached to the fuselage at an angle, called the angle of incidence. Also, the wing is slightly
twisted, called washout. These design characteristics allows the outboard portion of the wing
to have a lower angle of attack while the inboard part of the wing is at the stalling angle of
attack.
17. An airplane tends to turn left when using high power at low speeds. Viewed from the pilot's
seat, the crankshaft and propeller on American made engines turn clockwise.
18. Engine torque, the tendency of the airplane to turn opposite the propeller rotation, spiraling
slipstream, gyroscopic precession, and asymmetrical propeller loading all contribute to make
the airplane turn left.
19. The spiraling slipstream or corkscrew effect is caused by high propeller speed and is most
pronounced at low forward speeds. The propeller rotation causes the slipstream to rotate
clockwise around the fuselage striking the vertical stabilizer on the left side making the nose
yaw to the left.
20. The propeller acts like a gyroscope in that a force applied to the propeller becomes apparent
ninety degrees from the point where it was applied.
21. P-factor, asymmetric propeller loading, occurs when you fly the airplane at a high angle of
attack. The descending blade has a higher angle of attack and therefore much higher thrust
than the ascending blade on the left, causing the airplane to yaw to the left.
22. Modern airplanes are designed to correct for the left turning tendency at cruise speed and
power. At high speed and low power, such as in a descent, you may have to correct with left
rudder to prevent yawing to the right.
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Drag
Aerodynamics is the branch of mechanics dealing with forces exerted by air in motion. In this section
we will investigate drag – one of the four forces acting on an airplane.
Review:
1. Drag is produced by moving the airplane through the air, and is considered to act parallel to
the relative wind and rearward. Drag has two components, induced drag and parasite drag.
2. Induced drag is caused by generating lift, and parasite drag is caused by the airplane's
movement through the air.
3. At relatively low subsonic speeds, form drag increases approximately as the square of the
speed. If airspeed is doubled, and other factors are not changed, the form drag quadruples.
4. Skin friction drag can be somewhat reduced by flush riveting, smooth paint, and waxing.
5. Another part of parasite drag is interference drag caused by the intersection of different parts
of the airplane, especially the wings and the fuselage.
6. Induced drag is a byproduct of lift.
7. The wingtip vortex consists of an upward flow beyond the wingtip, and a downwash behind
the trailing edge of the wing. This induced downwash is the source of induced drag and is
not the same as the downwash needed to produce lift.
8. Induced drag becomes larger as the angle of attack is increased.
9. A way to minimize induced drag is to make the wings longer, like on a sailplane. Airplane
designers call the ratio of the wing chord to wing length aspect ratio.
10. As one of the four forces acting on an airplane, drag is an important factor not only for speed,
but also for fuel consumption, landing distance, and takeoff performance.
11. Flaps, and forward slips, cause a great amount of drag.
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Thrust, Stability and Center of Gravity
In this section, we investigate thrust, stability of the airplane, and its center of gravity.
Review:
1. Thrust is a force just as lift, drag, and weight are forces. The strength of a force is measured
in pounds. A force applied over a distance, is called work. The amount of work performed
over a period of time is called power.
2. Thrust is greatest as the airplane starts moving and reduces as it accelerates until thrust is
equal to drag and airspeed becomes steady.
3. In level flight, if thrust exceeds drag, speed will increase. Conversely, speed will decrease if
drag is greater than thrust.
4. Weight opposes lift. The weight of the airplane includes, crew, passengers, fuel, and
baggage. Weight acts at the center of gravity – the point where the airplane would balance.
5. Stability is the quality of an airplane to automatically return to its original flight attitude after
being disturbed by an outside force.
6. Too much stability makes the airplane less maneuverable. Not enough stability makes the
airplane difficult to control. The pilot affects stability by the way the airplane is loaded.
7. The center of gravity of most airplanes is positioned slightly in front of the center of lift,
making the airplane nose heavy. This will help the airplane recover from a stall.
8. To balance the nose heaviness, there is a down force on the tail. This is the result of
propeller slipstream, down wash from the wing, and the angle at which the stabilizer meets
the relative wind. Therefore, lift equals weight in steady unaccelerated flight.
9. Lateral or roll stability is usually achieved by dihedral. Positive dihedral occurs when the wing
tips are somewhat higher than the wing root.
10. In a bank, the lowered wing has a higher angle of attack and produces more lift because of
dihedral. This will return the airplane to a wings level position.
11. Another aspect of weight and balance theory is yaw or vertical axis stability. It's a function of
the side area of the fuselage and the size of the vertical stabilizer.
12. The airplane will yaw around its center of gravity (CG). The side area of the fuselage and
vertical stabilizer is greater aft of the CG, making the airplane weathervane back to its
original direction.
13. An aft center of gravity will reduce the area behind the CG. This makes the airplane
somewhat less directionally stable.
14. Improper loading of the airplane can affect the stability on all three axes, but has the greatest
effect on longitudinal or pitch stability.
15. The CG must fall within a certain range. On the Skyhawk for example, at maximum weight,
this allowable range is 7.4 inches. Passengers, baggage, fuel, and other items loaded in the
airplane must be placed to keep it longitudinally balanced within these 7.4 inches.
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16. If the loaded center of gravity is aft of the allowable range, pitch stability will be reduced.
Elevator control forces become lighter, and the airplane will tend to wander from level flight,
pitching steeper up or down.
17. Loaded this way, if stalled, the airplane would remain in the stalled pitch attitude.
18. Loading the airplane with the center of gravity forward of the allowable range will increase
longitudinal stability, calling for more elevator pressure to make pitch changes. In this
situation, there might not be enough elevator control to flare for landing.
19. A forward CG also results in a higher stall speed and lower performance in all areas.
20. The weight of the airplane must not exceed its maximum allowable weight. This will cause
higher stall speeds, longer takeoff distance, lower rate of climb, and a longer landing roll.
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Load Factor and VG Diagram
In this section we will discuss load factors and how to interpret the VG diagram
Review:
1. First of all we'll look at Newton's first law – a body in motion will continue in motion at the
same speed and direction until an outside force is applied to that body.
2. Any force applied to an airplane, to deflect it from straight flight, will produce a stress on the
airplane's structure.
3. The load factor on any airplane during a constant altitude turn is determined by bank alone
and is the result of centrifugal force and gravity. The load factor is not changed by airspeed
or type of airplane
4. At rest, gravity exerts a force equal to the weight of the airplane. Gravity is expressed in Gs
and on the earth's surface the force on an at-rest airplane is 1G.
5. Aerodynamic stress on the airplane is called load factor. A load factor of two is called two Gs.
6. Tremendous loads can be imposed on an airplane at high speeds, and stalling speed
increases as load factor becomes greater.
7. Airplanes are certified and categorized according to the intended use of the airplane. The
categories we are concerned with are: normal, utility, and acrobatic. Normal category
airplanes are intended for non acrobatic flight, while utility category airplanes may be used
for limited acrobatics.
8. The maneuvering limit load factor for a normal category airplane is 3.8 positive and 1.52
negative Gs, utility category is 4.4 positive and 1.76 negative and acrobatic category, 6
positive and 3 negative.
9. Actually, airplane structures must be capable of sustaining loads one and one half times
these limit load factors to account for unexpected conditions.
10. Bank determines the load factor on any airplane during a constant altitude turn and is the
result of centrifugal force and gravity.
11. A bank of sixty degrees has a load factor of two Gs. You will also weigh twice your weight at
two Gs.
12. As the Gs increase so does stall speed.
13. In a steep bank turn, a reduction in back pressure reduces the load factor, but the airplane
will descend. To reduce the load factor and maintain altitude, reduce the bank.
14. The speed at which an airplane stalls before exceeding the design limit load is called
maneuvering speed. Maneuvering speed changes depending on the weight of the airplane.
15. Maneuvering speed should not be exceeded in rough air or when making full or abrupt
control movements.
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Weight and Balance
In this section we'll come to realize that a lot of the performance and handling characteristics of an
airplane are a function of weight and balance.
Review:
1. In most 4-place or larger airplanes, you can either fill up the fuel tanks, or fill up the seats,
but not both at the same time.
2. A maximum weight limitation is imposed on an airplane for safety. The performance of the
airplane is affected by weight.
3. The weight and balance data is specific to an airplane; it will be in the POH or in the weight
and balance data papers for each airplane.
4. The basic empty weight includes the airframe, engine, all permanently installed equipment or
accessories, unusable fuel, and full engine oil.
5. Full oil is not included in the empty weight of some airplanes.
6. Be sure that the airplane's weight is within limits. Add the weight of the people, useable fuel,
and baggage to the basic empty weight of the airplane.
7. Aviation gasoline weighs six pounds per gallon.
8. The balance part of weight and balance is equally important. The center of gravity, CG, is the
point at which the airplane would balance – just like a teeter-totter.
9. If the CG is too far forward, the elevator may not be able to rotate the nose up high enough
for takeoff, or to keep from hitting on the nose wheel on landing.
10. Getting the CG too far aft is even more critical. The farther aft the CG, the less stable the
airplane becomes in pitch.
11. The datum is a reference point on the airplane from which you measure certain items. For
example, on the 172, the datum is the front face of the firewall, and you measure distance
from that point for balance calculations.
12. This distance is called arm.
13. The effect of a given weight at a certain distance is called moment.
14. Moment is the arm multiplied by the weight, and because it is inches times pounds, moment
is stated in inch-pounds, or pound-inches.
15. The arm and moment of the empty airplane, or sometimes only the moment, is given in the
Pilot's Operating Handbook or the weight and balance papers for the airplane.
16. No matter how the information is presented you must find the total moment for the airplane
as it is loaded.
17. You will want to practice a number of weight and balance problems to become proficient in
these calculations.
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18. In some airplanes, you could takeoff within balance limits, and end up with the center of
gravity outside the limit, simply because of the amount of fuel burned during flight.
19. Some airplanes are certified in both the normal and utility categories, with a wider range of
maneuvers allowed in the utility category.
20. The utility category usually results in a much smaller allowable CG and weight range
because of spin recovery requirements.
21. You can also practice some weight and balance problems using an electronic calculator.
22. Sometimes, at the end of your calculations, the CG is either forward or aft of the CG limit.
23. You will have to move or remove someone or something to bring the CG back in its
envelope.
24. To do this, it's sometimes as easy as eliminating some of the fuel or adjusting the position of
some of the passengers or baggage.
25. Weight and balance is rather simple. Weight times arm equals moment. Total moment
divided by weight equals the center of gravity.
26. Maximum ramp weight may be slightly higher than maximum takeoff weight in order to take
into consideration fuel burned in starting and taxiing.
27. Another weight limitation in some airplanes is maximum landing weight.
28. Useful load is the difference between the maximum ramp or takeoff weight and the empty
weight of the airplane.
29. You'll have a favorite airplane or two that you will fly most often. Their weight and balance
limitations will become familiar to you, so you won't need to recalculate for every trip.
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A Balanced Approach
In this section we'll investigate how some airplanes perform when loaded right up to their aft C.G.
Review:
1. Your calculations have two parts: weight and balance. Many pilots spend a lot of time
thinking about the first part: can I take full fuel? How many passengers can come along
today? What’s my gross weight? Don’t neglect the C.G. calculation. It has a direct impact on
the performance and handling characteristics of your airplane.
2. An airplane is stable when, if it's disturbed in pitch, it'll dampen itself out. Or, when you
reduce the airspeed below the trim airspeed, it'll return to the trim airspeed in a few
oscillations.
3. Some airplanes may be almost unstable if they are loaded right up to the aft CG. Going
beyond it is always a bad idea.
4. Weight and balance limitations on an airplane are absolutes.
5. Once you've figured your weight and balance and there's any doubt at all, readjust some
factor to move the center of gravity more toward the center.
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Performance Charts
Airplane performance can be defined as the capability of an airplane to operate effectively while
serving a specific purpose. Among the elements of performance are takeoff and landing distances,
rate of climb, ceiling, speed, maneuverability, stability, payload, and fuel economy.
Review:
1. Airplanes are designed with specific performance goals. This explains the design differences
among various types of airplanes.
2. The density of the atmosphere has a direct bearing on airplane performance. Airplanes
perform better when the atmosphere is dense.
3. Pressure, temperature, and humidity affect the density of the atmosphere. The atmosphere
is denser when pressure is high with both temperature and humidity are low. Low pressure,
high temperature, and high humidity make the atmosphere less dense.
4. Density altitude is pressure altitude corrected for non-standard temperature. If pressure
altitude and temperature are known, density altitude can be determined by either using a
density altitude chart or an E6B.
5. If an altimeter is available, simply set the barometric scale to 29.92 inches of mercury and
read the pressure altitude.
6. Before trying to use a performance chart or table for the first time, take a minute to acquaint
yourself with it. The density altitude chart has temperature on the horizontal axis – both
Fahrenheit and Celsius. The vertical axis of the graph is labeled density altitude.
7. Close to the top of the chart the lines which slope up from left to right are labeled pressure
altitude. Work a few examples.
8. Standard temperature at sea level is 15 degrees Celsius and the standard lapse rate is about
2 degrees Celsius per thousand feet.
9. Conversion between Fahrenheit and Celsius can be made using the temperature scale.
10. Electronic calculators have a density altitude function that requires pressure altitude input.
This converts indicated altitude to pressure altitude as part of the density altitude function.
11. For actual flight planning, you'll need to use the charts and tables specifically developed for
the airplane you are flying. The data may be in tabular form, graphs, or a combination of
tables and charts.
12. Usually there is a sample problem included. Work this out and others to become familiar with
your aircraft.
13. Takeoff and landing distances are affected by several variables including density altitude,
airplane weight, runway slope, runway condition, and wind.
14. If the wind direction is at an angle to the runway, the amount of the headwind must be
determined using either a graph or aviation calculator. Practice a few examples.
15. Working with a graph is easy as long as you remember to enter at the proper point and
follow the guide lines up or down to reach the variables involved.
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16. A landing distance chart is similar to the takeoff chart in many ways. Practice the sample
problems for each.
17. Before attempting to land at a short strip, check the distance required for takeoff from that
strip.
18. When working these problems, don't forget to apply any notes that are applicable.
19. If the variables don't fit the table you can interpolate.
20. If the conditions of the day make it necessary to calculate the takeoff or landing distance that
precisely, wisdom suggests waiting for more favorable conditions of wind, temperature, and
pressure.
21. Keep condition such as temperatures, altitude, and runway lengths in the back of your mind.
Know those that are close to the edge of your airplane's capabilities. Establish a
conservative envelope for operating the airplane.
22. Finally, consider the variables that are not factored into performance, for example pilot ability
and condition of the airplane.
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When Enough’s Not Enough
The performance numbers we get for airplanes are based on new airplanes flown by professional
test pilots in perfect conditions. There aren't really any margins there. The intelligent use of
performance numbers becomes a matter of you developing your own margins.
Review:
1. There are no discussions of margins nor are there any guidelines in the pilot's operating
handbook regarding them.
2. You have to devise our own minimum margins based on your experience and the type of
airplane you are flying.
3. For example, the required runway length for airliners is based on a calculated speed called.
They must have enough runway to stop at any time before reaching V1.
4. Furthermore, they must have enough performance after the failure of one engine to continue
the takeoff after reaching that speed.
5. This type of reasoning can apply to us as well – we can say that in light airplanes, on takeoff,
we should have enough runway to accelerate to liftoff speed and then be able to stop on the
remaining runway.
6. Some of the distances shown in the handbooks, are pretty much on the short side. Any
adverse factor could add substantially to your takeoff run.
7. You can apply this kind of thinking to landing as well. You want to develop a conservative
margin of safety above what the operating handbook lists.
8. Do the same for fuel range. Rather than consider miles flown till the tanks are dry, think time
of flight. Fuel runs out of the tanks on the basis of time not miles flown.
9. Also, never believe the fuel gauges to determine if you have full fuel – look into each tank. If
the airplane was filled on an unlevel surface, with one wing lower than the other, you might
be short several gallons.
10. If you are sure they are full, subtract some fuel from the listed capacity for taxi, takeoff, and
climb. Then subtract an hours fuel at normal cruise from what is left.
11. You will also want to consider the wind and develop margins to handle it as well. A good way
to think of this is to double the forecast headwind or halve the forecast tailwind in case the
forecast isn't what it was projected to be.
12. Remember, the number one cause of accidents in single-engine airplanes is engine failure.
And the number one cause of engine failure is fuel exhaustion.
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Chapter 4 – Airplane Systems and High-Altitude Flight
Pitot Static System

The pitot-static system drives the airspeed indicator, altimeter, and vertical speed indicator. As a
pilot, it's important to understand how this system works.
Review:
1. The airspeed indicator is an extremely sensitive pressure gauge. It measures the difference
between impact pressure measured at the pitot tube, and static pressure, sampled by the
static source, which is the undisturbed atmospheric pressure.
2. There are three kinds of airspeeds: Indicated Airspeed, the airspeed read directly from the
indicator. Calibrated Airspeed is indicated airspeed corrected for errors. At normal cruise
speeds there usually is very little difference between indicated and calibrated airspeed. True
Airspeed, which corrects calibrated airspeed for variations in air density.
3. As altitude increases, the air density decreases, and the ram or impact pressure in the
airspeed indicator decreases.
4. The airspeed indicator has color markings. The green arc shows the normal operating range.
The low airspeed end of the green arc indicates the stalling speed power off, flaps up, at
maximum certificated weight. The upper limit of the green arc is the maximum structural
cruising speed.
5. The yellow arc represents speeds that should only be flown in smooth air. The red radial line
marks the never exceed speed. The white arc is the full flap operating range, with the upper
limit the maximum speed for full flaps extended. The lower limit is the power off stalling
speed at maximum certificated landing weight with flaps extended.
6. Maneuvering speed is not marked on the airspeed indicator. If rough air or turbulence is
encountered, the airplane should be slowed to maneuvering speed to minimize the stress on
the airplane.
7. The altimeter is an aneroid barometer which measures atmospheric pressure and gives an
altitude indication in feet.
8. Because atmospheric pressure is constantly changing, the altimeter indications will be
correct only if the instrument has been set to the current atmospheric pressure.
9. If the altimeter setting is increased, the altitude indicated will also increase and vice versa.
Changing the altimeter setting one inch of mercury will change the indicated altitude about
1,000 feet.
10. There are different types of altitude. Indicated Altitude is read directly off the altimeter when it
is set to the current altimeter setting. Pressure Altitude is read when the altimeter is set to
29.92. Pressure altitude is used to solve calculator problems of true airspeed and density
altitude. Density Altitude is pressure altitude corrected for non-standard temperature.
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11. If the temperature is warmer than standard, density altitude will be higher than pressure
altitude. Temperatures colder than standard, will make the density altitude lower than
pressure altitude. Density altitude must be known to calculate takeoff, climb, and landing
performance.
12. Absolute altitude is the actual height above the terrain and is constantly changing.
13. True altitude is the true vertical distance above mean sea level. On aeronautical charts, the
airport, terrain, and obstruction heights shown are true altitudes. Unless there is an extreme
variation from standard temperature, indicated altitude is reasonably close to true altitude.
14. The vertical speed indicator works from the static system. It measures the rate of change in
pressure, giving a readout in feet per minute of climb or descent. It has a 6 to 9 second lag in
its indications.
15. If the exterior static source becomes blocked, the pitot-static system can be returned to
operation by selecting the alternate static source, venting the system to the cabin.
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Glass Cockpit Flight Instruments
The most prominent instrument on the PFD is the attitude indicator. it's quite large, easy to interpret,
and rather self explanatory - it does however have a few unique features not found on the analog
equivalent.
Review:
1. The entire PFD background, the earth, horizon, and sky, moves - the yellow airplane symbol
remains stationary.
2. If the pilot becomes too aggressive on the pitch, starting at 50 degrees above and 30
degrees below the horizon, red warning chevrons appear pointing in the direction of the
horizon.
3. If the aircraft's pitch exceeds plus 30 degrees or minus 20 degrees, or when the bank angle
is sixty-five degrees or better, the PFD automatically de-clutters, turning off its less important
data displays.
4. The slip and skid indicator is a small horizontal line located under the triangle roll pointer.
5. The HSI displays a rotating compass card with the usual cardinal points, numeric labels, and
tick marks. it also depicts information common to any other HSI.
6. A large heading box is centered on top of the HSI - allowing for a direct digital readout of
your heading.
7. The selected course appears in a box to the right of the lubber line. it becomes a magenta
color if the navigation source is the GPS, or green if the navigation source originates from
the VOR or localizer receivers.
8. Another feature of the G1000 is a wide magenta line, called a trend vector. it displays the
current turn rate up to 24 degrees per 6 seconds.
9. Just to the left of the attitude indicator and HSI is the airspeed indicator. airspeed is depicted
on a rolling vertical tape rather than a round dial.
10. Another addition is that of v speed reference marks located adjacent to their respective
speeds.
11. Below the airspeed's vertical tape is a true airspeed box.
12. The altimeter is located to the right of the attitude indicator. it's also depicted as a rolling
vertical tape.
13. Besides altitude, the device features a barometric pressure setting box under the tape - set it
using either of the baro knobs.
14. To the right and attached to the altimeter is the vertical speed indicator. it is shown as a
non-moving vertical tape.
15. The active frequency appears on the innermost position of both. the standby frequency on
the outermost position of both
16. When a navigation frequency has been entered, and the facility is in range, the G1000 will
auto-identify the nav facility.
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17. An inset information box can be added to the right lower side of the PFD. it shows alerts,
nearest airports, a timer function, v-speed changes, your flight plan, or DME tuning.
18. A map inset box can be shown on the left lower portion of the PFD. this is an abbreviated
version of your GPS position and associated flight information from the MFD.
19. On the extreme left corner of the PFD there is an outside air temperature box.
20. If a push-to-talk button becomes stuck, the communication transmitter stops transmitting
after 35 seconds of continuous operation.
21. If the G1000 detects a major failure in one of its systems, a large red 'x' appears on the
affected system.
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Airplane Engines
The use of internal combustion engines in aircraft presents a unique problem because fuel will only
burn well when it is mixed with air in the proper proportion.
Review:
1. The ratio of air to fuel is correct at sea level when the mixture control is set to full rich.
2. As an airplane climbs the air becomes less dense but the fuel flow remains the same. The
airplane is receiving less air and the mixture becomes richer, hence the need to lean out the
mixture.
3. A too rich mixture will cause the engine to run rough and lose power. A properly leaned
engine will run more smoothly and efficiently, and not be subjected to spark plug fouling.
4. For the analog gauge equipped Skyhawk, the exhaust gas temperature gauge is used for
leaning at cruise. You will find the peak EGT and use it as a reference. Once peak EGT is
reached, enrich the mixture to reduce the EGT 50 degrees.
5. Any time the throttle position or altitude changes, the mixture will have to be reset.
6. The G1000 displays the temperature for each cylinder. Pressing the engine and lean keys
brings up a bar graph showing the EGT of all the cylinders, with the hottest cylinder colored
cyan. If you press the assist key, then, as you slowly lean the mixture, the peak EGT is
automatically detected and displayed as a hollow bar on the graph.
7. If your airplane doesn’t have an EGT, lean with the mixture control until the engine begins to
run rough, then enrich until the engine runs smooth again.
8. Normally you will use a full rich mixture for take-off and climb. Follow the manufacturer’s
guidelines here.
9. Spark plugs are used in engines to provide an electric arc that will ignite the mixture. To work
properly, its gap must be set accurately. A plug covered with deposits can degrade an
engine’s performance.
10. An excessive mag drop may occur if a plug is fouled.
11. Normal combustion produces a smooth, downward pressure on the piston. However, there
are two problems that can occur to cause abnormal combustion – detonation, and
preignition.
12. Detonation occurs when the fuel and air mixture is subjected to a very high temperature in
the cylinder and the spontaneous combustion point of the mixture is reached. This causes a
sudden explosion which produces extremely high pressure.
13. It’s hard to hear detonation in an aircraft engine due to all the other aircraft noises, but it
shows up as a loss of engine power and overheating.
14. Detonation may be caused by using too low a grade of fuel, climbing at too slow an airspeed,
or using too lean a mixture with a high power setting.
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15. Preignition is the uncontrolled igniting of the fuel and air mixture before the time the spark
plugs are set to fire. When preignition occurs, the piston is still rising to the top of the
cylinder.
16. Preignition exerts a downward force opposite the travel of the piston creating severe
structural stresses on the engine.
17. One of the most reliable indicators of preignition is loss of power.
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Propeller Fuel and Electrical System
In this section we continue a discussion of airplane systems – most specifically, propeller, fuel, and
electrical.
Review:
1. The fuel tanks on present day light training airplanes are located in the wings and are filled
through openings in the top of the wing and covered by caps.
2. Fuel lines carry the fuel from the tanks to the rest of the fuel system. The fuel caps are
vented permitting air to replace the fuel consumed during flight.
3. A fuel vent is located under the wing allowing for expansion of fuel caused by warm
temperature. Some fuel dripping from this vent, with full fuel and hot weather, is normal.
4. Airplanes have fuel drain valves located on the bottom of each wing. This allows you to draw
fuel samples to check for water, sediment, and proper fuel octane – fuel grades are color
coded. Aviation gasoline is colored blue and rated at 100 octane.
5. You'll also find drain valves at the lowest point in the fuel selector, fuel reservoir, and fuel
strainer. Contaminants can accumulate here.
6. Jet fuel is clear or straw colored and smells like kerosene. At some airports, automobile
gasoline called MOGAS is sold for aircraft use. MOGAS can only be used if your airplane is
specifically approved for it.
7. Fuel flows by gravity from the two wing tanks to a selector valve, into a reservoir tank, and
then through the electric auxiliary fuel pump and so forth until it is injected into each cylinder.
8. The electric fuel pump is operated and controlled by the pilot from a switch on the instrument
panel. It is normally used to prime the engine before starting.
9. The propeller is simply a rotating airfoil. When the propeller is turning it produces thrust in
much the same way as a wing produces lift.
10. A propeller is twisted so it can produce equal thrust from the hub to the tip and pull the
airplane through the air.
11. Most training airplanes are equipped with a fixed pitch propeller that provides the best
compromise between climb and cruise for the engine and airframe combination. It can't be
changed by the pilot.
12. The throttle enables the pilot to control the RPM of the engine and thus the power output –
basically, the more RPM the more power.
13. The electrical system is used to power the engine starter, instruments, lights, and radio
equipment. The battery is the heart of the system.
14. Once the engine has started an engine driven alternator supplies direct current to the system
plus maintains a charge on the battery.
15. The master switch turns on the electrical system and supplies energy to all electric circuits
except the ignition.
16. Circuit breakers are used to safeguard electrical equipment.
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High-Performance and Complex Airplanes
Once you acquire your private pilot certificate, there are many things you can do. Among them is
carrying passengers and flying almost anywhere VFR day or night. You'll be able to fly any airplanes
for which you are rated – probably single-engine land to begin with.
Review:
1. At this point in your journey, you may want to check out in either a complex or high
performance airplane. To do this you will have to be checked out by a flight instructor and
have your logbook certified.
2. Get a copy of the pilot's operating handbook, which includes the checklists, and read it
through, making notes of any questions that you want to ask the flight instructor.
3. In the POH of more complex airplanes, you'll find more speeds defined for certain
operations. Review all your V speeds.
4. Many of these speeds decrease when the weight of the aircraft is lighter than maximum
takeoff weight because of fuel burn or empty seats.
5. It's helpful to draw a flight out placing the V speeds at the particular spots where they would
be encountered. By doing this, you can vicariously fly a flight at home.
6. An autopilot is likely added in a high performance airplane and full understanding is required.
7. This may be your first experience with a constant-speed propeller. Engine RPM is controlled
and changed by changing the pitch of the propeller.
8. The propeller control affects the RPM gauge – tachometer. The manifold pressure gauge is
more directly controlled with the throttle.
9. You'll find on the before takeoff checklist, instructions on how to cycle the propeller, to make
sure everything is working properly.
10. When the prop control is full forward the propeller pitch is low and the RPM will be high.
When the prop control is pulled back, the pitch of the prop will increase and the RPM will be
lower.
11. The advantage of a constant-speed propeller over a fixed-pitch prop is in greater propeller
efficiency over a wide speed range.
12. After takeoff, if noise abatement is a consideration, climb at the best rate of climb speed,
maintain maximum allowable power until reaching an altitude which will allow an emergency
landing, then reduce power to the cruise climb power setting. Reducing RPM does more than
anything else to quiet the airplane for those on the ground.
13. When it comes time to reduce power, the generally preferred way to do it is to reduce the
manifold pressure first and then reduce the RPM.
14. If the aircraft is equipped with cowl flaps, they will have been open for the takeoff and climb
and should be closed for cruise except in very hot weather, or as dictated by the engine
temperatures or the checklist.
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15. Most high performance airplanes have fuel injected engines. One advantage, more precise
leaning is possible. An exhaust gas temperature gauge is usually available to help with this.
16. A possible disadvantage to fuel injection is in harder starting when the engine is hot because
of vapor lock. Follow the POH for proper hot starting.
17. A turbocharger is an exhaust driven supercharger – an air pump that maintains or increases
manifold pressure to make available more power, or in some airplanes, to maintain sea level
manifold pressure and thus power to a higher altitude.
18. It's especially important to watch the cylinder head temperature when flying turbocharged
aircraft at high altitudes where the thin air doesn't cool the engines as well.
19. In regard to retractable landing gear, what the FAA suggests is to leave it extended until a
landing can no longer be made on the remaining runway.
20. Before retracting the gear, always make sure you have established a positive rate of climb
and have enough altitude to get the wheels back down if needed.
21. When landing, always establish a place to extend the gear. You will be less likely to forget.
Downwind is a good place, as is three miles out on a straight in approach or base leg entry.
22. One thing you'll notice when you move up to faster airplanes is an increased requirement to
trim. A rudder trim system might also be included.
23. Be aware that the controls are quite heavy on some high performance airplanes.
24. You do have to step up your rate of thinking and acting when flying a faster airplane.
Everything has to happen in a shorter period of time.
25. Faster airplanes usually mean longer trips and thus more exposure to changing weather.
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Ice Protection Systems
In this section we’ll take a look at deicing systems.
Review:
1. The common deicing tool is the boot system. Inflatable boots are affixed to the leading edges
of the wings and the tail. Using air pressure, the boots are inflated. This breaks off any ice
that might have accumulated.
2. Propellers are handled either with heating elements, or by slowly discharging fluid onto the
prop. This is actually an anti-ice system, to prevent formation. Windshields usually have
electrically heated segments though some systems use fluid.
3. Another form of deicing for the wings and tail uses fluid. Dubbed a weeping wing system, it
utilizes a porous leading edge through which fluid seeps.
4. If you are using the boot system, follow the recommendations of the manufacturer.
5. For an aircraft to be certified for flight in icing conditions, it must have a complete system that
has been tested in a prescribed variety of icing conditions.
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Flight Director and HSI
In this section we’ll take a look at the flight director and HSI.
Review:
1. A flight director is a well named instrument. Basically it directs the pilot in the proper
movement of the controls, to fly a predetermined task.
2. The flight director will tell you what to do to maintain altitude, fly a heading, or to fly a
navigational problem including an ILS approach.
3. As long as it is done properly, the flight director is easy to follow. If you decide that you want
to do something other than what the flight director is commanding it is best to turn it off.
4. There is no question that you can fly a much better ILS approach with a flight director than
with raw data. Because the flight director doesn't require the constant interpretation that is
needed to fly a good ILS without a flight director.
5. The HSI is a combination of a heading indicator, an Omni Bearing Selector, and a course
deviation indicator. It also includes a heading bug to use in selecting a heading to fly.
6. If, at the decision altitude, the requirements for a landing are not met, the disengage button
should be pressed and the go-around started manually. The flight director can then be
reprogrammed for the climb on the desired heading.
7. Some flight directors have a go-around mode. This may be activated by a button on the
throttle or power levers or on the lower part of instrument panel near the throttle.
8. Using an HSI on a localizer back course is easy. Instead of flying away from the course
deviation indicator needle, you simply set the tail of the OBS needle to the inbound bearing
of the back course and then fly toward the needle.
9. Many flight directors have a control wheel steering feature that can be used when instituting
climbs or descents.
10. While not a replacement for the flight director, some electronic systems may also allow the
display of the desired flight path using the highway in the sky concept.
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Flying with the Autopilot
In this section, we'll take a look at the various functions of the Garmin GFC 500 autopilot and how to
use it when flying IFR.
Review:
1. You’ll be expected to demonstrate automation management skills during the flight portion of
the checkride, in part by using the autopilot.
2. Autopilots for light airplanes are typically classified as single-axis or dual-axis. A single-axis
system controls roll only, to fly a heading or GPS course. A dual-axis system controls both
roll and pitch, adding the ability to climb or descend and hold a specified altitude.
3. The best place to start learning about an autopilot is in the Airplane Flight Manual
Supplement for the model, which may be in the POH or in a standalone document if the
autopilot was installed as a later upgrade.
4. The red autopilot disconnect button includes two functions: press it once to disconnect the
autopilot, or press and hold it to manually interrupt the electric pitch trim.
5. The Garmin GFC 500 requires a Garmin flight display, like the G5 flight instrument, to
function. This installation will include an autopilot controller with buttons and knobs, and
autopilot status is shown at the top of the G5 flight instrument.
6. Garmin uses green and white coloring for the various mode annunciations to show active vs.
armed status. The active lateral and vertical mode will always be shown in green in the
innermost position.
7. After pressing the AP button on the controller, the GFC 500 defaults to roll and pitch modes.
8. The Vertical Speed mode, which is activated with the VS button, will hold the current vertical
speed when the mode is selected.
9. You can also have the autopilot pitch for a particular speed during the climb using the
airspeed hold function, labeled as I-A-S on the controller.
10. The autopilot will automatically level off at the selected altitude displayed above the altimeter
on the G5 when the white A-L-T-S annunciation is shown.
11. To use heading hold, first set the heading bug using either the knob on the G5 directional
instrument or the heading knob on the GFC-500 to the desired heading and press the H-D-G
button.
12. When flying en route, you’ll use the NAV mode on the autopilot to intercept and track the
current GPS course or VOR radial.
13. When flying an approach with vertical guidance, such as an ILS, LPV or LNAV+V, the
Approach mode will be used to track both the final approach course and glideslope down to
the runway.
14. The autopilot must be disconnected 200 feet AGL, as stated in the operating limitations. This
coincides with the lowest minimums for a Category 1 ILS approach.
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Engine Instrumentation
In this section we’ll take a look at engine instrumentation.
Review:
1. One measure of how hard an engine works is the relationship between how big it is and how
much horsepower it produces. A yardstick of an engine's size is the total volume displaced
by its pistons in one revolution of the crankshaft.
2. Better fuels and design improvements such as controllable pitch propellers, geared engines,
turbo charging, higher compression ratios, and direct fuel injection contributed to increased
power with a minimal increase in weight.
3. Manifold pressure gauges, fuel pressure and flow gauges, cylinder head temperature
gauges, exhaust gas temperature gauges, and turbine inlet temperature gauges, are some
of the instruments used to measure performance and condition.
4. Fixed pitch propellers are designed for best engine propeller combination efficiency at a
specific engine rotation and airplane forward speed. For fixed pitch propellers, the
tachometer gives an adequate indication of power used.
5. Attaching a constant speed propeller is like adding a transmission to the engine-propeller
system. Aircraft engines are rated at a specific RPM.
6. Preignition is premature ignition caused by hot spots in the combustion chamber. Detonation
occurs when high pressure and temperature cause the violent explosion of the fuel air
mixture ahead of the normal flame front. Engines are especially vulnerable to detonation
when power output is high and fuel air mixture is lean.
7. Along with a tachometer, the constant speed propeller-engine combinations must have a
manifold pressure gauge, which indirectly indicates the power output of the engine. The
manifold pressure gauge indicates the pressure of the fuel-air mixture immediately before it
enters the cylinder.
8. A mixture ratio of approximately 15 to 1 is considered to be chemically perfect in that all of
the fuel and oxygen are combined in the combustion process. This mixture also creates the
most heat.
9. Most general aviation airplanes have a fuel pressure gauge which can be calibrated in
pounds per hour, gallons per hour, or pounds per square inch.
10. While the oil temperature gauge will warn of high temperatures, a cylinder head temperature
gauge will give a much earlier warning of increasing temperatures.
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Turbocharging
In this section we’ll take a look at some considerations regarding turbocharged engines.
Review:
1. Turbo-superchargers, driven by engine exhaust, are the systems used in most all
contemporary airplanes with the name shortened to a more manageable turbocharger.
2. Non-turbocharged engines lose power with altitude. Even at peak efficiency, the normally
aspirated engine's manifold pressure cannot exceed atmospheric pressure.
3. In order to maintain power at higher altitudes, the mass of the fuel air mixture must be
increased, or at least maintained, by packing air into the induction system.
4. Turbocharging does that by compressing air and increasing the pressure and density of the
fuel air mixture.
5. Turbochargers utilize a turbine in the exhaust system. The turbine is driven by exhaust
gasses and in turn, it drives the compressor.
6. The compressor does just what its name says – it compresses air for use in the induction
system to maintain power and, in the case of a pressurized airplane, to pump up the cabin.
7. Some supercharged or turbocharged engines are called altitude engines, and are capable of
producing rated takeoff power from sea level to an established higher altitude.
8. The higher operating temperatures of the turbocharged engine increase the risk of
preignition and detonation as well as adding to the general wear and tear on the engine.
9. Some systems use an intercooler to cool the compressed air as it enters the induction
system. Intercoolers are adaptable to all the various types of turbocharging systems.
10. Some turbocharged engines are said to be ground boosted. Ground boosting is when
turbocharging increases the manifold pressure above standard sea level pressure.
11. Ground boosting can increase the horsepower output at sea level as well as the altitude
capability of an engine without increasing the size of the engine itself.
12. Overboosting may damage and even destroy an engine. Almost all modern factory-installed
systems have an arrangement that is designed to prevent overboosting.
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Oxygen Use
In this section we’ll take a look at the use of oxygen for the high flier.
Review:
1. Oxygen is extracted from the air by the lungs and is distributed through the body by the
circulation system. As blood circulates, it picks up oxygen from the lungs, transports the
oxygen to the tissues and carries carbon dioxide back to the lungs where it is exhaled.
2. When air is inhaled at high altitudes, there isn't enough oxygen pressure to force it through
the membranes of the lungs into the bloodstream. This condition, where the body lacks
sufficient oxygen, is called hypoxia.
3. At 10,000 feet, the blood can still pick up 90 percent of its capacity. At that altitude a healthy
person will become slightly impaired after some time and be less able to concentrate.
4. At 14,000 feet, a healthy person may fly off course, forget to switch tanks or disregard
hazardous situations. Exposure to environmental air from 18,000 feet up will cause collapse.
5. Hypoxia sneaks up in the person. Early symptoms resemble a pleasant, mild alcohol
intoxication, the mind doesn't function properly, and muscular coordination suffers. There's a
drowsy feeling, nonchalance, and a false sense of security. It gets only worse from here.
6. Pilots who fly high need a pressurized cabin or supplemental oxygen. Part 91 requires that
supplemental oxygen be provided for all occupants all of the time above 15,000 feet cabin
pressure altitude.
7. The minimum flight crew must be provided and use supplemental oxygen for a flight of more
than 30 minutes above a cabin pressure altitude of 12,500 feet. Above 14,000 feet cabin
pressure altitude supplemental oxygen must be provided and used continuously by the flight
crew.
8. Night vision is affected by hypoxia at much lower altitudes. After several hours at 8,000 feet,
instrument panel lights and lights on the surface begin to dull. For most people the onset of
hypoxia is pleasurable and overrides the instinct for survival.
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Pressurization
In this section we’ll take a look at airplane pressurization.
Review:
1. Pressurization is exactly what the name implies – the air pressure in the cabin is maintained
at an altitude lower than that at which the airplane is flying.
2. This is done simply by pumping more air into the cabin than is allowed to leave, thus creating
a pressure differential between inside and outside. This differential is measured in pounds
per square inch, PSI.
3. There are different kinds of controllers for pressurization systems. The simplest is set
manually. Check out your system thoroughly in your owner’s manual.
4. In a more sophisticated pressurization system you'll find a cabin rate control added. This
allows the cabin to climb smoothly to the cabin altitude appropriate to the cruising altitude.
5. When the airplane reaches this altitude, the valve that controls the outflow of air from the
cabin begins to let less air out than is coming in.
6. The bleed air from the turbocharger that is introduced into the cabin continues and as the
airplane climbs the cabin remains at the selected altitude until the maximum differential is
reached.
7. For safety, there are two outflow valves. The primary is set at the maximum differential. The
second is set slightly above the maximum differential and acts as a relief valve should the
first one fail.
8. Most all cabins leak some air. The older they get, the more they leak. A pressurized airplane
has to have a stronger structure and thicker windows to withstand the pressure differential.
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Aeromedical Factors
It’s important for all pilots to be aware of conditions in flight which can reduce or impair a pilot’s
ability to perform.
Review:
1. Hypoxia is a lack of sufficient oxygen which can impair brain function. High altitudes cause
hypoxia because of the reduced atmospheric pressure there – less O2.
2. The nature of hypoxia makes it hard for you to judge when it occurs. The first symptoms of
oxygen deficiency are usually pleasant, called euphoria.
3. Hypoxia results in impairment of judgment, memory, alertness, and coordination.
Headaches, drowsiness, or dizziness are likely.
4. Flights up to 10,000 feet without supplemental oxygen can be considered safe for most
healthy people.
5. The FARs require the use of supplemental oxygen after 30 minutes above 12,500 feet MSL.
6. Carbon monoxide is a colorless, tasteless, and odorless gas caused by engine combustion.
If you notice engine exhaust fumes, CO is probably present. Close the heater vents and
open the outside air vents.
7. CO reduces the ability of the blood to carry oxygen, causing drowsiness, dizziness, or
headaches.
8. Hyperventilation occurs when an abnormal volume of air is breathed in and out of the lungs.
It can be caused by breathing too rapidly as a result of stress or anxiety. You are depleting
the CO2 in your system.
9. The symptoms of hyperventilation are dizziness, nausea, tingling of the hands, legs and feet,
drowsiness, and in some instances, unconsciousness.
10. To eliminate hyperventilation you can talk in a normal tone and speed or breathe in and out
of a paper bag.
11. As a pilot, you can experience various illusions in flight that can contribute to landing errors.
12. For example, a runway that is narrower than usual can create the illusion that the airplane is
higher than it actually is resulting in a lower approach. A runway wider than usual can have
the opposite effect.
13. An upsloping runway can create the illusion that the airplane is higher than it actually is,
possibly resulting in an approach that is too low. A downsloping runway has the opposite
effect.
14. There are also illusions caused by water, featureless terrain, rain on the windshield, or
atmospheric haze.
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Chapter 5 – Navigation and Cross-Country
Flight Information Publications

Slow flight and stalls are taught to make you familiar with the feel, sight, sounds, and other
perceptions of the reduced margin between flying and stalling, and to develop a conditioned
reflex to take prompt corrective action.
Review:
There are several FAA flight information publications you will use during your flying career.
1. The Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM) provides basic flight information and ATC
procedures. It also contains items concerning medical factors, flight safety, aeronautical
charts, and helicopter operations. A separate glossary of terms can be acquired as well.
2. The Chart Supplement (formerly known as the Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD)) is issued
in seven volumes, each covering a specific geographic area. It contains all airports,
seaplane bases, and heliports open to the public including information regarding each
airport.
3. Notices to Airmen, (NOTAMs) are considered essential to flight safety and contain
information not known sufficiently in advance to publicize by other means.
4. The Aeronautical Information Manual describes D-NOTAMs as containing time critical
information which may affect safety. For example, it may contain information concerning
an airport closure or navigational facilities which are not in operation.
5. There are no more L NOTAMs due to the expansion of NOTAM D criteria. Additional
information has been added to update NOTAM classification. See AIM for more
information.
6. There are also FDC NOTAMs that are regulatory in nature. These are given system wide
dissemination and are issued to establish restrictions to flight or to amend charts.
7. Don't use out of date charts or publications because aeronautical data changes
frequently.
8. IFR/VFR Low Altitude Planning Charts are useful for routing long cross-country trips in
the United States. The Eastern half of the U.S. is on one side, the Western half on the
other. It depicts airways, NAVAIDs, airports, special use airspace, selected population
areas, prominent bodies of water, and more.
9. World aeronautical charts (WAC) are designed for navigation by moderate speed
aircraft. The information shown on these charts includes airports and navigation aids,
cities, principal roads, railroads, distinctive landmarks, and drainage. Hills and valleys,
what is called relief, are shown by spot elevations, contours, and gradient tints.
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10. Sectional charts are designed for visual navigation of slow and medium speed aircraft.
Each chart is named for a major city within the area of coverage. In many ways they are
similar to automobile road maps.
11. VFR Terminal Area charts are similar to Sectional charts in that they are designed for
visual navigation. They are used in congested terminal areas since they provide greater
detail and clarity of information.
12. Printed on the back of the terminal area chart is the VFR flyway planning chart. It
identifies flight paths clear of major controlled traffic flows.
13. VFR waypoints are marked with a 4-point star. They have a non-pronounceable 5-letter
name beginning with VP, and their location is pre-programmed into most GPS
navigators. Most VFR waypoints are co-located with visual checkpoints, marked with a
magenta flag.
14. The Sectional chart is the most common for VFR pilot training. It's used on FAA private
pilot knowledge tests. Its name is shown at the top of the chart.
15. Notice the north/south arrows at the top. Opening the chart in the direction of the north
arrow shows the northern half of the area covered. The southern half of the area is
covered on the other side.
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Understanding Time Zones
Review:
1. The earth turns one revolution of 360 degrees/day. One revolution takes 24 hours. Therefore
the earth revolves at 15 degrees per hour.
2. For every 15 degrees of longitude there is normally a time zone change of one hour. The
lower 48 states have four time zones; eastern, central, mountain, and pacific.
3. Aviation uses a 24 hour clock to avoid mistakes between a.m. or p.m. The 24 hour clock is
often referred to as military time.
4. To further avoid time confusion, all world time is converted into the time that exists at
Greenwich England at that moment. This time is called Greenwich Mean Time, Coordinated
Universal Time, or ZULU time. At noon here in the EST zone, it is 6 p.m. in Greenwich,
England. Therefore, using the 24 hour clock, it is 1800Z here.
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Reading Sectional Charts
Review:
1. The equator divides the globe into two equal parts, the northern hemisphere and the
southern hemisphere.
2. There are imaginary lines running parallel to the equator, called parallels of latitude.
3. Lines of longitude, known as meridians, cross the equator at 90 degree angles. Each
meridian is drawn from the North Pole to the South Pole.
4. The zero longitudinal line, the prime meridian, passes through Greenwich, England.
Longitudes to the east of Greenwich are east longitudes and vice-versa for the west.
5. We can locate a position where specific latitude and longitude lines converge. For example,
Washington D.C. is located at the intersection of the 39 degree north latitude line and the 77
degree west longitude line.
6. On Sectional charts, the lines of latitude and longitude are shown and are sub-divided by tick
marks. Each tick mark equals 1 minute. There are 60 minutes in each degree.
7. Using this information, Clermont County airport is located at 39 degrees, 4 minutes north
latitude, and 84 degrees, 12 minutes west longitude.
8. Each minute of latitude is a nautical mile. By counting the tick marks on the longitude scale,
you can measure distance. For example, the distance from Clermont County airport to
Lunken airport is 10 nautical miles.
9. The only place where one minute of longitude equals one nautical mile is at the equator,
because lines of longitude converge as they go north or south.
10. The Sectional chart has many symbols in its legend. Review these.
11. As a brief review consider the following: Control tower airports are in blue all others in
magenta. With the airport's name, the coded data will tell you length of runway, pattern
direction, contact information, airport elevation, lighting, and if it has automatic weather
information.
12. Sectionals show surface elevation and obstructions, maximum elevation figures, roads,
rivers, lakes, railroads, towns and much more.
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Sporty’s E6B: Flight Planning and Test Prep
In this section, we'll explore how to use Sporty's E6B flight computer, including the specifics of
how to use each function required for flight planning and to answer questions on the FAA
knowledge test.
Review:
1. The E6B calculator is considered required equipment by most pilots. During flight
training, you’ll learn to plan your cross-country flights first by hand and use the E6B each
step of the way.
2. Sporty's E6B is approved for use during the FAA knowledge test, and can make it easy
to answer calculation questions.
3. The controls on the Sporty’s E6B are thoughtfully laid out and provide quick access to
each of the aviation functions. These functions are organized into six groups and
accessed by the buttons at the top of the keypad: Heading-groundspeed and
Pressure-Density Altitude, Speed, Required, Wind, Flight, and Weight and Balance.
4. To use one of the functions, first press its respective group button, which will declutter
the screen and only show the available functions that are a part of that group. Then use
the up or down arrow on the right side of the screen to highlight the desired function,
which will be flashing. Lastly, press the Enter key to start using the function.
5. The 20 conversion options are listed in yellow text above the gray arithmetic buttons on
the E6B. To use one, enter a number on the screen, press the CONV button, and then
the specific button with the conversion you'd like to execute.
6. You can use the standard arithmetic buttons at any time to perform basic math problems,
such as addition, subtraction, division, and multiplication. The plus/minus key should be
used when you need to make a number negative or positive. If a number is negative, a
dash symbol will appear to the right of the number.
7. When entering time, first enter the hours, and then press the colon key. Next enter the
minutes value and press the colon key again. Last enter the second.
8. While you can’t use it on the FAA knowledge test, Sporty’s also offers a mobile app
version of the E6B for iPad, iPhone and Android devices. It includes the same aviation
functions and conversions as the handheld version, but you’ll find it more convenient to
access when away from your flight bag and if you’re already using a tablet in the cockpit.
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Flight Planning Part 1: Plotting a Course
In this section we will investigate the navigation planning that's done on the ground prior to a
flight. It's one of the key elements of proper preflight preparation.
Review:
1. To do this, we'll use pilotage, dead reckoning, and radio navigation.

2. Pilotage is looking out the airplane window and flying along the course by reference to
pre-selected landmarks until reaching the destination.
3. Dead reckoning, is calculating the effect of the wind direction and speed on the airplane
so a compass heading, groundspeed, time en route, and fuel required can be estimated.
4. Radio navigation is using an instrument to help stay on the desired course – VOR or
GPS as an example.
5. A plotter is a device for measuring distance and direction. Some plotters have a
sectional scale on one side and a world aeronautical chart scale on the other – take care
to use the correct side.
6. After measuring the distance for the trip, determine the directions of each leg. You do
this with the protractor part of your plotter. This is the true course.
7. NOTE: If a course line is long and crosses numerous meridians, measure the course on
one of the meridians closest to the center.
8. Wind information is next applied. Wind information received over the radio for takeoffs or
landings is given as a magnetic direction. All other wind information spoken or printed is
given in true direction.
9. The airplane's path over the ground is called track. The direction the nose of the airplane
is pointing is called heading. Because of the wind, we adjust the heading to get the
desired track over the ground.
10. The angle formed between the heading and the course is called the wind correction
angle.
11. Wind speed must be known for an accurate solution – it affects groundspeed. If you fly at
100 knots east in a no wind condition, your groundspeed is 100 knots. If there is a 10
knot headwind from the east your groundspeed will be 90 knots.
12. Groundspeed is a combination of the movement of the airplane with the movement of
the air.
13. The magnetic compass is not dependent on any power source in the airplane. However,
it has some peculiarities – magnetic variation and compass deviation.
14. Variation is the angle between true north and magnetic north at any given location. On
sectional charts, the amount and direction of variation, are shown by broken magenta
lines called isogonic lines.
15. The line with zero variation between true north and magnetic north is called the agonic
line.
16. On the east coast the magnetic compass needle will point to the west of true north. On
the west coast the needle will point to the east of true north.
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17. Your actual course has to take into consideration magnetic variation. This is done by
adding or subtracting variation to your course as shown by the nearest isogonic line on
the chart. For example, if your true course is 50 degrees, and the nearest isogonic line is
5 degrees west, then you would fly a course of 55 degrees. Remember, west is best,
east is least.
18. Deviation is the deflection of the magnetic compass from its normal reading caused by
some magnetic influence in the airplane. To make this correction the airplane must have
a compass correction card. It shows any addition or subtraction necessary to correct for
various headings.
19. After measuring true course and applying the wind correction, a true heading can be
determined. Next, apply variation to get the magnetic heading. Finally, correct for
deviation and you arrive at a compass heading. You fly a compass heading.
20. Before you fly you want to determine the estimated time en route, groundspeed, and
how much fuel will be required.
21. Normally you will make these determinations by using an electronic flight computer.
22. Other information for the trip is found in your pilot's operating handbook.
23. To calculate the dead reckoning information, you need to determine true airspeed. Use
the graphs or tables in the performance section of your pilot's operating handbook to do
this. Select the cruise performance that best fits your needs at your selected altitude.
24. When computing time from point to point, don't forget to add 5 minutes for climb,
descent, pattern, and taxi.
25. The FARs require that day VFR flights must have enough fuel to fly to the first point of
intended landing and, assuming normal cruising speed, to fly after that for at least 30
minutes.
26. It's also a good idea to check the Airport/Facility Directory for fuel availability at your
destination airports if more is needed for any reason.
27. Now select your checkpoints. Make them close enough together so they are easy to find
in a reasonable amount of time.
28. On a trip you can use radio navigation to help pinpoint your location – VOR, ADF, GPS.
29. A long trip is divided into a succession of short trips – from one checkpoint to the next.
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Flight Planning Part 2: Preparing a Navlog
In this section we’ll continue the dead reckoning planning process and determine the time en
route, groundspeed and how much fuel will be required. We’ll also select visual landmarks to
use for pilotage during the flight, and wrap up by entering all the calculations in a flight log.
Review:
1. Before you fly you want to determine the estimated time en route, groundspeed, and
how much fuel will be required.
2. Normally you will make these determinations by using an electronic flight computer.
3. First select your visual checkpoints from the sectional chart. Make them close enough
together so they are easy to find in a reasonable amount of time.
4. It can be helpful to plan the first checkpoint near the planned top of climb.
5. Take note of the airports along the route in case a diversion to one is required.
6. Enter the name of each checkpoint on the left side of the flight planning form.
7. To calculate the dead reckoning information, you need to determine true airspeed. Use
the graphs or tables in the performance section of your pilot's operating handbook to do
this. Select the cruise performance that best fits your needs at your selected altitude.
8. We’d also recommend determining the time, fuel and distance to climb to the cruise
altitude, which can be found in your airplane’s climb performance chart.
9. Calculate the flight details for each leg using the Heading and Groundspeed function on
the E6B, which will allow you to calculate a true heading and groundspeed.
10. Use a plotter to measure the distance between each visual checkpoint, use the E6B to
calculate leg time and fuel burn.
11. Calculate these planning values for each of the remaining segments and enter the sum
for distance, time and fuel at the bottom of the form. Complete additional forms for any
subsequent legs to compute the total time and fuel burn for your flight.
12. The FARs require that day VFR flights must have enough fuel to fly to the first point of
intended landing and, assuming normal cruising speed, to fly after that for at least 30
minutes.
13. A long trip is divided into a succession of short trips – from one checkpoint to the next.
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Cross-Country Flight Planning with iPad
In this section we'll show how to plan a cross-country flight using ForeFlight's digital sectional chart
and performance planning resources.
Review:
1. You’ll likely learn to plan a trip first with a paper sectional chart, plotter and E6B, and
complete a paper navigation log with all the details of the flight.
2. Another method is to use an electronic resource, like ForeFlight on an iPad, to assist with the
planning process. This method is much more convenient, delivers more accurate results, and
is faster as long as you begin with accurate performance information.
3. The first step is to create a performance profile for your airplane by entering climb, cruise
and descent performance data. Use Climb performance data from your airplane’s flight
manual to find the numbers for the climb section, and the Cruise Performance chart to
determine True Airspeed and the fuel burn rate.
4. Next, enter your departure and destination airport on the maps screen.
5. Now it's time to choose a cruise altitude. Use the altitude button to display the Altitude
advisor window, which shows headwind/tailwind components, estimated time en route and
fuel burn for each altitude.
6. To assist with pilotage and dead reckoning, select checkpoints/landmarks on the chart. Mark
them with either user waypoints or annotations on the map.
7. Tap the NavLog button at the lower right of the Route Editor to display navigation details for
each leg between the selected checkpoints.
8. It’s important to note that the Heading value displayed here is the magnetic heading to fly
and includes adjustments for both the wind aloft and magnetic variation. You will need to
adjust this though for magnetic deviation using the compass correction card in your airplane,
to determine the final compass heading to fly in the airplane.
9. When it comes time to depart on the flight, you’ll want to disable the display of your location
on the moving map in ForeFlight, often referred to as ownship.
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VFR Flight Plans
In this section we'll discuss filing a VFR flight plan and why this is important.
Review:
1. If you have a flight plan on file, and something happens to you along the way, someone will
know to begin looking for you.
2. There are several ways to file a VFR flight plan, including calling Flight Service at
1-800-WX-BRIEF, filing online using the Flight Service website at www.1800wxbrief.com or
by using the plan filing feature found in many aviation apps.
3. You'll enter information about the planned flight, including aircraft N#, type and designation,
special equipment, true airspeed, departure point, proposed time off, and cruising altitude.
4. Continuing, supply your destination, estimated time en route, remarks, fuel on board, a
possible alternate airport, personal data, the number of people on board, and the color of the
airplane.
5. Usually you will file the plan at the same time you get your weather briefing.
6. You can also file a flight plan in the air by radio.
7. You can open your flight plan either electronically from your mobile app, or over the radio
through Flight Service.
8. Close your flight plan on arrival. If you don't, first responders will start to search for you 30
minutes after your estimated time of arrival.
9. Close your flight plan by calling Flight Service on the phone, or using the Close feature in
your mobile app, after you have landed. You can also close by radio in the air when you have
the destination in sight and are very close to landing.
10. If you're planning on a fuel stop or lunch along the way – that can be noted in the remarks
section. However, if you're planning on stopping for more than an hour, a separate flight plan
is recommended.
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Six Rules for Cross Country Flights
Getting out of the traffic pattern and going on a real trip is a lot of fun. It may even be the reason
you’re learning to fly in the first place. But the same reasons these trips are so much fun - new
places to see, a goal at the end of the flight - can lead to challenges if you aren’t prepared.
Review:
1. When it comes to weather, wait for a sure thing. If you’ve been waiting on the clouds to lift or
for the visibility to improve, don’t take off until you think there’s a very good chance of
success.
2. Know what kind of air mass you’re flying in. We’ve talked a lot about weather in this course,
but one of the key questions to ask is whether the air mass you’re flying in is unstable or
stable.
3. Always have an out. This cliche is often used with weather, and that’s very true, but it’s
equally applicable to fuel planning. If changing weather conditions mean you can’t make your
destination, have a good Plan B in mind.
4. Slow down. No matter how well you plan the flight, something will inevitably go wrong. When
that happens - and especially if you’re frustrated by it - force yourself to slow down and
double check your last few steps.
5. Understand the terrain. If you’re crossing a mountain range or even just flying over some
foothills, consider the effect such terrain can have on your flight.
6. Use technology wisely. Recent advances in technology have made cross country flying
easier and safer, and you should use these tools without hesitation.
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Dual Cross Country Flight
In this section, we'll take a look at cross-country flying.
Review:
1. The weather is checked and your flight log is filled out. After the preflight, and cockpit
organization, you make the necessary radio calls before taking the runway for departure.
2. Exit the pattern straight out or at a 45 degree angle. Turn on course when clear of the airport
and at least 500 feet above the pattern.
3. After starting the timer in the E6B, get on course and begin looking for your first checkpoint.
4. Log the time over the checkpoint and continue on course. When you are at cruising altitude,
adjust the power to your cruise setting, and lean the mixture.
5. Check the conditions for determining true airspeed.
6. Remember to scan for traffic.
7. Over the next checkpoint, mark the time, figure your groundspeed, and project the time over
the upcoming checkpoint.
8. Keep a continual check of your position on your Sectional and the features on the ground.
9. If your course takes you through controlled airspace, make any necessary radio calls.
10. Approaching your destination, make whatever radio calls are necessary and check your
airport diagram so you can understand and execute the proper pattern entry.
11. Plan to arrive at pattern altitude before reaching the airport. So, begin a descent in plenty of
time.
12. Don't forget the before landing checklist. Log your time of arrival and keep scanning.
13. You will either land or possibly make a touch and go to start on the next leg of your trip.
14. If you are using radio navigation, for example VOR, you will want to set it up either prior to
takeoff or in the air. It works well as a help to stay on course or to find your precise location
with cross reference.
15. Identifying a runway can be simple. Runway numbers are aligned in a magnetic direction.
There are compass roses on the chart around any VOR which are also aligned in a magnetic
direction.
16. Flying cross-country is a lot of fun. There's a lot to do to keep you busy. Remember to keep
scanning, follow the checklists, and adhere to the procedures.
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Magnetic Compass
In this section we'll explain how your magnetic compass functions. It's a required instrument and
you'll find it simple in construction.
Review:
1. The magnetic compass is usually the only north seeking instrument in training airplanes. Two
magnetized needles are mounted under a float with the compass card attached. This
assembly is mounted on a pivot which allows the card to tilt up to 18 degrees.
2. The whole assembly is sealed in a chamber filled with a high grade petroleum distillate to
dampen the oscillations of the card, lubricate, and take some weight off the pivot.
3. Actually, the magnets and compass card remain stationary, while the airplane turns around
the compass card.
4. The magnetic field surrounding the earth has lines of force approximately oriented to the
magnetic poles. The South Pole end of the magnetized needles are attracted to the earth's
magnetic North Pole.
5. These lines of magnetic force are parallel to the surface at the magnetic equator and
increasingly dip downward until they are vertical at the magnetic poles. This dip is the cause
of some of the major compass errors.
6. During straight-and-level, steady speed, flight the card stays level and doesn't allow the
magnetized needles to dip. When turning the airplane, or changing airspeed, the compass
card tilts and does not show your real heading.
7. These turn errors are greatest on a north and a south heading. On northerly headings the
compass will lag behind the airplane. On southerly headings the compass will lead the
airplane. Lead and lag error is minimal at the magnetic equator and is greatest at the
magnetic pole.
8. In the lower U.S. the error is generally 30 to 35 degrees. Compass turns should be made at
a shallow bank to keep the card from locking against the case.
9. At the beginning of a turn from a northerly heading, the compass will show a turn in the
opposite direction – it lags the turn.
10. This lag error is greatest on a north heading and decreases as the heading approaches
either east or west. There is no lag or lead error on headings of east and west.
11. Continuing the turn to south, after passing through an east heading the compass starts
leading the airplane and indicates a heading of about 210 degrees when the airplane is
headed south.
12. The memory device NOSE can help you remember lead and lag. N is for north, O for
opposite, S for south and E for exaggerate.
13. When decelerating, the aft end of the compass card is tilted downward. When you are
speeding up, the compass card tilts upward. When the compass card is tilted its reading is
compromised.
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14. On headings of east and west, acceleration error appears as a turn to the north and
deceleration a turn to the south. The memory device ANDS will help you remember the
effects of acceleration and deceleration – A - acceleration, N - north, D - deceleration, S -
south.
15. The error diminishes as headings approach north and south with no acceleration or
deceleration error on magnetic north and south headings.
16. Most training airplanes have a heading indicator – a gyro instrument – which precesses. It
should be reset every 15 minutes to the compass indication.
17. The magnetic compass is self-powered and doesn't need electricity or vacuum to work.
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Aviation Communications
English is the international language of aviation, but the words and phrases used can be confusing
to beginners. You are learning a new language. Be patient – it takes practice.
Review:
1. The Aeronautical Information Manual is the official source for good radio communication
procedures.
2. The Pilot-Controller Glossary, often found in the back of the AIM, defines many of the
common words and phrases that are used in the world of aviation
3. There is a proper way to pronounce the letters of the alphabet and numerals on the radio,
use the phonetic alphabet constructed by ICAO, the International Civil Aviation Organization.
The full list of alphabet and numeral phonetics can be found in the Aeronautical Information
Manual.
4. Most of the individual numerals are pronounced the same way you would pronounce them in
a non-aviation setting. A few use a special pronunciation to ensure clarity over the radio.
Nine is pronounced niner, five should sound like fife, and three is articulated as tree.
5. Altitudes, ceiling heights, and other large numbers are indicated as hundreds and thousands
in round numbers. A ceiling height of ninety-five hundred feet would be indicated as "niner
thousand fife hundred."
6. For numbers at or higher than ten thousand feet, you should pronounce the individual digits
for the thousands and hundreds if appropriate. When reporting an altitude of twelve thousand
five hundred, say "one two thousand fife hundred."
7. While VFR operations are not permitted, altitudes above eighteen thousand feet are
indicated as a flight level. Each digit of the flight level is pronounced when on the radio.
Twenty-three thousand feet would be spoken as "flight level two tree zero."
8. The individual digits of a radio frequency should also be enunciated. The decimal point
should be spoken as "point"; for example, "one two two point one."
9. The three digits of a bearing, course, heading, or wind direction should be spoken
individually. Directions on the radio are in relation to magnetic unless the word "true" is
added to the transmission.
10. Time may be expressed as Coordinated Universal Time or in the local time zone. The use of
the "zulu" description may be used but is not required. The word "local" or the time zone
equivalent would be used to denote when the time is not UTC.
11. As a general rule, most other numbers are transmitted by pronouncing each digit. An
exception to this is in the description of airways used in IFR flying. Here V12 is pronounced
"Victor twelve."
12. Another exception would be for ATC traffic position reports. These are given in reference to
the clock face.
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13. ATC traffic reports are in relation to the track rather than the nose of the airplane because
radar does not show your crab angle.
14. Words like Roger and Affirmative are not interchangeable. Each has a unique meaning in
radio communications. "Roger" means that I have received all of your last transmission. It
should not be used to answer a question requiring a yes or a no answer. "Affirmative" and
"Negative" are used for yes and no, respectively.
15. Wilco is similar in meaning to Roger. "Wilco" means I have received your message,
understand it, and "will comply" with it.
16. Most training airplanes are noisy and you'll be concentrating on flying. Using a headset will
make the communications much clearer and also give you the benefit of hearing protection.
17. The cockpit can be a loud place with all the engine and wind noise. To assure you're heard
clearly over the extraneous sounds, position the microphone close to your lips, press the
push-to-talk button and speak in a normal, but firm voice.
18. The person you're talking to is a human being. If you make a mistake, it's not the end of the
world. Simply correct yourself and go on with your message.
19. Remember the four W's of radio communication: who you are calling, who you are, where
you are, and what you want.
20. The proper way to initiate communication with ATC is to give your location, aircraft type,
altitude, what you want to do, and if you have ATIS.
21. Try to eliminate unnecessary words like, 'ah', 'this is', 'at', and 'over'.
22. If the frequency is very busy, shorten your initial contact to save frequency congestion. Once
acknowledged by the controller, complete the rest of the W's.
23. UNICOM is a non-government radio station. UNICOM is an acronym for unified
communications, and it's available at most airports which do not have a control tower.
24. You can request airport advisory information on the UNICOM frequency. Calls to UNICOM
are made by using the airport name and the word UNICOM. For example "Clermont
UNICOM." You should be aware that a UNICOM station is not always attended.
25. The generic term for the radio channel to use at airports without an operating control tower is
common traffic advisory frequency. The CTAF is indicated on aeronautical charts and other
publications At a non-tower field, the four W's are still used on initial contact.
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VOR Navigation
There are several types of air navigation systems in use today. Navigation systems include any
method a pilot uses to follow a predetermined flight path over the earth's surface. One common radio
navigation receiver is the VOR.
Review:
1. The Very High Frequency Omni-directional Range, abbreviated VOR, is the primary
navigation system for civil aviation.
2. Most VOR sites have an operating TACAN (the military version) attached to them. The
combination of the two stations is called a VORTAC. A VORTAC has two distinctly different
transmitters and antenna systems at the same site.
3. The VOR station is a small low building topped with a flat white disc which houses an
antenna system.
4. On the Sectional chart, the frequency for the VOR is shown in a box near the station symbol.
5. A compass rose is centered on the VOR symbol. The compass rose and the VOR are
aligned with magnetic north. Everything else on the Sectional is oriented to true north.
6. There are 360 different courses – radials – radiating from a VOR – something like the spokes
on a bicycle wheel. Radials are defined as magnetic courses from a VOR.
7. VOR signal reception is line of sight and varies according to the altitude of your airplane.
Obstructions can block a VOR signal.
8. Normal VOR reception extends out approximately 40 nautical miles from the station.
9. A VOR is identified by a three letter Morse code. Identifying the station is extremely
important. Be sure the correct station is tuned in and the station is operating.
10. The VOR receiver has a volume control, ident switch, and frequency selector.
11. Pulling the ident switch allows you to hear the Morse code identification. With the switch
pushed in, the Morse tones are suppressed, making it easier to hear voice transmissions.
12. The VOR indicator has an Omni Bearing Selector, OBS, a Course Deviation Indicator, CDI,
and a TO/FROM indicator.
13. The Omni Bearing Selector is used to select the bearing, or course. When a course is
selected, the course deviation indicator shows the position of the selected course.
14. The CDI and the TO/FROM indicator are not affected by the heading of the airplane. At any
location, if the CDI indicates the selected course is to the left, the CDI will remain pointing to
the left no matter which way the airplane is pointed.
15. If the needle is centered, the airplane is on a specific radial. You can read that course on the
OBS. If, after setting the desired course into the OBS, the CDI is pointed to the right, the
selected course is to the right. A needle to the left means the course is to the left. In both
instances however, the airplane must be heading in the correct direction.
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16. A full scale deflection of the CDI represents 10 degrees. How far off course you are depends
on your distance from the station. For example, a 5 degree deviation, 10 miles from the
station, puts you about a mile off course. Thirty miles from the station, the same deviation
puts you about 3 miles off course.
17. The TO/FROM indicator shows whether the selected course will take the airplane to, or from
the station. For example, from the north, on the 360 degree radial, a bearing of 180 degrees
"TO" will take the airplane on a course to the station. The same course from the south will
take the airplane from the station.
18. To use the VOR to find your position, tune it to a nearby VOR station. Turn the OBS to center
the CDI. Read the course from the OBS, and TO or FROM on the TO/FROM indicator. Now
you can draw a line from the VOR. You know that you're located somewhere on that line.
19. To find your position on the line, look for a landmark, or find your position in relation to
another VOR.
20. As you get closer to the VOR station, the heading corrections will become smaller because
radials, like the spokes of a wheel, converge at the station.
21. Within a few miles of the station you'll notice the CDI and the TO/FROM indicator flickering.
The size of this cone of confusion is relatively small at low altitudes and increases with
altitude. This flickering is not station passage. Station passage is indicated when the
TO/FROM indicator makes the first complete reversal to a FROM indication.
22. As you approach the VOR station, make small corrections to keep the CDI centered.
23. A VORTAC, a VOR station in combination with a TACAN, has distance measuring capability
– DME. Some DMEs show groundspeed and time to the station as well.
24. A VOR receiver, used for instrument flight, must have been operationally checked for
accuracy within the past 30 days.
25. The Airport/Facility Directory lists designated ground and airborne receiver checkpoints. At
these locations, a specified radial should be received. For IFR, the ground check error
cannot exceed 4 degrees. Maximum error using the designated airborne check is 6 degrees.
26. Another way to check the VOR is the VOT. VOTs transmit the 360 degree radial in all
directions. No matter where the aircraft is located, the VOR receiver will indicate the 360
degree radial. Electronically, the aircraft is always located north of the VOT. For IFR flight,
the CDI must center within 4 degrees of 360 degrees FROM, or 180 degrees TO.
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Global Positioning System
GPS stands for global positioning system. It uses a constellation of 24 satellites or more to provide
very accurate navigation anywhere in the world.
Review:
1. GPS units have a database, and most of these include every radio navigational point that is
charted by the FAA, plus all the public use airports.
2. With GPS, you can navigate direct to any point in the database, or you can put in a flight plan
that will guide you from one point to another.
3. GPS gives you information on your present position in relation to your desired course, like a
VOR, and gives distance and groundspeed, like a DME.
4. Many GPS units will have all the frequencies for an airport, airport diagrams, maps of the
terrain, regulated airspace, plus the time of sunset and sunrise for airports, and many have a
vertical navigation feature that helps in descent planning and management.
5. Your GPS unit will tell you the track being made good over the ground, taking all the
guesswork out of correcting for wind drift. They will most likely tell you how long you have
been flying, and give you an ETA for your destination.
6. If you want to know about the nearest airports, that information is at your fingertips.
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ATC Radar Services
In this section we'll give you an overview of the entire ATC system, primarily looking at radar
services. We will show you how to best use and benefit from air traffic control.
Review:
1. All ATC radar facilities provide, on a workload permitting basis, traffic advisories and limited
vectoring to VFR aircraft. To receive this service you have to be able to communicate with
the facility, be within radar coverage, and be radar identified.
2. Factors such as: limitations of radar, frequency congestion, volume of traffic, and controller
workload could prevent the ATC controller from providing radar traffic advisories.
3. The controller has complete discretion and the controller's decision not to provide radar
assistance is not subject to question.
4. Radar assistance and traffic information does not relieve the pilot of the responsibility to see
and avoid other traffic.
5. You should also understand that radar vectors are advisory in nature and do not authorize
the pilot to violate federal aviation regulations.
6. If an assigned heading, altitude, or route might compromise your responsibility, you must
inform the controller and request a revised instruction.
7. Air Route Traffic Control Centers, ARTCC, handle en route IFR traffic in controlled airspace.
There are twenty centers in the lower 48 states. Each has jurisdiction of controlled airspace
the size of several states.
8. Each center controls IFR traffic within its own area and coordinates with adjacent centers for
the orderly flow of IFR traffic between areas.
9. Centers are divided into sectors. Each sector controller handles IFR traffic within the sector,
and coordinates with the controllers responsible for adjacent sectors.
10. Radar and automation make it possible for the system to handle the tremendous volume of
air traffic.
11. Flight following is an optional service in Class E airspace provided by ATC to VFR aircraft on
a workload permitting basis. When taking part in flight following, the VFR aircraft is radar
identified and in communication with a controller.
12. Flight following allows the controller to provide traffic advisories and other assistance to the
VFR aircraft.
13. Flight following provides the controller with a confirmation of the aircraft's identity, route of
flight, and altitude. This allows the controller to provide improved service to IFR traffic in the
area as well.
14. Flight following may be requested from an Air Route Traffic Control Center or from a Terminal
Radar Approach Control facility.
15. ARTCC or "Center" frequencies may be found in the chart supplement. TRACON or
"Approach" frequencies may be found on the Sectional chart and in the chart supplement.
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16. After establishing contact, the controller will give you radar traffic advisories. Other aircraft
will be described in terms of clock position, distance, direction of flight, type of aircraft, and
altitude, if known.
17. When participating in radar traffic advisory service, don't change frequencies until you are
told to do so. If you need to leave the frequency for a few minutes to update weather, simply
advise the controller of this.
18. At times, ATC will coordinate your flight following with the next sector and hand you off to a
controller on another frequency. At other times, the controller's workload may not allow this
direct handoff.
19. If you hear, "Radar service terminated squawk 1200, frequency change approved," it's the
end of your radar traffic advisories. You can call center and request VFR advisories from
them. As a VFR pilot, you may also cancel the flight following yourself.
20. The controller's display can show a wide variety of features, including airport location,
runway final approach course and special use airspace. It can also show a weather radar
overlay to help controllers vector aircraft around heavy precipitation and thunderstorms.
21. All of the higher altitude airspace in the lower 48 states is covered by radar. Low altitudes
which are distant from a radar site may not be in radar coverage.
22. You may hear the controller also tell you to "ident". The proper response to this instruction is
to activate the ident feature of your transponder after entering the assigned code. This is
simply a way of enhancing your radar identification for the controller.
23. When entering transponder codes, there are certain number combinations that should be
avoided. Some squawk codes have been assigned for use during special circumstances.
24. Some transponder codes are specific to an operation. For instance, 7700 is for emergencies,
7600 is for communications failures, and 7500 indicates to the controller you have been
hijacked. Avoid going through these codes when dialing in your code.
25. Procedures for using the special transponder codes are spelled out in the aeronautical
information manual.
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VFR Flight Following
While flying VFR, it can be useful to have an extra set of eyes on your flight. Radar flight following
can be a valuable resource.
Review:
1. Flight following is an optional service in Class E airspace provided by ATC to VFR aircraft on
a workload permitting basis.
2. When taking part in flight following, the VFR aircraft is radar identified and in communication
with a controller. This allows the controller to provide traffic advisories and other assistance
to the aircraft.
3. The controller gets a confirmation of the aircraft's identity, route of flight, and altitude.
4. Primary navigation along with "see and avoid" responsibilities remain with the VFR pilot.
5. Flight following may be requested from an air route traffic control center or from a terminal
radar approach control facility.
6. ARTCC or "center" frequencies may be found in the AFD. Tracon or "approach" frequencies
may be found on the sectional chart and in the AFD.
7. If you need to leave the frequency for a few minutes to update weather, simply advise the
controller of this.
8. If you are listening to another frequency to obtain updated weather or for other reasons,
listen carefully to both frequencies, giving ATC's frequency the priority.
9. At times, ATC will coordinate your flight following with the next sector and hand you off to a
controller on another frequency. At other times, the controller's workload may not allow this
direct handoff.
10. As a VFR pilot, you may also cancel the flight following yourself.
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ADS-B
In this section we investigate the transponder. It’s a simple device to use. All you have to do is set in
the number which is assigned by ATC for identification purposes.
Review:
1. The latest advancement is Automatic Dependent Surveillance Broadcast, or ADS-B. This

transponder type sends your aircraft GPS position data, altitude, track and speed.
2. As of January 1, 2020, it is required inside Class A, B, and C airspace, as well as within 30
nautical miles of Class B and the space above all Class C areas. The equipment is also
required at or above 10,000 feet MSL, excluding the airspace within 2,500 feet above ground
level.
3. You should leave your transponder on while taxiing, since larger airports use it to track your
location on the runways and taxiways to prevent runway incursions.
4. Transponders and altitude reporting equipment must have been tested by a certified repair
station within the preceding twenty-four calendar months.
5. If you have an ADS-B In receiver, either portable or installed in the panel, you can view
in-flight radar, text weather reports, and nearby traffic.
6. Traffic Collision Avoidance Systems (TCAS) are installed on all airliners and most corporate
aircraft and actively interrogate the transponders on nearby aircraft - regardless of radar
coverage or ADS-B ground stations - and display the relative position and altitude of traffic.
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Normal Airspace
Understanding the airspace system is easy once you grasp this concept: the designation of a parcel
of airspace is driven by what goes on there.
Review:
1. In much of the U.S. there is no need for a lot of restrictions. More control, however, is needed
around an airport where airlines are coming and going frequently.
2. The International Civil Aviation Organization, ICAO, classifies airspace by the letters A
through G, A being the most restrictive, G having the fewest constraints placed on it. There is
no class F airspace in the United States.
3. There is also special use and other airspace.
4. Class A airspace which starts at eighteen thousand feet MSL and extends up to and
including flight level six zero zero. Class A airspace is not depicted on charts.
5. Flight level altitudes are expressed in hundreds of feet. For example, flight level 350 is a
pressure altitude of 35,000 feet.
6. All operations in Class A must be conducted under instrument flight rules – you can't fly at
and above 18,000 feet VFR. You must be instrument rated and equipped, obtain an ATC
clearance before entering class A, and maintain two-way radio contact with ATC while
operating in Class A.
7. Class B airspace is located around airports where there's a large volume of air traffic.
8. Class B airspace is depicted as an upside down wedding cake in shape. It begins at the
surface and extends upward to a designated altitude.
9. Aircraft inside Class B can fly at two hundred and fifty knots. Aircraft operating below the
overhanging layers of the Class B airspace are limited to two hundred knots.
10. Before operating in Class B, you must receive authorization from ATC, maintain two-way
radio communications, and have an operating transponder with altitude reporting.
11. Private pilots may operate in Class B. Student pilots cannot takeoff, land, or fly solo in that
airspace unless they have received ground and flight instruction for the specific Class B
airspace. The student's logbook must have been endorsed within the previous 90 days by
the instructor who gave the flight instruction. Recreational pilots may fly in Class B airspace
after receiving an endorsement for ATC communication.
12. The minimum VFR visibility in Class B is 3 statute miles and you must stay clear of clouds.
Class B airspace is shown on World Aeronautical, Terminal Area, and Sectional charts.
13. Flying over or under the Class B area and within thirty nautical miles of the primary airport,
the aircraft must have an operating transponder and altitude reporting capability.
14. Class C airspace surrounds airports handling a moderate volume of air traffic and resembles
a two- layer, upside-down wedding cake in shape. It typically extends 4,000 feet above the
surface.
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15. To operate in Class C, you'll need to establish communications with ATC, and hold at least a
student pilot certificate. A transponder with altitude reporting is required within and above
Class C airspace.
16. For VFR flight, a minimum visibility of 3 statute miles is required and you must remain 500
feet below, 1,000 feet above, and 2,000 feet laterally away from clouds. Class C airspace is
on Terminal Area, Sectional, World Aeronautical, and low altitude en route charts.
17. It's depicted by solid magenta circles on VFR charts.
18. In Class C and Class D unless otherwise authorized, you may not exceed two hundred knots
within four nautical miles of the primary airport at or below 2,500 feet.
19. Class D airspace surrounds tower controlled airports that do not have an associated Class B
or C area. You must establish two way radio communications with ATC before operating in
Class D airspace, and you must possess a minimum of a student certificate.
20. Class D airspace is depicted on VFR charts with a segmented blue line. Many have arrival
extensions, giving the airspace the shape of a keyhole. The actual vertical boundary is
charted inside a blue segmented box in hundreds of feet MSL. VFR traffic advisories from
ATC are provided on a workload permitting basis.
21. Class E airspace is controlled airspace that is not included in classes A, B, C or D and
extends upward from the surface or up from a floor of either 700 or 1200 feet AGL in most
other areas. It extends up to, but not including, 18,000 feet unless there is an overlying B or
C airspace.
22. Radio contact is not required to fly VFR in Class E airspace.
23. Cloud clearances in Class E below 10,000 feet are, 500 feet below, 1,000 feet above and
2,000 feet horizontally from clouds and 3 miles visibility. At and above 10,000 feet and more
than 1200 feet AGL, this increases to five miles visibility and cloud clearances of a thousand
feet above and below and one statute mile horizontally.
24. To takeoff, land, or enter the traffic pattern at an airport in Class E airspace, you must have a
minimum ceiling of 1,000 feet and a minimum visibility of 3 miles.
25. Special VFR allows VFR flight to and from airports in controlled airspace with a minimum
visibility of one mile and still remaining clear of clouds. It must be requested by the pilot.
26. To fly special VFR at night, you must be instrument rated.
27. Check your Sectional for the many ways that Class E airspace is depicted.
28. Federal airways are designated routes between navigational facilities.
29. Class E airspace begins again above flight level 600 with no upper limit.
30. Class G airspace is referred to as uncontrolled airspace. The rules for operating in Class G
are simple, you don't have to talk to anybody or get permission to be there.
31. You do need certain visibility and cloud clearances, though, which vary by altitude and
whether it's day or night. Review these requirements.
32. The terminal radar service area (TRSA) is depicted on VFR charts with grey rings. There are
only a few TRSAs left.
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Special Use Airspace
Understanding the airspace system is easy once you grasp this concept: the designation of a parcel
of airspace is driven by what goes on there.
Review:
1. Special use airspace consists of prohibited, restricted, warning, military operation, alert, and
controlled firing areas. All these, except controlled firing areas, are charted on Terminal,
Sectional, and World Aeronautical Charts.
2. Prohibited areas specifically prohibit aircraft flight – period. It's important to check the
NOTAMs if you'll be flying around these areas.
3. Restricted areas are defined as airspace where aircraft flight is subject to restrictions.
4. Warning areas are in international airspace. Activities in warning areas may be hazardous to
non- participating aircraft. Warning areas cannot be designated restricted areas because
they are over international waters.
5. Military operation areas (MOAs) are segments of airspace defined by vertical and lateral
limits used to segregate military training activities from aircraft operating under IFR.
6. Most military training requires abrupt flight maneuvering. In an MOA, military pilots are
exempted from FAA regulations prohibiting acrobatics in certain airspace and on federal
airways.
7. Pilots of VFR aircraft should contact any flight service station within 100 miles of the MOA for
real- time information about its current status.
8. Alert areas warn pilots of a high volume of pilot training or other unusual aerial activity. Pilots
of participating and transit aircraft are equally responsible for collision avoidance.
9. Controlled firing areas have activities which, if not controlled, would be hazardous to
non-participating aircraft.
10. Other airspace includes military training routes (MTRs) and airport advisory areas. An airport
advisory area exists within 10 miles of an airport which does not have an operating control
tower but does have a flight service station. The FSS provides traffic advisories to arriving
and departing aircraft.
11. Military training routes are mutually developed by the FAA and the department of defense.
They are generally established below 10,000 feet for operations at speeds above 250 knots.
12. Pilots are not prohibited from flying in a military training route. However, pilots should be
extremely vigilant when flying on, across, or near MTRs. You can check the status of an
MTR by contacting a flight service station within 100 miles of the MTR.
13. Temporary flight restrictions (TFRs) may be imposed to protect persons or property in the air
and on the ground from an existing or imminent hazard on the surface.
14. For example, TFRs and limitations are implemented in areas visited or traveled by the
President, Vice President or other public officials.
15. Notification of TFRs or limitations is made by NOTAMs.
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Night Flying
In this section we'll introduce you to night vision, airport lighting, and give you tips to help you with
your night flying experience. You'll find that night flying is quite enjoyable since the air usually is calm
and smooth.
Review:
1. To acquire your private certificate, you must have at least three hours of night dual instruction
that includes a cross-country flight of over 100 nautical miles and 10 takeoffs and 10 full-stop
landings.
2. Night flying is not difficult, but it differs from daylight operations in that vision is restricted at
night.
3. There are techniques you can learn to enhance your night vision. For example, during the
day the best way to see something is by looking directly at it. But at night, objects are best
seen by viewing them slightly off center.
4. Also, you'll learn to avoid bright, white light before you fly to let your eyes adjust to the dark –
called dark adaptation.
5. To help maintain dark adaptation, keep the cockpit and instrument lights at a low light setting.
Red is best here.
6. As part of a night preflight, check the position lights which are red for the left wing, green for
the right, and white for the tail. Also check the anticollision lights and the landing lights for
proper operation.
7. Next check the instrument panel lights. The FARs require a spare set or three spares of each
kind of fuse to be on board.
8. Have a flashlight in good operating condition on board such as a small one that can be
carried in a shirt pocket or hung around the neck.
9. Taxi slowly at night. A lighted taxiway has blue lights. A civilian use airport has a beacon that
flashes alternately white and green.
10. Military airports have beacons that show two quick white flashes between green flashes.
11. Obstructions have red lights.
12. When ready for takeoff, turn on the landing and anticollision lights.
13. Notice that the runway threshold or end of the runway is marked with green lights. Some
airports have runway threshold lights that are green on the approach side, and red on the
runway side.
14. Runway end identifier lights are pulsating white strobe lights.
15. Runways have white edge lights. Once in the middle of the runway, check to ensure the
heading indicator and runway headings are the same.
16. It will seem like you're moving faster than usual because you have no normal visual cues as
in daylight.
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17. The location of navigation lights on an aircraft will help you determine the direction of the
other aircraft. If you see a red light, you have the left wingtip in view and it's passing from
your right to your left and has the right-of-way. If you see a white light and a flashing red or
white light, you are looking at the tail of an airplane. A green light indicates you are seeing an
airplane's right wing and it is moving from your left to right, and you have the right-of-way. An
aircraft displaying both red and green lights will be approaching head on.
18. Regulations state that navigation lights must be on anytime an airplane is taxiing or flying
during the entire period from sunset to sunrise.
19. Night is defined as the time between the end of evening civil twilight and the beginning of
morning civil twilight.
20. At night, it's important to know your position at all times when away from the airport.
21. Some airports have radio controlled runway lights. Click the microphone 7 times within 5
seconds to activate the highest intensity lights available. Once activated, they remain
illuminated for 15 minutes.
22. Keep the runway lights in sight as you enter the pattern. Do your before landing checklist.
Use the landing light to determine when to start your flare.
23. Practice landing without a landing light as well – what if it burns out?
24. A VASI system is a great help for night landing. Two bar VASI's can be seen from 3 to 5
miles during the day and up to 20 miles at night.
25. When using a VASI, don't start your descent until the airplane is aligned with the runway.
26. With the two bar VASI, if you see red over white, you are all right – meaning you are on the
glidepath. Below the glidepath both bars would be red, and above the glidepath both bars
would be white.
27. A system with all light units installed in a single row is called a precision approach path
indicator – PAPI. There are 2 and 4-light systems.
28. For the two light system, if you are on the glidepath, you will see a combination of red and
white. If both lights are white, you're too high. If you see all red, you're too low.
29. With the four light PAPI, the more white you see, the higher you are. The more red you see,
the lower you are.
30. A tri-color visual glide slope indicator is a single light unit that shows three colors. If you are
on the glidepath you'll see green. Below the glidepath, you'll see red. Above the glidepath
you'll see amber.
31. During the night, you can experience many illusions which can lead to landing errors. For
example, when landing over darkened areas it seems like the airplane is higher than it
actually is. Straight lights along a road can be mistaken for runway lights. Bright runway
lights with few lights illuminating the surrounding area may create the illusion of less distance
to the runway – the converse is also true.
32. Be aware of your approach speed. Use the same speed that you would use during the day.
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The Night Shift
In this section we'll discuss some differences between night and day flying.
Review:
1. Because you can see well during the day doesn't mean you can do the same at night. Age
and physical condition can play a significant role here.
2. Since you can't see as well as in daylight, you need to develop some techniques to help out.
3. If you takeoff and climb out over an area where there are few or no lights, maintaining
attitude by visual reference to a horizon will be quite difficult. You are now flying on
instruments.
4. Checking altitude at night like you do during the day doesn't work at night. You need to
frequently check the altimeter to verify a safe altitude.
5. Pay particular attention to the lighting activation method in the airport/facility directory --
some airports use a separate frequency other than the CTAF, which can catch you off guard
if not prepared.
6. As you make the turn to final, watch for the visual approach glide slope to come into view, in
either the form of a VASI or PAPI.
7. Something else to consider when on final at night is that there is a better chance for wildlife
to hang out near the runway as things cool off.
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International Flight Planning
Flying to an international destination can be a thrilling experience, but does demand careful planning
and attention to detail in the interest of safety as well as compliance with regulations.
Review:
1. Before you decide on your destination, it’s important to investigate that country’s
individual entry and departure requirements as well as the availability of services
including fuel, parking, transportation if needed – and the fees associated with these
services.
2. Now is also a good time to check for any travel advisories or warnings issued by the
state department and confirm your aircraft insurance extends to the country in which you
intend to operate.
3. For some international destinations, you’ll find the complexities are such that it may be
worthwhile – or even required – to enlist the assistance of a local representative known
as a handler to help navigate the entry and departure requirements to ensure a
hassle-free visit.
4. A transatlantic flight at lower altitude in a light aircraft, brings the added challenges of
aircraft communication and fuel range, as well as planning adequate fuel stops and
emergency contingencies.
5. This is not an adventure to be taken lightly and demands extended, detailed planning,
possible aircraft modification for the addition of fuel, and the right window of weather
that’s conducive for the trip.
6. The North Atlantic Operations and Airspace Manual from the international civil aviation
organization – ICAO – provides detailed information on those procedures.
7. To begin, your aircraft must be affixed with a U.S. Customs and Border Protection –
CBP- user fee decal which can be purchased online allowing several weeks for delivery.
The decal is required to be displayed on the aircraft.
8. Check that your required aircraft documents are current and valid. While not required for
domestic flights, a radio station license is required by the FCC for international flying.
9. You should also ensure a flotation device is available for each occupant if operating
beyond power-off gliding distance from shore as well as a pyrotechnic signaling device
as required by FAR 91.205. In the case of overwater travel, it’s recommended that you
also carry a life raft suitable for all occupants.
10. If you fall into the category of a large and turbine-powered multiengine airplane subject
to Part 91, Subpart F, you’ll also need to comply with the equipment required in FAR
91.509 for overwater operations.
11. As PIC, you must ensure all travelers have the appropriate travel documents on their
person which includes a valid U.S. Passport, or, for non-U.S. Citizens, a valid travel
document.
12. As pilot, you must have your license with english proficiency endorsement, passport,
medical certificate, restricted radiotelephone operator permit and, if the aircraft is not
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registered in the pilot’s name, it’s best to have a letter of authorization granting
permission for the aircraft to be operated abroad.
13. Use of an ICAO flight plan is required for international flights - either IFR or defense
VFR.
14. All pilots crossing the U.S. Border, in either direction, are required to use the CBP eAPIS
system to provide crew, passengers, aircraft, and trip information.
15. eAPIS information can be submitted online after creating an account and must be filed at
least one hour before departing or arriving in the U.S., But you can file as far in advance
as you wish.
16. You’ll be required to provide: aircraft information,customs decal number, departure
information - to include the CBP airport which is your last domestic point of departure - or
in the case you are not departing from a CBP airport, the CBP airport closest your actual
departure point, and time of departure.
17. if the departure time should later change due to an unexpected delay, as long as the
date of your departure remains the same, you’re not required to submit a new eAPIS
manifest.
18. You’ll then have to provide detailed crew and passenger information prior to submitting
your manifest. It’s recommended that you save a copy of your submitted manifest –
either digital or hard copy.
19. For planning your return to the states, ensure your arrival eAPIS has been filed and
check for any special requirements on the CBP website and then locate an airport of
entry (AOE).
20. An AOE is an airport that provides customs and immigration services for inbound flights.
In most cases your first landing airport must be the one closest to the point where the air
defense identification zone – ADIZ - is penetrated.
21. It’s also possible to obtain an overflight permit allowing you to fly beyond an initial airport
of entry. You can locate AOEs on the CBP website, FAA chart supplement, or most of
your flight planning apps.
22. CBP also requires formal notice of arrival at least 1-hour in advance, normally
accomplished by a telephone call to the CBP office at your intended airport.
23. When you land, taxi immediately to the CBP facility. Should no inspecting officer be
present, the pilot should call the CBP office for instructions.
24. As the PIC, you are responsible for holding any merchandise or baggage unopened and
on the aircraft until either a CBP officer arrives or gives instructions.
25. All occupants should have the same documents available for the return flight. And for
re-entry into the states, you’ll be required to complete the U.S. Customs and Declaration
form.
26. Be prepared to comply with inspection which may entail offloading baggage and a brief
interview by a CBP officer. The entire inspection should only last a few minutes for most
light aircraft and a little longer for larger or turbine aircraft. Once cleared by the CBP
officer, you’re free to continue on your way.
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Chapter 6 – Commercial Pilot Regulations
Pilot Responsibilities and Currency

In this section we will discuss the FAA regulations that apply to you as the holder of a pilot certificate.
Review:
1. Most of the FAA regulations are logical and provide a framework for good operating
practices.
2. The pilot in command is directly responsible for, and the final authority as to, the operation of
the aircraft. This comes with the accompanying responsibility for safe and legal operation.
3. The pilot in command may, in an emergency, deviate from any rule or clearance to the extent
required to meet that emergency. A written report may be required.
4. Part of the flight review goes over the current general operating rules of FAR Part 91. The
other part reviews proficiency in an aircraft for which the pilot is rated. You will have a
minimum of one hour each of flight and ground instruction.
5. There are some exceptions to this rule.
6. The aeronautical training and experience used to meet the requirements for a certificate or
rating, or the recent flight experience requirements of Part 61, must be shown in your
logbook. The logging of other flight time is not required.
7. You log as solo only the time you are in the airplane alone. Pilot in command time is that
flight time during which you are the sole manipulator of the controls of an airplane for which
you are rated.
8. Pilot in command time is also when you are the sole occupant of an aircraft for which you are
rated.
9. Instrument flight is only that time during which you operate the airplane solely by reference to
instruments, under actual or simulated conditions.
10. Entries must include the place and type of each instrument approach completed, and the
name of the safety pilot for each simulated instrument flight.
11. You'll use the time you logged to verify recent experience requirements.
12. You can't act as pilot in command of an aircraft carrying passengers unless within the
preceding 90 days you have made three takeoffs and three landings as the sole manipulator
of the flight controls in an airplane of the same class. This would be to a full stop in a tail
wheel airplane.
13. At night, you can't act as pilot in command of an airplane carrying passengers unless, within
the preceding 90 days, you have made three takeoffs and three landings to a full stop at
night in the category and class aircraft to be used.
14. Night for this currency is defined as the period beginning one hour after sunset and ending
one hour before sunrise.
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15. If you change your permanent mailing address, you must notify the FAA Airman Certification
Branch within 30 days to keep your certificate valid.
16. When you fly, you must have your pilot and medical certificates plus a photo ID in your
possession or readily available in the aircraft. For a photo ID you need either a driver's
license; passport, armed forces ID, or other credential acceptable to the FAA.
17. No person may act, or even attempt to act as a crewmember of a civil aircraft within 8 hours
after the consumption of any alcoholic beverage, while under the influence of alcohol, while
using any drug that affects the person's faculties in any way contrary to safety, or while
having an alcohol concentration of zero point zero four or greater in a blood or breath
specimen.
18. You can't carry a person as a passenger who appears to be intoxicated or under the
influence of drugs, unless that person is under proper medical care or if it's an emergency.
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Medical Certificate and BasicMed
In this section we will discuss the FAA regulations that apply to you as the holder of a private pilot
certificate.
Review:
1. Personal and business flying requires a third class medical and a private certificate. To fly for
hire, you need a second class medical, and a commercial certificate. Air transport operations
require an ATP and a first class medical certificate.
2. A third class medical is good for 60 calendar months if you're less than 40 years old. Over
40, it's good for 24 calendar months.
3. A second class is good for 12 calendar months except where the pilot needs only a third
class for the type flying he'll be doing.
4. A first class is good for six calendar months for air transport operations and reverts to second
class privileges for commercial flying and to third class privileges for personal and business
flying.
5. For pilots who only require a third class medical - essentially all non-commercial flying, you
may be able to operate under Basic Med rules as long as you’ve obtained at least one FAA
medical at any point after July 14, 2006 and hold a valid U.S. driver’s license.
6. When flying under basic med rules, a maximum of five passengers may be carried. and the
aircraft may not be certified with more than six seats or for more than six thousand pounds.
Pilots are restricted to operations below 18,000 feet and limited to a maximum speed of 250
knots.
7. In lieu of renewing an FAA medical with an aviation medical examiner, under basic med,
pilots must visit their primary care physician – or any state licensed physician - at least once
every four years.
8. Pilots are also required to complete an online training course in aeromedical factors every
two years which is available at no charge from the aircraft owners and pilots association.
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Flight Regulations
To apply for your private pilot certificate, you must meet the federal aviation regulations concerning
aeronautical experience and flight proficiency that apply to cross-country flights.
Review:
1. Before starting a cross-country flight, you will have to plan the flight thoroughly.
2. To fly VFR in the daytime, you need enough fuel to fly to the first point of intended landing,
and to fly after that for at least 30 minutes at normal cruising speed. At night, the time
increases to 45 minutes.
3. Any VFR flight above 3,000 feet AGL must maintain the appropriate altitudes. If you are on a
magnetic course of 0 degrees through 179 degrees, you will need to maintain an odd
thousand foot altitude plus 500 feet. If you are on a magnetic course of 180 through 359
degrees, you need to maintain an even thousand foot altitude plus 500 feet.
4. Supplemental oxygen is required to be provided for all occupants when flying at a cabin
pressure altitude above 15,000 feet. The crew must use it above 12,500 feet, except they
can operate above 12,500 to 14,000 feet for 30 minutes without supplemental oxygen.
5. You can't do aerobatics over any congested area of a city, town, or settlement; over an open
air assembly of persons; within the lateral boundaries of the surface areas of Classes B, C,
D, or E airspace which is designated for an airport, within 4 miles of an airway centerline,
below 1,500 feet above the surface, or when the flight visibility is less than three miles.
6. Any parachute that is worn must have been packed within the past 180 days if its canopy,
shrouds, and harness are composed exclusively of nylon, rayon, or similar synthetics. If the
chute is composed of silk, pongee, or other natural fibers it must have been packed within
the past 60 days.
7. During takeoff and landing, and while en route, each required crewmember must be at his
station unless absence is necessary in connection with the operation of the aircraft or in
connection with physiological needs.
8. A crewmember must keep his seat belt fastened while at his station and must, if the airplane
is so equipped, keep his shoulder harness fastened during takeoff and landing.
9. Other occupants must wear seat belts, and shoulder harness if installed, during taxi, takeoff
and landing. It's the pilot in command's responsibility to brief passengers on the use of seat
belts.
10. High performance airplanes have an engine of more than 200 hundred horsepower, while
complex airplanes have retractable gear, flaps, and a controllable pitch propeller.
11. Before you may act as pilot in command of either a high performance or a complex aircraft,
you must receive flight instruction and a logbook endorsement.
12. Before flying you must make certain there is an airworthiness certificate, a registration
certificate, weight and balance data, equipment list, and operating limitations in the aircraft.
13. The operating limitations may be found in the airplane's flight manual, approved manual
material, markings, placards, or any combination thereof.
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14. The maintenance of an airplane is the operator's responsibility and the mechanic's job, but it
is also the pilot in command's responsibility to determine that an aircraft is in condition for
safe flight.
15. The airworthiness certificate is valid as long as the airplane is maintained in accordance with
regulations.
16. If an aircraft is used to carry passengers for hire, or flight instruction for hire, it must have
both an annual and a 100 hour inspections. If it's not used for hire, it must have only an
annual inspection. Annuals are good for 12 calendar months.
17. Annuals, airworthiness directive compliance, and other maintenance, must be recorded in
the aircraft's maintenance records.
18. Pilots can perform such minor maintenance as servicing the landing gear wheel bearings but
the nature of the work, and the name, certificate number, and type of certificate of the person
performing the work must be entered in the maintenance records.
19. Any work done that substantially affects an airplane's operation in flight, must be flight tested
by a pilot with at least a private pilot certificate and approved for return to service prior to
being operated with passengers on board.
20. A transponder must have been tested and inspected within the preceding 24 calendar
months.
21. Emergency locator transmitters, ELTs, are installed in most aircraft in the United States. Non-
rechargeable ELT batteries must be replaced when 50 percent of their usable life expires or
when the ELT has been activated for more than one cumulative hour.
22. There are seven categories of aircraft: airplanes, rotorcraft, powered-lift, gliders, lighter than
air, weight-shift control, and powered parachute.
23. These categories are subdivided by classes.
24. Airplane classes are single-engine land, multiengine land, single-engine sea, and
multiengine sea. Rotorcraft classes are helicopters and gyroplanes. Airships and free
balloons are the lighter than air classes, while there are no class divisions for gliders,
powered-lift, powered parachute or weight-shift control aircraft.
25. The less maneuverable aircraft have the right-of-way. Airplanes, for example, must give way
to everything except in an emergency. Aircraft that are towing or refueling another aircraft
have the right-of-way over all other engine-driven aircraft.
26. If aircraft are approaching head on each must change course to the right. If aircraft of the
same category are converging, the aircraft to the right has the right-of-way.
27. An aircraft being overtaken has the right-of-way. The overtaking aircraft shall alter course to
the right and pass well clear.
28. An aircraft landing or on final approach has the right-of-way over other aircraft. If two or more
aircraft are approaching to land, the aircraft at the lower altitude has the right-of-way.
29. If in doubt, always yield the right-of-way. The rule is, see and avoid.
30. If you experience radio failure at a towered airport, expect the tower to use light gun signals.
If the transmitter is working, broadcast your intentions, and request light gun signals. If the
receiver is working, monitor the tower frequency for instructions.
117
31. If you are unable to receive instructions over the radio, join the airport traffic pattern, and look
for light gun signals.
32. Learn the light gun signals by heart.
118
NTSB Reporting
In this section we will discuss the FAA regulations that apply to you as the holder of a private pilot
certificate.
Review:
1. NTSB Part 830 defines what constitutes a serious injury and substantial aircraft damage.
The operator of an aircraft must notify the NTSB immediately in the case of an aircraft
accident.
2. In the case of an incident, a report must be filed only if requested.
3. The FAA has a safety reporting program designed to gather data about incidents in the hope
of preventing future accidents. If you are ever involved in a situation where you believe it
would help others to know about it, you should get a copy of Advisory Circular 00-46.
4. Your anonymity as the filer of the report is guaranteed unless you volunteer the information
at a later date.
5. One other very real benefit to filing this form is that it grants you limited immunity from any
FAA enforcement action that may be contemplated as a result of that particular incident.
119
Commercial Pilot Privileges and Limitations
In this section we will discuss the privileges and limitations that apply to you as the holder of a
commercial pilot certificate.
Review:
1. To be eligible for a Commercial pilot certificate, you must be at least 18 years old with the
ability to read, speak, write and understand English like other FAA certificates and ratings.
2. Before you can be endorsed for the practical test, your instructor will want to ensure you
meet the experience requirements. You’ll also have to pass the Commercial pilot knowledge
test after being endorsed by an instructor or completing a home study course.
3. Adding an additional class rating to your Commercial certificate, such as adding a
multiengine rating, will require additional training in that class of aircraft.
4. Regarding the complex or TAA requirement, a complex airplane is one with retractable gear,
controllable-pitch propeller, and flaps.
5. TAA airplane which is one that has an electronic primary flight display with all six primary
instruments, an electronic multifunction display that includes a GPS-based moving map with
the aircraft displayed on the screen, and a two-axis autopilot with heading and navigation
modes.
6. You’re required to possess a commercial pilot certificate or higher anytime you’re being paid
to be a pilot.
7. This includes flying as a corporate pilot, aerial surveying, pipeline patrol, sightseeing flights
or working as a flight instructor.
8. Working as a charter pilot under Part 135 will require additional flight experience and flying
for the airlines under Part 121 will require an Airline Transport Pilot Certificate, ATP.
9. While you can get paid to serve as a pilot, you can only do so under the common law term,
private carriage, which is conducted under Part 91. The opposite of private carriage is
common carriage and requires an Air Carrier Certificate issued under Part 135 for charter
operators or Part 121 for airlines.
10. An operation becomes a common carrier when it holds itself out, another common law term,
to the public to fly any person or cargo who wants it. Advertising is one of the most obvious
forms of holding out to the public which can include online postings.
11. Notable exceptions to possessing an air carrier certificate are contained in Part 119. These
jobs include flight instruction, banner towing, crop dusting, aerial photography, and others.
120
Flight Level Rules and Procedures
In this section we’ll take a look at some of the rules and regulations pertaining to high flying.
Review:
1. In Class A airspace, which starts at 18,000 feet MSL and extends up to and includes flight
level 600, all aircraft must fly under instrument flight rules. Class A is presently the only
operational airspace that requires all aircraft to be on an IFR flight plan regardless of the
weather conditions.
2. VFR on top is not allowed in Class A. However, see and avoid is the rule anytime you're
operating in visual meteorological conditions, including when in Class A airspace.
3. Reduced Vertical Separation Minimums (RVSM) rules apply from FL290 - FL450. The
airplane requires special altimeter and autopilot equipment and FAA authorization, and the
flight crew must receive RVSM training to operate at these flight levels.
4. Checklists usually call for setting the altimeter to 29.92 inches of mercury, climbing through
17,500 feet. ATC requires the controller to furnish the current altimeter setting when clearing
an aircraft to descend below flight level 180.
5. High altitude jet route charts show single direction preferred routes with an arrowhead.
These charts also display Q-routes, which are high-altitude RNAV routes and require a GPS
or FMS for en route navigation.
6. Not specifically a part of Class A rules is the requirement for DME at and above 24,000 feet
MSL if you are navigating by VOR or VOR based area navigation equipment (GPS is an
acceptable substitute for DME).
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Sporty’s Commercial Pilot Training Course

Video Training Study Guide and Review Notes

© 2022 by Sporty’s Academy, Inc. All Rights Reserved

1. The Chandelle is a maximum performance, 180° climbing turn.

Commercial Pilot Chapter 1 – Video Segment 10

1. In an unstable atmosphere vertically moving currents of air continue to move upward,

In this section, we'll take a look at Prog Charts and PIREPs.

In this section we will discuss wind shear and microbursts.

In this section, we will continue our investigation of airplane aerodynamics.

Pitot Static System

In this section we’ll take a look at deicing systems.

In this section we’ll take a look at engine instrumentation.

In this section we’ll take a look at airplane pressurization.

Flight Information Publications

1. To do this, we'll use pilotage, dead reckoning, and radio navigation.

In this section, we'll take a look at cross-country flying.

1. The latest advancement is Automatic Dependent Surveillance Broadcast, or ADS-B. This

Pilot Responsibilities and Currency

Commercial Pilot Chapter 6 – Video Segment 2

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