INTRODUCTION • Scientific Method - established processes that

scientists use to answer questions or solve

problems
WHAT TO EXPECT
Objectives
At the end of this course, the learners will be
able to:
• define environment;
• distinguish components of environment;
• define environmental science;
• outline the steps of the scientific method;
• cite the scope and importance of
environment; and
• assess the level of damage to the
environment due to one’s action
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
ENVIRONMENT • Recognize a question or an unexplained
• Environment – derived from the French word phenomenon in the natural world.
“Environ” which means “surrounding” • Develop a hypothesis, or the expected
• Our surrounding includes biotic and abiotic answer to the question.
factors • Design and perform an experiment to
test the hypothesis.
ENVIRONMENT • Analyze and interpret the data to reach a
Environmental science is the study of nature and conclusion.
the facts about environment. Environment can be • Share new knowledge with the scientific
defined as "all the social, economical, physical community.
and chemical factors that surrounds man" or "all SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENT
abiotic and biotic components around man-all • Thus the scope of environmental studies is
living and non-living things surrounds man" extremely wide and covers some aspects of
There are three reasons for studying the state of nearly every major discipline.
the environment. • We live in a world in which natural resources are
The first is the need for information that clarifies limited.
modern environmental concepts like equitable SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENT
use of natural resources, more sustainable life • Nonrenewable resources – those which will be
styles etc. Second, there is a need to change the exhausted in the future if we continue to extract
way in which we view our own environment, these without a thought for subsequent
using practical approach based on observation generations.
and self learning. Third, there is a need to create a • Renewable resources – those which can be used
concern for our environment that will trigger but can be regenerated by natural processes
pro-environmental action; including simple such as regrowth or rainfall
activities we can do in our daily life to protect it. SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENT
COMPONENTS OF ENVIRONMENT • Our natural resources can be compared with
Our environment has been classified into money in a bank. If we use it rapidly, the capital
four major components: will be reduced to zero
• Hydrosphere • Sustainable development – development that
• Lithosphere meets the needs of the present without
• Atmosphere compromising the ability of future generations
• Biosphere to meet their own needs (iisd.org).
COMPONENTS OF ENVIRONMENT
IMPORTANCE OF ENVIRONMENT
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE • Can be a source of raw materials
Environmental science - the interdisciplinary • Vital for the future development of man
study of humanity’s relationship with other • Provides habitat or a vast array of plants
organisms and the physical environment. and animals
GOALS OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE • Enlivens our existence
• To establish general principles about how the • Provide a pleasurable experience
natural world functions. • Teaches people about the fragility and
• To reach scientific consensus before the data are the need for sustainable lifestyles
complete.
• To focus on identifying, understanding, and ECOLOGY OF LIFE
solving problems that we as a society have
generated ECOLOGY

SCIENCE AS A PROCESS • Ecology – devised its name — eco from the

• Data - information with which science works Greek word for “house” and logy from the Greek
word for “study.”
• The study of the interactions one form to another, some of it is degraded into heat,
among organisms and between a less usable form that disperses into the
organisms and their abiotic environment. environment.

• Environment consists of two parts: biotic and • Plants and other photosynthetic organisms
abiotic environment are producers

POPULATION • Consumers – they consume other organisms

as a source of food energy and bodybuilding
• Population – a group of organisms of the materials
same species that live together in the same area at
the same time Primary consumers (herbivores) –
consumers that eat producers
• Species – group of similar organisms whose Secondary consumers – eat primary
members freely interbreed with one another in the consumers
wild to produce fertile offspring Tertiary consumers – eat secondary
consumers
COMMUNITY
Other consumers (omnivores) – eat a
Community – a natural association that consists of variety of organisms
all the populations of different species that live and Detritus feeders – consume detritus, organic
interact together within an area at the same time. matter that includes animal carcasses, leaf
litter, and feces
ECOSYSTEM
• Decomposers – organisms that break down
• Ecosystem – includes all the biotic dead organisms and waste products. Bacteria and
interactions of a community as well as the fungi are important examples
interactions between organisms and their abiotic
environment • Energy flow – passage of
energy in a one-way direction
The ultimate goal of ecosystem ecologists is to through an ecosystem.
understand how ecosystems function.
• Food chain – energy from food passes from
LANDSCAPE AND BIOSPHERE one organism to the next in a sequence.

• Landscape – a region that includes several

interacting ecosystems.

• Biosphere – the layer of Earth that contains

all living organisms.

FLOW OF ENERGY THROUGH ECOSYSTEMS

• Energy – capacity or ability to do work

• Energy exists as potential energy and kinetic

energy

• Thermodynamics – is the
• Food web – a complex of interconnected food
study of energy and its
chains in an ecosystem, is a more realistic model of
transformations
the flow of energy and materials through ecosystems
Two laws about energy apply to all things in the
• The longer the food chain, the
universe:
less energy is available for
• first law of thermodynamics organisms at the higher trophic levels

• second laws of thermodynamics • Most of the energy going from one trophic
level to the next in a food chain or food web
• First law of thermodynamics – a physical dissipates into the environment
law which states that energy cannot be created or
destroyed, although it can change from one form to • Ecological pyramids often
another. graphically represent the relative energy
values of each trophic level.
• Photosynthesis – biological process that
captures light energy and transforms it into the
chemical energy of organic molecules, which are
manufactured from carbon dioxide and water.

• Second law of thermodynamics – a physical

law which states that when energy is converted from
BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES
HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
WHAT TO EXPECT • Hydrologic cycles – water continuously
Objectives circulates from the ocean to the
At the end of this course, the learners will be atmosphere to the land and back to the
able to: ocean.
• diagram and explain the carbon, hydrologic, HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus cycles.

ECOLOGY
• Biogeochemical cycles – they involve
biological, geological, and chemical
interactions
• Carbon
• Hydrologic
• Nitrogen
• Sulfur
• Phosphorus
CARBON CYCLE
• Carbon cycles – global movement of
carbon between organisms and the
abiotic environment including the HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
atmosphere, ocean, and sedimentary rock
• Water may evaporate from land and reenter the
atmosphere directly.
CARBON CYCLE
• The movement of water from land to rivers, lakes,
wetlands, and the ocean is runoff.
• The area of land where runoff drains is a
watershed.

NITROGEN CYCLE
• Nitrogen cycles – the movement of
nitrogen between the abiotic
environment (primarily the atmosphere)
and living organisms.
• The five steps of the nitrogen cycle are
nitrogen fixation, nitrification,
assimilation, ammonification, and
denitrification.
CARBON CYCLE NITROGEN CYCLE
• During photosynthesis, plants, algae, and certain
bacteria remove carbon (as CO2) from the air and
fix (incorporate) it into chemical compounds such
as sugar.
• During respiration, sugar is broken down to
carbon dioxide that is returned to the
atmosphere.
• A similar carbon cycle occurs in aquatic
ecosystems, involving carbon dioxide dissolved in
the water.
• Sometimes the carbon in biological molecules
isn’t recycled back to the abiotic environment for
quite a while.

CARBON CYCLE NITROGEN CYCLE

• Large amount of carbon is stored in the wood of • Bacteria are the only organisms involved
trees, where it may stay for several hundred in each of these steps except assimilation.
years or even longer. • Nitrogen-fixing bacteria carry out
• In combustion, organic molecules in wood, coal, nitrogen fixation in soil and aquatic
oil, and natural gas are burned, with environments.
accompanying releases of heat, light, and carbon • Nitrogen is fixed into a form that
dioxide organisms can use, ammonia (NH3).
• The thick deposits of shells of marine organisms Volcanic activity, lightning, and human
contain carbon. These shells settle to the ocean activities such as combustion and
floor and are eventually cemented together to industrial processes also fix considerable
form the sedimentary rock nitrogen.
NITROGEN CYCLE: NITROGEN FIXATION over time erode to release sulfur-
containing compounds into the ocean
• Sulfur gases enter the atmosphere from
natural sources in both the ocean and
land.
• Volcanoes release both hydrogen sulfide
(H2S), poisonous gas that smells like
rotten eggs and sulfur oxides (SOx).

SULFUR CYCLE
• Hydrogen sulfide reacts with oxygen to
form sulfur oxides, and sulfur oxides react
NITROGEN CYCLE
with water to form sulfuric acid (H2SO4).
• During nitrification, soil bacteria convert
• Plant roots absorb sulfate and
ammonia to nitrate (NO3–). The process of
incorporate the sulfur into plant proteins.
nitrification furnishes these bacteria,
Animals assimilate sulfur when they
called nitrifying bacteria, with energy.
consume plant proteins and convert them
• In assimilation, plants absorb ammonia
to animal proteins.
or nitrate through their roots and convert
• In the ocean, certain marine algae release
the nitrogen into plant compounds such
a compound that bacteria convert to
as proteins. Animals assimilate nitrogen
dimethyl sulfide (DMS). Atmospheric DMS
when they consume plants or other
is converted to sulfate
animals and convert the proteins into
animal proteins.
SULFUR CYCLE
• Certain bacteria convert sulfates to
NITROGEN CYCLE
hydrogen sulfide gas, which is released
• Ammonification occurs when organisms
into the atmosphere, or to metallic
produce nitrogen-containing waste
sulfides, which are deposited as rock.
products such as urine. These substances,
• Coal, and to a lesser extent oil, contain
plus the nitrogen compounds that occur
sulfur. Sulfur dioxide, a major cause of
in dead organisms, are decomposed,
acid deposition, is released into the
releasing the nitrogen into the abiotic
atmosphere when these fuels are burned
environment as ammonia.
• Other bacteria perform denitrification,
in which nitrate is converted back to
PHOSPHORUS CYCLE
nitrogen gas
NITROGEN CYCLE
• Human activities have disturbed the
balance of the global nitrogen cycle.
Nitrogen in fertilizers washes into rivers,
lakes, and coastal areas, where it
stimulates the growth of algae. As these
algae die, their decomposition by bacteria
robs the water of dissolved oxygen, which
in turn causes many fishes and other
aquatic organisms to die of suffocation.
SULFUR CYCLE

PHOSPHORUS CYCLE
• Phosphorus Cycle – process by which
phosphorus moves from the land through
aquatic and terrestrial communities,
between organisms in these communities,
and back to the land.
• Phosphorus cycles from the land into
living organisms, then from one organism
to another, and finally back to the land.
• The erosion of phosphorus-containing
minerals releases phosphorus into the
soil, where plant roots absorb it in the
form of inorganic phosphates
SULFUR CYCLE PHOSPHORUS CYCLE
• Most sulfur is underground in • Phosphorus moves through the food web
sedimentary rocks and minerals, which as one organism consumes another
 • Phosphorus cycles through aquatic
communities in much the same way that
it does through terrestrial communities.
• Dissolved phosphorus enters aquatic
communities as algae and plants absorb
and assimilate it; plankton and larger
organisms obtain phosphorus when they
consume the algae and plants.

PHOSPHORUS CYCLE
• A variety of fishes and molluscs eat
plankton in turn.
• Ultimately, decomposers release
inorganic phosphorus into the water,
where it is available for aquatic producers
to use again.
• Some phosphate is carried from the land
by streams and rivers to the ocean, where Transport of Water
it can be deposited on the seafloor and
remain for millions of years. Evaporation - is the process by which water changes
from a liquid to a gas or vapor.
PHOSPHORUS CYCLE
• A few fishes and aquatic invertebrates are It is the primary pathway that water moves from the
eaten by seabirds, which may defecate on liquid state back into the water cycle as atmospheric
land where they roost. The manure of water vapor.
seabirds, contains large amounts of
phosphate. Once on land, these minerals
may be absorbed by the roots of plants.
PHOSPHORUS CYCLE
• Humans affect the phosphorus cycle by
accelerating the long-term loss of
phosphorus from the land.
• The addition of excess phosphorus from
fertilizer or sewage can contribute to
undesirable enrichment of water and
land.

WATER ENVIRONMENT Transpiration - the process of water movement

Water Resources through a plant and its evaporation from aerial parts,
Water – a substance composed of the such as leaves, stems and flowers.
chemical elements’ hydrogen and oxygen and • Evapotranspiration - Loss of water from the
existing in gaseous, liquid, and solid states. soil both by evaporation from the soil surface
It is the most important molecule for life – it and by transpiration from the leaves of the
is used by every known living organism. plants growing on it.
Water Resources
Water has a series of properties that makes it
so important for life:
◦ As a liquid at room temperature, it can move
easily through living organisms.
◦ Water is the universal solvent; it can dissolve
most other substances.
◦ Water is naturally found in all three phases –
solid, liquid, and gas, allowing it to be transported
around the Earth quickly and easily.

Water Cycle

Through the energy from the sun, water moves in the

atmosphere and through the force of gravity, water
moves on earth.

The cycle that treats the storage, transport and Precipitation – the release of water from clouds in
transformation of water in the atmosphere-earth the form of rain, freezing rain, sleet, snow, or hail.
system is called the Water/Hydrologic Cycle.
It is the primary connection in the water cycle that
provides for the delivery of atmospheric water to the
Earth.

Groundwater

The water that infiltrates the ground’s surface is

referred to as groundwater.

It exists below the land surface and consists of water

and air that fills pores and factures that exist
Infiltration - the process by which water on the underground.
ground surface enters the soil.
Aquifers are sponge like formations of rock and sand
Percolation - the slow movement of water through that contain groundwater.
the pores in soil or permeable rock. The uppermost border of the aquifer is called the
water table.
Water enters aquifers through areas of soil called
recharge zones.
Aquifers that are trapped between impermeable
layers of rock or clay are called confined aquifers.

Wells that enter unconfined aquifers are called water

table or groundwater wells.
Wells that enter confined aquifers are called artesian
wells.

Runoff - water, from rain, snowmelt, or other

sources, that flows over the land surface.

Interflow - also known as subsurface runoff – the

relatively rapid flow of water toward the stream
channel that occurs below the surface.

Surface Waters

Streams and rivers are fed by runoff from

surrounding areas and areas where groundwater
flows to the surface.

Lakes and ponds are standing bodies of surface water

fed from rivers, streams, and runoff from
precipitation.
◦ liquid to gas (evaporation/evapotranspiration) Watersheds
◦ gas to liquid (condensation e.g. cloud formation) A watershed is defined as the land area that drains
◦ gas to solid (deposition e.g. snow formation) to a point of concern.

◦ solid to liquid (snowmelt) Drainage in watershed is due to gravity wherein

water flows to the river or lakes.
Watershed boundaries are defined (or delineated)
by topographical ridges
Water Usage Excessive groundwater consumption can also lead to
subsidence, a compression and sinking of the zone of
Water withdrawal measures the total amount saturation.
diverted or withdrawn from a source.
◦ The water may be returned, such as with coolant
water in power plants.
Water consumption measures water permanently
removed from a source.
◦ Water used for irrigation that evaporates.

Solutions to Water Depletion

Addressing water stress requires either reducing

demand through conservation or finding alternative
supplies.

Desalination is the removal of salt from seawater.

Residential water use (also called domestic use, ◦ Distillation involves the heating of water,
household use, or tap water use) includes all indoor collecting the steam, then disposing of the salt
and outdoor uses of drinking quality water at single- waste.
family and multifamily dwellings
◦ Reverse osmosis uses pressure to pass water
through a physical filter.

Water Conservation in Agriculture

Water conservation focuses on agriculture, as it is
the biggest source of water consumption.
Water conservation methods in agriculture include:
◦ Lining irrigation canals to prevent leaks.
◦ Contour plowing and terracing to minimize
water runoff.

Water stress occurs when the demand for water

◦ Switching to high-efficiency irrigation methods,
like drip irrigation.
exceeds the supply. This is likely to occur in:
◦ Naturally arid ecosystems. ◦ Eliminating water-intensive crops, such as rice,
from arid regions.
◦ Heavily populated countries. Water conservation in homes
◦ Areas with intensive, highly-irrigated
Water conservation in homes can be achieved
agriculture.
through the use of low-flow faucets, showerheads,
washing machines, and dual-flush toilets.
Overconsumption is when water is consumed faster
than it is replenished.
Graywater is relatively-clean water from the sink,
shower, laundry, and dishwasher that may be used
The overconsumption of water has led to the
for non-drinking purposes, such as toilet flushing, car
lowering of water levels in surface waters, including
washing, and garden irrigation.
lakes and rivers.
Xeriscaping is landscaping with plants that require
Groundwater depletion is primarily caused by
little or no irrigation.
sustained groundwater pumping.
Water Pollution
A cone of depression is a lowering of the water table
around a groundwater well due to excessive
Water pollution is the addition of any substance that
consumption.
degrades, or lowers the quality of the water for living
organisms.
Saltwater intrusion place when salt water moves
into freshwater aquifers due to excessive
Point source pollution has a single discharge site,
consumption and a lowering of the water table.
such as a sewage outlet pipe.
Nonpoint source pollution comes from multiple Pesticide pollution is the runoff of any sprayed
small sources, such as cars leaking oil, fertilizer insecticides or herbicides into surface waters.
runoff from lawns, etc
◦ Sources include agriculture pesticide use,
residential mosquito spraying, and the use of
Heavy metal pollution includes all metals with high
herbicides.
relative atomic mass.
◦ Mercury accumulates in living tissues, causing Clean Water Act
nerve damage.
The Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004 (Republic Act
◦ Iron, manganese, and copper are common metal No. 9275) aims to protect the country’s water bodies
contaminants that enter water as part of acid
from pollution from land-based sources (industries
mine drainage.
and commercial establishments, agriculture and
community/household activities). It provides for a
Nutrient pollution is the addition of compounds
comprehensive and integrated strategy to prevent
containing nitrogen and phosphorous to water.
and minimize pollution through a multi-sectoral and
Sources include:
participatory approach involving all the stakeholders.
◦ Runoff of fertilizer from agricultural fields,
lawns, and golf courses. Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) | US EPA
◦ Soaps and detergents may have high amounts of The Safe Drinking Water Act set limits and testing
phosphorus. guidelines for contaminants in drinking water,
◦ Nitric acid rain from nitrogen oxides released by including:
coal-burning power plants and vehicle exhaust. ◦ Heavy metals
Cultural eutrophication is an overgrowth of algae in
water that occurs as a result of nutrient pollution. ◦ Microorganisms
Oxygen-depleting pollution includes any organic
◦ Water treatment byproducts
matter that promotes the growth of decomposing ◦ Radioactive substances
bacteria that use up dissolved oxygen in the water.
◦ Other chemicals
◦ Dead plants and algae in eutrophic ponds. Utilities must notify customers whenever tests
indicate levels above acceptable levels.
◦ Raw sewage.
This creates a dead zone where oxygen
Bottled Water
concentration is so low that animal life suffocates and
dies.
Bottled water is classified as food and regulated by
the FDA, with fewer requirements than drinking
water.

Bottled water is classified primarily by source:

◦ Artesian water – From a confined aquifer.
◦ Distilled – Water has been boiled and
recollected. Contains no minerals.
◦ Purified water – Public drinking water that has
been filtered.
Sediment pollution includes particles of silt, sand,
and clay that enter water due to erosion from nearby ◦ Spring – Groundwater (unconfined aquifer) that
land. flows naturally to the surface
Ocean Pollution
Sediment is normal, but too much increases the The majority of pollution in the ocean falls into two
turbidity or cloudiness of the water. categories:

Highly turbid water blocks sunlight from reaching the

◦ Oil
bottom of a stream, lake, or pond. ◦ Petroleum-based plastics
Stream beds may also be smothered in sediment,
blocking air from reaching small invertebrates. Oil in water damages marine life in multiple ways:
◦ Oil penetrates the fur and feathers of birds and
Acid pollution includes any substance that lowers mammals, destroying their natural insulation.
the pH of water below its normal levels.
◦ Oil directly damages the tissues of fish and eggs.
◦ Acid mine drainage ◦ Oil can sink to the sea floor as part of marine
◦ Acid precipitation snow, suffocating and poisoning benthic
organisms.
Natural seeps are the biggest (47%) source of oil in 2. Polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs)
the ocean. 3. UV light
The biggest human sources, in order, are:
Atmospheric Layers
◦ Runoff from land (38%)
Troposphere (surface – 11 km): Nearly all of what
◦ Spills from oil tankers (8%) we think of as “weather” happens here. Lapse rate of
6.5 °C per km.
◦ Spills from drilling (3%) Stratosphere (11 km – 50 km): Where the ozone
layer is located and Sun’s UV rays are absorbed by
Plastics photo dissociation.
The ocean is becoming increasingly polluted with Mesosphere (50 km – 90 km)
plastics, most of which originate from trash on land Thermosphere: (90 km – 500 km): Ionization of
that was washed down storm drains. atmospheric gases
◦ These plastic pieces can be ingested by fish, Exosphere (500 km): Basically outer
birds, and marine mammals. space…

Plastic is non-degradable, meaning that it does not Atmospheric Circulation

fully decompose in the environment. The amount of solar energy that reaches different
areas on Earth varies over the course of each year
Plastic pieces accumulate in ocean gyres; large and from place to place around the globe.
systems of circulating ocean currents. This variation creates differences in temperature,
which then drive the circulation of the atmosphere.
AIR ENVIRONMENT The very warm regions near the equator heat the air,
What is an atmosphere which
Atmosphere comes from Modern Latin atmosphaera, expands and rises.
from Greek atmos (vapor or steam) and sphaira (ball As this warm air rises, it cools, spreads, and then
or globe). sinks again.
It is the envelope of gases surrounding the earth
In atmospheric convection, heating of the ground
surface heats the air, producing an updraft of less
dense, warm air.
The convection process ultimately causes air
currents that mix warmer and cooler parts of the
atmosphere.

Water Vapor
Water vapor is also the most important greenhouse
gas in the
atmosphere.
Heat radiated from Earth's surface is absorbed by
water vapor Global circulation patterns of the atmosphere
molecules in the lower atmosphere. features smaller-scale horizontal movements, or
The water vapor molecules, in turn, radiate heat in all winds.
directions. Some of the heat returns to the Earth's The motion of wind, with its eddies, lulls, and
surface. Thus, water vapor is a second source of turbulent gusts, is difficult to predict. It results partly
warmth (in addition to sunlight) at the Earth's from fluctuations in atmospheric pressure and partly
surface. from the planet’s rotation.

Stratospheric Ozone
Stratospheric ozone protects from Sun’s UV rays.

An ozone hole occurs over the polar regions because

of:
1. Chlorofluorocarbons
 These inhibit plant growth and, when inhaled,
Air Pollution aggravate health problems such as asthma. These are
Air pollution is the addition of any substance that has involved in the production of photochemical smog
harmful or toxic effects to air. and acid deposition.
Most air pollution is the result of combustion; a These are associated with global warming, and it
reaction between a fuel source and oxygen that depletes ozone in the stratosphere. These cause
releases energy metals to corrode and textiles to fade and deteriorate.

Source of Air Pollution Sulfur oxide

Air pollution can come from natural sources, such as Sulfur oxide gases result from chemical interactions
smoke from a forest fire ignited by lightning or gases between sulfur and oxygen.
from an erupting volcano. Sulfur dioxide (SO2), a colorless, nonflammable gas
Human activities release many kinds of substances with a strong, irritating odor, is emitted as a primary
into the atmosphere and contribute greatly to global air pollutant. Sulfur trioxide (SO3) is a secondary air
air pollution. pollutant that forms when sulfur dioxide reacts with
oxygen in the air. Sulfur trioxide, in turn, reacts with
water to form another secondary air pollutant,
sulfuric acid.

Sulfur oxides play a major role in acid deposition, and

they corrode metals and damage stone and other
materials.
Sulfuric acid and other sulfur oxides damage plants
and irritate the respiratory tracts of humans and
other animals.

Carbon oxides
Carbon oxides are the gases carbon monoxide (CO)
and carbon dioxide (CO2).
Carbon monoxide is a colorless, odorless, and
tasteless gas produced in incomplete combustion of
hydrocarbons. Carbon monoxide is poisonous.
Carbon monoxide reduces the blood’s ability to
transport oxygen.
Carbon dioxide, also colorless, odorless, and tasteless,
Categories of Air Pollution
is associated with global climate change.
Primary air pollutants are released directly from a
source into the atmosphere. They include carbon
Hydrocarbons
oxides, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, particulate
Hydrocarbons are a diverse group of organic
matter, and hydrocarbons.
compounds that contain only the elements hydrogen
Ozone, sulfur trioxide, and several acids are called
and carbon.
secondary air pollutants because they are formed
Small hydrocarbon molecules, such as methane
from chemical reactions that take place in the
(CH4), are gaseous at room temperature. Methane is
atmosphere.
colorless and odorless and is the principal
component of natural gas. (The odor of natural gas
comes from sulfur compounds deliberately added so
that humans can detect the gas’s presence.)

Medium-sized hydrocarbons, such as benzene

(C6H6), are liquids at room temperature, although
many are volatile and may evaporate easily.
The many different hydrocarbons have a variety of
effects on human and animal health. Some cause no
adverse effects, some injure the respiratory tract, and
others cause cancer. All except methane contribute to
the production of photochemical smog. Methane is
linked to global warming.
Nitrogen oxides
Nitrogen oxides are gases produced by chemical Ozone
interactions between nitrogen and oxygen when a
source of energy, such as fuel combustion, produces Ozone (O3) is a form of oxygen considered a pollutant
high temperatures. in one part of the
Collectively known as NOx, nitrogen oxides consist atmosphere but an essential component of another.
mainly of nitric oxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), Stratospheric ozone protects Earth’s surface from
and nitrous oxide (N2O). receiving harmful levels of solar UV radiation.
Unfortunately, certain human-made pollutants, such
as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), react with ◦ Sulfuric acid, a secondary pollutant of sulfur
stratospheric ozone, breaking it down into molecular dioxide.
oxygen (O2). As a result of this breakdown, more ◦ Nitric acid, a secondary pollutant of nitrogen
solar UV reaches Earth’s surface. oxides.
Ozone in the troposphere is a human-made air Normal rainwater has a pH of about 5.6 due to the
pollutant. Ozone in the troposphere is a secondary air presence of carbonic acid.
pollutant formed when sunlight triggers reactions ◦ Acid rain has a pH of 4.0 or less.
between nitrogen oxides and volatile hydrocarbons.

Ground-level ozone is a highly-reactive secondary

pollutant that damages the living tissues of
organisms.
Ground-level ozone is produced from a reaction
between volatile organic compounds, nitrogen
oxides, and sunlight react in stagnant air.
◦ Volatile organic compounds are released by
the evaporation of fuels, solvents, and paints. Acid rain has many
ecological effects:
Ozone action days are alerts issued when conditions ◦ Many plants cannot absorb nutrients
are right for accumulation of the pollutant – warm, properly from acidic soil.
sunny, windless days.
◦ Fish and amphibians have specific pH
The most harmful component of photochemical ranges they can tolerate.
smog, ozone reduces air visibility and causes health Acid rain also has corrosive effects on statues and
problems. Ozone also reduces plant vigor, and road
chronic ozone exposure (of long duration) lowers structures.
crop yields. Chronic exposure to ozone is one
possible contributor to forest decline, and ground- Acid rain has decreased significantly as greater
level ozone is associated with global warming. controls have been placed on emitters of sulfur
dioxide and
Hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) nitrogen oxides.
Hazardous air pollutants (HAPs), or air toxics,
include hundreds of other air pollutants—such as Ozone Depletion
chlorine (Cl2), lead, hydrochloric acid, formaldehyde, The ozone layer is an ozone-rich area of the
radioactive substances, and fluorides. stratosphere that blocks some of the mutagenic
HAPs are present in very low concentrations, ultraviolet radiation from the sun.
although it is possible to have high local In the 1970s, depletion
concentrations of specific pollutants. They are of ozone above Antarctica was creating a “hole” in
potentially harmful and may pose long-term health this protective layer.
risks to people who live and work around chemical ◦ The hole was growing the fastest during
factories, incinerators, or other facilities that produce September and October each year.
or use them. To limit the release of more than 180
HAPs, the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 The cause of the hole was discovered to be
regulate the pollutant emissions of both large and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), compounds that were
small businesses. used in aerosol cans and as refrigerants.
◦ The CFCs were becoming trapped in the
Clean Air Act of 1970 Antarctic snow and ice, which would then melt
Passage of the Clean Air Act of 1970 had measurable in the spring months of September and October.
impacts on air quality and health.
Some ice core samples show that sulfur emissions, An international agreement, called
which increased steadily following the industrial the Montreal Protocol, was
revolution, stabilized in the 1970s passed in 1987 that phased out chlorine- containing
products.
Clean Air Act 1990 Amendments
CFC release stabilized and has started to decline as a
The Clean Air Act was amended in 1990, adding result of the Montreal Protocol.
additional standards to The ozone hole is predicted to heal
address three major issues with air quality: sometime around the year 2050.
◦ Acid Rain
◦ The Ozone Layer
◦ Urban air quality

Acid Precipitation
Acid precipitation occurs whenever rainfall or
snowfall contains a lower than normal pH due to the
formation of two secondary pollutants:
 ◦ Wastes from production, formulation and use of
resins, latex, plasticizers, glues/adhesives

◦ Wastes resulting from surface treatment of

metals and plastics

◦ Residues arising from industrial waste disposal

operations

◦ Wastes which contains certain compounds such

as: copper, zinc, cadmium, mercury, lead and
asbestos

Urban Air Quality

◦ Household waste and residues arising from
incineration of household wastes.

A massive increase in automobile emissions in urban Concerns about hazardous wastes

areas created serious air pollution problems through Cause of mass life and material damage and loss
the 1980s. (disability, death, fire, explosion)
The following changes were made to reduce this Cause of environmental damages: water, solid and air
problem: pollution (under ground and surface drinking water)
◦ Higher standards on vehicle emissions. Cause of potential increased chemical
◦ Reduction in sulfur content of diesel fuel. bioaccumulation that is hard for biodegradability
◦ Cities with the worst ozone problems were (chlorine containing chemicals)
required to use reformulated gas, which as a Cause of long term irreversible health risks
higher ethanol content. High concern of trans-boundary movement of toxic
waste
Keeping Air Clean Cause of massive toxic health damages
Scrubber systems use a liquid spray to wash
unwanted pollutants from a gas stream. Characteristics of hazardous wastes
Electrostatic precipitators are electrically-charged
plates that will attract pollutants, preventing them
◦ Flammable/Ignitable
from being released into the air.
Catalytic converters are devices in cars that reduce
◦ Corrosive
emissions of pollutants like nitrogen oxides and ◦ Toxic
carbon monoxide by partially converting them to less
harmful gases. ◦ Reactive
Cleaner Fuels ◦ Radioactive
Switching from fuels that are heavily polluting, like
◦ Infectious
coal, to ones that are cleaner-burning, like natural
Characteristics of hazardous wastes
gas, can also reduce pollution.
Flammable or ignitable hazardous wastes are
wastes that can easily catch on fire and sustain
HAZARDOUS WASTE
combustion.
Hazardous waste
Examples are waste oils and solvents.
Hazardous waste is discarded material commonly
chemicals that threatens human health and
Corrosive hazardous waste substances include
environment.
liquids with pH less than 2 or greater than 12.5 and
It includes drain cleaners, oil paint, motor oil,
those that are capable of corroding metal containers.
antifreeze, fuel, poisons, pesticides, herbicides,
Examples are battery acids, muriatic acid, alkaline
fluorescent lamps, medical wastes, some types of
degreasers, etc.
cleaning wastes, electronic appliances and gadgets,
etc.
Toxic hazardous wastes are substances harmful or
fatal when ingested or absorbed.
Source of hazardous wastes
Examples are asbestos, lead battery, pesticides, etc.
It is generated from many sources which includes
industrial manufacturing, agriculture, commercial
Reactive hazardous waste substances are unstable
and residential. It comes in many forms (solid, liquid,
under normal conditions. They can cause explosions
gas, and sludge). It includes:
and/or liberate toxic fumes, gases, and vapors when
◦ Clinical wastes mixed with water.
Examples are explosives, lithium-sulfur batteries, and
◦ Waste oils/water, hydrocarbon/water mixtures, cyanide plating
emulsions
Radioactive waste is nuclear fuel that is produced Source reduction
after being used inside of a nuclear reactor. It can Preventing the creation of hazardous materials,
lead to can lead to high radiation and raise choosing less hazardous materials over more
temperature levels. hazardous ones, and minimizing the amounts of
resources used to make products.
Infectious wastes are wastes contaminated with Examples are the use of environment friendly house
blood and other bodily fluids (e.g. from discarded cleaning products, use of organic pesticides and
diagnostic samples),cultures and stocks of infectious hazardous waste recycling.
agents from laboratory work (e.g. waste from
autopsies and infected animals from laboratories), or Conversion
waste from patients with infections (e.g. swabs, Hazardous waste can be reduce its toxicity by
bandages and disposable medical devices); chemical, physical, or biological means, depending on
the nature of the waste.
Some hazardous chemicals High temperature incineration, for example, reduces
Arsenic: Arsenic gets released into groundwater dangerous compounds such as pesticides, PCBs, and
through agriculture, wood preservatives, and glass organic solvents to safe products such as water and
production. It can cause cancer, respiratory, carbon dioxide.
circulatory problems.
Lead: Lexi is a hazardous chemical that Often occurs Storage
near mining sites. It can get the food chain and case Hazardous waste that is not completely detoxified
heart disease. must be placed in long-term storage.
Benzene: Benzene can be released into the Hazardous waste landfills are subject to strict
environment because Of gasoline vapors and environmental criteria and design features.
automobile exhaust, and has been linked to leukemia. They are located as far as possible from aquifers,
Chromium: Chromium has been used in the natural streams, wetlands, and residences.
gas industry to prevent machinery from rusting.
Toluene: Toluene can enter the environment Republic Act No. 6969
through its use in solvents and petroleum products. If The act is known as the “Toxic Substances and
inhaled at heavy doses, it can damage the central Hazardous and Nuclear Wastes Control Act of
nervous system. 1990.”
Cadmium: Highly toxic even in low doses, cadmium It is the policy of the State to regulate, restrict or
is most found in industrialized areas and is rebased prohibit the importation, manufacture, processing,
into the environment through fuel combustion, sale, distribution, use and disposal of chemical
incorrectly handled sewage sludge, and fertilizers. substances and mixtures that present unreasonable
Zinc: Zinc can be released into the atmosphere due to risk and/or injury to health or the environment; to
galvanized metal surfaces, motor oil spills, and tire prohibit the entry, even in transit, of hazardous and
dust, and can accumulate through storm water runoff nuclear wastes and their disposal into the Philippine
and harm fish and other aquatic life. territorial limits for whatever purpose; and to
Mercury: Mercury gets into the astrosphere through provide advancement and facilitate research and
metal processing, coal burning, medical waste, and studies on toxic chemicals.
more. The health problems it engenders are many:
brain and kidney and immune system problems can WASTEWATER TREATMENT
result from overexposure to mercury. Wastewater Treatment
A process to convert wastewater - which is water
Pesticides no longer needed or suitable for its most recent use -
Pesticides are hazardous but used in industrial-scale into an effluent that can be either returned to the
agriculture. Pesticides accumulate through water water cycle with minimal environmental issues or
runoff and find their way into water supplies. They reused.
can cause neurological and reproductive disorders.

E-wastes
When electronics are incorrectly disposed of,
hazardous substances like lead, mercury, and arsenic
can leak out, contaminating their surroundings, such
as when they're in a landfill. Over time, these metals
and compounds seeps into the soil, and through
bioaccumulation are passed along with the food
chain.
Managing hazardous waste
There are three ways to manage hazardous waste:
• Source reduction
• Conversion to less hazardous materials
• Long-term storage
Sources of wastewater
• Residences

◦ human and animal excreta and waters used Wastewater Treatment

for washing, bathing, and cooking.
•
•
Commercial institution
Dairy and industrial establishment
◦ Pre-treatment
◦ slaughterhouse waste, dairy waste, tannery ◦ Preliminary treatment
wastewater, etc.
◦ Primary treatment
Types of wastewater treatment
Physical water treatment – physical methods are
◦ Secondary treatment
used for cleaning the wastewater. No chemicals are
involved in this process such as screening, and
◦ Tertiary treatment
sedimentation. Aeration is also a physical treatment
process.
◦ Sludge (biosolids) disposal
Pre-treatment
Biological water treatment – This uses various
biological processes to break down the organic
matter present in wastewater, such as soap, human
◦ Pre-treatment
waste, oils and food. Microorganisms metabolize
organic matter in the wastewater in biological
−waste water moves towards the plant by
means of gravity. Lift station pump water are
treatment. used from low lying areas.

Three categories of biological waste treatment −removes large objects and non-degradable
materials.
◦ Aerobic processes: Bacteria decomposes the
organic matter and converts it into carbon −bar screen and grit chamber
dioxide that can be used by plants. Oxygen is Pre-treatment
used in this process. Bar Screen

◦ Anaerobic processes: Here, fermentation is - catches large objects that have gotten into sewer
used for fermenting the waste at a specific system such as bricks, bottles, pieces of wood, etc.
temperature. Oxygen is not used in anaerobic
process. Grit Chamber – removes rocks, gravel, broken glass,
◦ Composting: A type of aerobic process where etc.
Mesh Screen – removes diapers, combs, towels,
wastewater is treated by mixing it with sawdust
plastic bags, syringes, etc.
or other carbon sources.
Pre-treatment
Suspended Solids – the quantity of solid materials
Chemical water treatment - this treatment involves
floating in the water column
the use of chemicals in water.
B.O.D. = Biochemical Oxygen Demand – a measure of
Chlorine, an oxidizing chemical, is commonly
the amount of oxygen required to aerobically
used to kill bacteria which decomposes water by
decompose organic matter in the water
adding contaminants to it.
Measurements of Suspended Solids and B.O.D.
Another oxidizing agent used for purifying
indicate the effectiveness of treatment processes
the wastewater is ozone.
Both Suspended Solids and B.O.D. decrease as water
Neutralization is a technique where an acid
moves through the wastewater treatment processes
or base is added to bring the water to its natural pH
of 7. Chemicals prevent the bacteria from
Primary Treatment
reproducing in water, thus making the water pure.
− It involves sedimentation of solid waste within
the water.
 − This is done after filtering out larger
contaminants within the water.
− Wastewater is passed through several tanks and
filters that separate water from contaminants.
− The resulting “sludge” is then fed into a digester,
in which further processing takes place.
Activated sludge – consists of an aeration tank
− Thisprimary batch of sludge contains nearly followed by a secondary clarifier. Settled sewage,
50% of suspended solids within wastewater. mixed with fresh sludge that is recirculated from the
secondary clarifier, is introduced into the aeration
Primary Treatment tank. The mixture then flows from the aeration tank
into the secondary clarifier, where activated sludge
settles out by gravity.

Oxidation pond – also called lagoons or stabilization

ponds, are large, shallow ponds designed to treat
Pre-settling basin, primary sedimentation tanks or wastewater through the interaction of sunlight,
primary clarifiers wherein two hours of detention bacteria, and algae. Mechanical aerators are
takes place for sewage for gravity settling. The tanks sometimes installed to supply yet more oxygen.
are used to settle sludge while grease and oils rise to Sludge deposits in the pond must eventually be
the surface and are skimmed off. removed by dredging. Algae remaining in the pond
effluent can be removed by filtration or by a
Rapid mixing is a process of applying turbulence on combination of chemical treatment and settling.
the tank adding chemicals that encourages
coagulation to water streams.
Primary coagulants

◦ aluminum coagulants (aluminum sulfate,

aluminum chloride and sodium aluminate)

◦ iron coagulants (ferric sulfate, ferrous sulfate, Tertiary Treatment

ferric chloride and ferric chloride sulfate)
The aim of tertiary wastewater treatment is to raise
◦ other chemicals (hydrated lime and magnesium the quality of the water to domestic and industrial
standards, or to meet specific requirements around
carbonate)
the safe discharge of water.
Flocculation - a gentle mixing stage, increases the More than one tertiary treatment process may be
particle size from submicroscopic microfloc to visible used at any treatment plant. If disinfection is
suspended particles. Microfloc particles collide, practiced, it is always the final process. It is also
causing them to bond to produce larger, visible flocs called "effluent polishing".
called pinflocs. The treatment process is chemic/physical process to
remove remaining inorganic compounds, and
Secondary treatment substances, such as the nitrogen and phosphorus.
Secondary treatment removes the soluble organic
matter that escapes primary treatment. Filtration is a process that removes particles and
It also removes more of the suspended solids. other media of a certain size and larger from liquids.
Removal is usually accomplished by biological Removing these particles and debris from a
processes in which microbes consume the organic wastewater system allows the water to be reused
impurities as food, converting them into carbon within that system.
dioxide, water, and energy for their own growth and
reproduction. Sand filtration removes much of the residual
suspended matter. Filtration over activated carbon,
Trickling filter – tank filled with a deep bed of also called carbon adsorption, removes residual
stones. Settled sewage is sprayed continuously over toxins
the top of the stones and trickles to the bottom,
where it is collected for further treatment. As the
wastewater trickles down, bacteria gather and
multiply on the stones.
Biological nutrient removal (BNR) is regarded by
some as a type of secondary treatment process, and
by others as a tertiary (or "advanced") treatment
process .
Wastewater may contain high levels of the nutrients
nitrogen and phosphorus. Excessive release to the
environment can lead to a buildup of nutrients, called
eutrophication.
Nitrogen is removed through the biological oxidation
of nitrogen from ammonia to nitrate (nitrification),
followed by denitrification.

Phosphorus can be removed biologically in a process

called enhanced biological phosphorus removal. In this
process, specific bacteria, called polyphosphate-
accumulating organisms (PAOs).
Phosphorus removal can also be achieved by
chemical precipitation, usually with salts of iron (e.g.
ferric chloride), aluminum (e.g. alum), or lime.
Once removed, phosphorus, in the form of a
phosphate-rich sewage sludge, may be dumped in a
landfill or used as fertilizer.

Disinfection. The purpose of disinfection in the

treatment of waste water is to substantially reduce
the number of microorganisms in the water to be
discharged back into the environment for the later
use of drinking, bathing, irrigation, etc.
Common methods of disinfection include ozone,
chlorine, ultraviolet light, or sodium hypochlorite