1 s2.0 S0360319923002951 Main

i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 8 ( 2 0 2 3 ) 1 7 6 0 5 e1 7 6 2 9
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
ScienceDirect
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/he
Feasibility analysis of blending hydrogen into

natural gas networks
Josmar B. Cristello a, Jaehyun M. Yang a, Ron Hugo a, Youngsoo Lee b,

Simon S. Park a,*
a
Pipeline Engineering Centre, University of Calgary, Alberta, Canada
b
Jeonbuk National University, Jeonju, South Korea
highlights graphical abstract
Challenges to the blending

hydrogen in natural gas pipelines
are investigated.
Potential solutions and new de-
velopments are presented.
A gas hydraulic simulation,
optimal amount of hydrogen
blends are suggested.
Computational pipeline moni-
toring (CPM) methods are likely
compatible.
Even accounting for hydrogen
production, overall GHG emissions
are reduced.
article info abstract
Article history: Hydrogen fuel has the potential to mitigate the negative effects of greenhouse gases and
Received 25 October 2022 climate change by neutralizing carbon emissions. Transporting large volume of hydrogen
Received in revised form through pipelines needs hydrogen-specific infrastructure such as hydrogen pipelines and
8 January 2023 compressors, which can become an economic barrier. Thus, the idea of blending hydrogen
Accepted 14 January 2023 into existing natural gas pipelines arises as a potential alternative for transporting
Available online 9 February 2023 hydrogen economically by using existing natural gas grids. However, there are several
potential issues that must be considered when blending hydrogen into natural gas pipe-
Keywords: lines. Hydrogen has different physical and chemical properties from natural gas, including
Hydrogen blending a smaller size and lighter weight, which require higher operating pressures to deliver the
Pipeline safety same amount of energy as natural gas. Additionally, hydrogen's small molecular size and
Leak detection lower ignition energy make it more likely to permeate through pipeline materials and seals,
Computational pipeline monitoring leading to degradation, and its wider flammability limits make it a safety hazard when
leaks occur. In this study, we investigate these potential issues through simulation and
technical surveys. We develop a gas hydraulic model to simulate the physical character-
istics of a transmission and a distribution pipeline. This model is used throughout the
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (S.S. Park).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2023.01.156
0360-3199/© 2023 Hydrogen Energy Publications LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
17606 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 8 ( 2 0 2 3 ) 1 7 6 0 5 e1 7 6 2 9
study to visualize the potential impacts of switching from natural gas to hydrogen, and to
investigate potential problems and solutions. Furthermore, we develop a Real-Time
Transient Model (RTTM) to address the compatibility of current computational pipeline
monitoring (CPM) based leak detection methods with blended hydrogen. Finally, we sug-
gest the optimal hydrogen concentration for this model, and investigate the amount of
carbon reduction that could be achieved, while considering the energy needs of the system.
© 2023 Hydrogen Energy Publications LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Nomenclature hc Compressor efficiency

r Fluid density
A Cross-sectional area of pipe
P Pressure
a Proportional constant (HEE Index)
P1 Upstream pressure
as Speed of sound
P2 Downstream pressure
Cd Discharge coefficient
Pb Atmospheric pressure
Cm Carbon content, mixture
Pd Discharge pressure
Cr Compression ratio
Ps Suction pressure
Cs Carbon content, hydrocarbon
Power Compression power
D Internal diameter
Q Volumetric flow rate
Df Design factor
Qi Original flow rate
Do External Diameter
Qr Desired flow rate
Ef Pipe seam joint factor
Re Reynolds number
ECO2 Equivalent CO2 emission
S Minimum yield strength
ed Absolute pipe roughness
Sg Specific gravity of the fluid
f Darcy friction factor
Sh Hoop stress
FC Volume of fuel consumed
T Temperature
G Gas gravity
Tf Temperature derating factor
g Gravitational acceleration
t Time
h Elevation
tp Wall thickness
H Hydraulic head
T1 Suction temperature
DHc Compressor head
Tb Atmospheric temperature
Hf Material performance factor
Tf Average fluid temperature
Jt Joule-Thompson coefficient
V Flow velocity
L Length of pipe section
Wt%i Weight percent of component
LHVCH4 Methane's lower heating value
g Ratio of specific heats of gas
LHVB Blend's lower heating value
gw Specific weight
MAOP Maximum allow. operating pressure
Z Gas compressibility factor
Mf Mass flow rate
Z1 Compressibility of gas (suction)
Mw Molecular weight
Z2 Compressibility of gas (discharge)
n Material decaying exponent
ha Compressor adiabatic efficiency
to generate electricity through the reaction between hydrogen

Introduction and oxygen with fuel cells. Alternatively, hydrogen can be
converted to electrical energy through combustion (Gas to
Fossil fuels, which are a primary energy source [1], emit Wire: GTW) [4]. These diverse benefits of hydrogen usage can
greenhouse gases (GHG) during the combustion process for significantly reduce carbon emissions and control energy
thermal energy. This plays a significant role in causing climate balance by using surplus energy from power generators or
change. On the other hand, hydrogen is considered an alter- renewable energy production to produce hydrogen, which can
native energy source because it produces zero carbon emis- then be distributed as an energy carrier to meet high energy
sions from combustion and electrochemical processes and demands. To make sustainable hydrogen distribution a reality
has a high gravimetric energy density [2]. This makes in daily life, large-scale hydrogen production is necessary.
hydrogen a potential fuel for mitigating climate change by Transporting hydrogen can be an economic concern for
reducing GHG emissions and providing effective energy. In appropriate distribution [5,6]. Trucks and ships can be used to
addition, hydrogen can be produced through electrolysis transport hydrogen inside pressurized vessels, in either its
(Power to Gas: P2G) [3], where electricity decomposes water compressed gas (GH2) or liquid (LH2) form. Compressed gas
into hydrogen and oxygen. This process can also be reversed requires relatively high pressures (180 bar or higher) [7] and
i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 8 ( 2 0 2 3 ) 1 7 6 0 5 e1 7 6 2 9 17607
can require three to four times more infrastructure to be built risks from operation and failure events. However, there is a
[8]. Liquid hydrogen is effective for increasing density by a need for more in-depth research on operation, material, and
factor of 800 [9], but it requires an energy-intensive liquefac- safety matters.
tion process and special cryogenic insulated tanks to maintain A key question in the transportation of blended hydrogen
the necessary low temperatures. Alternatively, compressed is whether existing natural gas pipelines can be used,
liquid ammonia can be used to transport bulk hydrogen to considering the limits of hydrogen concentration and corre-
remote areas through trucks or ships. sponding blended gas changes due to operating pressure.
The economic supply of energy for hydrogen conversion is These factors can have significant impacts on compression,
dependent on the availability of local resources and the friction, temperature, and energy supply [19]. Additionally,
method of transportation. Pipelines are considered the most typical natural gas pipeline materials may be susceptible to
cost-effective way to transport large volumes of hydrogen, hydrogen embrittlement and require a reduction in operating
with estimates ranging from $0.05 to $3 per ton depending on pressure. The low density of hydrogen can also lead to
the distance [5]. Trucks and ships are also viable alternatives different gas dynamics in the case of leak events, making
for hydrogen transportation, but the low density of hydrogen conventional leak detection systems potentially incompatible
requires it to be pressurized into a compressed gas (around with blended hydrogen pipelines. Moreover, hydrogen leakage
18 MPa) [6] or liquified for high density energy, which in- into a confined area has the potential for significant damage
creases costs due to the necessary infrastructure and pro- due to the wide detonation limits of hydrogen. Ultimately, the
cesses for compression and liquefaction. aim of blending hydrogen is to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG)
While pipelines are the most cost-effective way in the long- emissions.
term, they require specialized infrastructure, such as hydrogen The goal of this study is to examine the potential advan-
pipelines and compressors, which can pose an economic bar- tages and challenges of using blended hydrogen gas in exist-
rier. One of the promising solutions to this barrier is blending ing natural gas systems. To do this, we conduct a thorough
hydrogen with natural gas into existing pipeline networks. review of the literature on the effects of hydrogen on pipeline
However, the different properties of blended gas can lead to materials, safety considerations such as leak detection, po-
operational, material, and safety issues that require modifica- tential consequences of leaks, and GHG emissions. Addition-
tion of the existing system [10,11]. The schematic of potential ally, we investigate a gas hydraulic model to identify the
blended hydrogen pathways is shown in Fig. 1. optimal hydrogen blends for both transmission and distribu-
There have been numerous studies on the transportation tion pipelines as part of a case study, taking into consideration
of hydrogen in pipelines, ranging from the Fort Saskatchewan the impacts on the pipeline, compressor selection, and other
Hydrogen Blending project, which uses a 5% blended H2 con- design variables. We also develop a Real-Time Transient
centration [6], to H21, which uses 100% hydrogen concentra- Model (RTTM) that incorporates the simulation parameters
tion [12]. Table 1 illustrates a non-exhaustive list of blended and demonstrates how pipelines with different mixtures of
hydrogen transportation projects. hydrogen and natural gas would behave. Finally, we model the
Many studies and projects have examined the general is- expected GHG emissions with the pipeline case study,
sues surrounding the transportation of blended hydrogen considering the impact not only of hydrogen combustion, but
through existing gas pipelines and have addressed potential also of its production. Through this investigation we further
Fig. 1 e Blended hydrogen pathways.

Table 1 e List of Major Projects Regarding Blended Hydrogen Transportation.

No Project Country Objectives Blended References
H2 [%]
1 HyDeploy UK Blending hydrogen into natural gas 20% [11,13]
pipelines
2 Fort Saskatchewan Hydrogen Canada Blending hydrogen into natural gas 5% [6]
Blending Project (ATCO) pipelines that serve residential and
commercial buildings in Fort
Saskatchewan.
3 H21 UK Investigation of 100% hydrogen usage 100% [12]
with existing natural gas system
4 Hyblend US Technical evaluation for blending e [14]
hydrogen in natural gas pipelines
5 GRHYD France Blending hydrogen into gas distribution 20% [14]
lines
6 Snam Italy Blending hydrogen into gas Transmission 10% [14]
Lines
7 HyP SA Australia Green hydrogen blending into gas 5% [15]
distribution lines
8 Enbridge and Cummins Canada Blending hydrogen into gas distribution <2% [16]
Hydrogen-blending Project lines in Markham, Ontario and performing
a routing study
9 Hy4Heat UK Comprehensive assessment of using 100% [14]
hydrogen as a fuel in residential and
commercial buildings
10 Hydrogen injection in Denmark Blending hydrogen into gas distribution in 15% [17]
the gas grid Varde, Denmark, and safety evaluation
11 Cleangas Turkey Turkey Injecting renewable hydrogen into natural 20% [17]
gas and gas mixture evaluation
12 EN-H2 (Portugal National Hydrogen Strategy) Carbon neutralization with the hydrogen 15% [18]
Portugal economy
elucidate the feasibility of blended hydrogen gas in everyday the blended gas mixture may need to be transported at
use and the potential for GHG emission reductions. higher flow rates than natural gas. This may result in
higher operating pressures and potentially exceed the
design limits of compressors and pipelines, which were
Blending hydrogen and natural gas originally designed for natural gas transmission and dis-
tribution. Therefore, it is important to consider design
Blending hydrogen with natural gas in existing pipeline changes to ensure the safe transportation of blended
systems is the most economical way to transport large hydrogen through existing pipeline systems and identify
volumes of hydrogen over long distance without the need any potential risks and operational issues related to
for new infrastructure. However, the small size of the hydrogen concentration.
hydrogen molecule and its different physical properties, It is important to ensure that blended gas is in a homoge-
such as lower volumetric density and viscosity, can lead to neous state, with uniform behavior along the entire length of
unique behavior when mixed with natural gas [20,21]. This the pipeline [22]. If the two gases have significantly different
can pose potential safety risks for pipelines that were densities, they may stratify, leading to different flow behavior
designed and built to transport natural gas. To maintain and leak characteristics. This can result in uneven energy
energy balance and depending on hydrogen concentration, distribution and operational issues with the pipeline. A typical
Fig. 2 e Schematic for a Typical System for Blending Hydrogen into Natural Gas Grids.
system for blending hydrogen into natural gas grids is shown The design specifications for the simulated pipelines are
in Fig. 2 and includes an electrolyzer, hydrogen buffer storage, largely based on Case Study 6 in “Transmission Pipelines
and a blending unit. Calculations and Simulations Manual" [27], but with a
There are several hydrogen blending systems in operation. different pipe material and weld type. This choice was made
Table 2 lists some of these projects. Australia's HyP SA project in order to make the pipeline selection as realistic as possible.
[15] uses hydrogen purification equipment between the elec- The full specifications can be found in Table 3.
trolyzer and the hydrogen buffer tank to remove produced In transmission pipelines, gas is usually transported using
impurities. ATCO's CEIH project [23] in Australia blends up to centrifugal compressors [28,29]. The number and location of
25% hydrogen using a flow control system with gas chroma- compressors are chosen to ensure that the system is hy-
tography (GC) and a PID controller. The HyDeploy project [11] draulically stable and can safely deliver the gas flow. It is
uses a mixing loop to blend hydrogen with natural gas to important to design the gas compressors with optimal
produce desired hydrogen concentrations in the blended gas compression ratios and head limits for safe transportation.
before injecting it into natural gas pipelines. The blending unit For the purpose of this simulation, we have assumed that
measures the components of the blended gas with a gas there is only one compressor in the transmission line, but no
control system to ensure that the two gases are fully mixed. compressor in the distribution line. The reason for this deci-
The Jupiter 1000 project [24], which was commissioned in sion is that, as the simulation progresses, it becomes clear that
2018 in France, generates hydrogen using two electrolyzers the transmission line is often the limiting factor and therefore
with a combined capacity of 1.0 MW and methane through a the focus of the study. The compressor for station 1 was
methanation process that converts captured CO2. These gases defined based on a typical transmission compressor, and the
are then blended to the desired concentration and injected details are shown in Table 4.
into natural gas pipeline for distribution.
Finally, lab-scale equipment has also been developed to
blend hydrogen with natural gas at lower flow rates by
Table 3 e Design Specification for the Pipelines used in
rotating helical fins inside a pipe [22]. All of these hydrogen the Simulation.
blending methods are used to produce fully developed gas
Contents Transmission Distribution
mixtures before they are transported through pipelines to
Line Line
prevent gas stratification. When blended gas is transported
Fluid H2: 0e100%,
under turbulent flow conditions, hydrogen and natural gas do
CH4: 100%e0%
not stratify in the pipeline, as investigated in the HyDeploy Inlet Temperature 20 C
project [11]. For laminar or stagnant flows, possible scenarios Location Underground (Fully Insulated)
for distribution lines, gas stratification can be a potential risk Material API 5L X70 ASTM A53 Gr. B
due to density differences between the mixture components. Tensile Strength (MPa) 565.37 330.95
In order to examine the potential conversion of a natural Diameter (I.D, mm) 609.6 (NPS 24) 102.3 (NPS 4)
Weld Type ERW Seamless
gas pipeline to a blended hydrogen pipeline, this study uses a
Wall Thickness (mm) 12.7 6.0198
simulation to analyze various design parameters. The focus of
Surface Roughness (mm) 0.01778
the case study are two sample pipelines: a 322 km trans- Delivered Pressure (MPa) 3.45 (500 psig) 0.41 (60 psig)
mission line and a 10 km distribution line, as shown in Fig. 3. (Before service
Transmission lines generally operate at higher pressures and regulator)
transport larger volumes over long distances [21], while dis- Operating Flow (m3/day) 14,158,423 15,000
tribution lines tend to operate at lower pressures and cover (500MMSCFD)
Length (km) 322 10
shorter distances.
Table 2 e Examples of Hydrogen Blending Systems [11,15,23e25].

Project Country Network Electrolyser Hydrogen Blend % Others
Capacity
HyP SA Australia Distribution 1.2 MW 5% Uses green hydrogen
ATCO-CEIH Australia Distribution 0.15 MW 5e25% GC and PID Control
HyDeploy UK Distribution 0.5 MW 20% Measures Wobbe index
Jupiter 1000 France Transmission 1.0 MW 6% Injects hydrogen into transmission lines
Fig. 3 e Illustration of the Simulated Transmission and distribution pipelines.

the energy content of the blended gas may be reduced with

Table 4 e Design Specification for the Compressor used in
higher concentrations of hydrogen. From the safety perspec-
the Simulation.
tive, higher concentrations of hydrogen tend to increase the
Contents Transmission Distribution
risk of fire and explosion. Compared to methane, pure
Line Line
hydrogen has a much broader flammability range (5.3 times)
Fluid H2: 0e100%, CH4: 100%e0% and detonation limit range (7.1 times). It also has a signifi-
Suction Pressure (MPa) 3.45 (500 psig) N/A1*
cantly lower ignition energy (14.5 times lower), which makes it
Compressor Adiabatic Efficiency 0.85 N/A1*
Maximum Head Per Stage (m) 2438 (8000 ft) N/A1*
more prone to ignition and increases the risk of fire.
Suction Temperature 15 C N/A1* The low density of hydrogen also leads to higher diffusivity
Discharge Temperature 20 C N/A1* with other materials, which can result in more severe flam-
Discharge Pressure (MPa) 8.34 (1210 psig) N/A1* mable and detonable events in confined spaces. Table 6
1
* No compressor in the distribution line (Pressure reduction sta- summarizes the properties of each gas at 20 C and
tion only). 101.35 kPa in terms of physical properties, energy content and
risk.
Natural gas typically consists of more than 95% methane, energy transmission
with other gases making up smaller fractions [26], as shown in
Table 5. For this study, we assume that natural gas is Energy transmission is a key factor to consider when con-
completely composed of methane, as this assumption is not verting a natural gas pipeline to use blended hydrogen. The
expected to significantly affect the interpretation of the amount of transmitted energy can be calculated by multi-
results. plying the standardized operating flow rate by the lower
Hydrogen and methane have different physical and heating value (LHV) of the blend. When using pure hydrogen,
chemical properties. These properties include molecular the energy transmission is approximately 3.3 times lower
weight, density, viscosity, and specific gravity. Hydrogen has a than when using methane. In other words, the lower the
molecular weight that is 8 times lower than methane, which concentration of hydrogen in the blend, the higher the energy
results in significantly lower values for most physical prop- transmission will be, for the same flow rate and pressure.
erties except viscosity; the viscosity of hydrogen is approxi- This is illustrated in Fig. 4 for the simulated (a) trans-
mately 30% lower than methane at room temperature (25 C). mission and (b) distribution pipelines. For example, the
Hydrogen contains 2.4 times more energy per unit mass transmission pipeline with natural gas would typically
than methane. However, the lower heating value (LHV) of transmit 4.80x108 MJ/day, but this would drop to 1.44x108 MJ/
hydrogen per unit volume is three times lower than methane day with pure hydrogen in the pipeline. The figure shows the
due to its low density at standard conditions. This means that full range of variation for different hydrogen concentrations.
Table 5 e Typical Natural Gas Composition [26].

Constituent Methane Ethane Nitrogen Carbon Dioxides Propane N-Butane Isobutane Others
(CH4) (C2H6) (N) (CO2) (C3H8) (C4H10) (C4H10)
Volume (%) 95.3 2.16 1.86 0.44 0.19 0.02 0.02 0.01
Table 6 e Gas properties e Comparison Between Hydrogen and Methane (at CNTP).
Properties Hydrogen Methane Unit Reference
Molecular Weight 2.016 16.043 kg/kmol [30]
Density (Gas) 0.08 0.65 kg/m3 [31]
Density (Liquid) 71 430e470 kg/m3 [31]
Specific Gravity 0.0696 0.555 e [12]
Viscosity (at 25 C) 0.89 1.11 10-5 Pa s [20]
Diffusion Coefficient in Air 0.61 0.16 cm2/s [32]
Energy Density 120 50 MJ/kg [31]
Lower Heating Value (LHV) 10.2 34 MJ/m3 [21]
Higher Heating Value (HHV) 12.5 37.8 MJ/m3 [21]
Flammability Limits (in air) 4e75 5e15 Vol % [31]
Detonation Limits (in air) 18.3e59 6.3e14 Vol. % [20]
Minimum Spark Ignition Energy 0.02 0.29 MJ [30]
Auto Ignition Temperature 858 810 K [30]
Laminar flame Velocity 2.1 0.4 m/s [21]
Specific Heat Capacity 14.86 2.22 J/(g,K) [33]
Specific Heat Ratio 1.383 1.308 e [33]
Flame Temperature in Air 2318 2148 K [33]
Solubility in Water 0.0016 0.025 kg/m3 [33]
Fig. 4 e Energy Transmission by Hydrogen Concentration in the Gas Mixture.
Thus, if it is desired to maintain the energy transmission Flow rate

the same in a pipeline conversion, the flow rate and/or oper- The flow rate depends on the desired energy transmission and
ating pressure must be increased accordingly. These changes hydrogen concentration in the blend. As discussed in Sub-
may not be trivial. Increasing the operating pressure may be Section Energy Transmission, the energy transmitted can be
constrained by the pipe material used, or it may be limited by calculated by multiplying the LHV of the gas mixture by its
the number of compressors that can be installed. flow rate. The required flow rate to maintain a certain level of
energy transmission can then be calculated using Eq. (2).
Gas hydraulics
Qi ,LHVCH4
Qr ¼ ; ði ¼ 1; 2Þ (2)
LHVB
The flow of gas in pipelines depends on various factors, such
as pressure, temperature, and the physical characteristics of where Qr is the desired volumetric flow rate, Qi is the original
the pipeline, such as length and diameter. The physical re- volumetric flow rate (defined in Table 3), I denotes the type of
lationships that govern this flow in a steady and isothermal pipeline (transmission or distribution), and LHVCH4 and LHVB
state can be described using the general gas flow equation [34] are the lower heating values for methane and the blended gas
shown in Eq. (1). (methane and hydrogen) respectively.
2 Fig. 5 shows the variation in flow rate for (a) the trans-
Q,Pb mission and (b) the distribution pipelines as a function of
P21 ¼ P22 þ G , Tf , L , Z,f (1)
1:1494,103 Tb ,D2:5 hydrogen concentration and energy transmission. The energy
where Q is the volumetric flow rate (m3/day), f is the Darcy transmission is plotted on a scale from 30% to 100%, with
friction factor (dimensionless), Pb is atmospheric pressure values corresponding to those shown in Fig. 4 (i.e., 30% cor-
(kPa), Tb is atmospheric temperature (K), P1 and P2 are the responds to 1.44x108 MJ/day, and 100% to 4.80x108 MJ/day). As
absolute pressure (kPa) at upstream and downstream loca- expected by intuition, a significant increase in flow rate would
tions, G is gas gravity (m/s2), Tf is average gas flowing tem- be needed to maintain high energy transmission and
perature (K), L is the length of the pipe (km), Z is gas hydrogen concentration. This is relevant for all of the
compressibility factor at the flowing temperature (dimen- following factors.
sionless), and D is the inner diameter of the pipe (mm).
Friction factor
This section analyzes the impact of hydrogen concentra-
In laminar flow, fluid friction is only dependent on the Rey-
tion on various properties, including friction, temperature,
nolds number, as shown in Eq. (3). For turbulent flow, it can be
flow rate changes, and pressure, and provides guidelines for
described using the Colebrook-White equation [34] shown in
determining the optimal amount of hydrogen to blend in the
Eq. (4). This equation considers pipeline roughness (assumed
pipelines investigated in the case study. All of the parameters
to be constant), pipeline diameter, and Reynolds number.
are visualized in relation to hydrogen concentration and en-
ergy transmission. 64
f¼ (3)
Re
Fig. 5 e Flow rate with Hydrogen Concentration and Energy ransmission.
Temperature
!
1 ed 2:51 Fluid transport through pipelines can result in temperature
pffiffiffi ¼ 2 Log10 þ pffiffiffi (4) variations due to two main sources. The first is the heat
f 3:7D Re f
transfer between the inside of the pipeline and its surround-
where ed is absolute pipe roughness (mm) and Re is the Rey- ings. The second is the Joule-Thompson effect, which is a
nolds number (dimensionless). The friction factor (f ) is change in temperature that occurs when gas expands due to
important because it is used to determine the upstream and pressure differences between the inlet and outlet [35]. This
downstream pressures according to Eq. (1). Additionally, a effect is described by Eq. (5).
high friction factor is generally undesirable as it can lead to
higher pressure drops and/or lower flow rates, potentially vT
Jt ¼ (5)
requiring modifications to the pipeline design. vP H
Fig. 6 illustrates variation of the friction factor for (a) the where Jt is the Joule-Thompson coefficient ( C/bar), T is the
transmission and (b) the distribution pipelines as a function of temperature ( C), and P is pressure (bar). H denotes that the
hydrogen concentration and energy transmission. It is clear partial derivate is evaluated at constant Enthalpy. The Joule-
that to maintain the same level of energy transmission with a Thompson coefficient (Jt ) is a property of the gas being used
higher hydrogen concentration, the friction factor increases as well as the temperature and pressure of the gas prior to
significantly, indicating a higher Reynolds number and a more expansion. Every gas has an inversion point at which the
turbulent flow. Joule-Thompson coefficient changes sign and the gas begins
Fig. 6 e Friction Factor variation with Hydrogen Concentration and Energy Transmission.
to either warm or cool. Most gases, including methane, have a found in industrial standards [37,38] and typically also in-
high inversion point temperature, meaning that a pressure cludes design and safety factors. For hydrogen pipelines, the
drop has a cooling effect. Hydrogen, however, is one of the few maximum allowable operating pressure (MAOP) can be rep-
gases that has a very low inversion point, with an inversion resented by the following equation [38].
point of 202 K at atmospheric pressure [35]. As a result, 2S,tp
MAOP ¼ Df ,Ef ,Tf ,Hf (7)
hydrogen generally experiences a warming effect when sub- Do
jected to a pressure drop.
where MAOP is the maximum allowable operating pressure
In the simulation, the Joule-Thompson effect is accounted
(Pa), S is the minimum yield strength (Pa), tp is the wall
for by assuming constant values for methane (0.5 C/bar) and
thickness (mm), Do is the external diameter (mm), Df is the
hydrogen (0.035 C/bar), obtained from the literature [36]. The
design factor (dimensionless), Tf is the temperature derating
impact of this is shown in Fig. 7 for both transmission and
factor (dimensionless), Ef is the pipe seam joint factor
distribution pipelines. As expected, the highest temperature
(dimensionless), and Hf is the material performance factor
occurs at higher concentrations of hydrogen and transmitted
(dimensionless).
energy. It is also noteworthy that the range of temperature
This equation can be used to determine the operating
variation in the transmission pipeline (from 20 C at 100%
pressure limit for hydrogen use in the current gas pipe design,
methane/30% energy to 30 C at 100% hydrogen/100% energy)
which will naturally be lower than when the pipe is used for
is much larger than that in the distribution pipeline (from
natural gas service. With the pressure limit, the inlet pressure
19.6 C to 20.1 C in the same cases). This is due to the higher
can be calculated with the general flow equation (Eq. (1)) for
volumetric flow rate in the transmission line.
different hydrogen concentrations and transmitted energy.
This is shown graphically in Fig. 8.
Maximum allowable operating pressure (MAOP) A black shaded square area is included in (a) the trans-
The operating pressure is closely related to material stress. This mission pipeline to indicate the MAOP (maximum allowable
is especially important when converting existing methane operating pressure) for this pipeline, indicating that it would
pipelines for hydrogen transportation, as engineers must not be possible to maintain the same transmission energy
consider the existing pipeline material. Standard design with pure hydrogen because it would exceed the MAOP and
guidelines for pipelines typically state that the governing stress pose a structural risk. In contrast, the MAOP is not reached in
is the hoop stress (circumferential direction), which can be (b) the distribution pipeline, so it would be safe to operate
described mathematically using the following equation [34]. within the entire range of hydrogen concentration and
transmitted energy.
P,Do
Sh ¼ (6)
2tp
Compressor selection
where Sh is the pipe's hoop stress (Pa), tp is the pipe wall In the previous sections, we examined the potential impacts
thickness (mm), Do is the external diameter (mm), and P is the of converting a natural gas pipeline to hydrogen in terms of
internal operating pressure (Pa). This equation shows that the operating pressure and flow rate, but we did not address how
hoop stress is a function of the operating pressure, pipeline these parameters would be achieved. This section focuses on
diameter, and design thickness. This demonstrates that the the selection of compressors that would be compatible with
operating pressure directly affects the stress level in the pipe. such parameters, and whether or not the scenarios would be
The practical relationship between these variables can be feasible.
Fig. 7 e Temperature Variation due to Joule-Thompson effect with Transmitted Energy and Hydrogen Concentration.
Fig. 8 e Inlet Pressure Variation with Hydrogen Concentration and Energy Transmission.
The first parameter to be considered is the compression The other two parameters that need to be considered are
ratio, which is basically a measure of how much the compressor head (DHc ) and compressor power (Power), two
compressor can increase the suction pressure. It can be interconnected parameters with the flow rate that help
calculated with the following equation. determine the number of compressor stages required by the
Pd
Cr ¼ (8) system. The general expression for the compressor head are
Ps
found in Eq. (9) and Eq. (10) [34].
where Cr is the compression ratio (dimensionless), and Pd and
" g1 #
Ps are the discharge and suction pressures (Pa). The g Z1 þ Z2 1 P2 g
Power ¼ 4:0639 Q,T1 1 (9)
compression ratio assumed for the simulation is 1.5, a com- g1 2 ha P1
mon value for centrifugal compressors. This limit is used to
determine the number of compressors required [34]. For Mf DHc
example, if a compression ratio of 2.8 is required for a Power ¼ (10)
hc
particular scenario, since this is higher than 1.5, two com-
where Power is compression power (kW), g is the ratio of
pressors are necessary. With this compression ratio set as the
specific heats of the gas (dimensionless), Q is the volumetric
limit, Fig. 9 illustrates the compression ratio and number of
flow rate (Mm3/day), T1 is the suction temperature of the gas
compressors necessary to achieve different hydrogen con-
(K), P1 and P2 are suction and discharge pressures of the gas
centrations and transmitted energies. The black shaded
(kPa), Z1 and Z2 is the compressibility of gas at suction and
square represents regions that, if above, would require more
discharge conditions (dimensionless), ha is the compressor
than one compressor.
adiabatic efficiency (dimensionless), Mf is the mass flow rate
of gas (kg/s), DHc is the compressor head (m), and hc is the
compressor efficiency (dimensionless). The compressor effi-
ciency (h a) is the compressor adiabatic efficiency.
Using these equations, the compressor power and head are
illustrated, respectively, on Fig. 10(a) and (b). As with the
previous image, the black shaded square represents the limit
(maximum head per stage). As expected, a higher hydrogen
concentration and transmitted energies requires a significant
increase in compressor power. It is interesting to see how
many more compressor stages would be required to transport
pure hydrogen at high energy deliveries. To achieve 100%
transmitted energy with pure hydrogen, a total of 11
compressor stages would be required.
In conclusion, finding the optimal blend of hydrogen and
natural gas involves tradeoffs, as increasing the percentage of
hydrogen may require additional equipment and modifications
to the pipeline. For example, transmitting 100% energy with
Fig. 9 e Compression Ratio Variation with Hydrogen pure hydrogen would require a large number of compressors
Concentration and Transmitted Energy. and pipeline modifications, while transmitting 65% energy with
Fig. 10 e Compressor Power, Head and Number of Compressor Stages with Hydrogen Concentration and Transmitted
Energy.
a 60% hydrogen blend would only require the addition of a be suitable for use in hydrogen pipelines with pressures up to
single compressor. Alternatively, transmitting 51% of the en- 14 MPa, according to ASME B31.12 [38]. Table 8 summarizes
ergy with a 30% hydrogen blend would not require any modi- the design specifications of hydrogen pipelines currently in
fications at all. These examples, as well as a wider range of operation worldwide. These pipelines are usually made of
options described in Table 7, demonstrate the various tradeoffs carbon steels and operate at a maximum pressure of up to
involved in determining the optimal blend. The best choice will 13.1 MPa. This helps contextualize and provide a practical
depend on the specific project goals and budget constraints, perspective on the materials and pressures currently being
and a careful evaluation of the available options is necessary to used in hydrogen pipelines.
determine the most appropriate blend for a given situation. The HEE (Hydrogen Environment Embrittlement) Index is a
metric that can be used to evaluate the potential for hydrogen
embrittlement in a material. It compares the Notched Tensile
Hydrogen influence on pipeline materials Strength (NTS) of a material when subjected to hydrogen to
when it is subjected to air or helium. The HEE Index can be
One major concern with using hydrogen in pipelines is its calculated using the equation:
ability to permeate through materials. As the smallest and
lightest element (see Table 6), hydrogen can easily diffuse into HEE Index ¼ NTS Ratio ¼ NTS in Hydrogen/NTS in Air or
the lattice structure of materials, causing them to become Helium (11)
weaker and more prone to cracking under stress [38]. This
process, known as hydrogen embrittlement (HE), can be a The HEE index is a ratio that ranges from 0 to 1, with higher
significant issue for pipelines and lead to unexpected failures. values indicating a lower potential for hydrogen embrittle-
This section discusses the consequences of this process and ment. Materials with an HEE index as close to 1 as possible are
potential solutions. typically desired. According to NASA's report [41], Table 9
categorizes different levels of severity based on the HEE
Hydrogen embrittlement index. Detailed test procedures for obtaining the HEE index
can be found in the literature [42].
Hydrogen Embrittlement can reduce mechanical properties Table 10 summarizes the severity of the HEE Index and
such as tensile ductility, fracture toughness, and fatigue resis- the compatibility of common industrial materials with
tance, making them more prone to loss of ductility and cracking hydrogen. It also includes the hydrogen pressure at which
[38]. A report from the US Department of Energy [39] indicates the HEE Index was obtained, which can be either 6.9 MPa or
that the majority of natural gas networks, including trans- 68.9 MPa [38,41]. It is noteworthy that the results show that
mission and distribution lines, are made of carbon steel mate- ferritic steels commonly used in current gas pipelines have a
rials (i.e., 99.7% and 50.4%, respectively). As such, when range of HEE severity from high to low when used at pres-
considering the use of existing natural gas networks for sures up to 6.9 MPa at room temperature. Ductile materials
hydrogen transportation, it is crucial to determine whether the such as stainless steel (304 and 316) and copper-based ma-
existing metallic materials are compatible with hydrogen gas terials have relatively low HEE severity, even at high pres-
service. sures (68.9 MPa). Additionally, these materials have good
Carbon steels, including ASTM A 106 Grade B, ASTM A 53 resistance to hydrogen embrittlement in both gas and liquid
Grade B, and API 5L Grades X42 and X52, have been shown to states.
Table 7 e Optimal Hydrogen Concentration without System Modification (Transmission Line).

Energy Gas Hydrogen Concentration without Modification (%)
Content Contents
Pressure (MPa) Compression Ratio Compressor Head (m) No. of Modification
(H2 e CH4)
Compressors
Limit [45] Simulation Limit [40] Simulation Limit Simulation
required
Results Results Results
100% 0e100% 11.23 12.27 1.5 2.20 2438 1915.95 2 Pipe, Compressor
20e80% 13.08 2.35 2807.14 2 Pipe, Compressor
86% 0e100% 11.23 10.92 1.5 1.96 2438 1617.67 1 Compressor
65% 0e100% 11.23 9.01 1.5 1.62 2438 1140.21 2 Compressor
20e80% 9.48 1.71 1700.39 2 Compressor
40e60% 9.98 1.79 2567.37 2 Compressor
60e40% 10.50 1.89 4062.70 2 Compressor
80e20% 10.92 1.96 7155.38 3 Compressor
100e0% 10.51 1.89 16540.60 7 Compressor
51% 0e100% 11.23 8.42 1.5 1.42 2438 810.52 1 e
20e80% 8.82 1.48 1221.56 1 e
40e60% 9.25 1.54 1862.81 2 Compressor
60e40% 9.69 1.61 2974.17 2 Compressor
80e20% 10.06 1.66 5269.17 3 Compressor
100e0% 9.709 1.61 12064.05 5 Compressor
30% 0e100% 11.23 6.43 1.5 1.16 2438 344.12 1 e
20e80% 6.57 1.19 528.94 1 e
40e60% 6.73 1.22 822.41 1 e
60e40% 6.90 1.25 1337.38 1 e
80e20% 7.04 1.27 2400.37 1 e
100e0% 6.90 1.25 5395.90 3 Compressor
The HEE index can also be correlated with the operating Temperature is another factor that strongly influences
pressure through a proportionality constant and a material- hydrogen embrittlement behavior. In general, hydrogen
dependent exponential, as described in Eq. (12) [41]. This embrittlement occurs at temperatures below 95 C. At high
relationship reinforces that higher pressures increase the risk temperatures (>200 C), hydrogen embrittlement is usually not a
of hydrogen embrittlement. problem for most materials [43]. However, High Temperature
HEE Index ¼ aðPÞn (12) Hydrogen Attack (HTHA), also known as hydrogen attack, can be
where a is a proportional constant, P is the hydrogen pressure a problem. This occurs when hydrogen dissociates into its
(MPa), and n is the material decaying exponent (material atomic form and diffuses into steel, reacting with the carbon to
dependent). form methane. This can cause various problems, including
Table 8 e Operating Pressure for Hydrogen Pipelines Worldwide.

Location Length (Km) Diameter (mm) Operating Material Operator Reference
Pressure (MPa)
Texas, US 560 150e305 2.4e13.1 Steel Pipe Air Products [21]
Westliche, US 367 203e254 2.4e13.1 Steel Pipe Air Products [21]
Louisiana e 150,203,305 2.4e13.1 Steel Pipe Air Products [21]
Los Angeles 19 150,254,305 2.4e13.1 Steel Pipe Air Products [21]
Texas, US 105 203 2.4 API 5L Grade B Air Liquide [21]
Texas, US 55 36 5.1 API 5L X60 Air Liquide [21]
Netherlands 879 304.8 6.5e10 Seamless Carbon Steel Air Liquide [40]
Canada 3.7 273 3.8 Gr.290 AGEC [40]
UK 15 e 30 Carbon Steel ICI Billingham [40]
Germany (Leuna) 100 e 2e5 API 5L L290 Linde [21]
France, Belgium 1040 100 9.7 API 5L X52 Air Liquide [21]
Table 9 e The Categorization of HE Severity for Industrial Materials [41].

HE Severity HEE Index (NTS Ratio) Description
Negligible 1.0e0.97 Materials can be utilized in the specified hydrogen pressure and
Small 0.96e0.90 temperature range with fracture and crack growth analysis in hydrogen
High 0.89e0.70 Limited application with fracture and crack growth analysis in hydrogen
Severe 0.69e0.50 Not recommended for usage
Extreme 0.49e0.0
Table 10 e HE Index for ommercialized Materials.

Material Lab-scale HE Evaluation Material Compatibility Reference
with Hydrogen [9]
Hydrogen HE HEE Index Gas Liquid
Pressure Severity (NTS ratio*2)
Ferritic Steels A106-Gr. B 6.9 MPa High e Acceptable Not acceptable [38,41]
(Carbon steels A516 6.9 MPa High 0.83 Acceptable Not acceptable [38,41]
and low alloy steels) API 5L X42 6.9 MPa High e Acceptable Not acceptable [38]
API 5L X52 6.9 MPa High 0.86 Acceptable Not acceptable [38,41]
API 5L X60 6.9 MPa Small 0.92 Acceptable Not acceptable [38,41]
Austenitic Steels 304L 68.9 MPa High 0.87 Acceptable Acceptable [38,41]
316 68.9 MPa Negligible 1 Acceptable Acceptable [38,41]
Copper Based Copper (OFHC*1) 68.9 MPa Negligible 1 Acceptable Acceptable [38,41]
70-30 Brass 68.9 MPa Negligible e Acceptable Acceptable [38]
*1: OFHC: Oxygen-free high thermal conductivity.

*2: NTS Ratio is calculated in hydrogen and helium environments.
fissuring and cracks in the pipeline. While each material's Internal coatings to prevent hydrogen embrittlement
resistance to HTHA varies and depends on both temperature
and pressure, API 941 provides a comprehensive list of recom- Internal coatings offer a potential solution for enabling the use
mended practices and operational limits for different steels [43]. of materials that are not currently compatible with hydrogen
In summary, hydrogen embrittlement is a complex in pipeline transportation, or for improving their compati-
problem with a complex mechanism. However, the resis- bility. These coatings function as a barrier by mechanically
tance of many materials to hydrogen embrittlement has separating the material from the hydrogen environment
already been catalogued, and various standards provide best [44,45]. Many of these coatings are still being researched and
practices for proper material selection. Choosing a material can be broadly classified into metal, ceramic, and polymer
known to have low susceptibility to embrittlement and coatings [44]. Additionally, two-dimensional materials such as
maintaining internal pressure within recommended limits is graphene and Mxene have been identified as promising
the optimal solution. In cases where the engineer has no hydrogen barrier coating materials due to their excellent
control over material selection, such as when reusing a hydrogen resistance and mechanical durability [46,47]. The
natural gas pipeline, internal coatings can be used as an benefits and drawbacks of each coating type are summarized
alternative solution. in Table 11.
Table 11 e Types of barrier coating for hydrogen serviced pipelines.

Coating Type Advantage Disadvantage Materials Reference
Metal Various techniques to apply Limited application to Ni-Cobalt, MoS2 [44,48]
High resistance to erosion and corrosion pipelines in use
Ceramic Good H2 resistance Brittle SiC, Al2O3, Er2O3 [44,46]
Subjected to thermal
expansion
Polymer Relatively inexpensive swelling HDPE, PE-X, Epoxy [49]
Good corrosion resistance blistering Teknopox 3297-00,
Light Hydrogen permeation Teknopox 3296-06
Two Dimensional Low permeability Limits production at large scale MLG, Mxene [47]
Material High thermal stability Non-commercialized method
Chemically inert
High mechanical strength
Metallic coatings [50] are typically used on external pipe- ones will be further refined. Among the four types of materials
lines as a sacrificial method to protect the metal surface currently available, polymer-based materials appear to be a
through the galvanic principle. These coatings can be applied practical and effective choice for use as internal coatings in
using techniques such as hot-dip galvanizing, sherardizing, hydrogen pipelines.
electroplating, or metal spraying [51]. They have high resis-
tance to erosive and corrosive environments, as well as
atomic hydrogen for certain metal alloys like nickel alloys and Hydrogen leaks
MoS2 [44,48]. However, their use is limited to external surfaces
like bolts and external pipe surfaces, and it is difficult to apply Another consequence with using hydrogen in pipelines (either
them to the internal wall of pipelines. Therefore, metallic pure or blended) is the fact that hydrogen is more prone to
coatings are not considered suitable for use as an internal leakage compared to methane. To make matters worse,
barrier coating. gaseous hydrogen is colorless and odorless [56], making it
Ceramic coatings are high-temperature coatings based difficult to detect with conventional approaches. This also
on carbides, silicides, and nitrides [51]. These coatings are makes it dangerous for operators since humans cannot detect it
used where chemical resistance and prevention of without special equipment. Additionally, increasing the oper-
hydrogen diffusion are needed [46,51]. While ceramic ating pressure to improve energy delivery can increase the risk
coatings like SiC, Al2O3, and Er2O3 have high resistance to of leakage (similar to how it interacts with Hydrogen embrit-
hydrogen permeation, they are mechanically brittle and tlement, in Section Hydrogen influence on Pipeline Materials).
prone to thermal expansion, which can lead to coating Leak detection should be in place no matter which type of
failure under harsh operating conditions. In addition, it is gas is being transported by pipelines. This section explores the
not easy to apply ceramic coatings inside existing gas consequences of hydrogen leaks and potential solutions, such
pipelines, making them unsuitable for use in existing nat- as the suitability of hardware-based (sensor) methods,
ural gas pipelines. Computational Pipeline Monitoring (CPM) methods and
Polymeric coatings are often used for distribution pipeline odorants for detecting leaks.
materials under low pressurized operating conditions due to
their relatively low cost, high resistance to corrosion, and low Hydrogen leak behavior
weight compared to metals. These same advantages also apply
to polymeric coatings for pipelines. According to Ref. [52], HDPE Leakage of hydrogen in an open area is not typically a concern
and PE-X are suggested as excellent materials for rehabilitating due to its highly diffusive characteristics. When burning,
hydrogen serviced pipelines. Europipe, a German pipeline hydrogen flames release only 10% of the heat produced by
company, recently announced that the epoxy-based coatings, hydrocarbon flames, resulting in minimal damage to the
Teknopox 3297-00 and Teknopox 3296-06, produced by Teknos, surrounding area [57]. Additionally, the extremely low density
were suitable for use as internal coatings in pure hydrogen of hydrogen causes it to become buoyant when released into
pipelines up to 10 MPa (1450.38 psi) [53]. While polymeric air. Hydrogen is 14 times lighter than air and 57 times lighter
coatings have multiple advantages, they can be prone to than gasoline vapor [56], making it relatively safe to work with
swelling, blistering, and hydrogen permeation due to poor In open-air spaces as it will usually dilute to non-flammable
surface conditions and poor cathodic management [54]. concentrations quickly [58].
Currently, polymeric coatings are used for corrosion pro- The use of hydrogen in confined spaces can pose a higher
tection in some oil and gas pipelines worldwide in areas with risk due to its wide flammability range and significantly lower
high corrosion risk. Based on their operational histories [55], minimum spark energy when compared to natural gas (see
they have had no specific issues in high-pressure pipelines (up Table 6). This has the potential to cause damage associated
to 34.5 MPa or 5000 psi) for over 20 years. Additionally, it has with detonation and flammability [59]. If proper measures and
been reported that using polymeric in-line inspection tools do design decisions are not implemented, hydrogen can accu-
not cause abrasion to the internal coating of polymeric coated mulate quickly in confined spaces and lead to various hazards,
pipelines [55], which could be a useful reference for the such as initiating a fire, explosion, or even becoming an
application of polymeric coatings to hydrogen pipelines. asphyxiant at high concentrations.
Two-dimensional materials such as multi-layered gra- To address these risks, it is important to ensure proper
phene (MLG) and Mxene are recent developments and inter- ventilation when working with hydrogen in enclosed spaces.
esting materials for developing hydrogen barrier coatings due A report from the HySafe project recommends ventilation as
to their excellent impermeability, chemical inertness, and one of the most effective safety measures for avoiding
high mechanical strength. While the large-scale production of dangerous explosive conditions in hydrogen-treated facilities
these materials is challenging and the methods for field and provides guidance on the optimal design of a ventilation
application have not yet been developed, they may be system in these facilities [60].
considered as promising materials for use as hydrogen barrier Another potential challenge with hydrogen is the po-
coatings in the future. tential stratification of a gas mixture containing hydrogen
It is evident that there are both technical and production due to the significant difference in molecular weights be-
challenges to be addressed in the development of internal tween hydrogen and other gases. This could potentially lead
coatings for hydrogen transportation. As the demand for to increased safety risks, such as in the case of a blended gas
hydrogen usage and transportation grows globally, it is likely leak event that ends up being primarily composed of
that more advanced solutions will be developed, and existing hydrogen.
The nature of gas stratification in a mixture can vary methods with blended hydrogen gas, some studies suggest
depending on the flow regime. Multiple studies note that that it could be solved with minor sensor recalibration [10]. It
blended gases tend to mix well in turbulent flow [22,61]. A is important to evaluate the reliability and compatibility of
particular study noted that the mixture becomes homogenous hydrogen leak detection systems for each specific operating
within a short distance from the mixing point [11]. In contrast, scenario.
laminar flow initially stratifies the mixture, but it becomes Alternatively, specialized leak detection facilities designed
homogenous after a certain length. This critical distance can specifically for hydrogen may be a viable option for detecting
be roughly estimated by multiplying the nominal diameter by leaks of blended hydrogen gas. There are four main types of
4000 [61]. Therefore, it is important to pay particular attention sensors used for hydrogen detection: semiconductor metal
to operating pipelines with lower Reynolds numbers to mini- oxide, electrochemistry, catalytic bead, and thermal conduc-
mize the risk of gas stratification. tivity [64e66]. These are summarized in Table 13.
Mejia et al. [62] conducted leak tests with blended Semiconducting metal oxide (MOx) sensors are widely
hydrogen to assess the difference in leak rates of each gas used in industry due to their economic nature, but they have
component in the mixture. The tests were conducted with the disadvantage of low accuracy and sensitivity to humidity
fully mixed 95% natural gas and 5% hydrogen at pressures up and temperature [64,67]. Electrochemical sensors offer good
to 417 kPa (60.5 psi). The results showed that the difference in selectivity for hydrogen gas and relatively high accuracy, but
leak rates for each gas was minimal (around 1%). While these they are limited in their temperature range and have slow
results are encouraging, it is important to note that they were detection times. Catalytic sensors have a wide range of
conducted at relatively low pressure and started from a fully hydrogen detection in volume and operating temperature, but
mixed state. they are expensive and not highly selective for hydrogen gas.
Another study examined the relative size of gas leaks Thermal conductivity sensors have the broadest mea-
under different flow regimes (laminar, turbulent, and sonic), surement range and the highest detection accuracy among
with leak rates estimated using the dynamic viscosities, molar the four sensor types in Table 13. However, they are prone to
masses, and gas densities of the gases [63]. The results, shown cross-sensitivity readings with helium (He). Given the
in Table 12, indicate that the estimated leak rate was signifi- importance of economic and agile considerations for indus-
cantly higher for hydrogen in all cases. For example, in the trial applications, semiconductor-based hydrogen leak
case of sonic flow (typical of leaks in high-pressure lines), detection methods may be a realistic option.
hydrogen would leak volumetrically 2.8 times more than Due to the high diffusive nature of hydrogen, the location of
methane. However, when considering energy density, the sensors is critically important to accurately detect leaks. Such
energy contained in such a hydrogen leak would be 0.88 times sensors may be more appropriate for confined spaces. More-
a similar methane leak. over, further study is needed to investigate how these sensors
would behave for blended hydrogen and natural gases.
Sensor based hydrogen leak detection
Computational pipeline monitoring (CPM) methods
One concern with using traditional hardware-based leak
detection methods for blended hydrogen gas is their potential CPM methods involve using a computer to monitor changes in
compatibility issues due to the high mobility, small size, and measured pipeline data for leak identification in pipeline
high diffusivity of the gas with other materials. While further networks. This method often involves the use of a supervisory
testing is needed to determine the effectiveness of these control and data acquisition (SCADA) system, which collects
Table 12 e Leak Rate by Different Types of Flow Regimes [63].

Properties Hydrogen Methane Unit
Subsonic Flow (Laminar) 1.3 1 Relative leak rates (Volumetric)
Subsonic Flow (Turbulent) 2.8 1
Sonic Flow 2.8 1
Table 13 e Comparison of Commercially Available Hydrogen Detecting Sensors [64e66].

Sensor Type Accuracy Measuring Range Response Cost Features
Time (t90)
Semiconductor Metal Oxide ±10e30% 0e1000 ppm <20/s $100 - $500 - Low cost
- Dependence on humidity and temperature
Electrochemical < ± 4% 0e20,000 ppm <90/s $300 - $1200 - Good selectivity to hydrogen
- Narrow temperature range
Catalytic Bead < ± 5% 0e100% H2 <30/s $500 - $4000 - Wide temperature range
- No hydrogen selectivity
Thermal Conductivity ±0.2% 0e100% H2 <10/s <$25,000 - High accuracy
- Cross sensitive to He
sensor data from pipelines, transmits it to computers, and specific gravity, and compressibility for hydrogen and
uses data processing to identify leaks. The most reliable and methane gas mixtures, are obtained from GERG-2008, a wide-
widely used CPM system is the real-time transient model range equation of state [70,71].
(RTTM), which simulates pressure and flow rate in pipelines Leakage is simulated by characterizing the pressure dif-
using actual sensor data [66]. The RTTM compares the simu- ference between the internal pressure of the pipeline and the
lated data to the actual sensor data to identify leaks. While it atmospheric pressure. The discharge coefficient, which ac-
has been successfully implemented and is widely used for counts for energy loss due to friction and compressibility ef-
natural gas pipelines, it has not yet been proven for use in fects, is also taken into consideration [72]. The energy
hydrogen gas pipelines. conservation law, as described by Bernoulli's equation (Eq.
A simple real-time transient model (RTTM) is developed to (15)), can be simplified to Eq. (16) by assuming that the pipeline
verify whether it can be used for blended hydrogen gas pipe- has a constant elevation profile and that the leak flow rate
lines. The model is based on the simulation parameters from the leak hole is significantly smaller than the flow rate
introduced in Section Blending Hydrogen and Natural Gas, inside the pipe:
and it includes conservation equations for mass, momentum,
and energy. These partial differential equations (PDEs) are PA VA2 PB VB2
hA þ þ ¼ hB þ þ (15)
gw 2g gw 2g
solved using the method of characteristics (MOC) [68]. The
typical conservation equations in PDE form are shown in Eq. sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2DP
(13) and Eq. (14). Q ¼ Cd ,A (16)
Sg ,r
vH a2s vQ
þ ¼0 (13) where h is the elevation (m), P is the pressure (Pa), V is the flow
vt gA vx
velocity (m/s), gw is the specific weight (N/m3), Cd is the
discharge coefficient (dimensionless), Sg is the specific gravity
1 vQ vH fQjQj
þ þ ¼0 (14) (dimensionless), and r is the density (kg/m3).
gA vt vx 2g,D,A2
To consider turbulent flow, a discharge coefficient of 0.67 is
where H is the hydraulic head (m), Q is the volumetric flow chosen as this is typical for high Reynolds number flow [72].
rate (m3/s), g is the gravitational acceleration (m/s2), a is the The simulation is defined by two boundary conditions: a
speed of sound (m/s), f is the Darcy friction factor (dimen- pressure boundary at the upstream side and a flow velocity at
sionless), D is the internal diameter of the pipe (m), A is the the downstream side. The leak is simulated as a relative size
cross-sectional area of the internal pipe (m2), and t is time (s). of 10% of the pipe's internal diameter. The simulation is car-
Since these equations are time- and distance-dependent, ried for a total of 2000 s, with a leak event happening at the
the flow velocity can be estimated using time and distance. center (1000 s). Fig. 11 shows the simulation results for a range
This allows for the estimation of hydraulic information in of hydrogen concentrations (from 10% to 90% hydrogen mixed
pipes at specific points in time and space, given the size of the with methane) in the presence of a leak.
time step (vt) and distance step (vx). The calculation procedure The figure shows the impact of a potential leak on the
is well-established in the literature [68,69] and involves simulated pipeline, with pressure shown in (a) and flow ve-
applying the general gas flow equation (Eq. (1)) to calculate locity in (b). It's worth noting that the pressure starts at the
pressure and flow rate. The temperature-dependent parame- same level for all gas mixtures due to the pressure boundary
ters needed for this calculation, including density, viscosity, condition. It's also worth noting that, as flow velocity is
Fig. 11 e Pressure and Flow Velocity Variation with Leakage by Hydrogen Concentration.
density-dependent, the different gas mixtures behave differ- The odorants selected in this table were observed to be
ently both up and downstream. non-corrosive and metallurgically intact. Their functionality
The pressure drop in each gas mixture shows similar, but was also proven through an olfactory test that evaluated
distinct trends due to the differences in compressibility and their detectability at a minimum of one-fifth of the lower
friction factor of the hydrogen components in the gas mixture flammability limit of the gas composition and compatibility
(Eq. (1)). Flow velocity has similar trends in all simulation with hydrogen. In addition, the dilution effect by the addition
cases, showing an increase in velocity after the leakage. This of odorants is not foreseen for the listed odorants. All the
increase in velocity is due to the lower pressure caused by the odorants can potentially be applied to hydrogen serviced
leakage in the system [34]. pipelines for general-purpose (but not necessarily fuel cell
In summary, the model developed in this study shows that applications). Spotleak 1001 is particularly suitable as a
while the gas mixtures have small differences in their leak hydrogen odorant as it is broadly used in European gas net-
behavior, they also have very similar trends. While the RTTM works and is low cost with no harmful effects on pipelines or
model is relatively simple and may not be directly applicable other appliances [25].
to complex real-life pipeline networks, it suggests that with
proper calibrations, RTTM models can be utilized for blended
gas mixtures. Hydrogen influence on greenhouse gas
emissions
Odorization
One of the main benefits of using hydrogen as an energy
Another potential approach to hydrogen leak detection is carrier is its ability to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emis-
gas odorization, which involves adding chemical odorants sions from fossil fuel combustion. While the combustion of
to the gas that can be detected by the human olfactory hydrogen can produce nitrogen oxides (NOx) at high tem-
sense. This method is already widely used for natural gas, peratures [9], it is otherwise virtually emission-free [73].
but the odorants used for natural gas are not suitable for This is particularly important in light of increasing concern
hydrogen due to their significantly different densities and over GHG emissions being produced globally. As such, the
dispersion rates. While there are currently no known use of hydrogen as an energy carrier can help to offset
commercially useable odorants for hydrogen, several these emissions and promote a more sustainable energy
studies have evaluated odorants as a potential method for system.
detecting hydrogen. CO2 is one of the main GHGs responsible for global
A research group in the Netherlands, consisting of Gasunie warming, along with methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and
Transport Services (GTS) and Netbeheer, evaluated three F-gases. CO2 is the most prevalent GHG, accounting for 76% of
odorants (THT, Spotleak 1001, Gasodor S-Free) at hydrogen global GHG emissions [67]. To compare the global warming
concentrations ranging from 0% to 100%. They concluded that potential (GWP), they are often expressed in terms of equiv-
these odorants could potentially be used for a mixture of alent CO2 [74,75]. Table 15 shows the primary GHGs expressed
natural gas and hydrogen in distribution lines [25]. in terms of equivalent CO2 for carbon dioxide, methane, N2O,
The Hy4Heat project in the United Kingdom also evaluated and HFC emissions.
the hydrogen odorization performance of five chemical com- In the following we examine the effect of hydrogen
pounds across six different sectors: Health and Environment, blending on greenhouse gas emissions. We first provide an
Olfactory, Pipeline, Flame Boiler, Fuel Cell, and Economic [25]. overview of various methods of hydrogen production and
According to the evaluation results, the five odorants can be conversion into power. Next, we use a realistic simulation to
used for pure hydrogen except in fuel cell applications due to determine the potential reduction in GHG emissions that could
sulfur poisoning. The potential odorants for hydrogen gas are be achieved by converting a natural gas pipeline (described in
summarized in Table 14. Section Transmission and Distribution Pipeline Simulation
Table 14 e The List of Odorants Studied for Use with Hydrogen Gas [25].
Name (Compound) Sulfur Health Olfactory Corrosive*7 Material Voltage Fuel Cell
Test Degradation Loss (mv)*3 Application
Spotleak 1001*1 Pass 460 ± 2 Purification required
Standby Odorant 2*2 Pass 40 ± 2 O
THT*3 Pass 225 ± 2 Purification required
Gasodor-S-Free*4 Pass 10 ± 2 O
Norbornene*5 *6 5±2 O
1
* Spotleak 1001: 2-Methyl-propanethiol 78%, Dimethyl Sulfide 22%.
2
* Standby Odorant2: Odorant NB 34%, Hexane 64%.
3
* Odorant THT: Tetrahydrothiophene e 100%.
4
* Gasodor-S-Free: Methyl Acrylate 37.4%, Ethyl Acrylate 60.1%, 2-Ethyl-3-Methylpyrazine 2.5%.
5
* Norbornene: 5-Ethylidene-2-Norbornene.
6
* Not distinguishable with sulfur and oil.
7
* After Complete Combustion.
Table 15 e GWP for Each Gas in 1970 and 2021 [75].

GHG Emissions 1970 2010
GtCO2 e eq/yr % GtCO2 e eq/yr %
CO2 Total 19.44 72 37.24 76
Forestry and other land use 4.59 17 31.85 11
Fossil fuel and industrial processes 14.85 55 5.39 65
CH4 5.13 19 7.84 16
N 2O 2.133 7.9 3.038 6.2
F-Gases 0.1188 0.44 0.98 2
Total 27 z100 49 z100
Properties) into a blended hydrogen pipeline using currently carbon-neutralization in energy consumption. However, pro-
available technology (blue hydrogen). It should be noted that ducing these types of hydrogen economically can be chal-
while the ideal scenario would be for most hydrogen to be lenging due to the high cost of alkaline electrolyzers and low
produced through renewable sources (green hydrogen), it is at production efficiency [4]. While the technology is expected to
present not feasible to rely solely on such methods. become more cost-effective as it matures, estimates suggest
that the current cost of hydrogen could potentially be reduced
Hydrogen production from the range of $2.5 to $6.64 per kilogram to the range of $0.7
to $2.6 per kilogram by 2050 [5,80,81]. Additionally, the pro-
Hydrogen production can be classified into four categories duction of Green or Purple hydrogen requires significantly
based on the carbon emissions and production methods: Blue, more water than Blue, Gray, or Proton hydrogen.
Gray, Green, and Purple hydrogen. Blue hydrogen is produced
through carbon capture and storage (CCS) methods, while Hydrogen to power
Gray hydrogen is produced from fossil fuels through steam
methane reforming (SMR) or autothermal reforming (ATR) Hydrogen can be converted into power through two primary
methods, which generate carbon dioxide (CO2). Green means: combustion in internal combustion engines, heating
hydrogen is produced through the environmentally friendly systems, and appliances, or through an electrochemical re-
process of water electrolysis using renewable energy, result- action in fuel cells to generate electricity. While hydrogen can
ing in minimal carbon emissions during production. Purple be burned with oxygen to produce heat without emitting
hydrogen is produced through electrolysis powered by nuclear carbon when used as a combustion fuel, burning hydrogen
energy. Another potential technology for low-carbon with air at high temperatures above 1500 C can produce the
hydrogen production is Proton hydrogen, which involves the undesirable byproduct of nitrous oxide (NOx) [9]. Despite this,
use of a membrane-based separation applied to oil reservoirs hydrogen remains a promising alternative to fossil fuels for
to selectively filter hydrogen gases out of fossil fuel-based gas reducing carbon emissions.
mixtures or vapors. The advantages and disadvantages of Hydrogen has the potential to serve as a carbon-free
each type of hydrogen production are summarized in Table 16. alternative to natural gas in various industrial applications,
Low carbon-intensity hydrogens, such as Green, Purple, or such as heating and end-use appliances. However, it is
Proton hydrogen, are important for achieving long-term important to note that conventional gas appliances will most
Table 16 e Hydrogen Generation Comparison [16,76e79].

Type Advantages Disadvantages
Blue H2 Less carbon emission (z90%) Low production efficiency
Mature technology
Gray H2 Low production cost (2e3 dollars/kg) High carbon emissions (No carbon capture process)
Mature technology
Green H2 Zero carbon emission High cost (>$5/kg H2)
Simple method Low production efficiency
Discontinuous electrolysis process
High initial cost for infrastructure
Purple H2 Low carbon emission Safety concerns with nuclear
Use for surplus of energy for hydrogen production (Electricity and Relatively unmatured technology
thermal energy from reactor)
Continuous hydrogen production
Large production
Proton H2 Low carbon emission Limited to geological location
Massive production Immature technology
Economical production (Below 30 cents/kg)
Low-cost installation
Table 17 e Hydrogen Tolerance for Combustion Appliances.

Type H2 Tolerance Method of Theory Interchangeability References
Gas Turbine Up to 15% (Minor changes) Wobbe Index, Flame Speed, NOx Emission [83]
Gas Engines Up to 10% (Minor changes) Wobbe Index, Flame Speed, NOx Emission [83]
Water Heater 10% Ignition Performance, Flame Characteristics, Emission [84]
Cooktop Burner 20 vol% Cooking Performance, Ignition Time, Flame Characteristics, Combustion [32]
Noise, Burner Temperature, Emission
Oven Burner 25 vol% Wobbe Index [85]
End-use Appliance 17 vol% Wobbe Index [36]
(Burner, Boiler)
likely need to be retrofitted in order to be compatible with pure between 60% and 70% [9] and are not bound by the Carnot
hydrogen. An alternative option is to use blended hydrogen, efficiency [9] of traditional heat engines. Fuel cells are gener-
which can be used in existing gas-based systems without ally classified based on their temperature range and electro-
modification or with only minor modifications [82]. Table 17 lyte, as summarized in Table 18.
summarizes the results of multiple studies on the hydrogen The challenge with the widespread deployment of fuel
tolerance of various appliances with combustion processes cells in a hydrogen economy that relies on blended hydrogen,
based on the concentration of hydrogen used. This shows that however, is that most electrolyzers require different degrees
most combustion appliances are compatible with blended of hydrogen purity. For example, the International Organiza-
hydrogen at concentrations up to 25% in volume. tion for Standardization (ISO) and SAE international issued
Hydrogen has the potential to serve as a carbon-free technical standards (ISO14687:2019, SAE J2719-202003) [86,87]
alternative to natural gas for electrical power generation for the hydrogen quality required for proton exchange mem-
using a cleaner and more efficient process than combustion. brane fuel cells [88] and the hydrogen purity necessary for fuel
Fuel cells typically generate energy at relatively low temper- cells. The requirements are described in Table 19.
atures, which prevents the formation of the previously Separation of hydrogen from natural gas is not trivial, but
mentioned NOx. Fuel cells can achieve high efficiencies of there are already three commercially used and well-
Table 18 e Comparison of Different Types of Fuel Cells [9].

Fuel Cell Type Temperature Range Electrolyte Efficiency Life Expectancy Cost

Alkaline Fuel 60e90 C Potassium Hydroxide 50e60% 5000 e 200 - 700 USD/kWe
Cell (AFC) 8000 Hr
Proton Exchange Membrane 50e180 C Polymer Membrane 30e60% 5000 Hr 500 USD/kWe
Fuel Cell (PEMFC)
Phosphoric Acid 160e220 C Phosphoric Acid 30e40% 30,000e60,000 Hr 4000e5000 USD/kWe
Fuel Cell (PAFC)
Motel Carbonate 600e700 C Carbonate Melt 55e60% 20,000e40,000 Hr 4000e6000 USD/kWe
Fuel Cell (MCFC)
Oxide Ceramic 700 - 1000 C Solid Ceramic Oxide 50e70% Up to 90,000 Hr 3000e4000 USD/kWe
Fuel Cell (SOFC)
Table 19 e Hydrogen Purity Requirements for Fuel Cells by ISO and SAE Standards [88].
Contents H2 Non He N2 Ar CH4 H2O Others Total Sulfide
H2 Gas
Requirement 99.97% 300 ppm 300 ppm 300 ppm 300 ppm 100 ppm 5ppm 2.75 ppm 0.004 ppm
Table 20 e Types of Separation Technologies [10,89].

Category PSA Membrane Cryogenic Distillation
Input Composition (H2 mol%) 30e75 75e90 30e90
Output Purity (H2 mol%) 90e98 95e99 90e98
Processing Volume (Nm3/h) >10,000 1000-10,000 <30,000
Reliability (%) Poor 95 100
Turndown (%) 10 30 30e50
Size Large Separation Facilities e e
High Pressure Drop High Pressure Required e
Applicability Distribution Line Transmission Line e
stablished methods: Pressure Swing Absorption (PSA), Mem- component can be obtained with the following mathemat-
brane Systems and Cryogenic Distillation. These are sum- ical relation:
marized in Table 20.
12 x
PSA is a well-established technology that is used in re- Cs ¼ 100% (18)
Mw
fineries to produce large quantities of high-purity hydrogen
(90e98%). This process involves applying a pressure drop to where Cs is the carbon content of the component (mass %), 12
separate hydrogen from impurities, and thus the most suit- is the molecular weight of carbon, x is the stoichiometric co-
able location for applying hydrogen separation using PSA efficient for carbon, and Mw is the molecular weight of the
technology is at pressure reduction stations, where a high component.
pressure drop occurs. It is capable of producing hydrogen at For mixed gases, the carbon content of the mixture (Cm ) can
rates ranging from 50 to 200,000 Nm3/h [10] from input gases be obtained by multiplying the mass percent of each gas in the
containing 30e75 mol% hydrogen. One advantage of PSA is its total gas mixture after calculating the carbon mass percentage
low operating cost and long service life, but it can also have of each fuel, as shown in the following equation.
relatively higher hydrogen losses and a lower production rate
1 X
Number of Components
due to the high purity requirements for hydrogen [88]. Cm ¼ ðWt%i Cs i Þ (19)
Membrane technology is an effective method for obtaining 100 i¼1
high purity hydrogen (95e99%) and is capable of large-scale

where Cm is the carbon content of mixture (Mass %), Wt%i is
processing. It works by utilizing the pressure gradient across
the weight fraction of component ©, and Cs i is the carbon
a membrane. One of the main advantages of this technology is
content of component © on a mass percent basis.
its reliability in the case of unexpected shutdowns, as it has no
Finally, the equivalent CO2 emission (ECO2 ) can be esti-
mechanical parts [88]. However, its main disadvantage is that
mated by multiplying the carbon mass content with the total
it requires an input with a fairly high concentration of
amount of fuel and the molar mass of the gas mixture [74].
hydrogen (75e90%), which can pose challenges for pipelines
This is shown in Eq. (20):
that transport lower concentrations.
Cryogenic distillation is another process used in large-scale 1 44
ECO2 ¼ FC Mw Cm (20)
hydrogen recovery from fluid mixtures, which utilizes very low Molar volume conversion 12
temperatures to separate the gas mixture based on the differ- where ECO2 is the emission of CO2 in mass (kg), FC is the vol-
ence in volatility of each gas. However, this method has its own ume of fuel consumed (m3), Molar volume conversion is the
challenges, such as the need to filter impurities such as carbon conversion value from molar volume to mass (23.685 m3/kg
dioxide and water content before separation [88], and the high mol), Mw is the molecular weight of the mixture, and 44 is the
12
energy consumption required to compress and cool down the
stoichiometric conversion from carbon to CO2.
gas mixture. These challenges make it difficult to produce
sustainable and economical hydrogen for general purposes.
From hydrogen production
To develop a realistic model, the use of hydrogen in the
Influence on GHG emissions
simulation is assumed to be produced through the SMR pro-
cess, that is, as Blue hydrogen. This process involves catalyt-
In order to assess the influence of hydrogen concentrations
ically reacting natural gas with steam at high temperatures to
and energy transmission on GHG emissions, the following
produce hydrogen. However, it should be noted that the pro-
sections outline the mathematical equations governing
duction of Blue hydrogen generates CO2 emissions due to the
emissions related to combustion and production. These
heat required for the reforming process being obtained
equations are then combined and applied to the simulation
through the combustion of fossil fuels [90]. The following
model developed in Section Blending Hydrogen and Natural
chemical reactions represent the general process of SMR:
Gas. The resulting visualization provides a comprehensive
depiction of the impact on GHG emissions. CH4 þ H2 O / CO þ 3H2 (21)
From combustion CO þ H2 O / CO2 þ H2 (22)

To calculate the GHG Emissions from the combustion of hy-
The SMR reaction produces a molar ratio of 0.25 for CO2 and
drocarbons the complete combustion process is considered as
H2, meaning that for every 1 kg of CH4 reacted, 1 kg of CO2 and
balanced with regards to oxygen, and thus, all carbon-
4 kg of H2 are produced under ideal conditions. However, in
containing fuel is consumed and converted into carbon diox-
the actual SMR process there are tail gases from the pressure
ide and water. The governing equation is shown in Eq. (17).
swing absorption (PSA) stage, which consist of unreacted
The variables x, y, and z are the stoichiometric coefficients for
methane and some hydrogen gas. These tail gases can be
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, respectively.
utilized to fuel the reformer and boiler units. When account-
y z y
ing for this gas recovery process, the molar ratio between CO2
Cx Hy Oz þ x þ O2 / ðxÞCO2 þ H2 O (17)
4 2 2 and H2 improves from 0.25 to 0.395 [91]. Finally, the simulation
The amount of CO2 released by combustion can be considers the use of a carbon capture and storage (CCS) stage,
calculated by multiplying the fuel consumed with the mass where emissions from hydrogen production can be mostly
percentage of the fuel's carbon content. For fuels consisting compensated for. According to the CE delft report [92], the CCS
of a single component, the carbon content of this stage is estimated to have a performance of 90%.
Fig. 12 e GHG emissions as factors of hydrogen concentration and energy transmission.
Combined impact of combustion and production In (c) the full picture is shown. When combining the in-
The model developed in Section Blending Hydrogen and Natural fluence of both the combustion and SMR processes, it be-
Gas is used in conjunction with the previous equations. It is comes clear that the increase in GHG emissions by the SMR
assumed that the entire amount of the gas mixture being trans- process is greatly offset by the reduction in GHG emissions
ported is consumed for heating or electricity generation through through the combustion process, making the emissions for
the use of turbines and a complete combustion process. Fig. 12 hydrogen production almost negligible.
shows the expected GHG emissions as a function of hydrogen The baseline for CO2 emissions is represented by the black
concentration and energy transmission. In (a) the influence of the shaded square, which corresponds to the initial flow rate
combustion process is shown independently, while (b) illustrates (14,158,423 m3/day). Additionally, red arrows indicate the
the influence of the SMR process (hydrogen production) inde- reduction on GHG emissions for different scenarios. For
pendently. Finally, (c) shows their combined influences. example, it can be seen that in extreme cases, the use of pure
In (a), it is shown that a higher concentration of hydrogen hydrogen at either 100% or 30% transmitted energy can lead to
leads to a reduction in CO2 emissions during the combustion a reduction of 99.4% or 99.7% in CO2 emissions, respectively.
process. In fact, pure hydrogen usage results in no CO2 emis- A less extreme example can be considered by adding 30%
sions at all. In contrast, the highest CO2 emissions are found hydrogen to the gas mixture at 51% energy transmission, one
when using pure methane (natural gas) at the initial flow rate. of the potential solutions discussed in Table 7. In this case, the
In (b), it is demonstrated that pure hydrogen with 100% GHG emissions can have a reduction of 36.3%, or a decrease of
transmitted energy tends to emit the highest amount of CO2. 1,127,233 ton/day. While it would be ideal to see larger
This is due to the higher flow rates required to match the changes and higher concentrations of hydrogen, it may not be
transmitted energy, as well as the increased production of feasible at this time. It is worth noting that even a 30% blend
hydrogen to meet this flow. It is also shown that CCS greatly has significant potential for reducing emissions and is
mitigates these emissions. achievable with current technology.
modifications. This could involve modeling the potential

Conclusions savings from reduced GHG emissions and improved energy
transmission, as well as the potential for revenue from
One of the economically viable ways to transport and distribute hydrogen when compared to natural gas.
hydrogen is by blending it with natural gas using existing the Another interesting area of study could be the examination
pipeline networks. However, it has been shown that blending of the potential benefits and challenges of using ammonia as a
hydrogen can reduce the energy transmission of pipelines hydrogen carrier and comparison to the direct use of
compared to natural gas. One potential solution is to increase hydrogen. Ammonia has a high hydrogen content, making it a
the flow rate or pressure of delivery to compensate for these potential option for the transportation and distribution of
energy transmission losses, which may require changes to the hydrogen. However, its production, storage, and conversion to
pipeline or increase the number of compressor stations. In the and from hydrogen must also be considered, as well as the
studied pipelines, it was found that hydrogen concentrations of requirements for safe handling. These factors should be
up to 30% with a 49% reduction in energy transmission could be weighed against the potential benefits of using ammonia,
immediately applied without any changes. If a compressor such as its ability to be easily liquefied, in order to determine
upgrade is budgeted, a blend of up to 60% hydrogen with a 35% its feasibility as a hydrogen carrier.
reduction in energy transmission could be achieved.
In addition to energy considerations, it is important to
consider the potential risks of hydrogen embrittlement and Declaration of competing interest
leak events when increasing pressure. However, many mate-
rials have been tested for their susceptibility to hydrogen The authors declare that they have no known competing
embrittlement, and best practices for dealing with this risk are financial interests or personal relationships that could have
available. For materials that may not be compatible with appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
hydrogen, internal coating can be applied to improve resis-
tance to hydrogen embrittlement. Leak detection is also a
concern, but hardware sensing options and CPM (Computa-
tional Pipeline Monitoring) methods are likely to be compat- Acknowledgements
ible with leaks in hydrogen systems requiring only minor
calibration. To demonstrate this, a RTTM (Real-Time Tran- The authors would like to thank the Natural Sciences and
sient Model) that utilizes the same principle used in natural Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC), Alberta In-
gas systems to detect pressure and flow velocity changes was novates, Mr. Kalen Jensen from ATCO and the Institute for
developed for hydrogen blends. Information & Communication Technology Promotion (IITP)
One of the main goals of hydrogen blending and the for their support of this research project.
hydrogen economy is to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emis-
sions. In order to achieve this, a model was developed that references
examined the impact of adding Blue hydrogen (produced via
steam methane reforming with carbon capture and storage) to
existing pipelines without requiring any changes to the pipe- [1] Kamarudin SK, Daud WRW, Yaakub Z, Misron Z, Anuar W,
lines themselves. The model showed that blending 30% Yusuf NNAN. Synthesis and optimization of future hydrogen
hydrogen with the current pipeline system would result in a energy infrastructure planning in Peninsular Malaysia. Int J
49% reduction in energy transmission, and a 36.3% reduction Hydrogen Energy 2009;34(5):2077e88. https://doi.org/10.1016/
in GHG emissions if we assume that the blended hydrogen will j.ijhydene.2008.12.086.
be used for heating purposes. [2] Mazloomi K, Gomes C. Hydrogen as an energy carrier:
prospects and challenges. Renew Sustain Energy Rev
These findings indicate that even though Blue hydrogen
2012;16(5):3024e33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2012.02.028.
production does produce CO2 emissions, it is still possible to [3] Go € tz M, Lefebvre J, Mo € rs F, McDaniel Koch A, Graf F, Bajohr S,
reduce GHG emissions overall through its usage. Blended Reimert R, Kolb T. Renewable Power-to-Gas: a technological
hydrogen, which can be implemented using current technol- and economic review. Renew Energy 2016;85:1371e90.
ogies, may be a useful compromise until we migrate to pure https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2015.07.066.
hydrogen in the future. This study aims to provide practical [4] Oil & Gas Authority. Gas to Wire report: UK SNS and EIS.
2018. https://www.ogauthority.co.uk/news-publications/
insights into the potential benefits and challenges of using
publications/2018/gas-to-wire-repor t-uk-sns-and-eis/.
blended hydrogen in existing pipelines and contribute to the
[5] Bloomberg New Energy Finance (BNEF). New energy outlook
current understanding of this topic. 2021. https://about.bnef.com/new-energy-outlook/; 2021.
In future studies, it is expected that progress will be made [6] Canadian Energy Research Institute (CERI). Canadian natural
in addressing the challenges mentioned, such as hydrogen gas market supply and demand pathways of change.
embrittlement and improving hydrogen specific leak detec- Calgary, AB: CERI; 2021.
tion. This may include the development of new strategies and [7] Apostolou D, Xydis G. A literature review on hydrogen
refuelling stations and infrastructure. Current status and
technologies for mitigating the effects of hydrogen embrit-
future prospects. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2019;113:109292.
tlement and detecting leaks more effectively. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2019.109292.
It would also be valuable to examine the economic feasi- [8] Vezirog lu TN, S‚ahi_n S. 21st Century's energy: hydrogen
bility of implementing blended hydrogen in existing pipeline energy system. Energy Convers Manag 2008;49(7):1820e31.
networks, including the costs of necessary upgrades or https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2007.08.015.
[9] Adolf J, Balzer CH, Balzer C, Louis J, Schabla U, Fischedick M, [27] Menon ES. Transmission pipeline calculations and
Arnold K, Pastowski A. Shell hydrogen study. Energy of the simulations Manual. Gulf Professional Publishing
future? Sustainable mobility through fuel cells and H2. Shell 2015:549e58. 1st ed.
Deutschland Oil GmbH 2017;10:28e34. [28] Khan MA, Young C, MacKinnon C, Layzell DB. The Techno-
[10] Melaina MW, Antonia O, Penev M. Blending hydrogen into Economics of Hydrogen Compression 2021;1(1):49.
natural gas pipeline networks: a review of key issues. [29] Witkowski A, Rusin A, Majkut M, Stolecka K. Analysis of
Renewable energy 2013;131. compression and transport of the methane/hydrogen
[11] Isaac T. HyDeploy: the UK's first hydrogen blending mixture in existing natural gas pipelines. Int J Pres Ves Pip
deployment project. Clean Energy 2019;3(2):114e25. https:// 2018;166:24e34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpvp.2018.08.002.
doi.org/10.1093/ce/zkz006. [30] Lee S-W, Lee H-S, Park Y-J, Cho Y-S. Combustion and
[12] H21. H21 leeds city gate report. Westminster, UK. https://h21. emission characteristics of HCNG in a constant volume
green/projects/h21-leeds-city-gate/; 2019. chamber. J Mech Sci Technol 2011;25(2):489e94. https://
[13] Blokland H, Sweelssen J, Isaac T, Boersma A. Detecting doi.org/10.1007/s12206-010-1231-5.
hydrogen concentrations during admixing hydrogen in [31] Verhelst S, Demuynck J, Sierens R, Scarcelli R, Matthias NS,
natural gas grids. Int J Hydrogen Energy Wallner T. Update on the progress of hydrogen-fueled
2021;46(63):32318e30. https://doi.org/10.1016/ internal combustion engines. In: Renewable hydrogen
j.ijhydene.2021.06.221. technologies. Elsevier; 2013. p. 381e400. https://doi.org/
[14] International Energy Agency. Global hydrogen review 2021. 10.1016/B978-0-444-56352-1.00016-7.
OECD. 2021. https://doi.org/10.1787/39351842-en. [32] Tarkowski R. Underground hydrogen storage: characteristics
[15] Australian Gas Infrastructure Group. R. enewable hydrogen, and prospects. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2019;105:86e94.
hydrogen Park SA. World Plumbing Conference. 2019. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2019.01.051.
https://www.worldplumbing.org/wp-content/uploa ds/2020/ [33] Barbir F, Basile A, Vezirog lu TN. Compendium of hydrogen
06/VikramSingh_RenewableHydrogenHydrogenParkSA.pdf. energy. In: Basile Angelo, Nejat Veziroglu T, editors.
[16] Elmanakhly F, DaCosta A, Berry B, Stasko R, Fowler M, Wu X- Hydrogen energy conversion/edited by Frano Barbir, vol. 3.
Y, Hydrogen Business Council. Hydrogen economy transition WP Woodhead Publishing: Elsevier; 2016.
plan: a case study on Ontario. AIMS Energy [34] Menon ES. Gas pipeline hydraulics. 0 ed. CRC Press; 2005.
2021;9(4):775e811. https://doi.org/10.3934/energy.2021036. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781420038224.
[17] Ozturk M, Dincer I. A comprehensive review on power-to-gas [35] Demirel Y. Nonequilibrium thermodynamics: transport and
with hydrogen options for cleaner applications. Int J rate processes in physical, chemical and biological systems.
Hydrogen Energy 2021;46(62):31511e22. https://doi.org/ 3rd ed. Boston: Elsevier; 2014.
10.1016/j.ijhydene.2021.07.066. [36] Haeseldonckx D, Dhaeseleer W. The use of the natural-gas
[18] Portuguesa Republica. Portugal National hydrogen Strategy pipeline infrastructure for hydrogen transport in a changing
(EN-H2). https://kig.pl/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/EN_H2_ market structure. Int J Hydrogen Energy
ENG.pdf; 2020. 2007;32(10e11):1381e6. https://doi.org/10.1016/
[19] Saeedmanesh A, Mac Kinnon MA, Brouwer J. Hydrogen is j.ijhydene.2006.10.018.
essential for sustainability. Current Opinion in [37] The American Society of Mechanical Engineers. ASME B31.8
Electrochemistry 2018;12:166e81. https://doi.org/10.1016/ gas transmission & distribution piping systemsdASME. New
j.coelec.2018.11.009. York, NY. 2020.
[20] Zhao Y, McDonell V, Samuelsen S. Influence of hydrogen [38] The American Society of Mechanical Engineers. ASME B31.12
addition to pipeline natural gas on the combustion Hydrogen Piping & Pipelines. New York, NY. 2019.
performance of a cooktop burner. Int J Hydrogen Energy [39] Schmura E, Klingenberg M, Corporation CT. Existing natural
2019;44(23):12239e53. https://doi.org/10.1016/ gas pipeline materials and associated operational
j.ijhydene.2019.03.100. characteristics. 2005.
[21] Krieg D. Konzept und Kosten eines Pipelinesystems zur [40] Bedel Laurent, Junker Michel. Natural gas pipelines for
Versorgung des deutschen Straßenverkehrs mit Wasserstoff. hydrogen transportation. WHEC16: 16 World hydrogen
Forschungszentrum Jülich. 2012. energy Conference, France. 2006.
[22] Kong M, Feng S, Xia Q, Chen C, Pan Z, Gao Z. Investigation of [41] Lee JA. Nasa 2016e218602: hydrogen embrittlement. National
mixing behavior of hydrogen blended to natural gas in gas Aeronautics and space Administration, Hunstville, AL. 2016.
network. Sustainability, 13(8), Article 8. https://doi.org/10. [42] American Society for Testing and Materials. Astm G129e21:
3390/su13084255; 2021. standard practice for slow Strain rate testing to evaluate the
[23] ATCO Gas Australia. Clean energy Innovation Hub lessons. susceptibility of metallic materials to environmentally
Arena Insights Forum 2019:2e8. https://arena.gov.au/ Assisted cracking. West Conshohocken, PA. 2021.
assets/2019/12/atco-clean-energy-innovation-hub-lessions. [43] American Petroleum Institute. API RP 941 steels for hydrogen
pdf. service at elevated temperatures and pressures in Petroleum
[24] GRTgaz, Immeuble Bora, 6, rue Raoul-Nordling, 92277 Bois- refineries and Petrochemical Plants. Washington D.C. 2016.
Colombes Cedex. Technical and economic conditions for [44] Khare A, Vishwakarma M, Ahmed S. Combating hydrogen
injecting hydrogen into natural gas networksdFinal report embrittlement with graphene based coatings. International
June 2019. France, INIS-FRe20e0156 2019. https://www. journal of advanced research. Eng Technol 2019;10(6).
afgaz.fr/wp-content/uploads/Technical-economic- https://doi.org/10.34218/IJARET.10.6.2019.027.
conditions-for-injecting-hydrogen-into-natural-gas-ne.pdf. [45] Hafsi Z, Mishra M, Elaoud S. Hydrogen embrittlement of steel
[25] MARCOGAZ. Odorisation of natural gas and hydrogen pipelines during transients. Procedia Struct Integr
mixtures. https://www.marcogaz.org/wp-content/uploads/ 2018;13:210e7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.prostr.2018.12.035.
2021/07/ODOR-Hydrogen-and-odorisation.pdf; 2021. [46] Shi K, Xiao S, Ruan Q, Wu H, Chen G, Zhou C, Jiang S, Xi K,
[26] Tahir, Mohd M, Ali MS, Salim MA, Bakar RA, Fudhail AM, He M, Chu PK. Hydrogen permeation behavior and
Hassan MZ, Muhaimin MSA. Performance Analysis of A mechanism of multi-layered graphene coatings and
spark ignition engine using compressed natural gas (CNG) as mitigation of hydrogen embrittlement of pipe steel. Appl
fuel. Energy Proc 2015;68:355e62. https://doi.org/10.1016/ Surf Sci 2022;573(151529). https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.egypro.2015.03.266. j.apsusc.2021.151529.
[47] Shi K, Meng X, Xiao S, Chen G, Wu H, Zhou C, Jiang S, Chu PK. [65] Soundarrajan P, Schweighardt F. Hydrogen sensing and
MXene coatings: Novel hydrogen permeation barriers for detection. In: Gupta R, editor. Hydrogen fuel. CRC Press; 2008.
pipe steels. Nanomaterials 2021;11(10):10. https://doi.org/ p. 495e534. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781420045772.ch15.
10.3390/nano11102737. [66] Geiger G, Vogt D, Tetzner R. State-of-the-Art in leak detection
[48] Li X, Chen L, Liu H, Shi C, Wang D, Mi Z, Qiao L. Prevention of and localisation. Oil gas European Magazine. 2006.
hydrogen damage using MoS2 coating on Iron surface. [67] Kida T, Kuroiwa T, Yuasa M, Shimanoe K, Yamazoe N. Study
Nanomaterials 2019;9(3):382. https://doi.org/10.3390/ on the response and recovery properties of semiconductor
nano9030382. gas sensors using a high-speed gas-switching system. Sensor
[49] NaturalHy. Preparing for the hydrogen economy by using the Actuator B Chem 2008;134(2):928e33. https://doi.org/10.1016/
existing natural gas system as a Catalyst. https://cordis. j.snb.2008.06.044.
europa.eu/project/id/502661; 2004. [68] Smith J, Chae J, Learn S, Hugo R, Park S. (2018, November 6).
[50] Musabikha S, Utama IKAP, Mukhtasor. State of the art in Pipeline rupture detection using real-time transient
protection of erosion-corrosion on vertical axis tidal current Modelling and Convolutional Neural networks. In: 12th
turbine. AIP Conf Proc 2018;1964(1):020047. https://doi.org/ International Pipeline Conference; 2018. https://doi.org/
10.1063/1.5038329. 10.1115/IPC2018-78426.
[51] Bahadori A. Essentials of coating, painting, and lining for the [69] Wylie EB. The Microcomputer and pipeline transients. J
oil, gas and petrochemical industries. 1st ed. Gulf Hydraul Eng 1983;109(12):1723e39. https://doi.org/10.1061/
Professional Publishing; 2015. (ASCE)0733-9429(1983)109:12(1723).
[52] J H, Müller-Syring G. Assessment of repair and rehabilitation [70] Kunz O, Wagner W. The GERG-2008 wide-range equation of
technologies relating to the transport of hythan (hydrogen- state for natural gases and other mixtures: an expansion of
methane-mixture) (No. R0016-WP4). NaturalHY; 2006. GERG-2004. J Chem Eng Data 2012;57(11):3032e91. https://
[53] Marina T, Markus B. EUROPIPE pipes internally lined with doi.org/10.1021/je300655b.
epoxy flow Coat ready for 100 percent hydrogen. Europipe. [71] Hassanpouryouzband A, Joonaki E, Edlmann K,
2022. https://www.europipe.com/fileadmi n/europipe/ep- Heinemann N, Yang J. Thermodynamic and transport
docs/Hydrogen_Flow_Coat_January_2022_Final.pdf. properties of hydrogen containing streams. Sci Data
[54] Ohaeri E, Eduok U, Szpunar J. Hydrogen related degradation 2020;7(1):222. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41597-020-0568-6.
in pipeline steel: a review. Int J Hydrogen Energy [72] Authors, Braga AS. Leakage modeling through empirical
2018;43(31):14584e617. https://doi.org/10.1016/ equations: an experimental approach: (021). WDSA/CCWI
j.ijhydene.2018.06.064. Joint Conference Proceedings. 2018. 1, https://ojs.library.
[55] Lauer RS. (2007, March 11). The use of high performance queensu.ca/index.php/wdsa-ccw/article/view/12012.
polymeric coatings to mitigate corrosion and deposit [73] Therkelsen P, Werts T, McDonell V, Samuelsen S. Analysis of
formation in pipeline applications. Corrosion 2007:41e8. NOx formation in a hydrogen-Fueled gas turbine engine. J
https://onepetro.org/NACECORR/proceedings-abstract/ Eng Gas Turbines Power 2009;131(3). https://doi.org/10.1115/
CORR07/All-CORR07/118400. 1.3028232.
[56] Najjar YSH. Hydrogen safety: the road toward green [74] T.M. S, Loughran CJ, Jones S, Hopkins E. Washington D.C. API:
technology. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2013;38(25):10716e28. compendium of greenhouse gas emissions methodologies
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2013.05.126. for the oil and natural gas industry. American Petroleum
[57] Gillette JL, Kolpa RL. Overview of interstate hydrogen Institute; 2009.
pipeline systems. (ANL/EVS/TM/08e2). Argonne, IL (United [75] Dokken D. IPCC (intergovernmental panel on climate
States): Argonne National Lab. (ANL); 2008. https://doi.org/ change): impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability. Cambridge,
10.2172/924391. UK: Cambridge University Press; 2014.
[58] Rigas F, Sklavounos S. Evaluation of hazards associated with [76] Dincer I. Green methods for hydrogen production. Int J
hydrogen storage facilities. Int J Hydrogen Energy Hydrogen Energy 2012;37(2):1954e71. https://doi.org/10.1016/
2005;30:1501e10. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.ijhydene.2011.03.173.
j.ijhydene.2005.06.004. [77] Pinsky R, Sabharwall P, Hartvigsen J, O'Brien J. Comparative
[59] Huising OJC, Krom AHM. H2 in an existing natural gas review of hydrogen production technologies for nuclear
pipeline. 2020 13th International Pipeline Conference. 2021. hybrid energy systems. Prog Nucl Energy 2020;123(103317).
https://doi.org/10.1115/IPC2020-9205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pnucene.2020.103317.
[60] HySafe. D113: initial guidance for using hydrogen in confined [78] Clean Energy Canada. A New Hope: how hydrogen can
spacesdresults from InsHyde. Sixth Framework Programme. deliver climate solutions and clean energy competitiveness
Contract No SES6-CT-2004e502630 2009:20e32. http://www. for Canada. Vancouver, BC. 2020. https://cleanenergycanada.
hysafe.net/documents?deliverable¼113. org/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/CEC_Report_
[61] Wahl J, Kallo J. Quantitative valuation of hydrogen blending Hydrogen2020.pdf.
in European gas grids and its impact on the combustion [79] Bloomberg New Energy Finance (BNEF). Super-cheap
process of large-bore gas engines. Int J Hydrogen Energy hydrogen from free oil Heralds big change: bnef Q&A. 2021.
2020;45(56):32534e46. https://doi.org/10.1016/ https://proton.energy/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/
j.ijhydene.2020.08.184. ProtonTechnologiesQA_Bloomberg.pdf.
[62] Hormaza Mejia A, Brouwer J, Mac Kinnon M. Hydrogen leaks [80] Roy J, Demers M. The hydrogen option for energy: a strategic
at the same rate as natural gas in typical low-pressure gas advantage for Quebec. Hydroge ne Quebec. 2019.
infrastructure. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2020;45(15):8810e26. [81] International Renewable Energy Agency IRENA. In:
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2019.12.159. Hydrogen: a renewable energy perspective. 2nd Hydrogen.
[63] Leader W, Partners W, Huld T. EIHP2: Compilation of existing Tokyo, Japan: Energy Ministerial Meeting; 2019. p. 26e34..
safety data on hydrogen and Comparative fuels. ENK6- https://www.irena.org/publications/2019/Sep/Hydrogen-A-
CT2000-00442 2001:8e11. renewable-energyperspective.
[64] Hübert T, Boon-Brett L, Black G, Banach U. Hydrogen sensors [82] Li J, Huang H, Kobayashi N. Hydrogen combustion as a
e a review. Sensor Actuator B Chem 2011;157(2):329e52. thermal source. Energy Proc 2017;142:1083e8. https://doi.org/
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.snb.2011.04.070. 10.1016/j.egypro.2017.12.360.
[83] Altfeld K, Pinchbeck D. Admissible hydrogen concentrations Catalysts, 11(3), Article 3. https://doi.org/10.3390/
in natural gas systems. Gas Energy. 2013. catal11030393; 2021.
[84] Choudhury S, McDonell VG, Samuelsen S. Combustion [89] Alqaheem Y, Alomair A, Mari V, Pe rez A. Polymeric gas-
performance of low-NOx and conventional storage water separation membranes for Petroleum refining. Int J
heaters operated on hydrogen enriched natural gas. Int J Polymer Sci 2017;2017:1e19. https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/
Hydrogen Energy 2020;45(3):2405e17. https://doi.org/10.1016/ 4250927.
j.ijhydene.2019.11.043. [90] Niemann MU, Srinivasan SS, Phani AR, Kumar A,
[85] Sun M, Huang X, Hu Y, Lyu S. Effects on the performance of Goswami DY, Stefanakos EK. Nanomaterials for hydrogen
domestic gas appliances operated on natural gas mixed with storage applications: a review. J Nanomater
hydrogen. Energy 2022;244:122557. https://doi.org/10.1016/ 2008;2008:e950967. https://doi.org/10.1155/2008/950967.
j.energy.2021.122557. [91] Office of Air and Radiation U.S. Environmental Protection
[86] ISO/TC 197 Hydrogen technologies. ISO 14687:2019 Hydrogen Agency. Technical support document for hydrogen
fuel qualitydproduct specification. Geneva, Switzerland. production: Proposed rule for Mandatory reporting of
2019. greenhouse gases. 2008.
[87] Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE). J. 2719: hydrogen fuel [92] Cappellen LV, Croezen H, Rooijers F. Feasibility study into
quality for fuel cell vehicles. Warrendale, PA: SAE blue hydrogen: technical, economic & sustainability
International; 2020. Analysis. CE delft. Delft, The Netherlands 2018:37e9.
[88] Du Z, Liu C, Zhai J, Guo X, Xiong Y, Su W, He G. A review of https://cedelft.eu/publicaties/feasibility-study-into-blue-
hydrogen purification technologies for fuel cell vehicles. hydrogen/.

1 s2.0 S0360319923002951 Main

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

1 s2.0 S0360319923002951 Main

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

1 s2.0 S0360319923002951 Main

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y 4 8 ( 2 0 2 3 ) 1 7 6 0 5 e1 7 6 2 9

Available online at www.sciencedirect.com

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/he

Feasibility analysis of blending hydrogen into

Josmar B. Cristello a, Jaehyun M. Yang a, Ron Hugo a, Youngsoo Lee b,

highlights graphical abstract

Challenges to the blending

article info abstract

Nomenclature hc Compressor efficiency

to generate electricity through the reaction between hydrogen

Fig. 1 e Blended hydrogen pathways.

Table 1 e List of Major Projects Regarding Blended Hydrogen Transportation.

Table 2 e Examples of Hydrogen Blending Systems [11,15,23e25].

Fig. 3 e Illustration of the Simulated Transmission and distribution pipelines.

the energy content of the blended gas may be reduced with

Table 5 e Typical Natural Gas Composition [26].

Fig. 4 e Energy Transmission by Hydrogen Concentration in the Gas Mixture.

Thus, if it is desired to maintain the energy transmission Flow rate

Fig. 5 e Flow rate with Hydrogen Concentration and Energy ransmission.

Table 7 e Optimal Hydrogen Concentration without System Modification (Transmission Line).

Table 8 e Operating Pressure for Hydrogen Pipelines Worldwide.

Table 9 e The Categorization of HE Severity for Industrial Materials [41].

Table 10 e HE Index for ommercialized Materials.

*1: OFHC: Oxygen-free high thermal conductivity.

Table 11 e Types of barrier coating for hydrogen serviced pipelines.

Table 12 e Leak Rate by Different Types of Flow Regimes [63].

Table 13 e Comparison of Commercially Available Hydrogen Detecting Sensors [64e66].

Table 15 e GWP for Each Gas in 1970 and 2021 [75].

Table 16 e Hydrogen Generation Comparison [16,76e79].

Table 17 e Hydrogen Tolerance for Combustion Appliances.

Table 18 e Comparison of Different Types of Fuel Cells [9].

Table 20 e Types of Separation Technologies [10,89].

high purity hydrogen (95e99%) and is capable of large-scale

From combustion CO þ H2 O / CO2 þ H2 (22)

Fig. 12 e GHG emissions as factors of hydrogen concentration and energy transmission.

modifications. This could involve modeling the potential

You might also like